Atoms and Elements

Definition of an Atom

The smallest particle of an element. Cannot be broken down. Consists of a nucleus and a cloud of particles called electrons.

Atomic Structure

Atoms are made up of three basic particles

Protons:

Carry a positive charge

Neutrons:

Carry no charge Protons and neutrons join together to form the nucleus- the central part of the atom.

Electrons:

carry a negative charge and circle around the nucleus

Atomic Structure Electrons

Electrons travel around the nucleus in energy shells or orbitals. Each orbital can only hold a certain amount of electrons.

Atomic Structure

Protons and neutrons have the same mass Electrons are much smaller and move faster

Atomic Structure

Protons and neutrons (the nucleus) make up the mass of the atom. Electrons (in their energy levels) make up most of the atoms volume.

Protons, Neutrons, Electrons

Mass of the particles in an atom are measured in atomic mass units.

Particle in atom Proton Neutron Electron Mass 1 Unit 1 unit Almost nothing Charge (+1) None (-1)

Proton Number

Proton Number the number of protons in an atom An atom is identified by the number of protons in it. Every atom has a different proton number.

For an atom : No. of protons = No. of electrons There is no net charge.

Nucleon Number

Nucleons are the protons and neutrons that form the nucleus Nucleon number : Number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

Nucleon number = No. of protons + No. of neutrons

Definition of an Element

A substance that cannot be broken down into any other substance by physical or chemical means.
Elements

are on the periodic table

Elements
An element contains only one kind of atom. Around 90 elements are found in earth. 30 have been made in the lab. Each element has a symbol.

Properties of Elements
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Structure: the shape of an element Hardness: is the element hard or soft Color: elements color Luster: elements shine Density: elements heaviness Melting Point: the point at which the element melts Boiling Point: the point at which the element boils

Properties of Elements
8. 9. 10. 11.

Conductivity: elements ability to allow electricity or heat to flow through it Ductility: elements ability to be drawn into a wire Malleability: elements ability to be pounded into a shape Solubility: ability to dissolve in water

Examples of Properties

Potassium
Structure:

crystalline Hardness: soft Color: silvery white Luster: shiny Density: 0.862 g/cm3 Solubility: insoluble Melting Point: 63.65 C (336.8 K, 146.57 F) Boiling Point: 774.0 C (1047.15 K, 1425.2 F)

Examples of Properties

Conductivity: nickel conducts electricity Ductility: copper can be drawn into a wire Malleability: copper can be pounded into sheets

Symbols for the Elements

All elements are represented by symbols, which are normally the first letters of their names.

Most of the symbols contain two letters- the first letter must be capital and the second letter small.

The atom of an element is written with its symbol, nucleon number and proton number as follows :

Periodic Table

The periodic table is made up of rows and columns. An element is identified by its chemical symbol. A row is called a period. A column is called a group.

Families
Columns of elements are called groups or families. Elements in each family have similar but not identical properties. For example, lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and other members of family IA are all soft, white, shiny metals.

Periods
Each horizontal row of elements is called a period. The elements in a period are not alike in properties. In fact, the properties change greatly across even given row. The first element in a period is always an extremely active solid. The last element in a period, is always an inactive gas.

Periodic Table

The periodic table organizes the elements in a particular way. A great deal of information about an element can be gathered from its position in the period table. For example, you can predict with reasonably good accuracy the physical and chemical properties of the element. You can also predict what other elements a particular element will react with chemically. Understanding the organization and plan of the periodic table will help you obtain basic information about each of the 118 known elements.

Atomic Mass and Isotopes

While most atoms have the same number of protons and neutrons, some dont. Some atoms have more or less neutrons than protons. These are called isotopes. An atomic mass number with a decimal is the total of the number of protons plus the average number of neutrons.

Isotopes and Radioactivity

Isotopes are atoms of the same element, with different numbers of neutrons. Example : C exists as C-12, C-13(1%) and C-14 (radioactive)

For example, chlorine has two isotopes:

Table 2.2 below shows several isotopes:

Isotopes of a particular element have different physical properties because they have a different number of neutrons in each. Thus their densities and boiling points are different.

Radioactive Isotopes

C-14 is radioactive nucleus is unstable; the atom breaks down naturally / decays, giving out radiation in the form of rays and particles and emitting energy. Radioisotopes radioactive isotopes. Half-life - the time taken for half the radioisotopes in a sample to decay. Example : the half life for C-14 is 5730years. So if there is a hundred atoms of C, 50 of them will decay 5730 years from now.

Radiation can harm you !

Radiation from radioisotopes can kill body cells. Large doses causes radiation sickness. Prolonged exposure to radiation in small doses can cause cancer.

The Uses of Isotopes

1 Many isotopes which are used in the medical, industrial and agricultural fields involve radioactive elements. These isotopes are called radioisotopes.

The Uses of Isotopes

2 The radioisotopes emit alpha rays, beta rays and gamma rays, which are used for various purposes in the various fields.

The Uses of Isotopes

3 Medical (a) Radioisotopes can be used to identify tumours in the body of the person as the radioactive substance collects in the tumour and shown on the Geiger-Muller counter.

The Uses of Isotopes

3 Medical (b) Hypodermic syringes and other surgical instruments which cannot withstand heat and chemicals can be sterilised by using gamma rays.

The Uses of Isotopes

3 Medical (c) Gamma rays emitted from cobalt - 60 are used to destroy cancer cells in a person's body. This treatment known as radiotherapy, needs several safety measures to be observed as they can also easily kill healthy cells.

The Uses of Isotopes

3 Medical (d) Iodine-131 can be injected into the thyroid gland of patient with hyperthyroidism (over-active thyroid gland) to destroy the hyperactive thyroid cells.

The Uses of Isotopes

3 Medical (e) Sodium-24 is injected into the body to identify the location of a blood clot.

The Uses of Isotopes

4 Industrial (a) Sodium-24 is used to identify the location of leaks in underground pipes by adding it to oil or gas. If a Geiger counter identifies radiation outside a pipe, it means there is a leak.

The Uses of Isotopes

4 Industrial (b) Gamma rays can show the amount of contents in a tin or parcel.

The Uses of Isotopes

4 Industrial (c) Gamma rays are also used to control the thickness of metal, paper and plastic that are produced in industry.

The Uses of Isotopes

4 Industrial (d) In the food industry, gamma rays are used to kill microorganisms (bacteria and mould) which cause decay, without causing the food to become radioactive.

The Uses of Isotopes

(e) Gamma rays can preserve onions, potatoes and vegetables as well as delay the ripening of fruits without affecting them.

The Uses of Isotopes

5 Agricultural (a) Gamma rays can cause the mutation of chromosomes in male insects. When they mate with female insects, their mutated chromosomes will produce retarded offspring. In this way, their population is controlled.

The Uses of Isotopes

5 Agricultural (b) Phosphorus-14 is used to identify the absorption rate of fertilisers in plants.

The Uses of Isotopes

6 Archeological Carbon dating, using carbon-14, is used by archeologists to determine the age of fossils, wood and bones of prehistoric substances. It can be used to determine the age of the Earth, in this way.

3.4 How Electrons are Arranged

To find out the number of electrons in an atom, we look at the proton number. In a neutral atom : Number of protons = Number of electrons The electrons are arranged in energy levels (or electron shells).

Electron Shells

Electrons are arranged in shells at different distances around the nucleus. Each electron in an atom is in a particular energy level (or shell). The first shell closest to the nucleus lowest energy level. The further the shell away from the nucleus, the higher the energy level.

Electron arrangement

Electrons are filled in from the lowest energy level to the highest. The first shell is filled first, followed by the second and so on.. Each shell can accommodate a maximum number of electrons.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Electrons are arranged in Energy Levels or Shells First shell - maximum 2 electrons Second shell maximum 8 electrons

Third shell maximum 18 electrons It fills up

8 first, the next 2 enter the 4th shell; the rest of the 3rd shell fills.

Period 4 - first two elements 19 to 20

written out as 2.8.8.1 and 2.8.8.2

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
There are two ways to represent the atomic structure of an element or compound;

1.

Electronic Configuration

2.

Dot & Cross Diagrams

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
With electronic configuration elements are represented numerically by the number of electrons in their shells and number of shells. For example;

Nitrogen
2 in 1st shell 5 in 2
nd

configuration = 2 , 5 2

shell

5 = 7

14

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Write the electronic configuration for the following elements;
a)

Ca

20

b)
40

Na

11 23

c)

8 16

2,8,8,2
d)

2,8,1
e)

2,6
f)

Cl

17 35

Si

14 28

5 11

2,8,7

2,8,4

2,3

DOT & CROSS DIAGRAMS

With Dot & Cross diagrams elements and compounds are represented by Dots or Crosses to show electrons, and circles to show the shells. For example; X

Nitrogen

X X

X X

XX

14

DOT & CROSS DIAGRAMS

Draw the Dot & Cross diagrams for the following elements; X 8 17 X a) O b) Cl 35 X 16 X X X X X X X X X Cl X X X X X O X X X X X X X X X

Patterns in the Periodic Table

Period number - number of electron shells for an element. All elements in a group have the same number of electrons in the outer shell valency electrons. The valency electrons dictate how an element reacts

Group O

Elements in Group O stable arrangement of atoms. 8 outer-shell electrons ( except helium ) Very unreactive.

Elements after Ca

Example : Ti 22 electrons Electronic configuration = 2.8.10.2

METALS AND NON-METALS

The metals and non-metals are represented in different groups in the periodic table and have very different characteristics.

Names of families on the Periodic Table

Metals Good conductors of electricity and heat High melting and boiling points Hard, strong, does not shatter Malleable and ductile Shiny when polished Sonorous High density Forms positive ions Forms basic oxides with oxygen

Non Metals Do not conduct electricity or heat Lower melting or boiling points Brittle Not malleable or ductile Dull Break up when striken Low density Form negative ions Form acidic oxides with oxygen

Exceptions

Not all metals are hard solids Na and P can be cut; Mercury is liquid Hydrogen is a non-metal that forms + ions C is a non-metal; Diamond is very hard; Graphite is a good conductor.