Experimental Research

Research Approaches and Methods of Data Collection
RAMLEE ISMAIL, PHD FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMIC
Ways of Categorizing Research Approaches

Experimental versus descriptive
experimental identifies cause and effect descriptive describes some phenomenon
Quantitative versus qualitative

quantitative collects numerical data qualitative collects non-numerical data like pictures, clothing worn, interview statements
Variables in Quantitative Research

Categorical versus quantitative
categorical varies by type or kind (e.g., gender) quantitative varies by degree or amount (e.g., reaction time)
Variables in Quantitative Research (cont'd)

Independent versus dependent
independent variable (IV) is presumed to cause changes in another variable dependent variable (DV) is changed because of another variable; it measures the effect of the independent variable example effect of anxiety (IV) on memory (DV)

Independent versus dependent
extraneous variables are those that compete with the independent variable in explaining the DV.

Mediating and moderating variables
a mediating variable occurs between two other variables in a causal chain (e.g., anxiety causes distraction (mediating variable) which affects memory) moderating variables qualify a causal relationship as dependent on another variable - e.g., the impact of anxiety on memory depends on level of fatigue (moderating variable)
Experimental Research
Cause & effect
definition is different from common use refers to a probabilistic relationship between an IV and a DV attempt to identify what would have happened if IV not administered
Experimental Research (cont'd)

Criteria for identifying a causal relation
cause (IV) must be related to the effect (DV) (relationship condition) changes in IV must precede changes in DV (temporal order condition) no other explanation must exist for the effect
The Psychological Experiment

Definition of the psychological experiment
objective observation of phenomenon that are made to occur in a strictly controlled situation in which one or more factors are varied and others are kept constant
Advantages of the Experimental Approach

Causal inference experimental approach is best method for inferring causation
causal description refers to identifying the consequences of manipulating an IV causal explanation refers to explaining the mechanisms through which the relationship exists
Ability to manipulate variables Control
Advantages of the Experimental Approach (cont'd)
extraneous variables are controlled by holding them constant or by using random assignment and matching
Disadvantages of the Experimental Approach

Does not test the effects of nonmanipulated variables
many potential independent variables cannot be directly manipulated
Artificiality
refers to potential problems in generalizing findings from laboratory settings to the real world
Inadequate method of scientific inquiry
Experimental Research Settings

Field experiments
advantage may be easier to generalize findings; disadvantage less control of extraneous variables
Laboratory experiments
more control than field experiments; possibly more artificiality
Experimental Research Settings (cont'd)

Internet experiments
advantages
access to diverse population bring experiment to participant large sample and thus greater power direct assessment of motivational confounding cost savings
Experimental Research Settings (cont'd)

Internet experiments
disadvantages
multiple submissions lack of control self-selection dropout
Nonexperimental Quantitative Research

Primary goal is to provide an accurate description of a situation or phenomenon or to describe the size and direction of relationships among variables Types
correlational study natural manipulation research cross-sectional and longitudinal studies
Correlational Study
Measures the degree of relationship between two variables Used for prediction
Correlational Study (cont'd)

Primary limitation - inability to determine causality
third variable problem relationship between two variables is due to a separate, unmeasured, variable
Correlational Study (cont'd)

Primary limitation - inability to determine causality
path analysis method of testing relationships among variables by seeing how well they fit some theoretical model
direct effects when a variable directly impacts another indirect effects effect occurs through mediating variable
Natural Manipulation Research

Variables of interest are not directly manipulated e.g., a comparison of psychological functioning (DV) of people living near twin towers versus farther away (IV) Because variables not directly controlled extraneous variables could be a problem
Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Studies

Cross-sectional studies assess groups of participants at one point in time
e.g., comparing IQ scores of several different age groups potential problem - age-cohort effects
Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Studies (cont'd)

Longitudinal studies assess the same participants over a period of time
e.g., measuring changes in IQ for the same participants over several years disadvantages attrition and cost
Cohort-sequential studies represent a combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

different age groups are tested longitudinally
Qualitative Research
Definition
interpretative multimethod conducted in natural setting
Strengths
description of individuals with common identify develop theoretical understanding of phenomena
Qualitative Research (cont'd)

Weaknesses
difficult to generalize findings possible lack of agreement among researchers objective hypothesis testing not used
Major Methods of Data Collection

Tests Questionnaires Interviews Focus groups Observation
naturalistic versus laboratory types vary depending on involvement of participant
Major Methods of Data Collection (cont'd)

Existing or secondary data
Problem Identification and Hypothesis Formation

Ramlee Ismail FPE, UPSI
Sources of Research Ideas

Everyday life Practical issuese.g., eyewitness identification Past research Theory
goal function-summarize and integrate tool function-guide research
Issues Affecting Research Ideas

Bias Must be capable of being scientifically investigated
Review of the Literature

Purpose of the literature review
identify provide identify identify provide report if the topic has been researched design ideas methodological problems special needs information for the research
Review of the Literature (cont'd)

Doing the search
Books Journals Electronic databases
PsycINFO
Internet resources
Feasibility of the Study

Must consider time, expense, ethical and other issues to determine if conducting the study is possible and practical
Formulating the Research Problem

Definition - An interrogative sentence that states the relationship between two variables
Criteria for good research problems
Variables should express a relation Stated in question form Capable of empirical testing
Formulating the Research Problem (cont'd)

Specificity of the research question
too vague - What effect does the environment have on learning ability? better What effect does the amount of exposure to words have on the speed with which they are learned?
Formulating Hypotheses
Definition -- the best prediction or a tentative solution to a problem Criterion--Must be capable of being refuted or confirmed (testability) Types
research null
Ethics
Research Ethics: What Are They

Definition-A set of guidelines to assist the researcher in conducting ethical research Relationship Between Science and Society
government funding of scientific research congressional influence on which studies are funded corporate funding of scientific research
Research Ethics: What Are They (cont'd)

Professional Issues
scientific Misconduct
faking data other less serious issues as failing to present data or changing the design to meet pressure from a funding source developing an institutional culture of ethical behavior best way of combating this.
Treatment of Research Participants
Ethical Dilemmas
Definitiondeciding if the benefit of the research is greater than the cost to the participants
primary considerationwelfare of the participant
Ethical Dilemmas (cont'd)

Role of the IRB
review research protocols to assess ethical acceptability of a study use of the decision-plane model for making decisions
Figure 4.1 A decision-plane model representing the costs and benefits of research studies. (From Hedgehogs, foxes and the evolving social contract in science: Ethical challenges and methodological opportunities by R.L.Rosnow, 1997, Psychological Methods, 2, pp. 345356. Copyright by the American Psychological Association. Reprinted by permission of the author.)
Ethical Guidelines
Respect for persons and their autonomy
adhered to by obtaining a persons informed consent
Ethical Guidelines (cont'd)

Beneficence and nonmaleficence
goal of research studies-minimum harm and maximum benefit IRB Proposal review categories in making this decision
Exempt studies Expedited review Full board review

Justice
asks the question who should receive the benefits of the research and who should bear its burdens?

Trust
involves maintaining trust between researcher and participant use of deception or failing to maintain confidentiality may violate trust
Fidelity and Scientific Integrity
APA Ethical Standards for Research

APA code of ethics10 guiding principles to direct behavior of researchers
APA Ethical Standards for Research (cont'd)

Issues to consider when conducting research
institutional approval must be obtained informed consent
dispensing with it informed consent minorsneed to obtain their assent passive versus active consent

deceptionrefers to deceit
activedeception by commission passivedeception by omission may cause participants to distrust psychologists alternatives such as role playing are inadequate studies that involve invasion of privacy and/or may harm the participants

Debriefingpostexperimental interview
dehoaxing debriefing the participants about any deception that was used desensitizing eliminating any undesirable influence that the experiment might have had on the participant

Coercion and freedom to decline participation Confidentiality, anonymity and the concept of privacy
privacy--controlling others access to information about yourself when and under what circumstances others get your information

Confidentiality, anonymity and the concept of privacy
you must be able to decline giving their information to others anonymitykeeping participants identify unknown confidentialitynot revealing or connecting the participant to the information obtained
Ethical Issues in Electronic Research

Informed consent
no clear distinction between what is public and what is private over the internet how to obtain informed consent
Privacy
hackers can obtain the data but data can be encrypted
Ethical Issues in Electronic Research (cont'd)

Debriefing
extra attention must be given due to possibility of participants not completing study ways to maximize probability of debriefing
have participant provide an email address provide a leave the study radio button incorporate a debriefing page into the program so it is delivered directly to the participant
Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report

Principles to follow
justicewho will be the author(s) scientific integrityaccurate and honest reporting
Writing the research report

presentation should be honest an written with integrity avoid plagiarismnot giving another person credit for their work
Ethics of Animal Research

Distinction between animal welfare and animal rights
animal welfare involve improving lab conditions and reducing the number of animals used animal rights is the belief that nonhuman animals have similar rights to humans APA guidelines deal with animal welfare
Ethics of Animal Research (cont'd)

APA guidelines for the care and use of animals in research
Measuring Variables and Sampling
Variable and Measurement

Variable a condition or characteristic that can take on different values or categories Measurement the assignment of symbols or numbers to something according to a set of rules
Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scale
use of symbols to classify or categorize e.g., using numbers to categorize gender
Ordinal Scale
rank-order scale of measurement e.g., finishing order in a race equal distances on scale not necessarily equal on dimension being measured
Scales of Measurement (cont'd)

Interval Scale
same properties of ordinal plus equal distances between adjacent numbers e.g., temperature on Fahrenheit scale
Ratio Scale
highest scale of measurement same properties of other scales plus absolute zero point e.g., weight, height
Psychometric Properties of Good Measurement

Reliability refers to the consistency or stability of the scores of your measurement instrument Validity refers to the extent to which your measurement procedure is measuring what you think it is measuring and whether you have interpreted your scores correctly
Psychometric Properties of Good Measurement (cont'd)

A measure must be reliable in order to be valid but a reliable measure is not necessarily valid
Types of Reliability
Test-Retest Reliability
consistency of individual scores over time same test administered to individuals two times correlate scores to determine reliability how long to wait between tests?
Types of Reliability (cont'd)

Equivalent-Forms Reliability
consistency of scores on two versions of test each version of test given to different groups of individuals

Internal Consistency Reliability
consistency with which items on a test measure a single construct involves comparing individual items within a single test coefficient alpha is common index

Interrater Reliability
degree of agreement between two or more observers interobserver agreement is the percentage of times different raters agree
Validity
Validity refers to the accuracy of the inferences, interpretations, or actions made on the basis of test scores. Involves the measurement of constructs (e.g., intelligence or happiness) Do operational definitions accurately represent construct we are interested in?
Methods Used to Collect Evidence of Validity

Content-Related Evidence (content validity)
validity assessed by experts
do items appear to measure construct of interest? were any important content areas omitted? were any unnecessary items included?
Methods Used to Collect Evidence of Validity (cont'd)

Evidence Based on Internal Structure
how well do individual items relate to the overall test score or other items on the test factor analysis statistical procedure used to determine the number of dimensions present in a set of items

Evidence Based on Relations to Other Variables
criterion-related validity
predictive validity using scores obtained at one time to predict the scores on a criterion at a later time concurrent validity degree to which scores obtained at one time correctly relate to the scores on a known criterion obtained at the same time

convergent validity extent to which test scores relate to other measures of the same construct discriminant validity extent to which your test scores do not relate to other test scores measuring different constructs

known groups validity evidence extent to which groups that are known to different from one another actually differ on the construct being developed
Sampling Methods
Sample a set of elements selected from a population Population the full set of elements from which the sample was selected
Sampling Methods (cont'd)

Sampling process of drawing elements from population to form a sample
representative sample equal probability method of selection method (EPSEM)
Statistic a numerical characteristic of sample data
Sampling Methods (cont'd)

Parameter a numerical characteristic of population data Sampling error the difference between the value of the sample statistic and the value of the population parameter Sampling frame a list of all the elements in a population
Random Sampling Techniques

Simple Random Sampling
choosing a sample in a manner in which everyone has an equal chance of being selected sampling without replacement is preferred random numbers generators simplify the process
Random Sampling Techniques (cont'd)

Stratified Random Sampling
random samples drawn from different groups or strata within the population
proportional stratified sampling involves insuring that each subgroup in sample is proportional to the subgroups in the population

Cluster Random Sampling
involves random selection of groups of individuals (clusters) one-stage cluster sampling involves randomly selection clusters and using all individuals within two-stage cluster involves randomly choosing individuals within each chosen cluster

Systematic Sampling
Involves three steps
determine the sampling interval (k) population size divided by desired sample size randomly select a number between 1 and k, and include that person in your sample also include each kth element in your sample
Nonrandom Sampling Techniques

Convenience Sampling using research participants that are readily available e.g., college students Quota Sampling identifying quotas for individual groups and then using convenience sampling to select participants within each group
Nonrandom Sampling Techniques (cont'd)

Purposive Sampling involves identifying a group of individuals with specific characteristics e.g., college freshmen who have been diagnosed with ADHD Snowball Sampling technique in which research participants identify other potential participants.
particularly useful in identifying participants from a difficult to find population
Random Selection and Random Assignment

Random selection involves selecting participants for research
purpose is to obtain a representative sample
Random assignment involves how participants are assigned to conditions within the research
purpose is to create equivalent groups to allow for investigation of causality
Determining Sample Size

If less than 100 use entire population Larger sample sizes make it easier to detect an effect or relationship in the population Compare to other research studies in area Larger sample sizes are needed if population is
heterogeneous
Determining Sample Size (cont'd)

Larger sample sizes are needed if population is
heterogeneous you have multiple groups if you want increased precision when you expect a small effect
Determining Sample Size (cont'd)

Larger sample sizes are needed if population is
when you use less efficient methods of sampling for some statistical techniques if you expect a low response rate
Sampling in Qualitative Research

Qualitative research focuses on indepth study of one or a few cases. Several different sampling methods are available. It is common to mix several different methods.
Research Validity
Research Validity
Research validity refers to the correctness or truthfulness of an inference that is made from the results of a research study.
Four Major Types of Validity
Statistical conclusion validity Construct validity Internal validity External validity
Statistical Conclusion Validity

Do independent and dependent variables covary? Inferential statistics allow us to establish this type of validity Small sample size is a threat to statistical conclusion validity
Construct Validity
Definitionextent to which we can infer higher-order constructs for our operations Constructs are used for
research participants independent variable dependent variable experimental setting
Threats to Construct Validity

Inadequate explanation of the construct Construct confounding Mono-operation bias Confounding constructs with level of constructs Treatment-sensitive factorial structure Reactive self-report changes Reactivity to the experimental
Threats to Construct Validity (cont'd)

Experimenter effects Novelty and disruption effects Compensatory equalization Compensatory rivalry Treatment diffusion

Reactivity to the Experimental Situation Refers to research participants motives and perceptions influencing their response to the DV
motive and perceptions influenced by the demand characteristics of the experiment primary motive--positive selfpresentation condition producing positive selfpresentation motive

Implication for research
intertreatment interaction intratreatment interaction
Experimenter Effect Experimenters motive of supporting the study hypothesis can lead to bias

Ways experimenter may bias the study
experimenter attributes experimenter expectancies
effect on experimenterrecording bias effect on research participant-mediated of expectancies handling in animal research

Ways experimenter may bias the study
experimenter expectancies
nonverbal communication in human studies magnitude of expectanciescan exist in animal and human research and can be greater than the IV
Internal Validity
Definition-- accuracy of the inference that the independent variable caused the effect observed in the dependent variable Primary threat is confounding extraneous variables Eliminate the confounding influence of extraneous variables by holding their influence constant
Threats to Internal Validity

History - any event that occurs between the pretest and posttest that can produce the outcome
differential history occurs in multigroup design when event has differential impact on groups
Maturation internal changes of research participants that occur over time
Threats to Internal Validity (cont'd)

Instrumentation changes in the measurement of the dependent variable
e.g., if human observers change measurement because they become bored or fatigued
Testing occurs when the influence of taking the pretest affects the posttest

Regression Artifact the tendency for extreme scores to be closer to average at posttest
potential problem if participants with extreme scores at pretest are selected for study
Attrition drop out rate of research participants

a potential threat in two group designs where differential attrition occurs

Selection potential threat in a two group design when different selection procedures are used Additive and Interactive effects produced by the combined effect of two or more threats
External Validity
Generalizing across people, settings, treatment variations, outcomes and times A failure to generalize can result from several factors:
lack of random selection chance variation failure to identify interactive effects of independent variables
Types of External Validity

Population validity
do results generalize from sample to target population?
Ecological validity
do results of study generalize to different setting? common criticism of laboratory experiments
Types of External Validity (cont'd)

Temporal validity
do results generalize across time?
seasonal variation cyclical variation
Treatment variation validity

do results generalize across variations in treatment?
Types of External Validity (cont'd)

Outcome validity
do results generalize to other, related, dependent variables?
Relationship between Internal and External Validity

Relationship between internal and external validity is often inverse Factors that increase our ability to establish cause and effect tend to decrease our ability to generalize External validity is established through replication
Relationship between Internal and External Validity (cont'd)

Emphasis of internal or external validity depends on whether or not a causal relationship has been established
Control Techniques in Experimental Research
Goal of Experimentation
Identify the causal effect of the independent variable
must have internal validity to do this internal validity requires control of confounding variables to eliminate differential influence
Randomization
A control technique to equate groups of participants
accomplished by ensuring that every member has an equal chance of being assigned to any group
Randomization (cont'd)
Random assignmentrandomly assigning participants to treatment groups
provides maximum insurance that groups are equal equates groups because every person has an equal chance of being assigned to each group
Randomization (cont'd)
Random assignmentrandomly assigning participants to treatment groups
accomplishes this by randomly distributing the extraneous variables over the treatment groups
Matching
Use of any of a variety of techniques to equate participants in the treatment groups on specific variables Advantages of matching
controls for the variables on which participants are matched increases the sensitivity of the experiment
Matching Techniques
Holding variables constant
disadvantages
restricts the population size restricts generalization to the type of participants in the study
Building the extraneous variable into the research design

should be used only when you are interested in the effect of the extraneous variable
Matching Techniques (cont'd)

Yoked controlmatches participants on the basis of the temporal sequence of administering an event Matching by equating subjects
Precision controlmatch case by case
disadvantages
identifying the variables on which to match matching participants increases as the number of variables on which to match increases some variables difficult to match
Matching Techniques (cont'd)

Matching by equating subjects
Frequency distribution controlmatch on the overall distribution of the selected var.
disadvantage combination of variables may be mismatched
Counterbalancing
Used to control order effects and carryover effects Counterbalancing procedures
randomized counterbalancing
sequence of conditions is randomly determined for each participant
intrasubject counterbalancing
participants take treatments in more than one order may not be feasible with long treatment sequences
Counterbalancing (cont'd)
Counterbalancing procedures
complete counterbalancing
all possible sequences of treatment conditions are used participants randomly assigned to sequence rarely used with more than 3 conditions because number of possible sequences (N!) is too large
incomplete counterbalancing
most commonly used technique not all possible sequences are used criteria - for sequences enumerated
each treatment condition must appear an equal number of times in each ordinal position and; each treatment condition must precede and be followed by every other condition an equal number of times
incomplete counterbalancing
sequences determined by the form 1, 2, n, 3, (n-1), 4 etc. controls for linear sequencing effects but not for nonlinear carry-over effects
Control of Participant Effects

Double-blind Placebo Model Deception Control of participant interpretation
retrospective verbal report concurrent verbal reports
sacrifice groups concurrent probing think-aloud technique
Control of Experimenter Effects

Control of recording errors
use multiple data recorders have participants make responses on a computer
Control of attribute errors

use the same experimenter in all treatment conditions unless the treatment condition interacts with attributes
Control of Experimenter Effects (cont'd)

Control of experimenter expectancies
Blind technique - researcher is unaware of participants treatment condition Partial blind technique - researcher is unaware of participants treatment condition for a portion of the research Automation
Experimental Research Design
Introduction
Research designthe outline, plan, or strategy used to answer the research question Purpose of research design
control for unwanted variation suggests how data will be statistically analyzed
Weak Experimental Research Designs

One-Group Posttest-Only Design
rarely useful because no pretest or control group almost all threats to internal validity apply is useful only when specific background information exists on the dependent variable
Figure 8.1 One-group posttest-only design.
Figure 8.2 One-group pretest-posttest design.
Weak Experimental Research Designs (cont'd)

One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
most threats to internal validity exist to infer causality must identify and demonstrate that internal validity threats do not exist
Weak Experimental Research Designs (cont'd)

Posttest-Only Design with Nonequivalent Groups
no assurance of equality of groups because they were not randomly assigned may confound selection with treatment effect
Figure 8.3 Posttest-only design with nonequivalent groups.The dashed line indicates nonequivalent groups.
Strong Experimental Research Designs

Improved internal validity achieved by eliminating rival hypotheses
with control techniques with a control groupgroup that does not get the independent variable or gets some standard value
serves as source of comparison to experimental group controls for rival hypothesis
Between-Participants Designs
Posttest-Only Control-Group Design
random assignment to groups creates equivalence use of control group eliminates most threats to internal validity weaknesses of design
does not guarantee equivalence of groups particularly with small sample size no pretest to assess equivalence
Figure 8.4 Posttest-only control-group design.
Between-Participants Designs (cont'd)

Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design
pretest added to posttest-only controlgroup design advantages of including a pretest
can assess the effects of randomization insure that groups are equivalent on dependent variable prior to introduction of experimental conditions can assess the effects of additional variables that may interact with independent variable
Figure 8.6
Pretest-posttest control-group design.
Between-Participants Designs (cont'd)

Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design
advantages of including a pretest
determine if ceiling effect has occurred allows use of analysis of covariance to statistically control for pretest differences allows researcher to assess the change in dependent variable from pretest to posttest potential weakness may not generalize to situations with no pretest
Within-Participants Designs
Participants included in all conditions (also known as repeated measures designs) Counterbalancing necessary to eliminate linear sequencing effects
Within-Participants Designs (cont'd)

Within-participants posttest-only design
advantages
increased sensitivity because effects of individual differences are controlled fewer research participants needed
disadvantages
difficult for participants potential problem of differential carryover effects
Factorial Designs
A design that includes two or more independent variables A main effect exists when one independent variable has an effect on the dependent variable
Figure 8.9 Factorial design with two independent variables.
Factorial Designs (cont'd)

An interaction occurs when two or more independent variables have an interactive effect on the dependent variable. i.e., when the effect of one independent variable depends on another When displayed graphically an interaction yields non-parallel lines
Figure 8.10 Tabular representation of data from experiment on driving performance.
Figure 8.11 Line graph of cell means.
Factorial Designs (cont'd)

Mixed model factorial designs
uses a combination of withinparticipants and between-participants
Strengths and Weaknesses of Factorial Designs

Advantages of using factorial designs include
more than one independent variable allows for more precise hypotheses control of extraneous variables by including as an independent variable ability to determine the interactive effect of two or more independent variables
Strengths and Weaknesses of Factorial Designs (cont'd)

Disadvantages of factorial designs
using more than two independent variables may be logistically cumbersome higher-order interactions are difficult to interpret
Examination of prior research literature can guide choice of design Many factors to consider
use of control group number of comparison groups pretest(s) within-participants or betweenparticipants number of independent and dependent variables
Choice/Construction of the Appropriate Experimental Design
Procedure for Conducting an Experiment
Institutional Approval
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
reviews research protocols for studies using nonhuman animals determines if proposed procedures are ethical
Institutional Approval (cont'd)

Institutional Review Board (IRB)
reviews research with human participants primary concern is participant welfare
has informed consent been obtained? do potential benefits of study outweigh risks to participants?
Research Participants
Animals
albino variant of brown rat is most commonly used the Animal Welfare Act regulates care and housing the Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals provides a guide to using animals appropriately
Research Participants (cont'd)

Human participants
convenience sample of college students often used in psychological research
may not be representative of target population some research requires special populations (e.g., school children)
using the Internet to recruit research participants is becoming more common

advantage of providing access to a larger and more diverse sample than otherwise possible
Research Participants (cont'd)

Human participants
using the Internet to recruit research participants is becoming more common
sample may not be representative of target population
important to report how participants were selected and assigned to research conditions
Sample Size
How many research participants should be included in the research?
practicality must be balanced with the increased power that accompanies a large sample
Power
Definition the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis Power of at least .80 is desired As sample size increases, power increases Factors that influence power: alpha level, sample size, and effect size
Power (cont'd)
Apparatus and/or Instruments
How will independent variable be manipulated and how will dependent variable be measured? depends on nature of research may involve active participation by researcher or a particular type of apparatus (e.g., computers, MRI)
Power (cont'd)
Apparatus and/or Instruments
Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers is a good source to identify research instruments
Power (cont'd)
Procedure
detailed description of how experiment will be conducted important to allow for future replication
Scheduling of research participants

consider issues of availability and anticipate drop out rates with human participants
Power (cont'd)
Consent to participate
informed consent necessary unless waived by IRB consent form should include the following elements:
basic information about the study where it will be conducted, duration details about procedure of study including possible risks any potential benefits that might be derived
Power (cont'd)
consent form should include the following elements:
the type of compensation provided and penalty for early withdrawal if using questionnaire, a statement indicating that participant can refuse to answer any question without penalty for sensitive topics (e.g., depression, abuse) extra information for individuals who need assistance
Power (cont'd)
consent form should include the following elements:
participants must be informed that they can withdraw from study at any time without penalty participants must be informed as to how the records and data obtained will be kept confidential
Power (cont'd)
Instructions
should be precise but not overly complex warmup trials can assess understanding of instructions
Data collection
Debriefing or Postexperimental Interview

Functions
ethical
attempt to return participants to preexperimental state; particularly important if deception is used
educational methodological
to establish effectiveness of independent variable or deception
sense of satisfaction
Debriefing or Postexperimental Interview (cont'd)

Functions
sense of satisfaction
feeling in participants that their participation has been beneficial to science and society

How to debrief
face to face generally preferred begin by asking if participant has questions question participant to determine if all aspects of study were clear if deception was used

How to debrief
if deception was used
attempt to determine if participant discerned true nature of study explain the purpose of using deception
ask participant not to reveal details of experiment to other participants

Is debriefing effective?
ethical and methodological likely to be fulfilled if procedures are followed; educational less likely
Pilot Study
A brief run-through of the entire experiment with a few participants prior to the actual collection of data Serves several purposes:
establishes clarity of instructions provides evidence that independent variable is being manipulated adequately familiarizes researcher with the procedure
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Introduction
Quasi-experimental designan experimental type design that does not eliminate all threats to internal validity Causal inferences are made by ruling out rival hypothesis
by identification and study of the threats by including design elements as pretests or other control groups
Introduction (cont'd)
Causal inferences are made by ruling out rival hypothesis
by coherent pattern matchingmaking a complex prediction that few rival hypotheses can explain
Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design

The most common quasiexperimental design Participants not randomly assigned to groups Threats frequently reveal themselves in the outcome
Figure 10.2 Nonequivalent comparison group design. (Note: The dashed line indicates the lack of random assignment.)
Outcomes with Rival Hypotheses

Outcome I: Increasing Treatment and Control Groups
greater increase in treatment condition could be caused by a number of rival hypotheses
selection-maturation selection-history
Figure 10.3 Increasing treatment and control groups. (From The design and conduct of quasi-experiments and true experiments in field settings by T.D.Cook & D.T.Campbell, 1976, in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, edited by M.D.Dunnette. Copyright Rand McNally Publishing Company.)
Figure 10.4 First increasing treatment effect. (From The design and conduct of quasiexperiments and true experiments in field settings by T.D.Cook & D.T.Campbell, 1976, in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, edited by M.D.Dunnette. Copyright Rand McNally Publishing Company.)
Outcomes with Rival Hypotheses (cont'd)

Outcome II: First Increasing Treatment Effect
no change in control group; treatment condition starts higher and increases selection-history is a plausible alternative explanation

Outcome III: Second Increasing Treatment Effect
no change in control group; treatment condition starts lower and increases
Figure 10.5 Second increasing treatment effect. (From The design and conduct of quasi-experiments and true experiments in field settings by T.D.Cook and D.T.Campbell, 1976, in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, edited by M.D.Dunnette. Copyright Rand McNally Publishing Company.)

Outcome III: Second Increasing Treatment Effect
selection-regression is possible rival explanation
Outcome IV: Crossover Effect

rival hypotheses unlikely with this type of result
Figure 10.6 Crossover effect. (From The design and conduct of quasi-experiments and true experiments in field settings by T.D.Cook and D.T.Campbell, 1976, in Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, edited by M.D.Dunnette. Copyright Rand McNally Publishing Company.)
Ruling out Threats to the Nonequivalent Comparison Group

Matching
selection-regression effects may occur when using extreme groups
Statistical control techniques
Causal Inference from Nonequivalent Comparison Group Design To increase internal validity
Do not let participants self-select into groups Minimize pretest differences in groups
Interrupted Time-Series Design

A quasi-experimental design in which a treatment effect is assessed by comparing the pattern of pre- and posttest scores for a single group of research participants
Figure 10.8 Interrupted time-series design.
Interrupted Time-Series Design (cont'd)

Use of multiple pretest and posttest measurements demonstrates reliability of effect; improvement over one-group pretest-posttest design Most appropriate statistical test is autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA)
Interrupted Time-Series Design (cont'd)

Primary weakness no control of history effects
Regression Discontinuity Design

Used to determine if the special treatment some individuals receive has any effect Characteristics of the design
all individuals are pretested individuals who score above some cutoff score receive the treatment all individuals are posttested discontinuity in the regression line indicates a treatment effect
Figure 10.14 Regression discontinuity experiment with no treatment effect. (From Shadish,W.R., Cook,T.D., & Campbell,D.T., 2002, Experimental and quasiexperimental designs for generalized causal inference. Copyright 2002.Houghton Mifflin Co.Used with permission.)
Figure 10.15 Regression discontinuity experiment with an effective treatment. (From Shadish,W.R., Cook,T.D., & Campbell,D.T., 2002, Experimental and quasiexperimental designs for generalized causal inference. Copyright 2002. Houghton Mifflin Co.Used with permission.)
Assignment must be based on the cutoff score Assignment cannot be a nominal variable as gender, or drug user or nonuser Cutoff score should be at the mean Experimenter should control group assignment
Requirements of the Regression Discontinuity Design
Relationship (linear, curvilinear, etc.) should be known Participants must be from the same population
Requirements of the Regression Discontinuity Design (cont'd)
Single-Case Research Designs
Introduction
Single-case designs--use only one participant or one group of participants Research in psychology began with the intensive study of single organisms
Pavlov Ebbinghaus Fishers introduction of ANOVA Skinner continued single-case research
Introduction (cont'd)
Research in psychology began with the intensive study of single organisms
single-case designs became more acceptable with the growth in research in behavior therapy
Single-Case Designs
Are time series designs
but time-series design do not eliminate the history threatso they must be altered
Assessment of a treatment effect is based on the assumption that the pattern of pretreatment responses would continue in the absence of the treatment Simplest type of single-case design is
ABA and ABAB Designs

Baseline is behavior without treatment Demonstration of treatment effectiveness requires return to baseline May not be desirable to end on baseline and so an ABAB design may be used Multiple-baseline design can address failure to reverse due to carryover
Figure 11.1 ABA design.
ABA and ABAB Designs (cont'd)

Understand the distinction between withdrawal of treatment and reversal
Interaction Design
Tests the combined effects of two treatments Must use both sequences to test the combined influence over the effect of just one variable
Figure 11.4 Single-participant interaction design.
Interaction Design (cont'd)

Disadvantageinteraction effect can be demonstrated only if each variable does not cause a maximum increment in performance
Multiple Baseline Design

Treatment condition is successively administered to several participants, outcomes, or settings Treatment effect demonstrated by a change in behavior only when treatment is given Requires independence of behaviors to demonstrate an effect
Figure 11.5
Multiple-baseline design.
Changing-Criterion Design
Participants behavior is gradually shaped by changing the criterion for success Factors to consider in using this design
length of treatmentlong enough for the behavior to stabilize size of criterion change-large enough to notice a change number of treatment phasesat least
Figure 11.7
Changing-criterion design.T1 through T4 refer to four different phases of the experiment.
Methodological Considerations
Baselinemust be stable
absence of trend or in the direction opposite of what is expected from the treatment little variability
Change only one variable at a time
Methodological Considerations (cont'd)

Length of phases
possibility of extraneous variables creeping in with long phases carry-over effectmay require short phases cyclic variationsmaybe need to incorporate the cycle in all phases
Criteria for Evaluating Change

Experimental criterion
replication nonoverlap of treatment and baseline phases
Criteria for Evaluating Change (cont'd)

Therapeutic criterionclinical significance
researchers often use social validation does it produce a change in the clients daily functioning
social comparisoncompare behavior with nondeviant peers subject evaluationdo others who interact with the client see a change
Survey Research
Survey Research
Nonexperimental method using interviews or questionnaires to assess attitudes, activities, opinions, or beliefs Surveys often used to assess changes in attitudes over time, to test theoretical models, and to describe and predict behavior
Survey Research (cont'd)

To insure high external validity random samples should be used
Steps in Conducting Survey Research

Plan and design the survey Construct and refine the survey instrument Collect the survey data Enter and clean the data Analyze & interpret the data
Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Designs

Cross-sectional studies involve collecting data in a single, brief time period Longitudinal studies involve collecting data at more than one point in time
panel studies type of longitudinal design in which the same individuals are surveyed multiple times over time trend study same survey questions are
Methods of Data Collection

Face-to-face or personal interview
advantages include ability to clear up ambiguities and higher completion rate disadvantage - expense
Telephone interview
less expensive than face to face and comparable data
Methods of Data Collection (cont'd)

Mail questionnaires
low cost but low return rate
Group-administered questionnaire

Electronic survey
e-mail & Web-based advantages of electronic surveys
cost instant access to wide audience download to spreadsheet flexible in layoutespecially web-based survey

Electronic survey
disadvantages of electronic surveys
privacy and anonymity sample may not be representative of population
Constructing and Refining a Survey Instrument

Principle 1. Write Items to Match the Research Objectives
conduct literature review write items that will yield reliable and valid data
Constructing and Refining a Survey Instrument (cont'd)

Principle 2. Write Items That Are Appropriate for the Respondents to be Surveyed
use easy-to-understand language based on reading level, culture etc

Principle 3. Write Short, Simple Questions Principle 4. Avoid Loaded or Leading Questions
a loaded term is one that produced an emotional response a leading question suggests to the respondent how they should respond

Principle 5. Avoid Double-Barreled Questions
double-barreled questions ask two or more things in a single question
Principle 6. Avoid Double Negatives

Principle 7. Determine Whether Closed-Ended or Open-Ended Questions are Needed
open-ended better if researcher is unsure what respondent is thinking or variable is ill-defined closed-ended are easier to code and provide more standardized data

Principle 7. Determine Whether Closed-Ended or Open-Ended Questions are Needed
mixed-question format uses a combination of both open and closedended questions

Principle 8. Construct Mutually Exclusive and Exhaustive Categories
mutually exclusive means that the categories do not overlap exhaustive items include all possible responses

Principle 9. Consider the Different Types of Closed-Ended Response Categories
rating scales
multichotomous (more than two choices) usually preferred
ability to measure direction and strength of attitude
distance between each descriptor should be the same

Principle 9. Consider the Different Types of Closed-Ended Response Categories
binary forced choice
participant chooses one of pair of attitudes typically not recommended
rankings checklists

Principle 10. Use Multiple Items to Measure Complex or Abstract Constructs
semantic differential scaling method in which participants rate an object on a series of bipolar rating scales Likert scaling

Principle 11. Make Sure the Questionnaire is Easy to Use From Beginning to End
ordering of questions
positive and interesting questions first demographic questions last
limit the number of contingency questions questionnaire length

response bias
social desirability bias occurs when participants respond I a way to make themselves look good
avoid by insuring anonymity

response bias
response set tendency to respond in a specific way
use even number of response categories on rating scale include multiple question types

Principle 12. Pilot Test the Questionnaire Until It Is Perfected
Selecting Your Survey Sample From the Population

If primary goal is to explore relationship between variables rather than generalization, convenience sample is acceptable If generalization to population is needed a random sampling method should be used
Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research
Table 13.2 (continued)
Twelve Major Characteristics of Qualitative Research
Research Validity in Qualitative Research

Validity of qualitative research is often criticized often because of perceived researcher bias
reflexivity and negative case sampling are techniques that should be used to avoid research bias
Research Validity in Qualitative Research (cont'd)

Descriptive validity
the factual accuracy of the researchers account using multiple investigators (investigator triangulation) helps to insure descriptive validity

Interpretive validity
extent to which the researcher has accurately portrayed the viewpoints of participants participant feedback and low-inference descriptors

Theoretical validity
degree to which theoretical explanation fits data strategies for achieving
extended fieldwork theory triangulation pattern matching peer review

Internal validity
is observed relationship causal? interested in causality in a particular context (ideographic causation) strategies to achieve
researcher-as-detective methods triangulation data triangulation

External validity
the ability to generalize the findings to other people, settings, and times
naturalistic generalization theoretical generalization
Four Major Qualitative Research Methods

Phenomenology
description of conscious experience of phenomenon primary method of data collection--indepth interviews
extract phrases and statement that pertain to phenomenon interpret and give meaning to phrases and statements write narrative describing the phenomenon
Four Major Qualitative Research Methods (cont'd)

Ethnography
description and interpretation of culture of group of people
cultures can be micro or macro
primary data collection method-participant observation requires entry and acceptance by group must guard against reactive effect collect information by observing and listening

Ethnography
data analysis
Identify themes and patterns of behavior
write narrative report

Case Study Research
intensive description and analysis of a person, organization or event types of case studies
intrinsic case study instrumental case study collective case study

Grounded Theory
methodology for generating and developing a theory that is grounded in data key characteristics of good grounded theory
theory should fit the real world data theory should be clear and understandable theory should have generality theory should be able to be applied to produce results

Grounded Theory
most common methods of data collection are interviews and observations data analysis includes
open coding axial coding selective coding
Mixed Research
The research approach in which both quantitative and qualitative methods are used Questions to be answered when using a mixed design
Should you primarily use one methodology or treat them equally? Should phases of study be conducted concurrently or sequentially?
Figure 13.4 The mixed methods design matrix.
Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
The goal of descriptive statistics is to describe sample data Can be contrasted with inferential statistics where the goal is to make inferences about populations from sample data
Frequency Distributions
A listing of values in a data set along with their frequency
Graphic Representations of Data

Bar graph
used with categorical variables height of bar represents frequency of category bars should not touch
Histogram
used with quantitative variables no space between bars
Figure 14.2 A bar graph of undergraduate major.
Figure 14.3 Histogram of starting salary.
Graphic Representations of Data (cont'd)

Line graphs
also used with quantitative variables particularly useful for interpreting interactions
Scatterplots
depicts relationship between two quantitative variables
Figure 14.5 Line graph of results from pretestposttest control group design studying effectiveness of social skills treatment.
Figure 14.6 A scatterplot of starting salary by college GPA.
Measures of Central Tendency

Provide a single value that is typical of the distribution of scores
mode
most frequently occurring value least useful measure of central tendency
median
middle score when numbers are in ascending or descending order
Measures of Central Tendency (cont'd)

Provide a single value that is typical of the distribution of scores
Mean
arithmetic average most commonly used measure of central tendency
Measures of Variability
Provides a numerical value indicating the amount of variation in a group of scores
range
highest score minus lowest score rarely used as a measure of variability
variance
average deviation of the data values from their mean in squared units
Measures of Variability (cont'd)

standard deviation
square root of variance roughly the average amount that individual scores deviate from the mean

standard deviation and the normal curve z-scores
standardized values transformed from raw scores mean of z-distribution is always zero; standard deviation always 1

z-scores
indicates how far above or below a raw score is from its mean in standard deviation units; e.g., a z-score of +1.00 indicates a raw score that is one standard deviation unit above the mean in a normal distribution, the proportion of scores occurring between any two points can be determined
Figure 14.8 Areas under the normal distribution.
Examining Relationships Among Variables

Unstandardized difference between means
a comparison of mean differences between levels of a categorical independent variable
Standardized difference between means

effect size
Cohens d is a common measure of effect size
mean difference is divided by standard deviation
Examining Relationships Among Variables (cont'd)

Correlation Coefficient
numerical representation of the strength and direction of relationship between two variables
value ranges from +1.0 to -1.0; absolute value indicates strength of relationship; sign indicates direction positive correlation indicates that the two variables vary together in the same direction; negative correlation means that they move in opposite directions
Examining Relationships Among Variables (cont'd)

Correlation Coefficient
Pearson correlation (r) used with two quantitative variables; only appropriate if data is related in a linear fashion partial correlation is a technique that involves examining correlation after controlling for one or more variables a scatterplot can be used to judge the strength and direction of a correlation
Figure 14.10 Correlations of different strengths and directions.
Regression Analysis
Statistical technique designed to predict dependent variable based on one or more predictor values
simple regression involves the use of one independent or predictor variable multiple regression involves two or more independent or predictor variables prediction is made using the regression equation
Regression Analysis (cont'd)

prediction is made using the regression equation
y-intercept - point where regression line crosses y-axis regression coefficient - predicted change in the dependent variable (Y) given a one unit change in the independent variable (X)
Regression Analysis (cont'd)

prediction is made using the regression equation
partial regression coefficient
Contingency Tables
Table used to examine relationship between two categorical variables Cells may contain frequencies or percentages
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics involve using sample data to make inferences about populations
a statistic is a numerical index based on sample data a parameter is a numerical characteristic of a population
Sampling distributions
A sampling distribution is a theoretical distribution of values of a statistic consisting of every possible sample of a given size from a population
standard error the standard deviation of a sampling distribution test statistic statistic that follows a known sampling distribution and is used in significance testing
Estimation
A branch of inferential statistics involved in estimating population parameters
point estimation use value of sample statistic as estimate of the value of population parameter (e.g., sample mean to estimate population mean)
Estimation (cont'd)
A branch of inferential statistics involved in estimating population parameters
interval estimation
confidence interval includes a range of numbers that will contain the population parameter with a certain degree of certainty. e.g., 95% confidence intervals include a range of values that will contain the population parameter 95% of the time
Hypothesis Testing
Branch of inferential statistics used when testing the predicted relationship between variables
null hypothesis - a statement regarding the population parameter typically that no relationship exists between the independent and dependent variables
Hypothesis Testing (cont'd)

Branch of inferential statistics used when testing the predicted relationship between variables
alternative hypothesis states that there is a relationship between independent and dependent variables

Steps of hypothesis testing
state the null and alternative hypotheses begin by assuming that the null hypothesis is true (that the independent variable has no effect) determine the standard for rejecting the null hypothesis (i.e., identify the level of significance)

Steps of hypothesis testing
calculate the test statistic (e.g., t-test) make a decision if result of test statistic is unlikely to occur by chance (that is, if the p value is less than the alpha level), reject the null hypothesis calculate effect size indicators to determine practical significance

Directional alternative hypotheses
predicts the direction of an effect increases statistical power cannot reject null if effect is opposite of prediction

Hypothesis testing errors
Type I error occurs when the researcher incorrectly rejects the null hypothesis Type II error occurs when the researcher fails to reject a false null hypothesis

Hypothesis testing errors
reducing the alpha level reduces the risk of a Type I error but increases the risk of a Type II error researchers are usually more concerned about Type I errors
Hypothesis Testing in Practice

The basic steps of hypothesis testing are used with a number of different research designs and statistical techniques The t Test for Correlation Coefficients
used to determine whether an observed correlation coefficient is statistically significant null hypothesis assumes that correlation =0
Hypothesis Testing in Practice (cont'd)

One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
compares two or more group means null assumes that all population means are equal; alternative is that at least two are different

One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
if null is rejected, post-hoc tests needed to determine which groups are different (if more than two groups are compared)
post-hoc tests allow multiple comparisons without inflating risk of a Type I error common post-hoc tests include Tukeys HSD, Neuman-Keuls, and Bonferroni

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)
extension of ANOVA includes a quantitative independent variable as a covariate increased power over ANOVA

Two-way ANOVA
includes two categorical independent variables tests three null hypotheses
main effects for each independent variable interaction a significant interaction generally takes precedence over main effects

One-Way Repeated Measures ANOVA
similar to one-way ANOVA but independent variable is within participants
The t test for Regression Coefficients

tests the significance of regression coefficients obtained in regression analysis semi-partial correlation squared (sr2) amount of variance in the dependent variable explained by a single

Chi-Square Test for Contingency Tables
tests the relationship observed in a contingency table two categorical variables null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between the two variables
Hypothesis Testing and Research Design

The following tables list the appropriate statistical analyses to be used with research designs discussed in the text
Preparing the Research Report for Presentation or Publication
The APA Format

On every page put the page number and a header in the upper right hand corner of the manuscript Page 1
Running head Title Author(s) name(s) and institutional affiliations
The APA Format (cont'd)

Page 2
Abstract in only one paragraph

Next series of continuous pages
Introduction Method
Participants Apparatus or instruments Procedure other relevant sections such as the study design, therapeutic technique, etc.

Next series of continuous pages
Results Discussion References--starts a new page Footnoteson a separate page Tables Figures
Preparation of the Research Report

Writing style
orderly presentation of ideas smoothness and economy of expression avoid plagiarism!
Preparation of the Research Report (cont'd)

Language
specificity-choose words that are accurate and free of bias when referring to participants labels-respect preferences of participants participationuse the active voice and descriptive terms such as participant

Language
specific issues
genderavoid ambiguity in sex identity sexual orientationavoid labeling with offensive tone racial and Ethnic identityask participants about their preferred designation disabilitiesavoid language that equates a person with their disability ageavoid open-ended definitions

Editorial style
italics-use infrequently abbreviations-use sparingly

Editorial style
headings
Level 1- centered main boldface in upper and lowercase letters; Level 2- flush left, bold, upper and lowercase letters; Level 3- indented side heading, bold, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period; Level 4- indented, boldface, italicized, in lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period;

Editorial style
headings
Level 5- indented, italicized, in lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period
quotations
fewer than 40 words, insert into text 40 words or more freestanding block without quotations marks

Editorial style
numbers-use words for numbers less than 10 physical measurements-use metric presentation of statistical resultsprovide enough information to allow the reader to corroborate the results tables-use only when they can convey and summarize the data more economically and clearly than can a discussion

Editorial style
figures-use when they convey a concept more effectively than can a table figure captions-a brief description of the content figure preparation should be computer generated with professional graphics software reference citations use the author-date citation method

Editorial style
reference citations e.g., McConnell (2006) examined the relationship or Past research has demonstrated (McConnell, 2006)
reference list
include name of author, year of publication, title, publishing data and any other information necessary to identify the reference see samples in text

Editorial style
preparation of manuscript
Times New Roman typeface, 12-point font double space entire manuscript margins should be at least 1 inch

Editorial style
ordering of manuscript pages
title page abstract text of the manuscript references footnotes tables figures

For further information http://www.apastyle.org/
Submission of the Research Report for Publication

Send to the editor of the selected journal Include a cover letter stating you are submitting the manuscript Editor will send the manuscript out for review
Submission of the Research Report for Publication (cont'd)

In several months you will have the manuscript returned with the reviewers comments and the editors decision
reject accept revise and resubmit
Presenting Research Results at Professional Conferences

Oral presentation
include the following
what was studied why you studied how it was studied what was found and any implications
Presenting Research Results at Professional Conferences (cont'd)

Poster presentation
prepare a visual presentation that is large enough to be read at a distance of about 10 feet
THANK YOU!

Experimental Research

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Experimental Research

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Research Approaches and Methods of Data Collection

RAMLEE ISMAIL, PHD FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMIC

Ways of Categorizing Research Approaches

Quantitative versus qualitative

Variables in Quantitative Research

Variables in Quantitative Research (cont'd)

Variables in Quantitative Research (cont'd)

Variables in Quantitative Research (cont'd)

Experimental Research (cont'd)

The Psychological Experiment

Advantages of the Experimental Approach

Ability to manipulate variables Control

Advantages of the Experimental Approach (cont'd)

Disadvantages of the Experimental Approach

Inadequate method of scientific inquiry

Experimental Research Settings

Experimental Research Settings (cont'd)

Experimental Research Settings (cont'd)

Nonexperimental Quantitative Research

Correlational Study (cont'd)

Correlational Study (cont'd)

Natural Manipulation Research

Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Studies

Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Studies (cont'd)

Cohort-sequential studies represent a combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

Qualitative Research (cont'd)

Major Methods of Data Collection

Major Methods of Data Collection (cont'd)

Problem Identification and Hypothesis Formation

Sources of Research Ideas

Issues Affecting Research Ideas

Review of the Literature

Review of the Literature (cont'd)

Feasibility of the Study

Formulating the Research Problem

Formulating the Research Problem (cont'd)

Research Ethics: What Are They

Research Ethics: What Are They (cont'd)

Treatment of Research Participants

Ethical Dilemmas (cont'd)

Ethical Guidelines (cont'd)

Ethical Guidelines (cont'd)

Ethical Guidelines (cont'd)

Fidelity and Scientific Integrity

APA Ethical Standards for Research

APA Ethical Standards for Research (cont'd)

APA Ethical Standards for Research (cont'd)

APA Ethical Standards for Research (cont'd)

APA Ethical Standards for Research (cont'd)

APA Ethical Standards for Research (cont'd)

Ethical Issues in Electronic Research

Ethical Issues in Electronic Research (cont'd)

Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report

Writing the research report

Ethics of Animal Research

Ethics of Animal Research (cont'd)

Measuring Variables and Sampling

Variable and Measurement

Scales of Measurement (cont'd)

Psychometric Properties of Good Measurement

Psychometric Properties of Good Measurement (cont'd)

Types of Reliability (cont'd)