Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ludwig Sasse
1998
BORDA
DEWATS
Decentralised Wastewater Treatment
in Developing Countries
Ludwig Sasse
1998
BORDA
Bremen Overseas Research and Development Association
Bremer Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Überseeforschung und Entwicklung
Association Brêmoise de Recherche et de Développement d’Outre Mer
Industriestrasse 20, D-28199 Bremen
The Author:
Ludwig Sasse, civil engineer, responsible for biogas and wastewater projects of BORDA
since 1980, editor of the BORDA BIOGAS FORUM, wrote several books and articles on
biogas and wastewater technology and dissemination.
The views expressed in this publication are those of the author and do not represent the
official views neither of the European Commission nor the State Government of Bremen
Printed in Delhi 1998
2
CONTENTS
1 FOREWORD 5.4 Phase Separation
2 DEWATS: PROPERTIES, 5.5 Separation of Solids
PERFORMANCE AND SCOPE 5.6 Elimination of Nitrogen
2.1 Properties of DEWATS 5.7 Elimination of Phosphorus
2.2 Performance 5.8 Elimination of Toxic
2.3 Scope Substances
2.4 Implementation 5.9 Removal of Pathogens
3
9 TECHNOLOGY 12.3 Gas Collection and Storage
9.1 Grease Trap and Grit 12.4 Distribution of Biogas
Chamber 12.5 Gas Appliances
9.2 Septic Tank
9.3 Imhoff Tank
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
9.4 Anaerobic Filter
13.1 Technical Spread Sheets
9.5 UASB
13.1.1 Usefulness of Computer
9.6 Baffled Septic Tank
Calculation
9.7 Fully Mixed Digester
13.1.2 Risks of Using Simplified
9.8 Trickling Filter
Formulas
9.9 Constructed Wetlands
13.1.3 About the Spread Sheets
9.10 The Horizontal Gravel
13.1.4 Assumed COD / BOD
Filter
Relation
9.11 Vertical Sand Filter
13.1.5 Wastewater Production per
9.12 Ponds Capita
9.13 Hybrid and Combined 13.1.6 Septic Tank
Systems
13.1.7 Imhoff Tank
9.14 Unsuitable Technologies
13.1.8 Anaerobic Filters
13.1.9 Baffled Septic Tank
10 SLUDGE DISPOSAL 13.1.10 Biogas Plant
10.1 Desludging 13.1.11 Gravel filter
10.2 Sludge Drying 13.1.12 Anaerobic Pond
10.3 Composting 13.1.13 Aerobic Pond
13.2 Economic Computer Spread
Sheets
11 REUSE OF WASTEWATER AND SLUDGE 13.2.1 General
11.1 Risks 13.2.2. Viability of Using Biogas
11.2 Groundwater Recharge 13.2.3 Annual Cost Calculation
11.3 Fishponds 13.3 Using Spread Sheets without
11.4 Irrigation Computer
11.5 Reuse for Process and
Domestic Purposes 14 APPENDIX
4
1 FOREWORD
This handbook is an outcome of a project text - and provides tables for dimensioning
titled of treatment plants on the computer. Last
but not least, the book will assist senior
“Low Maintenance Wastewater
development planners who need to under-
Treatment Systems - LOMWATS;
stand the specifics of decentralised waste-
Development of Technologies and
water treatment technology sufficiently in
Dissemination Strategies.”
order to select or approve appropriate strat-
egies for its dissemination.
The project had been financed by the Com-
mission of the European Union, with sub- Consequently, this book cannot and will not
stantial contribution by the State Office for provide additional information to any of the
Development Co-operation of the Free specialists in his or her own field. On the
Hanseatic City of Bremen from October 1994 contrary, a specialist may be irked by cer-
until April 1998. tain simplifications. This may make good
The following organisations participated in for the fact, that practical people are often
the project: irritated by academic specialists, of both
the technical and non-technical field.
CEEIC (Chengdu) and HRIEE (Hangzhou) from
There will be always a need for decentral-
China; SIITRAT (New Delhi), MDS (Kanji-
ised wastewater treatment in Developing
rapally) and CSR (Auroville) from India, and
Countries. The only realistic approach for
GERES (Marseilles) from France. BORDA from
the time being is the use of low mainte-
Germany co-ordinated the project.
nance technology. However, the abbrevia-
This book aims at a target group which is tion for it, namely LOMWATS, carries un-
typical for decentralised technology imple- justly an image of low standard which could
mentation. This group consist of people who become counter productive to dissemina-
are aware of the general problem and know tion. Therefore, the name DEWATS will be
something about possible solutions. How- used, which stands for „Decentralised
ever, their knowledge is too general on the Wastewater Treatment Systems“. DEWATS
one hand, or too specialised on the other includes only such systems which are con-
to master the very typical problems which sidered suitable for decentralised applica-
go together with decentralisation. This book tion and dissemination in the case that
wants to provide enough basic knowledge qualified maintenance and operation can-
about the technology to non-technical not be expected. Nevertheless, DEWATS
project managers in order to enable them technologies may also be suitable for large
to adapt the technology locally. The book centralised applications. On the other hand
wants also to help the technical specialist may sophisticated technology of consider-
to understand where technical simplifica- able maintenance and steering requirement
tion is required in order to disseminate the also be appropriate in certain decentralised
technology in its typical decentralised con- cases.
5
1 FOREWORD
However, even the rather simple DEWATS - cause it explains the biochemical subject in
technologies are generally not mastered at such a manner that even civil engineers
the place of decentralised pollution. This like myself can follow. I hope the book in
indicates the biggest disadvantage of de- your hand has something of this clarity.
centralisation, which is the need for know- Another book indispensable for a German
how and expertise at each of the decentral- civil engineer is „Taschenbuch der Stadt-
ised location. This book intends to improve entwässerung“ (Pocket book of Sewerage)
the situation. Nonetheless, centralised guid- by the famous Imhoffs, in which one finds
ance and supervision of decentralised ac- general guidance on „simply everything“
tivities is required which is extremely costly, concerning sewage and wastewater treat-
and therefore, dissemination of DEWATS ment. The book has been translated into
needs active promotion. several languages under various titles and
parts of it have been included into books
Acknowledgement by local authors.
I would like to express my sincere thanks The last of the trinity is „Wastewater Engi-
to all who enabled the writing of this book, neering“ by Metcalf and Eddy. Beside being
either through providing funds or through a comprehensive and voluminous handbook
sharing their rich experience. I want to thank for engineers that is based on theoretical
especially those who made mistakes in the knowledge and practical experience, it is
past and saved me from „falling into the also a textbook for students with examples
ditch“ myself. Unfortunately, it would be for dimensioning and planning.
unfair to mention their names, however, I I would also like to thank the participants
would like to encourage everybody to openly of a workshop held in Auroville, India in
report about own failures, because when November 1997, whom I used without their
they have been sincerely analysed they are knowledge to check the general concept of
the best teaching material for others. this book. I am further indebted to those to
The book in your hand can only be an entry whom I have sent the draft version for com-
point to the wide field of wastewater treat- ments. I am grateful for remarks and infor-
ment technology. Fortunately, there are other mation given by D.P. Singhal, Deng Liangwei,
books which describe the various sectors Andreas Schmidt, Gilles B., Dirk Esser and
of the technology more profoundly. You find Christopher Kellner. I would also like to
a long list of books and articles in the an- thank Mr. Siepen who compiled mountains
nex who’s authors deserve my gratitude, of literature for me while working as a vol-
however, I would like to mention three books unteer for BORDA. My special thanks goes
of quite different type which were of par- to Mrs. Anthya Madiath who tried hard to
ticular help to me: clean the text from the most cruel „Ger-
manisms“ without hurting my ego too much.
My favourite is „Biologie der Abwasser-
reinigung“ (Biology of Wastewater Treatment) Ludwig Sasse
by Klaus Mudrack and Sabine Kunst, be- Bremen, March 1998
6
2 DEWAT S
PROPERTIES, PERFORMANCE AND SCOPE
This chapter gives a general overview on ❏ DEWATS work without technical energy,
Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Systems and thus cannot be switched off inten-
technology (DEWATS) and may be consid- tionally (see Fig. 1.).
ered being a summary of its essentials. It is ❏ DEWATS guarantees permanent and con-
meant for development planners or politi- tinuous operation, however, fluctuation
cians, especially, who tend to not to go in effluent quality may occur temporarily.
deep into technical details before making
their decisions. ❏ DEWATS is not everywhere the best so-
lution. However, where skilled and re-
sponsible operation and maintenance
cannot be guaranteed, DEWATS technolo-
2.1 Properties of DEWATS gies are undoubtedly the best choice
2.1.1 DEWATS available.
Fig. 1.
One of too many non-aerating aera-
tors [photo: Sasse]
7
2 DEWATS
septic tank
longitudinal section
inlet outlet
settler
baffled reactor
anaerobic filter
longitudinal section
inlet outlet
rizomes
Fig. 2.
Treatment systems considered to be suitable for decentralised dissemination
8
2 DEWATS
provides a fresher effluent when de-sludged place near residential houses, in open
at designed intervals. The Imhoff tank is ponds or constructed wetlands of vertical
used preferably when post-treatment takes flow type.
9
2 DEWATS
Deep anaerobic ponds and shallow polish- tice impact upon the quality of the effluent.
ing ponds are also considered being DEWATS. However, inferior quality need not to be
when there is sufficient space for the plant.
Special provisions may have to be made
There are certain measures at hand to dis-
for industrial wastewater before standard-
charge effluent of acceptable quality:
ised DEWATS designs can be applied.
These for example include, an open set- ❏ provision of sufficient space at the source
tler for daily removal of fruit waste from a of pollution
canning factory, buffer tanks to mix vary- ❏ pre-treatment at source and post treat-
ing flows from a milk processing plant, ment where sufficient land is available
grease traps or neutralisation pits to bal-
ance the pH of the influent. In these cases, ❏ pre-treatment at source and post treat-
standard DEWATS are applicable only af- ment in co-operation with others
ter such pre-treatment steps have been ❏ accepting an effluent with higher pollu-
taken. tion load
Despite their reliability and impressive treat- ❏ restricting wastewater producing activi-
ment performance, such well-known and ties at this particular site
proven systems as UASB, trickling filter, ro-
tating discs, etc. are not considered as be- ❏ connection to a central treatment plant
ing DEWATS as these systems require care- via sewage line.
ful and skilled attendance. Permanent dilution of wastewater or the
Most of the treatment processes which are installation of a mechanised and highly ef-
used in large-scale treatment plants despite ficient treatment plant remain theoretical
their proven efficiency do not meet the options, because experience shows that such
DEWATS criteria and therefore, cannot be processes are chronically afflicted by irregu-
included. The activated sludge process, the lar operation.
fluidised bed reactor, aerated or chemical
flocculation and all kinds of controlled re-
circulation of wastewater are part of this 2.1.3 Kinds of Wastewater
category. Regular or continuous re-circula- Septic tanks are used for wastewater with a
tion is partly acceptable under the condi- high percentage of settleable solids, typi-
tion that the pumps that are used cannot cally for effluent from domestic sources.
be switched off easily, i.e. separately from
transportation pumps. Anaerobic filters are used for wastewater
with low percentage of suspended solids
(e.g. after primary treatment in septic tanks),
Well designed conventional and narrow COD/BOD ratio; biogas utilisa-
treatment plants may not meet
tion may be considered in case of BOD
DEWATS requirements
concentration > 1.000 mg/l. (BOD = biologi-
cal oxygen demand, COD = chemical oxy-
Admittedly, this self-imposed restraint over gen demand; both are the most common
technical choices in DEWATS could in prac- parameters for pollution).
10
2 DEWATS
Baffled Septic Tanks are suitable for all kinds 2.2 Performance
of wastewater, however, preferably for such
of high percentage of non-settleable sus- 2.2.1 Treatment Quality
pended solids and narrow COD/BOD ratio. Treatment quality depends on the nature of
Constructed wetlands are used for waste- influent and temperature, but can basically
water with low percentage of suspended be defined in the following approximate BOD
solids and COD concentration below 500 mg/l. removal rates:
Wastewater for treatment in aerobic ponds 25 to 50 % for septic tanks and Imhoff
should have a BOD5 content below 300 mg/l. tanks
70 to 90 % for anaerobic filters and baffled
Facultative and anaerobic ponds may be septic tanks
charged with strong wastewater, however, 70 to 95 % for constructed wetland and
bad odour cannot be avoided reliably with pond systems.
high loading rates.
These values and the required effluent qual-
ity decide the choice of treatment systems.
For example, septic tanks alone are not
2.1.4 Area requirement
suitable to discharge directly into receiving
Depending on total volume, which influ- waters, but may suit treatment on land where
ences tank depth, nature of wastewater and the groundwater table is low and odour is
temperature, the following values may indi- not likely to be a nuisance. Taking a limit of
cate permanent area requirement for set- 50 mg/l BOD being discharged, the anaero-
ting up a treatment plant: bic filter in combination with a septic tank
septic tank, Imhoff tank: may treat wastewater of 300 mg/l BOD with-
0,5 m2/m3 daily flow out further post treatment. Stronger waste-
anaerobic filter, baffled septic tank: water would require a constructed wetland
1 m2/m3 daily flow or pond system for final treatment.
constructed wetland: There are endless possibilities of cheaper
30 m2/m3 daily flow treatment solutions based on local condi-
anaerobic ponds: tions. What is required is that all options be
4 m2/m3 daily flow carefully considered. Whether long-way
facultative aerobic ponds: open discharge channels may deliver the
25 m2/m3 daily flow required additional treatment should always
be taken into consideration. Expert knowl-
These values are approximate figures for
edge is needed to evaluate such possibili-
wastewater of typical strength, however, the
ties; evaluation should compulsorily include
required area increases with strength. There
analysis of wastewater samples.
might be no waste of land in case of closed
anaerobic systems as they are usually con- Substantial removal of nitrogen requires a
structed underground. Area for sludge dry- mix of aerobic and anaerobic treatment
ing beds is not included; this may come to which happens in constructed wetlands and
0,1 - 10 m 2/m 3 daily flow, according to ponds, only. In closed anaerobic tank sys-
strength and desludging intervals. tems of the DEWATS-type nitrogen forms to
11
2 DEWATS
ammonia. The effluent is a good fertiliser, from constructed wetlands and shallow
but because of that, causes algae growth in aerobic ponds. This effect is attributed to
receiving waters and is toxic to fish. longer retention times, exposure to UV rays
in ponds, and various bio-chemical inter-
Phosphorus is a good fertiliser, and there-
actions in constructed wetlands. Pathogen
fore dangerous in rivers and lakes. Remov-
removal rates of these systems are higher
ing of phosphorus in DEWATS is limited,
than in conventional municipal treatment
like in most treatment plants. However, con-
plants.
structed wetlands could be helpful when
filter media contains iron or aluminium com- Chlorination can be used for pathogen con-
pounds. It should be noted that phospho- trol. Simple devices with automatic dosing
rus can be accumulated by sedimentation may be added before final discharge. How-
or fixed in bacteria mass, but can hardly be ever, use of chlorine should be limited to
removed or transformed into harmless sub- cases of high risk, as it would be for hospi-
stances. tals during an epidemic outbreak. Perma-
nent chlorination should be avoided be-
cause it does not only kill pathogens but
also other bacteria and protozoans which
2.2.2 Pathogen control are responsible for the self purification ef-
Like all modern wastewater treatment plants, fect of receiving waters.
DEWAT systems, as well, are not made for
pathogen control in the first place. Patho-
gen removal rates increase with long reten-
tion times, but all high rate plants work 2.3 Scope
proudly on short retention times. 2.3.1 Reuse of wastewater
The WHO guidelines and other independ- Effluent from anaerobic units is character-
ent surveys describe transmission of worm ised by foul smell, even at low BOD values.
infections as the greatest risk in relation to Irrigation in garden areas should then bet-
wastewater. Worm eggs, helminths, are well ter be underground. Effluent from aerobic
removed from effluent by sedimentation but ponds or constructed wetlands is suitable
accumulate in the bottom sludge. The long for surface irrigation, even in domestic gar-
retention times of 1 to 3 years in septic dens. However, the better the treatment ef-
tanks and anaerobic filters provide suffi- fect of the system, the lower is the fertilis-
cient protection against helminths infection ing value of the effluent.
in practice. Therefore, frequent sludge re-
Although most pathogens are removed in
moval carries a slightly higher risk.
aerobic ponds, domestic or agricultural ef-
Bacteria and Virus are destroyed to a great fluent can never be labelled “guaranteed
extent, however they remain in infectious free of pathogens”. Irrigation of crops should
concentrations in effluent of anaerobic fil- therefore stop 2 weeks prior to harvesting.
ters and septic tanks. Nevertheless, the It is best not to irrigate vegetables and fruits,
statistical risk of infection is rather limited. which are usually consumed raw after flow-
High pathogen removal rates are reported ering.
12
2 DEWATS
Treated wastewater can be used for fish with a COD concentration of not less than
farming when diluted with fresh river water 1000 mg/l would be needed to serve the
or after extensive treatment in pond sys- requirements of one household kitchen.
tems. Integrated fish and crop farming is
possible.
2.3.4 Costs
2.3.2 Reuse of Sludge Total costs, described as annual costs, in-
clude planning and supervision costs, run-
Each treatment system produces sludge
ning costs, capital costs, and the cost of
which must be removed in regular intervals,
construction inclusive of the cost of land.
which may reach from some days or weeks
As is evident, it is not easy to provide
(Imhoff tanks) to several years (ponds).
handy calculations on the total cost of
Aerobic systems produce more sludge than
wastewater treatment. The comparison of
anaerobic systems. Desludging should com-
costs is also made difficult, by the fact
ply with agricultural requirements because
while a particular system may be cheaper
sludge although contaminated by pathogens
it may not necessarily be the most suit-
is a valuable fertiliser. Consequently sludge
able, while other systems might be expen-
requires careful handling. The process of
sive at one location but cheaper at an-
composting kills most helminths, bacteria
other due to differential land prices. How-
and viruses due to the high temperature
ever, in general it can be confidently said
that it generates.
that DEWATS has the potential of being
more economical in comparison to other
realistic treatment options. This is true on
2.3.3 Use of Biogas account of the following:
Conventionally, DEWATS do not utilise the ❏ DEWATS may be standardised for certain
biogas from anaerobic processes because customer-sectors, which reduces planning
of the cost and additional attendance fac- cost.
tors. Devices for collection, storage, distri-
bution and utilisation of biogas add to the ❏ DEWATS does use neither movable parts
cost to be recovered from the energy value nor energy, which avoids expensive but
of biogas. However, under certain circum- quickly wearing engineering parts.
stances the use of biogas may actually re-
❏ DEWATS is designed to be constructed
duce the cost of treatment. Biogas utilisa-
with local craftsmen; this allows to em-
tion makes economic sense in the case of
ploy less costly contractors which causes
strong wastewater, and especially when
lower capital cost, as well, and later lesser
biogas can be regularly and purposefully
expenses for repair.
used on-site. Approximately 200 litres of
biogas can be recovered from 1 kg of COD ❏ DEWATS may be combined with natural
removed. A household normally requires or already existing treatment facilities so
2 to 3 m3 of biogas per day for cooking. that the most appropriate solution may
Thus, biogas from 20 m3 of wastewater be chosen.
13
2 DEWATS
Fig. 3.
DEWATS anaerobic filter under construction. Planning and supervision by CEEIC [photo: Sasse]
14
2 DEWATS
perienced engineer who is able to place to differ vastly within a defined area of pro-
plants and sewers according to contours duction, thereby making standardisation
and other site requirements. fairly easy.
15
2 DEWATS
17
3 DISSEMINATION
3.1 The Need for Active Dissemination tralised technology or technical hardware.
of DEWATS These preconditions have to be fulfilled
before one may start thinking about a dis-
Planning and implementation of DEWATS is
semination strategy:
not a very profitable business for engineers
and building contractors. Therefore, dissemi- ❏ The hardware to be disseminated is tech-
nation of decentralised wastewater treat- nically sound
ment systems will need to be pushed by
political will and administrative support. ❏ In principle it is feasible to operate and
maintain the hardware on the spot.
The treatment units are relatively small, nev-
ertheless complicated and are usually spread ❏ The technology in general is economi-
over a scattered area. The required exper- cally and/or environmentally useful.
tise for their realisation is truly remarkable.
❏ The technology is suitable and useful in
Resultantly, general planning must be cen-
the particular local situation.
tralised and designing standardised in or-
der to reduce the overall cost per plant and Dissemination would make sense only if
to maintain the required expertise. On the these pre-conditions are fulfilled.
other hand, any centralisation will involve
the setting up of a superstructure with its
There will be no improved
build-in tendency to create an expensive wastewater treatment without
officer’s pyramid. To achieve implementa- technical expertise
tion of a large number of plants, a strong
and omnipresent superstructure seems to be
required. The dog bites in his own tail. How- DEWATS, as a decentralised technology will
ever, this superstructure becomes relatively always need local adaptation. Even fully
less expensive if the scale of implementa- standardised designs are constructed lo-
tion is large. Therefore, a reasonable, afford- cally; for example, they have to be con-
able and sustainable dissemination strategy nected to the source of pollution and have
is essential to balance the desired environ- to be set at proper level to allow free flow
mental benefits with acceptable social costs. of effluent to the receiving water. Implicit
Short-term economic viability of the super- in the decentralisation of technology is the
structure cannot necessarily be the yardstick decentralisation of know-how and exper-
for choosing a dissemination strategy. tise. Centralised guidance and supervision
of decentralised activities is extremely
costly. These services would therefore have
to be kept to the minimum. This would be
3.2 Preconditions for Dissemination possible, only if basic knowledge and a
There are some preconditions commonly minimum of expertise were locally avail-
required for dissemination of any decen- able.
18
3 DISSEMINATION
19
3 DISSEMINATION
the world over has increasingly demanded sanitation are related to water supply or
professional attention to wastewater and low cost toilet programmes for individual
its disposal in response to which, today we households, programmes which meet im-
have a new breed of wastewater engineers mediate felt needs. It must be remembered
who are not ashamed of their profession. that this is not so with wastewater disposal
- and even less so with wastewater treat-
ment. People do not want to be bothered
with it. In general, people expect that anony-
3.3.2 Organising People
mous authorities should take care of this
For wastewater treatment to take place in a problem. Public willingness to get involved
co-operative context, it is important that in treating their wastewater is low and can
people are organised. The objectives of or- only be expected to increase in case of
ganising people may be manifold: severe crises, or in the likelihood of sub-
❏ collecting investment capital, stantial economic benefit as in the case of
re-using wastewater for irrigation, for in-
❏ contributing land, stance.
❏ giving permission for trespassing of sew-
ers over private land,
❏ collective operation and maintenance 3.3.3 Partners for Dissemination
❏ collective financing of services for op- The logical partners in dissemination of waste-
eration, water treatment systems beside the pol-
luter as customer, are the government ad-
❏ use of effluent for irrigation, sludge for ministration at one end, and private enter-
fertiliser or biogas for energy. prise such as engineering companies, at
There are numerous ways in which people the other. In an ideal scenario, the govern-
can come together. The framework of ac- ment would announce a set of by-laws and
tion may be the general community admin- then oversee the implementation of these
istration, a development project, or an NGO, bylaws. Thereupon, polluters by social
which supports self- help activity. Howso- agreement or threat of punishment would
ever, the local tradition of self organisation be obliged to contact private engineers and
and co-operation and the particular image contractors to implement an adequate treat-
of the subject “wastewater” will influence ment and disposal system. The investment
the organisational structure. capital would come from the individual,
from bank loans, and perhaps as a subsidy
How to organise people is a well-researched from public funds. This scenario is typical
subject. The results and suggestions of all to industrialised countries.
those books and concepts cannot be pre-
sented here in detail. However, great care In developing countries, the scenario might
is necessary to check any proposed method appear deceptively similar. On the contrary,
whether it is suitable and promising in case the comparison is not likely to go beyond
of wastewater treatment and disposal. Most the introduction of bylaws, which are sel-
experiences of community involvement in dom enforced, as a result of which pollut-
20
3 DISSEMINATION
ers may not even be aware of their exist- Marketing experts, development consultants
ence. The service of private engineers is or socially oriented NGOs are the first to
also likely to be far too expensive for the present themselves as partners for dissemi-
small polluter. Altogether, this leads to a nation. Other business organisations and
situation of complete in-action or to one of contractors more suited to wide scale dis-
arbitrary abuse of power by some officials. semination are rare ‘diamonds in a heap of
As a result of the failure of the government sand’. The logical consequence of this di-
or the private sector, informal or registered lemma is to find new local partners for de-
self-help groups step in to carry out the centralised dissemination at each place.
various tasks that are normally not theirs. Since these partners will play the key role
in implementation, dissemination concepts
Public awareness towards the problem of
must necessarily be shaped to suit them.
wastewater pollution has grown tremen-
dously in recent years. Politicians and gov-
ernment administrations welcome any ini- Dissemination concepts must suit
tiative to help solving the problem through the local partners
decentralised measures. Money is often not
the biggest problem, at least for pilot or
demonstration projects. However, there is a 3.4 The Economic Aspect
general helplessness when it comes to in-
dividual implementation, and more so when 3.4.1 Decentralisation
it comes to active and well organised dis- Whether decentralised wastewater treatment
semination of DEWATS. is better than centralised treatment is basi-
cally a question for theoretical or ideologi-
cal discussion. In practice, there is always
Tab. 1. likely to be a mix of centralised and decen-
Indian discharge standards tralised solutions.
21
3 DISSEMINATION
easy to calculate, an estimate of realistic individual plant on-site. Structural costs are
running costs would need an in-depth likely to be the lowest for fully decentral-
study of the technical requirements of the ised systems, especially if slightly sub-stand-
system as well as the prevailing social en- ard treatment is accepted. Safe sludge dis-
vironment. posal must also be possible at site, other-
wise the cost of transportation for sludge
Further, it would need a fairly precise read- collection and disposal must be included.
ing into future management structures. Over- Maintenance and management costs are
heads in form of salaries for the manage- dispensed with when the user of the plant
ment, expenditure for the logistic require- also attends to it. However, if proper op-
ments of operation and maintenance are eration on a more sophisticated level is to
extremely difficult to foresee, especially in be secured, the need for qualified supervi-
the case of co-operatives. The cost of trans- sion and service structures may arise, which
porting sludge, for example, can increase to a certain extent would need to be or-
manifold if the neighbouring farmer decides ganised centrally (for example for collec-
not to take the sludge. A new drying or dump- tion and disposal of sludge). Regular efflu-
ing place could be so far away so that trucks ent control is particularly costly in decen-
would have to be hired instead of oxcarts as tralised systems.
planned, sending calculations awry.
A totally centralised system would result in
the lowest plant construction cost per 3.4.2 Treatment Quality
treated volume of wastewater. On the other
hand, connecting individual sources to the The kind of environmental pollution that
treatment unit may result in up to five times exists tends to justify the strict discharge
the cost for the required sewerage. Man- standards that prevail. However, standards
agement costs are comparatively low be- that are extremely high, paradoxically may
cause one highly qualified manager cares worsen, not improve the situation.
for a large volume of wastewater, respec- The nature of treatment is first of all a
tively a large number of users. Maintenance function of the area, for which one may
costs are quite high, instead, because so- allow a certain degree of environmental
phisticated mechanised equipment requires pollution. If the area where pollution oc-
permanent care. curs is infinite, there may be no necessity
for treatment. Similarly, when pollution is
A semi-centralised system connects several
infinitely small the polluted area is zero.
smaller treatment units to sewerage of
Situations between these two extremes
shorter overall-length. Construction costs are
should be open for setting priorities, mean-
relatively low, but qualified management
ing that the final choice should be open
may be needed for each plant, thus push-
to negotiation. Economic, social and envi-
ing up the cost.
ronmental aspects would each merit due
A fully decentralised system would need a consideration to reach the most accept-
natural environment that is capable of ab- able compromise with regard to the re-
sorbing the discharged wastewater of each quired treatment quality.
22
3 DISSEMINATION
Permitted discharge quality will also depend This point is especially important, because
on the location of pollution. Transport of one of the great advantages of decentrali-
wastewater to sites further away instead of sation and on-site treatment is that waste
on-site treatment had been practised since transport in short sewer pipes does not re-
man developed settlements. Today, waste- quire highly diluted wastewater. Despite
water transportation to remote land or wa- higher concentrations, the absolute pollu-
ters is still common. While this is may be tion load remains the same. Water saving
acceptable today, the damage to the envi- policies could easily accept higher concen-
ronment may become irreversible and in trations at the outlet when other environ-
time, the legacy of pollution could hit back mental factors being favourable; for exam-
at the polluter. In the case of DEWATS dis- ple when there is enough land available or
semination, the decision to treat wastewater the receiving river carries enough water the
on-site and not just send it away is already year round.
made.
Furthermore, it makes little sense to install
In most countries national pollution stand- DEWATS of a high treatment quality, when
ards allow for higher pollution loads in ef- their effluent joins an open sewer channel
fluents of smaller plants, and effluent stand- which receives other untreated wastewater.
ards are “softer” when the discharge is onto In this case, simple, individual septic tanks,
land and into waters that are little used. which cost less but are albeit less effective
in their performance, would be appropri-
Discharge standards in developing countries ate, because treatment of the main waste-
have often been borrowed from industrial- water stream would in any case have to be
ised countries, which are based on highly done.
diluted municipal sewage. DEWATS in de-
veloping countries are meant for public toi-
lets, hospitals, schools or smaller commu-
nities where it is likely that lesser water is 3.4.3 Treatment Cost
used for household and toilet purposes than Thirty to fifty percent of the pollution load
in industrialised countries. The high con- may be removed with simple technology,
centration of wastewater from water saving such as the septic tank. Another thirty to
toilets leads automatically to higher BOD forty percent might be removed with the
concentration of the effluent, even when help of units such as baffled septic tanks
BOD removal rates are within the technical and anaerobic filters that are yet simple but
range of an adequate treatment system. In far more effective. Any further treatment
such case, as saving of water is crucial to would require post treatment in ponds or
sustainable development it would not be constructed wetlands (conventional systems
reasonable to dilute the effluent “artificially” using artificial oxidation do not belong to
in order to achieve an administratively im- the DEWATS family). The higher the relative
posed concentration. Standards which re- pollution removal rate, the higher are the
late to absolute pollution loads (instead of absolute treatment costs per kg BOD re-
concentrations) would be more reasonable, moved. Additional treatment devices for re-
at least for small units. moval of nitrogen, phosphorous or other
23
3 DISSEMINATION
toxic substances are likely to be unusually Construction budgets for new buildings and
expensive. enterprises are likely to include wastewater
treatment costs. Existing units, apart from
Technically spoken, DEWATS are able to meet
the problem of having the space for con-
any discharge standard. However, since self
struction may not be able to raise funds for
sustainable dissemination of DEWATS is
installing a treatment unit at one time. Dis-
likely to be strongly influenced by invest-
semination programmes must therefore nec-
ment and operational costs, the choice of
essarily ensure the availability of credit
an appropriate treatment standard will not
schemes to polluter’s for wastewater treat-
only determine the dissemination strategy
ment.
but may be vital for the total success of
DEWATS. A sustainable dissemination strategy must
take into account the time it may take a
polluter to allocate the required capital (for
Treatment efficiency of DEWATS example, to wait until the next board meet-
may be as high as that of any ing decides on the matter). Practically this
conventional treatment plant
could translate into a time lag of a year or
more between the time when the planning
engineer invites the contractor to see the
Environmental experts and experienced
site and make a realistic estimate for con-
wastewater engineers would need to deter-
struction and the availability of funds for
mine appropriate treatment standards. It is
the purpose. Besides the inflation factor this
crucial that authorities that administrate
also implies that a contractor cannot afford
pollution control have a understanding of
to rely solely on DEWATS for his survival.
the issue and can be flexible in accepting
Under these circumstances it may be diffi-
and legalising deviations from general stand-
cult to recruit contractors who are perma-
ards, so long as these deviations are eco-
nently available to a DEWATS dissemina-
logically acceptable.
tion programme.
struction techniques; in other words, by are far from uniform. Consequently, the ex-
placing “black-box” hardware packages on pertise required for design, construction and
the “market”. In both cases expertise will operation of DEWATS become all the more
be needed for choosing the right design or indispensable as compared to rural biogas
the suitable “black-box”. Expertise will also plants. One of the crucial points is to de-
be needed to advise the user in proper cide whether a standard design is suitable,
operation and adequate maintenance. Such or how it should be modified.
advice must have a stable address, which
The availability of the right expertise is ir-
might be difficult in case certain operations
become necessary after one or two years replaceable in DEWATS dissemination. It is
only, for example in the case of de-sludging. decisive for a dissemination programme of
This could also mean that the constructing decentralised plants to clarify the nature of
enterprise would need to be contracted for the expertise that is to be maintained, at
maintenance and operation on behalf of the what level and for which technology. Miss-
customer. The expertise available for on- ing knowledge and expertise cannot be con-
site operation and maintenance would de- signed to the insignificance of a so-called
cide on the nature of required plant man- “social matter”. Professionals and techni-
agement. cians are duty bound to ensure that the
goods or structures they provide are tech-
Invaluable experience gained from rural nically sound and appropriate. The break
biogas dissemination programmes over a down of a technical system is not neces-
span of 30 years in India, China and sev- sarily the fault of the customer. It is the
eral other countries confirms that each such duty of the technician to deliver the right
project or programme had first to develop design for a given situation.
an appropriate local design notwithstand-
ing the availability of standardised designs
from other projects /countries. Interestingly It is the duty of the technician to
neither India nor China have been able to deliver an appropriate design
sustain the dissemination of their small- which will be realised with an
scale rural biogas programme from a tech- appropriate technology
nical point of view without the support of a
superstructure. In most cases it has been A division of labour between different ex-
difficult to ensure that the user has suffi- perts is essential. It is the duty of the non-
cient expertise to maintain the biogas plants technical “social” staff to feed the techni-
properly. None of the programmes have been cian with information about social matters
able to do without a subsidised after sales and the technician to feed the social ex-
service. This scenario is bound to be true perts with information about the technical
to other areas of technology dissemination
necessities. What is required is collabora-
as well.
tion between the disciplines, not role con-
DEWATS is far more complicated than rural fusion. It is a known fact that technicians
biogas plants. The bio-chemical and physi- as a rule do not give enough information
cal properties of wastewater especially in about technical necessities to social experts.
case of wastewater from industrial sources This in all likelihood happens for two rea-
25
3 DISSEMINATION
sons: the technicians do not know the tech- advised in the absence of a deep under-
nology well enough and/or the social ex- standing of the proposed measure. For
perts are not able to understand the impli- example, a dentated sill is of no use if the
cations of the technical requirements. The top of teeth, instead of the bottom notches,
problem of sub-standard technical knowl- is kept in level.
edge is likely to be true of most potential
DEWATS constructors - and promotors.
3.5.3 Substrate
27
3 DISSEMINATION
vidual polluter gets away by completely ig- only 60mg/l unfiltered; two 3-day maturation ponds
noring the problem or by setting up a fake would be needed to get the BOD down to a 30 mg/l
treatment system to please the environmen- unfiltered - equal to an increase in retention time of
120%! So the filtered, unfiltered question has major
tal control officer. Either way, the environ-
cost implications. Those who might worry about the
ment is not protected. On the other hand,
effect of pond algae in a receiving watercourse
were environmental standards to be more should remember that they will produce oxygen dur-
realistic and feasible there is greater likeli- ing the day but, more importantly, they will be quickly
hood of adherence to the law by individual consumed by the stream biota,... So maturation
polluters. ponds are not always required.”
(D. Mara, “Appropriate Response” in WQI May/June
“Undue haste in adopting standards which are cur- 1997).
rently too high can lead to the use of inappropriate
technology in pursuit of unattainable or unaffordable Another obstacle to achieving a better de-
objectives and, in doing so, produces an unsus- gree of treatment are unrealistic and overly
tainable system. There is a great danger in setting ambitious master plans that could never
standards and then ignoring them. It is often better be successfully implemented in the given
to set appropriate and affordable standards and to
time and resource frame; whereas more
have a phased approach to improving the stand-
ards as and when affordable. In addition, such an
modest, intermediate solutions would be
approach permits the country the opportunity to more likely to succeed. In all fast growing
develop its own standards and gives adequate time towns and cities, municipal boundaries have
to implement a suitable regulatory framework and been over run by rapidly expanding urban
to develop the institutional capacity necessary for agglomeration; a fact, that is perhaps not
enforcement.” even reflected in the master plan. On the
(Johnson and Horan: “Institutional Developments, other hand, an over extended master plan
Standards and River Quality, WST, Vol 33, No 3, 1996) could be well beyond the financial and
It is also important to apply a law in keep- logistical strength of the municipality. A more
ing with its original intention. But this is general solution, that includes appropriate
only possible if the technology is fully un- decentralised treatment systems could im-
derstood. It is interesting to know that Eng- prove the environment considerably, al-
land at the end of the last century consid- though this measure would have to bear
ered case by case assessment of individual the label of being only “temporary” („tem-
polluters but abandoned the proposition porary“ like slums, which by practice be-
fearing administrative snarls and an unten- came „permanent“).
able relaxation of discharge standards. In
the current scenario when decentralised
wastewater treatment is being taken far 3.6.3 Legal Aspects of Some Sectors of
more seriously than in the past, such an DEWATS Application
approach may still be advisable. In the case
of pond treatment Duncan Mara gives an 3.6.3.1 Human Settlements
example: Administrative support to disseminate
“If filtered BOD was permissible then a one-day DEWATS must distinguish between low-in-
anaerobic pond plus a 4-day facultative pond could come areas, middle class housing colonies
reduce the BOD from 300 to 30 mg/l filtered, but to and high income “enclaves”. A pragmatic
28
3 DISSEMINATION
29
3 DISSEMINATION
3.6.3.3 Industrial Estates units on the other hand are bound to cheat
on pollution control whenever possible due
Industrial estates are a conglomeration of
to financial constrains.
enterprises that produce wastewater of
varying volume and strength. A common Small-scale industries that have substantial
treatment plant for the whole estate may wastewater production need land for final
be the best solution. However, it may be treatment systems, such as ponds or con-
difficult to convince all the entrepreneurs structed wetlands which depend on natural
to pay towards a co-operative treatment oxygen supply via surface area. The required
system, particularly if only few members land ought to be provided to the individual
discharge substantial amounts of waste- enterprise or to the estate as a whole at a
water. lower rate. New industrial estates are sel-
dom connected to sewer lines immediately.
A co-operative treatment plant Thus, provision of land for such post-treat-
may be the right solution, but ment systems would need to be made right
people forced to co-operate may at the planning stages. If the pollution con-
not think so trol officer could agree to apply the legal
discharge standard at the outlet of the total
estate, instead at the boundary of the indi-
In a decision that favours individual treat- vidual enterprise, existing estates could use
ment systems, the application of general open drains as natural oxidation ditches for
discharge standards may turn out to be post treatment.
unjust to certain enterprises, or may even
discourage certain industries from settling
in the estate. In a scenario where the waste-
water output by the majority of the enter- 3.7 Dissemination Strategy
prises is low and only a few industries would It would be overbearing, or at least prema-
merit environmental control, strict discharge ture to pretend to know the dissemination
standards enforcement for only those few strategy for DEWATS without having in mind
may not lead to an acceptable wastewater a particular situation. Dissemination strate-
quality at the exit of the estate, since the gies for decentralised technologies must be
large number of small polluters may have based on local facts and actors, explicitly,
greater impact than one or two severe pol- however under consideration of general fac-
luters. A more moderate application of the tors, such as:
law could be more productive because of
its inherent feasibility. However, it is the ❏ the requirements of the technology itself
decision of the administration to allow such (first of all!)
exceptions. If discharge standards are strictly ❏ the legal framework, and
enforced, larger cash rich enterprises may
❏ the conditions for funding of the neces-
opt for conventional (non-DEWATS) solu-
sary infrastructure, including a likely su-
tions, which are quite likely to succeed if
control and operational management will perstructure.
be maintained. Fund starved, small-scale
30
3 DISSEMINATION
3.7.1.5 Operation
3.7.1.2 Regulation
Treatment plants that work without a mini-
Regulation of discharge standards play an mum of maintenance and supervision are
important role to create the need for treat- non-existent. It seems difficult to keep the
ment and to choose the appropriate tech- knowledge about maintenance for sure with
nology for it. Regulations should be flexible the polluter until maintenance becomes
enough to allow appropriate alternatives with- necessary for the first time. User training
out putting at risk the environmental needs. and professional maintenance would have
to be guaranteed for some years at least,
through a contract between the customer
3.7.1.3 Financing and the supplier.
Wastewater treatment is a cost factor and
represents a substantial investment to
3.7.1.6 Control
most polluters. While financial incentives
may accelerate the introduction of new Control is the flip side of regulation. If an
technology, their prescription as a gen- improved control system cannot be part of
eral instrument for implementation is ill the dissemination strategy for financial or
advised. Nevertheless, access to soft bank other reasons, then control must insist on
loans is essential, particularly to small- the implementation of reliable technology
scale enterprises. options, such as DEWATS.
31
3 DISSEMINATION
32
3 DISSEMINATION
33
3 DISSEMINATION
for those cases that are most common in a tise. The engineer or contractor is likely to
given situation. Any dissemination strategy, waste a lot of time in visiting such places
which relies on relatively low professional and in finding technical solutions in order
standards for implementation, should best to build up the reputation of his enterprise
follow a sector-wise approach. For exam- or simply for want of other customers.
ple, there could be standardised treatment
systems for housing colonies of one city,
for rural hospitals in a hilly area or for ho- A wastewater treatment plant is
tels and holiday resorts at a scenic lake. NOT just another pair of shoes
Latex sheet processing plants at small rub-
ber farms could as well be standardised, so
could plants for wastewater from rice mills 3.7.3.3 Marketing
or canning factories.
Ultimately technology finds its justification
Tab. 2. in the “market“. If DEWATS cannot find a
Average data of domestic wastewater at various market it will be out of business. So, be-
places yond doubt DEWATS must marketed. How-
Some selected domestic wastewater data ever, the marketing concept
COD BOD COD / SS Flow
of DEWATS has to be based
examples 5 BOD 5
on the specifics of the tech-
g/cap.*d g/cap.*d g/cap*d l/cap*d
India urban 76 40 1,90 230 180 nology; it is not comparable
USA urban 180 80 2,25 90 265 for instance with the market-
China pub.toilet
Germany urban
760
100
330
60
2,30
1,67
60
75
230
200
ing of a brand of ready-made
France rural 78 33 2,36 28 150 consumer goods.
France urban 90 55 1,64 60 250
BORDA For marketing sports shoes
such as “Nike” or “Adidas” for
Before the propagation of standard designs instance, one needs the product and a lot
for a whole sector, it is essential to build of ballyhoo to make the name known to
and operate some plants in order to obtain the target group. The brand name carries
reliable data for the calculation of dimen- an image that fetches prices far beyond the
sions and to gain overall experience. The total cost. The shoes are easily transport-
question of who will finance and execute able to any spot on planet earth and when
those trials necessitates the installation of the shoes are sold, the business is over.
a superstructure for planning and other su- It may not be that easy with other prod-
pervisory purposes. ucts. When “ Toyota” conquered the Euro-
However, the pure sector-wise approach is pean market, or “Volkswagen” entered the
likely to fail under the sheer weight of de- US-market for selling their cars, the first
mand on an expertise, which is still rare. thing they did was to set up a network of
Potential customers, who have other than service stations. They knew that no one
the standard problem, are likely to approach would buy a car without having access to
anyone constructing such standardised professional service facilities. Only after the
plants regardless of sector specific exper- service network was installed, was the proc-
34
3 DISSEMINATION
Tab. 3.
Average data of industrial wastewater
ess of selling started. The customers know DEWATS is not likely to have the back-
that if service was neglected the result could ing of a financially strong company be-
be unreliable performance and/or low re- hind the product that could invest in pre-
sale value. As with sport shoes the price of paring the market prior to the release of
cars depends not only on the cost of pro- the product. The marketing strategy for
duction and on expectations of economic DEWATS will have to depend first of all
benefit but ultimately it is the image that on the immediate availability of the prod-
the car lends to its owner that counts. uct. To sell DEWATS one needs engineers
DEWATS are neither shoes nor cars. DEWATS and contractors being present at remote
are different. It does not belong to these sites which may be several hours away
categories. DEWATS are costly, space con- from their office. Howsoever, advertis-
suming, demand attendance and may even ing, which introduces the product to the
be stinking structures, which cannot be pro- public could start well before the prod-
duced under controlled factory conditions. uct is available. The subject of such an
Their design is often to be adapted locally advertising campaign remains a ques-
and constructed on-site by craftsmen of tion, when nothing is truly ready to be
uncertain qualification. The customer does sold and the price of the product is not
known, yet.
not love the plant, as he would love his
car or even his shoes (only wastewater en- Marketing experts know that any mar-
gineers love wastewater plants). All the cus- keting strategy has to start from the tech-
tomer wants is a service, but he wants not nical and economic potential of the com-
to be bothered with the inner workings of pany that is selling; and that a market-
the plant. Understandably the marketing of ing strategy is reaching its target when
DEWATS will have to be different. customers actually put money on the
35
3 DISSEMINATION
desk for buying the product. Successful A product that is not available to be shown
marketing strategies are premised on buy- to customers is by no means easy to sell.
ing power and supply capacity, which have By this logic, the existence of well-function-
to be known in the local context. The best ing wastewater treatment demonstration
salesmen usually cannot sell a product that plants are a vital pre-condition for success-
is not available, to a customer that does ful marketing.
not have the money to buy it.
36
4 ECONOMICS
4.1 Economy of WastewaterTreatment This to the polluter means that water must
Wastewater, as the name suggests is a be treated at any cost, or not discharged at
waste, which is left over after using water all. And this is the starting point for eco-
nomic considerations.
for a specific purpose. Treating wastewater
to get back its original quality is an addi-
tional process, which has its price. If waste- The first economic question is
"Why", only the second question is
water treatment would be profitable in it- "How much"
self, the perpetuum mobile would have
been invented. Instead, wastewater treat-
In the first instance, the economy of waste-
ment is by scientific principle a cost fac-
water treatment demands the reduction of
tor.
unavoidable expense. Economising meas-
The cost of treatment depends on the de- ures primarily recognise the prevailing eco-
gree and the kind of water pollution as well nomic environment and adapt the treatment
as the degree of purification to be achieved. system accordingly; or if possible, create
Treatment costs can be reduced by reduc- an economic environment that suits and
ing the pollution, by choosing an appropri- supports the preferred treatment system.
ate degree of treatment, and in some cases
Treatment cost for a given wastewater are
by reusing water and sludge and/or by uti-
influenced by:
lising the biogas. The recovery of other valu-
able raw material for reuse within the in- ❏ the legal discharge standard,
dustrial production process does rarely take ❏ the chosen treatment system, and
place in the case of DEWATS.
❏ the degree of reusing water, sludge and
The objective need (and legal demand) for energy (biogas)
wastewater treatment today is a result of
The treatment system to be chosen and
environmental pollution that has taken place
whether the reuse of by-products is advis-
in the past. The extent to which wastewater
able will depend on local prices for build-
treatment can be justified in economic terms
ing materials and service manpower. The
will depend on the parameters that are in-
question of reasonable discharge standards
cluded in the economic calculation. One
has been dealt with in chapter 3, already. It
rather unfamiliar parameter is the valuation
is not discussed here.
of environmental protection. How should
environmental protection be valued remains
a question, however, the issue of whether
water should at all be treated is passé. Fact 4.2 Treatment Alternatives
is that there are laws and by-laws, which The question at a policy or development
demand a certain effluent quality of any planning level relates to the extent to which
wastewater discharged into the environment. water should be treated and its discharge
37
4 ECONOMICS
0,50
0,20
size or to the number of plants. 0,10
Sasse, Otterpohl
These are: Fig. 4.
Cost of treatment per m3 daily flow. Larger plants
❏ Controlled discharge without treatment require a more sophisticated technology which may
(ground percolation, surface water dilution). increase treatment costs.
38
4 ECONOMICS
Once the decentralised option has been be very expensive for instance, to keep a
chosen, it is the individual polluter who qualified engineer at a remote location for
should decide on the treatment system he operating a conventional, albeit small treat-
thinks is most suitable to his circumstance. ment plant.
However, realistic alternatives based on true
Field experiences indicate that there are fac-
economic considerations are rare. The Dan-
tors other than economic, which induce the
ish Academy of Technical Sciences writes in
polluter to opt for a treatment plant. In most
its evaluating report 1984:
cases the pressure to comply with discharge
“...It has been shown that, under certain local cir- standards that meet the law compel pollut-
cumstances, large variations in economy are to be ers into the decision. However, there could
expected, but the general conclusion (...) is that the be other reasons as well. For example, an
economy of the various treatment processes does entrepreneur would like a treatment plant
not differ that much. In many cases the costs are to present a “clean” factory to his foreign
approximately the same. This increases the impor-
partners, a housing complex that has no
tance of those factors which cannot be included in
an economic survey. Some of these factors are lim-
future unless wastewater is reused for irri-
iting factors in the sense that they limit the “free” gation, or a doctor in charge of a teaching
selection between the various methods. If large ar- hospital who wants to treat the hospital
eas of land are not available, then oxidation ponds wastewater to safeguard his reputation. In
must be disregarded even if it is the most economi- all these cases the immediate motivation
cally favourable solution. If electricity supply is un- to go in for wastewater treatment is other
reliable, then activated sludge systems cannot be than economic (notwithstanding the fact that
considered. (...) It can be argued that the factors some economists consider „everything“ an
mentioned above are of purely economical nature, economic question).
e.g. a reliable electricity supply is merely (!) a mat-
ter of economy. However, the costs involved in After deciding in favour of a treatment plant,
changing these factors to non-limiting factors are the polluter would want to compare differ-
so high that there is no point in including such con- ent systems of the same size under similar
siderations here.” conditions. He would want to consider the
(The Danish Academy of Technical Sciences: “Indus- space he has to spare for the treatment
trial Wastewater Treatment in Developing Countries”, system, the level of maintenance he is will-
1984)
ing to shoulder, and ultimately if he should
The above citation supports the view that rather re-organise his water consumption in
comparison of several alternatives is not order to reduce the pollution load or quan-
possible on a general level, and in most tity of discharge. The geography of the neigh-
cases true alternatives for the customer bourhood and the prevailing wastewater
do not exist. There are many cases, where discharge standards and regulations would
a DEWATS concept is the only solution that determine the range of alternatives avail-
promises some degree of continuous treat- able to an individual polluter. Similarly the
ment. Most often, it is not worth compar- prevailing socio-political framework is also
ing DEWATS with non-DEWATS solutions if likely to have a strong bearing on the deci-
obviously the cost and management effort sion of the polluter, e.g., are the fees or
of keeping a conventional system perma- penalties imposed based on pollution loads,
nently in operation is formidable. It could or are they independent from it.
39
4 ECONOMICS
Finally, the ultimate destination of the ef- water treatment. On the other hand, the
fluent will also influence the choice of treat- annual cost method, which includes depre-
ment system. For instance, the necessity of ciation on capital investment and opera-
nitrogen or phosphorous removal may be tional costs, appears to be more apt as an
greater when the receiving water is an iso- economic indicator. With this method it is
lated lake of particular ecological impor- easy for the polluter to include expenses
tance, in which case other treatment op- such as discharge fees, or income from re-
tions with other influencing factors may use of by-products on an annual base, to
become valid. get a comprehensive picture of the eco-
nomic implications.
First think of ponds, then of tanks, The annual cost method could also be used
at last of filters for estimating social costs and benefits. The
economic impact of treatment on the envi-
The following chapter describes the param- ronment and on public health is related
eters that influence economic calculation. primarily to the context in which a treat-
Those parameters help in deciding on the ment plant operates. For example, if prop-
most suitable system for standardisation for erly treated wastewater is discharged into a
a particular group of polluters in a defined river that is already highly polluted the yield
local situation. For relatively small plants, from fishing will surely not improve. On the
however, it is not very likely that the sup- contrary, if all the inflows into the receiving
plier would offer comparative economic cal- water were to be treated to the extent that
culations for different treatment systems to the self-purifying effect of the river would
a potential customer. If such were to be the allow the fish to grow, this would have con-
case, the cost of planning would be un- siderable economic impact. This economic
affordable, as several plants would have to impact of a cleaner river is crucially de-
be designed on the table purely for the pendent on the total number of treatment
purpose of economic comparison. More prac- plants installed along the river, and not only
tically, the potential supplier is more likely on the efficiency of one single plant.
to discuss various alternatives with the po- A spreadsheet for computerised calculations
tential customer (without going into detailed is presented in chapter 13.2.
economic calculations) based on which the
customer would then choose the most ap-
propriate and convenient solution. 4.3.2 Investment cost
4.3 Parameters for Economic Calculation 4.3.2.1 Cost of land
For economic calculation the value of land
4.3.1 Methods of Comparison
remains the same over years and thus, land
Wastewater treatment as a rule does not has unlimited lifetime. However, the price
produce profit. Resultantly methods of eco- of land is never stable. It usually goes up in
nomic analysis such as cost-benefit or break times of growth and may go down in times
even point, to which profit calculations are of political turbulence. In reality, the actual
important, do not fit the economy of waste- availability of land is far more important
40
4 ECONOMICS
than the price; new land will rarely be bought can be estimated. For dissemination pro-
only for the purpose of a treatment plant. grammes, it may be assumed that planning
The density of population usually determines will be carried out by a local engineering
the price of land. Land is likely to cost more team of sound experience to whom the
in areas with a high population density and design and implementation of DEWATS is a
vice versa. The choice of treatment system routine matter. However, this might not be
is severely influenced by these facts. so in reality. At the contrary, of all costs,
engineering costs are likely to be the most
In reality, the cost of land may or may not
exorbitant and to remain so until such time
be essential to the comparison between
as the level of local engineering capacity
different treatment systems. Wide differences
improves. An estimation of planning work-
in the cost of land notwithstanding, it may
days for senior and junior staff forms the
contribute in the range of 80% of the total
basis of calculation to which 100% may be
cost of construction. It follows that at least
added towards acquisition and general of-
in theory, the choice of sand filters and of
fice overheads. Transport of personnel for
ponds will be more affected by the price of
building supervision and sample taking -
land than compact anaerobic digesters. In
and laboratory cost for initial testing of
any case, it is most likely that where land
unknown wastewater’s must also be in-
prices are high compact tanks - not ponds
cluded.
and filters - will be the natural choice. Alaerts
et al. assume that ponds are the cheapest
alternative when the cost of land is in the
range of less than 15 US$/m2 in case of 4.3.3 Running Costs
post treatment and 3 - 8 US$/m2 in case of
Running expenses include the cost of per-
full treatment. Such figures nonetheless have
sonnel for operation, maintenance and man-
always to be checked locally.
agement, including monitoring. Cost may
be based on the time taken by qualified
4.3.2.2 Construction cost staff (inclusive of staff trained on the job)
to attend to the plant. The time for plant
Annual costs are influenced by the lifetime operation is normally assessed on a weekly
of the hardware. It may be assumed that basis. In reality, the time estimated for in-
building and ground structures have a life- spection and attendance would hardly call
time of 20 years; while filter media, some for additional payment to those staff who
pipelines, manhole covers, etc. are only are permanently employed. The case would
likely to last for 10 years. Other equipment be different for service personal that is spe-
such as valves, gas pipes, etc., may stay cially hired. Facilities that are shared, as in
durable for 6 years. Practically it suffices to the case of 5 to 10 households joining their
relate any structural element to any one of sewers to one DEWATS, are likely to be
these three categories. 10% cheaper than individual plants. How-
It is assumed that full planning costs will ever, operational reliability of such a facil-
reoccur at the end of the lifetime of the ity cannot be guaranteed if someone is not
main structure, i.e. in about 20 years. In specially assigned to the task of mainte-
any individual case, the costs of planning nance.
41
4 ECONOMICS
Cost for regular attendance could be higher solved in water; the portion increases with
for open systems such as ponds or con- decreasing wastewater strength. Biogas con-
structed wetlands due to the occasional tains 60% to 70% methane. 1 m3 methane
damage or disturbance by animals, stormy is equivalent to approximately 0,85 litre of
weather or falling leaves. The cost of regu- kerosene.
lar de-sludging will be higher for tanks with The moot question is really not if the use
high pollution loads, than for ponds which of biogas will improve the profitability of
receive only pre-treated wastewater. The cost the wastewater treatment plant but whether
of cleaning the filter material is not consid- the additional investment to facilitate the
ered to be running cost as these costs are use of biogas is economically justified. If
taken care off by the reduced lifetime of biogas were to be used, the storage of the
the particular structure. So also the cost of gas would demand additional volume and
energy and chemicals that are added per- a gas-tight structure. The gas would then
manently are not included, as such costs need to be transported to the place of con-
are not typical of DEWATS. sumption, requiring pipes and valves. The
proper utilisation of the gas and mainte-
nance of the gas supply system will entail
4.3.4 Income from Wastewater Treat- additional management and thereby addi-
ment tional costs. The additional investment to
The calculation of income from by-products facilitate the use of biogas is likely to addup
or activities related to wastewater treatment to 5% of the cost of long lasting structures
calls for careful selection of the right eco-
nomic parameters. Biogas could be assumed Profit on additional investment to facilitate use of
biogas in relation to wastewater strength
to have economic value as it is seen to 30
20
may be only an additional source of energy 15
42
4 ECONOMICS
Furthermore the cost of operational attend- posits, etc.) the cost of this capital is indi-
ance is likely to be 50% more if the biogas rect. The risk of the investment is another
was to be used. If agriculture and fish-farm- factor that may have to be taken into ac-
ing were to be attached to the wastewater count and that can make the calculation of
treatment plant the economic implications the cost of capital extremely complex.
are much more complex and therefore much In case of wastewater treatment plants since
more difficult to assess a priori. The size other profits are in any case not expected,
and organisation of the farm together with the investment risk is limited to the techni-
the marketing of the crops would be impor- cal risk of the reliability of performance.
tant parameters to consider. However, if profits from wastewater related
agriculture is expected, the investment risk
could become expensive. Capital costs are
4.3.5 Capital Costs to a certain extent speculative by nature.
If the investment capital were to be bor- Nevertheless, the fact that capital costs
rowed from the bank on interest, such in- money remains.
vestment would attract direct capital costs. For strategic calculations one may consider
On the contrary, when one’s own money is annual capital costs of 8% to 15 % of the
invested which if used otherwise could be investment; exclusive of inflation as infla-
profitable (purchase of raw material for pro- tion affects both the creditor and the debtor
duction, investment in shares or bank de- in equal measure.
43
5 PROCESS OF
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
44
5 TREATMENT PROCESS
45
5 TREATMENT PROCESS
46
5 TREATMENT PROCESS
Substrates for which enzymes are immedi- composed aerobically before anaerobic bac-
ately available are „easily degradable“. teria can reach the inner parts of the plant
Whereas, those substrates for which en- material (lignin cannot be digested anaero-
zymes have first to be produced by bacte- bically because of its “closed” molecular
rial action are „difficult“ degradable. In an structure).
environment, which hosts substances that
In case of nitrogen removal, longer reten-
are both easy and difficult to degrade, the
tion times alone do not solve the problem
bacterial population, which is responsible
because the nitrifying phase needs an aero-
for easy degradation tends to predominate
bic environment, while denitrification re-
over the others.
quires an anoxic environment. Anoxic means
To protect the “weaker” (slower) bacteria, it that nitrate (NO3) oxygen is available, but
may be advisable to artificially separate dif- free oxygen is not. Anaerobic means that
ferent bacterial populations in phases by neither free oxygen nor nitrate-oxygen is
providing each with its own favourable en- available. Nevertheless, the aerobic phase
vironment. Characteristics of wastewater can only lead to nitrification if the retention
must be known and the desired treatment time is long enough for the “slow” nitrify-
results must be decided, before the dimen- ing bacterium to act, as compared to the
sions of the vessels for the different phases “quick” carbon oxidizers.
can be selected.
47
5 TREATMENT PROCESS
48
5 TREATMENT PROCESS
mentation plays an important role in hygi- ing layers of scum are easily formed. Accu-
enic safety of domestic or husbandry mulating scum could be removed manu-
wastewater. ally, or could be left purposely to “seal” the
surface of anaerobic ponds to prevent bad
odour.
5.5.3 Floatation Floatation and sedimentation, can be sup-
Floatation is the predominant method to ported by using slanting multi-laminated
remove fat, grease and oil. In advanced sheets or several layers of slanting pipes
conventional wastewater treatment it is also that intensify the separation of solids from
used to remove small particles with the help liquids because the surface of floatation or
of fine air bubbles blown in from the bot- sedimentation is artificially multiplied.
tom.
5.5.4 Filtration
Filtration becomes necessary when sus-
pended solid particles are to be removed
that cannot be forced to settle or to float
within a reasonable time, or that cannot be
filtered by “self-flocculation”.
Most filters have a double function: They
provide a fixed surface for treatment bacte-
ria and they form a physical obstacle for
smaller solid particles. Physical filters re-
tain solids which accumulate, unless they
are removed from time to time. Rather
coarse filters, where physical filtration hap-
Fig. 9. pens with the help of the bacteria film in
Partition wall retaining scum. Inlet is at the right the first place, can be cleaned by flushing.
side, water flows below the partition wall into the
compartment at the left side. [photo: Sasse]
Bacteria and suspended solids are flushed
away simultaneously as for example is typi-
cally done in trickling filters. Upstream fil-
Most fatty matter can be checked by sim- ters may be back-flushed. Sand and finer
ple observation tests, similar to settleable gravel filters after some years, must be
solids. If fats which are detected by labora- cleaned by replacing the filter media. The
tory analysis are not separated by floata- filter media is reusable after washing.
tion they present themselves as colloids
Needless to say that filtration is more ef-
which can only be removed after pre-treat-
fective with smaller grain size. Unfortunately
ment (after acidification, e.g.).
it is also true that effective filtration re-
Unwanted floatation happens in septic tanks quires the retention of many solids and
and other anaerobic systems where float- therefore, clogs faster. The permeability and
49
5 TREATMENT PROCESS
50
5 TREATMENT PROCESS
bacter grow slowly, a higher sludge age ride, aluminium sulphate or lime fix phos-
caused by longer retention times is needed phates, a fact that can be utilised by se-
for oxidation of nitrogen (= nitrification) lecting suitable soils in ground filters. How-
than is required for oxidation of carbon (see ever, removal of phosphorus in root zone
chapter 7.6). filters has not proved to be as efficient and
sustainable as expected and propagated by
Shorter retention times are required to cause
the pioneers of these systems.
denitrification under anoxic conditions (ab-
sence of free oxygen) because there are
not only a few but several groups of bacte- 5.8 Elimination of Toxic Substances
ria able to denitrify, that is to utilise nitrate
oxygen. Remaining or additional organic Most heavy metals are toxic or cancerogenic
matter is required for denitrification. and therefore, should not remain in the
wastewater because they harm aquatic life
Incomplete denitrification may lead to for- of the receiving water, or could enter the
mation of the poisonous nitrite (NO2), in- human nutritious cycle when wastewater or
stead of nitrate (NO3). This happens be- sludge is used in agriculture. Since heavy
cause the time left for the bacteria to con- metals settle easy, their removal is not dif-
sume all the oxygen is not enough or be- ficult. Nonetheless, sludge must be dumped
cause there is not enough organic material safely, at guarded sites.
left to absorb the NO3-oxygen. Some none-
DEWATS treatment processes recycle nutri- Other toxic substances may be soluble and
tious sludge to prevent such nutrient defi- thus difficult to remove. There are numer-
ciency. A certain amount of nitrate in the ous methods to eliminate or transform tox-
effluent could also be a source of oxygen ins into non-toxic matters, which cannot be
for the receiving water. described here. More specialised literature
may be consulted.
In case of DEWATS, nitrate removal normally
does not receive special attention, in that
additional technical measures are not taken. Tab. 5.
Rating of noxious substances according to German
law. Mercury is the most dangerous matter of this list.
51
5 TREATMENT PROCESS
A too high salt content inhibits biological from shallow ponds with long retention
treatment in any case. Less dangerous times, e.g. 3 ponds in a row with HRT of 8
amounts of salt are not necessarily harm- - 10 days each. Constructed wetlands with
less as a result of the fact that they cannot their multifunctional bacterial life in the root
be easily removed. For example, in case of zones can also be very effective. However,
saline water used for domestic or industrial it is the handling after treatment, which
purposes, the water remains saline even ensures hygienic standards (see also chap-
after treatment. It therefore cannot be used ter 11.).
for irrigation. It is also not allowed to enter Using chlorination to kill pathogens in
the ground water table or receiving rivers wastewater is only advisable for hospitals
that carry too little water. Costly ion-exchang- in case of epidemics and other such spe-
ers may have to be used to break-up the cial circumstances. It may also be used for
stable mineralised molecules of salts. instance, in the case of a slaughterhouse
treatment plant that is only a short dis-
5.9 Removal of Pathogens tance away from a domestic water source.
Wastewater even after treatment must be Permanent chlorination is never advisable.
considered as being hygienically unsafe. It has an adverse impact on the environ-
Underground filtration and large pond sys- ment: Water is made unsuitable for aquatic
tems are relatively efficient in pathogen re- life as chlorine itself has a high chemical
moval but not necessarily to an extent that oxygen demand (COD).
wastewater can be called safe for bathing -
Bleaching powder (chlorinated lime) contain-
let alone drinking. However, reuse for irri-
ing approximately 25% Cl is most commonly
gation is possible under certain conditions.
used as source of chlorine. Granular HTH (high
Pathogens are divided into helminth eggs, test hyperchlorite) containing 60 to 70% Cl
protozoal cysts, bacteria and viruses. is available on the market under different
Helminth eggs and protozoa accumulate in brand names. Since chlorination should not
sediment sludge and are largely retained be a permanent practice, a chamber for
inside the treatment system, where they batch supply, followed by a contact tank
stay alive for several weeks. Most bacteria of 0,5 - 1 h HRT will be sufficient (Fig. 11.).
(and virus) caught in the sludge die after
shorter periods. Those bacteria, which are
Tab. 6..
not caught in the sludge, that remain sus- Comparing the use of chlorine for different require-
pended in the liquid portion are hardly af- ments at various places
fected. This is especially true of high rate
reactors, like filters or activated sludge Chlorination practice
tanks. This means that such bacteria type of infection, type dose of contact total rest
country
and viruses exit the plant fully alive. of wastewater chlorine time chloride
Although the risk of virus infection g/m³ h mg/l
intestinal pathogens China > 1,0 5
from wastewater has proved to be low. tubercular pathogens China > 1,5 7
raw wastewater Germany 10 - 30 0,25 traces
Exposure to UV rays has a substantial post treatment India 3
hygienic effect. The highest rate of post treatment Germany 2 0,25 traces
pathogen removal can be expected odour control Germany 4 0,25 traces
Garg, Imhoff, HRIEE
52
5 TREATMENT PROCESS
Fig. 11.
Post treatment chlorination in batch chamber for small
scale application. The bucket is filled with bleaching
powder which is washed out automatically. This plant
is acceptable for emergency disinfection of effluent
from rural hospitals only, because controlled dosing
is not possible.
53
6 ECOLOGY AND
SELF PURIFICATION EFFECT
The understanding of the self-purification face and oxygen solubility drops with in-
ability of the natural environment helps to creasing temperature. Rain and wind, in-
design DEWATS intelligently. That implies crease the oxygen intake capacity. Conse-
that, on the one hand, only harmless quently, acceptable pollution loads or
wastewater is discharged, and on the other wastewater volumes must be dimensioned
hand that nature may be incorporated into according to the season with the least fa-
the design for completion of the treatment vourable conditions (e.g. winter or summer
process. in temperate zones, dry season in the trop-
ics). It is difficult to reanimate water once
Ability of surface waters to recover oxygen after the self-purification effect has stopped as
pollution
thereafter, it enters the anaerobic stage.
0,5
recovery factor kR
0,4
Oxygen intake via surface contact
0,3 1,6
0,2 1,5
1,4
0,1
1,3
0 1,2
factor
54
6 ECOLOGY
is why sludge at the bottom of dried lakes, consuming toxic substance for which rea-
canals or rivers is better brought to the fields son nitrogen should be kept away from liv-
before it is washed away into the receiving ing waters; notwithstanding that nitrate may
water by the first heavy rains and its rich also function as an oxygen donor in cer-
nutrient value is lost. However, the content tain instances.
of toxic matter in sludge should be ob-
The next most important polluting nutrient
served.
is phosphorus, which is present mostly in
The most important source of oxygen for the form of hydrogen phosphate (H2PO4).
natural water in an ecosystem is oxygen Since phosphorus is often the limiting fac-
from the air, which dissolves in water via tor for the utilisation of other nutrients, its
surface contact. Floating fat, grease or oil presence in surface waters is dangerous,
films restrict oxygen transmission from air as even in small doses it may lead to an
and in addition, need oxygen for their de- oversupply of nutrients. Nitrogen that is
composition. normally available in plenty needs 10% of
Nutrients descending from wastewater in- phosphorus to be of use to plants. That
crease algae growth. In a healthy ecosys- means phosphorus activates ten times as
tem, algae produce oxygen during the day much nitrogen and by that effect may be
and consume part of this oxygen at night. If considered the most polluting element to
the algae population were to become un- any receiving water. For the same reason is
duly dense, sunlight would not be able to wastewater rich in phosphate a good ferti-
penetrate the dark green water. In conse- liser when used for irrigation in agriculture.
quence, the algae would consume oxygen Phosphorus accumulates in closed ecosys-
during the day as well and the supply of tems, e.g. in lakes. Unlike nitrogen that is
free oxygen that is needed for aquatic life eliminated, phosphorus remains potentially
would decrease. active in the residue of dead plants, which
The degree of pollution and more particu- have consumed the element previously. For
larly the content of dissolved oxygen (DO), example, phosphate fixed by iron salts can
can be assumed from the variety of plant be set free under anaerobic conditions in
and animal species found in the water. The the bottom sludge, where it is available for
colour of the water of river and lakes is yet new plant growth. It is for this reason that
another indicator of the quality of the wa- continuous supply of phosphate into lakes
ter. Green or green-brownish water is in- is prohibited. While it may be less danger-
dicative of high nutrient supply due to al- ous for flowing waters, it must be realised
gae, a reddish-rosy colour indicates faculta- that the river ends somewhere at which
tive algae and is suspicious of a severe point phosphorus will accumulate.
lack of free oxygen; black is often indica- While chloride may be used for disinfecting
tive of complete anaerobic conditions of effluents from hospitals and slaughter-
suspended matter. houses, it must be remembered that chlo-
Nitrogen in the form of nitrate (NO3) is the ride does also disinfect the receiving wa-
main polluting nutrient. In the form of am- ters thereby reducing its self-purification
monia (NH 3) it is also a major oxygen ability.
55
6 ECOLOGY
It is self evident that toxic substances should ods when vegetation is low (e.g. winter
not enter any living water. Most toxic sub- in cold climate). Groundwater will there-
stances become harmless in the short term, fore always contain a certain amount of
particularly if they are sufficiently diluted. nitrate (mostly above 10 mg/l).
However, most toxic materials are taken in
Nitrate (NO3) in its self is rather harm-
by plants and living creatures, and in the
less. For example in the European Un-
long run accumulate in the aquatic life cy-
ion, drinking water may legally contain
cle. Fish from such waters become unsuit-
Nitrate up to 25 mg/l. However, it is la-
able for human consumption. Heavy met-
tently dangerous because it is capable
als also accumulate in the bottom sludge
of changing under certain biological or
of receiving waters where they remain as a
chemical circumstances to nitrite (NO2).
time-bomb for the future. This process can even happen inside the
human blood where nitrite is fixed at the
haemoglobin, as a result of which the
6.2 Groundwater capacity of the haemoglobin to “trans-
Groundwater was rainwater before. It is the port” oxygen is reduced, leading to suf-
most important source of water for domes- focation. Babies are especially at risk be-
tic use, irrigation and other purposes. The cause of a greater tendency to form ni-
supply of ground water is not infinite. To be trite. This is why the water that is used
sustainable, it must be recharged. Rather for the production of baby food must
than simply draining used water into rivers always contain less than 10 mg/l NO3.
that carry it to the sea, it would be better to
purify this water and use it to recharge the
groundwater. 6.3 Soil
Organic pollution of groundwater happens Soil pollution can be dangerous because
in cases where wastewater enters under- of washout effects that harm surface and
ground water streams directly. A crack-free, ground water alike. Soil itself can also
three meters thick soil layer above ground- be rendered useless for agriculture due
water is sufficient to prevent organic pollu- to pollution. For example, the pH may
tion. Pollution by mineralised matters is far drop as a result of incomplete anaerobic
more frequent, as salts like nitrate and phos- digestion of organic matter. This happens
phate being soluble in water cannot be elimi- particularly with clay or loamy soils when
nated by physical filtration when passing oxygen supply is insufficient due to the
soil or sand layers. Some pathogens may physical closure of the pores in the soil
also reach the groundwater despite soil fil- by suspended solids from wastewater ir-
tration. Viruses can be dangerous due to rigation.
their infectious potential irrespective of their
Mineral salts in small doses are normally
absolute number.
not a problem for wastewater treatment.
Nitrate is easily soluble in water. Therefore, Nonetheless, using saline wastewater for
it is easily washed out from soil into ground- irrigation over a long period of time may
water, especially in sandy soil during peri- cause complete and irreversible salination
56
6 ECOLOGY
of the topsoil. Clay and loamy soil with slow prove soil conditions and is environmen-
downward percolation is most affected, tally safe as long as the application of nu-
because when water evaporates the salt trients is balanced with its in-take by
remains on top of the soil. plants. Application of treated wastewater
On the other hand, sandy soils may ben- throughout the year regardless of demand
efit from irrigation with wastewater even may have adverse effects. This happens
when the organic load is high, on the con- because the nutrients are washed out into
dition that oxygen can be supplied to water bodies at times when plant growth
deeper soil layers. Well treated wastewater is negligible, with the result that nutrients
which contains mineralised nitrogen, phos- are not available to the plants when
phorus and other trace elements may im- needed.
57
7 CONTROL PARAMETERS
Laboratory analysis is used to understand cal to measure or inquire into the water
the quantity and quality of the pollution consumption instead of trying to measure
load, the feasibility of treatment, the envi- the wastewater production. The flow of
ronmental impact and the potential of a wastewater is not directly equal to water
certain wastewater for biogas production. consumption since not all the water that is
Some properties can even be seen and un- consumed ends up in the drain (e.g. water
derstood by experienced observation. De- for gardening), and because wastewater
tailed analysing techniques may be found might be a mix of used water and storm
in books for laboratory work or comprehen- water. Stormwater should be segregated
sive handbooks on wastewater, like Metcalf from the treatment system as far as possi-
& Eddy’s “Wastewater Engineering”. ble especially if it is likely to carry sub-
stantial amounts of silt or rubbish. Rain-
As the quality of wastewater changes ac-
water drains should certainly never be con-
cording to the time of the day and from
nected to the treatment plant. However,
season to season, the analysis of data is
ponds and ground filters will be exposed
never absolute. It is far more important to
to rain. The volume of water in itself is
understand the significance of each param-
normally not a problem since hydraulic
eter and its “normal” range than to know
loading rates are not likely to be doubled
the exact figures. Ordinarily, an accuracy of
and in fact, a certain flushing effect could
±10% is more than sufficient.
even be advantageous. Soil clogging (silt-
ing) could become a problem, if stormwater
reaches the filter after having eroded the
7.1 Volume surrounding area.
The volume or the flow rate of a particular For high rate reactors, like anaerobic filters,
wastewater determines the required size of baffled septic tanks and UASB, the flow
the building structure, upon which the fea- rate per hour could be a crucial design pa-
sibility or suitability of the treatment tech- rameter. If exact flow data is not available,
nology is decided. Therefore, this is the first the hours per day which account for most
information a wastewater engineer needs of the flow, may be considered. This should
to know (see chapter 8.1). be read together with hydraulic retention
Surprisingly, the determination of flow is times in appreciation of the fluctuation in-
rather complicated and is often difficult to fluence.
execute, due to the fact that flow rates Collected volumes per time can be used to
change during the daytime or with seasons, measure flow rates. This may be the rise in
and that volumes have to be measured in level of a canal that is closed for a period
„full size“. It is not possible to take a sam- of time, or the number of buckets filled
ple which stand for the whole. In case of during a given period. A good indicator of
DEWATS, it is often easier and more practi- actual flow rate is also the time it takes
58
7 CONTROL PARAMETERS
during initial filling until the first tank of a able solids is the easiest method of waste-
treatment plant overflows. water analysis because solids are directly
visible in any transparent vessel. For the
In larger plants the flow rates are normally
first on-site information, any transparent
measured with control flumes (e.g. Parshall
vessel will do (e.g. water bottles - which
flume) where rise in level before a slotted
should be destroyed after use for hygienic
weir indicates the flow.
safety).
Non-settleable suspended solids consist of
7.2 Solids particles, which are too small to sink to the
bottom within a reasonable (technical) time.
Total Solids (TS) or dry matter (DM) include SS is detected by filtration of a sample.
all matter, which is not water. Organic total Suspended solids are an important param-
solids (OTS) or volatile solids (VS) are the eter because they cause turbidity in the
organic fraction of the total solids. TS is water and may cause physical clogging of
found by drying the sample, the inorganic pipes, filters, valves and pumps.
fraction is found by burning, where it re-
mains as ash. TS minus ash is OTS or VS. Colloids are very fine suspended solids
Solids may be measured in mg/l or in per- (< 0,1 ηm) which pass normal filtration pa-
centage of the total volume. per but are not fully dissolved in water (dis-
solved solids are single molecules that are
The parameter “suspended solids” (SS) de- spread-out among the water molecules). A
scribes how much of organic or inorganic high percentage of fatty colloids can be a
matter is not dissolved in water. Suspended real problem in fine sand filters.
solids include settleable solids and non-
settleable suspended solids. Settleable sol- In domestic wastewater, approximately, the
ids sink to the bottom within a short time. BOD derives to 1/3 (33%) from settleable
They can be measured with standardised solids, to 1/2 (50%) from dissolved solids,
procedure in an Imhoff-cone, in relation to while 1/6 (17%) of the BOD derives from
a defined settling time of 30 minutes, 1 hour, non-settleable SS (Tab. 12.).
2 hours or one day. Measurement of settle-
59
7 CONTROL PARAMETERS
effluent of slaughter houses or meat process- Wastewater that does not smell probably
ing plants for discharge into surface water. contains enough free oxygen to restrict
Mineral grease and mineral oils like petrol anaerobic digestion or the organic matter
or diesel although they may also be treated has long since been degraded. A foul smell
biologically should be kept away from the (“like rotten eggs”) comes from H2S (hy-
treatment system. Their elimination is not drogen sulphur) which is produced during
within the scope of DEWATS. anaerobic digestion, especially at a low pH.
Ergo, a foul smell means that free oxygen
is not available and that anaerobic diges-
7.4 Turbidity, Colour and Odour tion is still under way. Vice versa, when-
ever there is substantial anaerobic diges-
Most wastewaters are turbid because the tion there will always be a foul smell.
solids suspended in them break the light.
Therefore, highly turbid fluid indicates a high Other odours are related to fresh waste-
water from various sources. Experience is
percentage of suspended solids. Metcalf &
the best basis for conclusions: Dairy waste-
Eddy (pg 257) gives the relation between
water will smell like dairy wastewater, dis-
turbidity and suspended solids with the
tillery wastewater will smell like distillery
following equation
wastewater, etc., etc.. However, to „smell
SS [mg/l] = 2,35 × turbidity (NTU), or the performance“ of a treatment plant is
turbidity (NTU) = SS [mg/l] / 2,35 most important. A wastewater engineer
should be alert and „collect“ various odours
NTU is the standardised degree of turbidity. and its causes, to build up a repertoire of
This can be determined with the help of a experience for future occasions.
turbiditimeter or by standardised methods
by which the depth of sight of a black cross
on a white plate is measured. 7.5 COD and BOD
Turbidity may cause the algae in surface Of all parameters, the COD (Chemical Oxy-
waters not to produce oxygen during day- gen Demand) is the most general param-
time, as would otherwise be the case. eter to measure organic pollution. It de-
scribes how much oxygen is required to
The colour is not only indicative of the oxidise all organic and inorganic matter
source of wastewater but is also indicative found in water. The BOD (Biochemical Oxy-
of the state of degradation. Fresh domestic gen Demand) is always a fraction of the
wastewater is grey while aerobically de- COD. It describes what can be oxidised bio-
graded water tends to be yellow and water logically, this is with the help of bacteria. It
after anaerobic digestion becomes black- is equal to the organic fraction of the COD.
ish. Turbid, black water may be easily Under standardised laboratory conditions
settleable because suspended solids sink at 20°C it takes about 20 days to activate
to the bottom after digestion when given the total carbonaceous BOD (=BODultimate,
enough undisturbed time to form flocs. A BODtotal). In order to save time, the BOD
brownish colour is telling of incomplete analysis stops after 5 days. The result is
aerobic or facultative fermentation. named BOD5, which is simply called the
60
7 CONTROL PARAMETERS
BOD, in practice. The BOD5 is a certain frac- Real total oxygen demand
tion (approximately 50 to 70%) of the abso- COD
lute BOD. This fraction is different for each max. oxygen demand that can be captured by
defined chemical analysing method
wastewater. The ratio of BODtotal to BOD5 is
wider with difficult degradable wastewater, BODtotal = BODultimate
and thus, it is also wider with partly treated total biodegradable oxygen demand
wastewater.
BOD5
COD and BOD are the results of standard- biodegradable oxygen demand that
ised methods used in laboratory analysis. can be captured by defined biological
They do not fully reflect the bio-chemical analysing method within 5 days
truth, but are reliable indicators for practi-
cal use. Biological oxygen demand is a prac-
tical description of that portion which can
be digested easily, e.g. anaerobically. The COD and BOD5 are not in any case comparable to
COD/BODtotal vaguely indicates the relation each other.
of total oxidisable matter to organic matter, Fig. 14.
which is first degraded by the most com- Definition of oxygen demand. The BOD5 is a part of
mon bacteria. For example, if a substrate is the total BOD, the total BOD may be understood as
toxic to bacteria, the BOD is zero; the COD part of the COD and the COD is part of the absolute
nonetheless may be high as it would be real oxygen demand. The total BOD may be equal to
the COD; the COD may be equal to the real oxygen
the case with chlorinated water. In general, demand.
if the COD is much higher than the BOD (>3
times) one should check the wastewater for
toxic or non-biodegradable substances. In
practice, the quickest way to determine toxic
substances is to have a look into the shop- BOD related to time and rate constant k at 20°C
ping list of the institution which produces
300
the wastewater. What kind of detergent is
bought by a hospital may be more reveal- 250
61
7 CONTROL PARAMETERS
62
CONTROL PARAMETERS
For optimum bacteria growth the relation tion. 18° to 25°C is also good enough. In
BOD/N should be in the range of 15 to 30 in short, a digester temperature above 18°C is
untreated wastewater. acceptable in principal. The ambient tem-
perature in tropical and subtropical zones
Nitrogen is normally not controlled in efflu-
is almost ideal for anaerobic treatment and
ent of smaller plants. Discharge standards
as such is not problematic to DEWATS.
for effluent of larger plants allow Nkjel-N in
the range of 10 - 20 mg/l. Higher temperatures are also favourable for
aerobic bacteria growth, but are disadvan-
tageous for oxygen transfer (Fig. 13.). The
7.7 Phosphorus cooler the environment the more oxygen
can be dissolved in water and thereby, more
Phosphorus (P) is an important parameter oxygen will be absorbed from the air. This
in case of unknown wastewater, especially is the reason why ponds may become
in relation to the BOD, the nitrogen or the anaerobic in the height of summer.
sulphur. An approximate relation of BOD/P
= 100, or N/P = 5 is required for bacterial The pH indicates whether a liquid is acidic
growth. Bacterial activity will be less when or alkaline. The scientific definition of the
there is phosphorus deficiency and thus, pH is rather complicated and of no interest
removal of COD (BOD) will also be less. to practical engineering (it indicates the H-
ion concentration). Pure water has a pH of
On the other hand, very high phosphorus 7, which is considered to be neutral. An
content in the effluent leads to water pollu- effluent of neutral pH is indicative of opti-
tion caused by algae growth. However, phos- mum treatment system performance. Waste-
phorus removal in DEWATS is hardly worth water with a pH below 4 to 5 (acidic) and
influencing and is therefore the least im- above 9 (alkaline) is difficult to treat; mix-
portant parameter to the engineer. Discharge ing tanks may be required to buffer or bal-
standards for larger plants allow P in the ance the pH level. In case of a high pH,
range of 1 - 5 mg/l. ammonia-N dominates, whereas as ammo-
nium-N is prevalent in case of low pH.
63
7 CONTROL PARAMETERS
or the organic pollution load on the treat- rameter indicates the potential for aerobic
ment system is too high. Values of VFA in- treatment and is sometimes used in ad-
side the digester in the range of BODinflow vanced wastewater treatment. DO is more
values indicate a stable anaerobic process. common to judge surface water quality, be-
cause it is important to aquatic life. For fish
breading, 3 mg/l DO is the minimum re-
7.10 Dissolved Oxygen quired and it is only sufficient for “ground
Dissolved oxygen (DO) describes how much fishes”. For most others fishes, 4 to 5 mg/l
oxygen is freely available in water. This pa- at the minimum is required for survival.
64
7 CONTROL PARAMETERS
65
8 DIMENSIONING P ARAMETERS
8.1 Hydraulic Load litres of water applied per square meter of
land is equal to 0.15 m3/m2, which in turn is
The hydraulic load is the most common
equal to 0.15 m or 15 cm hydraulic load.
parameter for calculating reactor volumes.
It describes the volume of wastewater Hydraulic loading rates are also responsi-
to be applied per volume of reactor, or ble for the flow speed (velocity) inside the
per surface of filter in a given time. The reactor. This is of particular interest in case
most common dimensions for reactors are of up-flow reactors, like UASB or the baf-
m3/m3×d, which means 1 m3 of wastewater fled septic tank where the up-flow velocity
is applied per 1 m3 of reactor volume per of liquid must be lower than the settling
day. The reciprocal value denotes the hy- velocity of sludge particles. In such cases,
draulic retention time (HRT). For example, the daily flow must be divided by the hours
1 m3 wastewater on 3 m 3 of reactor volume of actual flow (peak hour flow rate). For
gives a hydraulic load of 0.33 m3/m3×d, which calculating the velocity in an up-flow reac-
is equal to a hydraulic retention time of 3 tor the wastewater flow per hour is divided
days (3 m3 volume / 1 m3 of water per day). by the surface area of the respective cham-
The hydraulic retention time (HRT) indicates ber (V = Q/A; velocity of flow equals flow
a volume by volume relation. It does not divided by area). This means that the up-
for example, distinguish between sludge and flow velocity increases when a given reac-
liquid. The hydraulic retention time in a sep- tor volume is split up into several cham-
tic tank does not say anything about the bers. This is because the flow rate per hour
fraction of the wastewater which stays longer remains the same while the surface area of
inside the tank, nor it does say anything the individual chamber is reduced to only a
about the time that the bottom sludge has fraction of the area of the total volume. The
for digestion. In case of vessels filled with necessity to keep velocity low leads to rela-
filter media, the actual hydraulic retention tively large digester volumes, especially in
time depends on the pore space of the large sized baffled septic tanks.
media. For example, certain gravel consists
of 60% stones and 40% of the space be-
tween the stones. A retention time of 24 8.2 Organic Load
hours per gross reactor volume is reduced
For strong wastewater, the organic loading
to only 40%, which gives a net HRT of only
rate and not the hydraulic loading rate be-
9.6 hours.
comes the determining parameter. Calcula-
For groundfilters and ponds, the hydraulic tion is done in grams or kilograms of BOD5
loading rates may be measured by m3/ha×d, (or COD) per m3 digester volume per day in
m3/m2×d or l/m2×d. These values may also case of tanks and deep anaerobic ponds.
be given in cm or m height of water cover For shallow aerobic ponds the organic load-
on a horizontal surface. For example, 150 ing is related to the surface with the dimen-
66
8 DIMENSIONING PARAMETERS
sions g/m2 or kg/ha BOD (or COD). The per- ganic loading rates may not destabilise the
mitted organic loading rate
5
depends on the process, it does reduce the overall efficiency
kind of reactor, the reactor temperature and of the treatment process.
the kind of wastewater. The organic load-
ing rate takes care of the time which the
various kinds of bacteria need for their spe-
8.3 Sludge Volume
cific metabolism (often expressed as rate
constant k). Organic loading influences a The volume of sludge is an important pa-
co-ordinated follow up of different treat- rameter for designing sedimentation tanks
ment steps. Easily degradeable substrate and digesters. This is because the accumu-
can be fed at higher loading rates, because lating sludge occupies tank volume that
all the bacteria involved multiply fast and must be added to the required reactor vol-
consume organic matter quickly. For diffi- ume. Biological sludge production is in di-
cult degradeable substrate, some of the bac- rect relation to the amount of BOD removed,
teria species need a longer time. which however, depends on the decompo-
Tab. 10.
Organic loading rates and removal efficiencies of various treatment systems
At too high loading rates it might be possi- sition process. Aerobic digestion produces
ble that the end products from one step of more sludge than anaerobic fermentation.
fermentation cannot be consumed by the In addition to the biological sludge, pri-
group of bacteria that follow. This might mary sludge consists partly of sludge that
lead to “poisoning” and collapse of the is already mineralised.
process. For instance, in anaerobic diges-
The standard wastewater literature describes
tion, the fatty acids produced in the first
sludge volumes from different treatment sys-
step have to be consumed by the group of
tems; some of which is not comparable to
bacteria that follow. Otherwise, the substrate
DEWATS. In conventional sewage treatment
turns sour and final methanisation cannot
works, the sludge is removed continuously
take place.
and often under water. This produces a very
At loading rates that are too low, little bac- liquid sludge with a low total solid content
terial sludge is produced, because the bac- that varies between 1 and 5 %. In DEWATS,
teria “eat each other” for want of feed (au- the sludge remains inside the tank for at
tolysis). Consequently, incoming wastewater least one year where it decomposes under
does not meet with sufficient bacteria for anaerobic conditions. It also compacts with
decomposition. Nonetheless, while low or- resting time, under its own weight.
67
8 DIMENSIONING PARAMETERS
Tab. 11.
Average distribution of solids of domestic wastewater in Germany
Literature reports vary widely on the vol- litres of sludge per gram BODremoved accu-
umes of sludge, which accumulate over time mulate in the primary treatment step of
in primary treatment tanks. Garg cites 30 l DEWATS which also includes a certain per-
per capita per year for septic tanks in India, centage of mineral settleable particles that
while Metcalf & Eddy quote 140 l per capita no longer appear in the secondary treat-
per year for Imhoff tanks in the USA which ment step. Furthermore, not all digested
is comparable to Chinese standard of 0.4 l organic matter accumulates as settleable
per capita per day. Reports suggest, sludge sludge in the secondary treatment part. A
volumes in the range of 360 to 500 litres value of 0.0075 litres is taken for oxidation
per capita per annum in settlers of conven- ponds because of additional sludge from
tional treatment systems. Imhoff claims algae.
1.8 litre per capita per day for fresh settled
sludge that after anaerobic digestion is re- Tab. 12.
Properties of primary sludge
duced to 0.3 litres per day or 110 litres per
annum. This volume is further reduced af- Properties of sludge from primary
ter dewatering to 0.1 litre per capita per day. sedimentation
specific specific
Inamori for an instance, has found 3.35 kg gravity of gravity of dry solids
of sludge solids accumulated per capita per solids sludge
year in a pre-fabricated septic tank in Ja- kg/l
1,4
kg/l
1,02
g/m³
150,6
pan. Assuming a total solids content of com- Metcalf & Eddy, pg. 773
pressed anaerobic bottom sludge of 11%,
this corresponds closely with the 30 litres The above figures are valid for „modern“ do-
reported by Garg which may be further re- mestic wastewater as described in Tab. 11.
duced with increased desludging intervals.
Sludge accumulation from other wastewater
To obtain an approximate figure in relation with different settling properties and differ-
to the BOD load of any wastewater, these ent relations between organic and mineral
30 litres of sludge per annum are related to matter content may be calculated in the
approximately 15 - 20 g BOD removed in same manner as explained above keeping
the septic tanks per day. This means 0.005 in mind however, their particular properties.
68
9 TECHNOLOGY
9 TECHNOLOGY
9.1 Grease Trap and Grit Chamber A conical trough allows slow flow at a large
surface for grease floatation and fast flow
In case there is a septic tank provided,
at the narrow bottom which allows only
DEWATS normally does not require grease
heavy and coarse grit to settle. The water
traps or grit chambers for domestic waste-
surface is protected from the turbulence of
water. Whenever possible it is better to
the inflow by a baffle; the outlet is near the
avoid them altogether, because grease and
bottom.
grit must be removed, at least weekly. How-
ever, for canteens or certain industrial waste-
waters it may be advisable to separate grit
and grease before the septic tank. 9.2 Septic Tank
The function of grease and grit chamber is The septic tank is the most common, small
comparable to that of the septic tank, namely scale and decentralised treatment plant,
light matter should float and heavy matter worldwide. It is compact, robust and in com-
should sink to the bottom. The difference is parison to the cost of its construction, ex-
that bio-degradable solids should have no tremely efficient. It is basically a sedimen-
time to settle. Therefore, retention times for tation tank in which settled sludge is stabi-
grit chambers are short - about 3 minutes lised by anaerobic digestion. Dissolved and
only - and for that reason are masonry struc- suspended matter leaves the tank more or
tures not appropriate in case of minor flows. less untreated.
Fig. 16.
Principle design of combined grease trap and grit chamber. Accumulating grease, oil and grit may be
removed daily, at least weekly. If this is not assured, an oversized septic tank is preferable to receive grit
and grease.
69
9 TECHNOLOGY
Two treatment principles, namely the me- In domestic wastewater, a heavy scum con-
chanical treatment by sedimentation and sisting of matters lighter than water such
the biological treatment by contact between as fat, grease, wood chips, hair or any float-
fresh wastewater and active sludge com- ing plastics normally forms near the inlet. A
pete with each other in the septic tank. larger portion of the floating scum consists
Optimal sedimentation takes place when the of sludge particles which are released from
flow is smooth and undisturbed. Biological the bottom and driven to the top by treat-
treatment is optimised by quick and inten- ment gases. New sludge from below lifts
sive contact between new inflow and old the older scum particles above the water
sludge, particularly when the flow is turbu- surface where they become lighter due to
lent. The way the new influent flows through drying. Therefore, scum accumulates and
the tank decides which treatment effect pre- must be removed regularly, at least every
dominates. third year. Scum does not harm the treat-
ment process as such, but it does occupy
With smooth and undisturbed flow, the
tank volume.
supernatant (the water remaining after
settleable solids have separated) leaves the A septic tank consists minimum of 2, some-
septic tank rather fresh and odourless, im- times 3 compartments. The compartment
plying that degradation has not started yet. walls extend 15 cm above liquid level. They
With turbulent flow, degradation of sus- may also be used as bearing walls for the
pended and dissolved solids starts more covering slab if some openings for internal
quickly because of intensive contact be- gas exchange are provided.
tween fresh and already active substrate. The first compartment occupies about half
However, since there is not enough „calm- the total volume because most of the sludge
ness“ for sedimentation, more suspended and scum accumulates here. The following
solids are discharged with the effluent due chamber(s) are provided to calm the turbu-
to the turbulence. The effluent stinks be- lent liquid. They are made of equal size
cause active solids that are not completely and in total, occupy the other half of the
fermented leave the tank. volume. All chambers are normally of the
same depth. The depth from outlet level to
Septic Tank
Longitudinal Section the bottom may be between 1.50 m and
inlet outlet 2.50 m. The first chamber is sometimes
made deeper.
scum
The size of the first chamber is calculated
liquid
to be at least twice the accumulating sludge
sludge volume. The sludge volume depends on the
portion of settleable solids of the influent
and on desludging intervals (Fig. 67.). Most
Fig. 17. countries provide a National Standard for
Flow principle of the septic tank. Most sludge and tank volume per domestic user.
scum it retained in the first chamber; the second
chamber contains only little sludge which allows the The SS removal rate drops drastically when
water to flow undisturbed by rising gas bubbles. accumulated sludge fills more than 2/3 of
70
9 TECHNOLOGY
the tank. This must be avoided; especially The inlet may dive down inside the tank,
in cases where the effluent is treated fur- below the assumed lowest level of the scum
ther in a sand or gravel filter. or may be above the water level when the
“Irregular emptying of septic tanks leads to irre-
inlet pipe is used to evacuate gas. The ven-
versible clogging of the infiltration bed; rather than tilation pipe for digester gases should end
renewing the bed, most owners by-pass it and di- outside buildings, at a minimum of 2 m
vert the tank’s effluent to surface drains.” above the ground.
(Alaerts, G.J., Veenstra, S., Bentvelsen, M., van Duijl,
L.A. at al.:” Feasibility of anaerobic Sewage Treat-
The connection between compartments is
ment in Sanitation Strategies in Developing Coun- done by simple wall openings that are situ-
tries” ) ated above the highest sludge level and
below the lowest level of the scum. This
For domestic sewage, the accumulating for domestic wastewater, would mean that
sludge volume should be calculated at 0.1 the top of the opening is 30 cm below
L/cap×d. When desludging intervals are outlet level and its bottom is at least half
longer than 2 years, the sludge volume may the water depth, above the floor. The open-
be taken to 0.08 L/cap×d as sludge gets ings should be equally distributed over the
compacted with time (see figure Fig. 67.). full width of the tank in order to minimise
Fig. 18.
The septic tank. Dimensions have
been calculated for 13 m3 of domes-
tic wastewater per day.
71
9 TECHNOLOGY
turbulence. A slot spanning the full width filters. In case of the latter, regular de-
of the tank would be best for reducing ve- sludging of septic tanks is mandatory. A
locity, which would otherwise cause turbu- septic tank may also be integrated into an
lence. anaerobic filter or it could be the first sec-
tion of a baffled reactor. Septic tanks are
Nothing gets lost; even treated
suitable as individual on-site pre-treatment
water must go somewhere. units for community sewer systems, because
the diameter of sewerage can be smaller
when settleable solids have been removed
The septic tank is a biogas plant, the biogas on-site.
of which is not used. However, gas accu-
mulates inside the tank above the liquid,
from where it should be able to escape into
the air. For this reason, an open fire should Starting Phase and Maintenance
be avoided when opening the septic tank
A septic tank may be used immediately. It
for cleaning.
does not require special arrangements be-
The outlet has a T-joint, the lower arm of fore usage. However, digestion of sludge
which dives 30 cm below water level. With starts after some days only. Regular
this design, foul gas trapped in the tank desludging after one to three years is re-
enters the sewage line from where it must quired. When removing the sludge, some
be ventilated safely. If ventilation cannot immature (still active) sludge should be left
be guaranteed, an elbow must to be used inside to enable continuous decomposition
at the outlet to prevent the gas from enter- of newly settling solids. This means, if the
ing the outlet pipe. sludge is removed by pumping, the pump
There should be manholes in the cover slab; head should be brought down to the very
one each above inlet and outlet and one at bottom. It is not necessary to remove all
each partition wall, preferably at the inlet the liquid. The sludge should be immedi-
of each compartment. The manholes should ately treated further in drying beds or com-
be placed in such a manner to make the post pits for pathogen control. The sur-
drawing of water samples from each com- rounding of the septic tank should be kept
partment possible. free of plants in order to prevent roots from
growing into the pipe lines and control
Septic tanks were originally designed for chambers.
domestic wastewater. They are also suit-
able for other wastewater of similar prop-
erties, particularly those that contain a sub-
stantial portion of settleable solids. Calculation of Dimensions
The treatment quality of a septic tank is in Approximately 80 to 100 l should be pro-
the range of 25% - 50% COD removal. This vided per domestic user. For exact calcula-
is a rough, primary treatment prior to sec- tion, or other than domestic wastewater the
ondary or even tertiary treatment. Post treat- formula applied in the computer spread
ment may be provided in ponds or ground sheet (Tab.23.) may be used.
72
9 TECHNOLOGY
9.3 Imhoff Tank the septic tank. The up-flowing sludge par-
Imhoff or Emscher tanks are typically used ticles assemble outside the conical walls
for domestic or mixed wastewater flows and form an accumulating scum layer. This
above 3 m3/d, where the effluent will be scum grows continuously downwards, until
exposed above ground for further treatment, the slots through which settling particles
and therefore the effluent should not stink, should fall into the lower compartment are
as it could be the case with a septic tank. closed. The treatment effect is then reduced
The Imhoff tank separates the fresh influ- to that of a too small septic tank. It is for
ent firmly from the bottom sludge. this reason that the sludge and scum must
be removed regularly, at the intervals the
The tank consists of a settling compartment sludge storage had been designed for.
above the digestion chamber. Funnel-like
baffle walls prevent up-flowing foul sludge Only part of the sludge should be removed
particles from getting mixed with the efflu- so as to always keep some active sludge
ent and from causing turbulence. The efflu- present. Sludge should be removed right from
ent remains fresh and odourless because the bottom to be sure that only fully di-
the suspended and dissolved solids do not gested substrate is discharged. If sludge is
have an opportunity to get in contact with removed by hydraulic pressure (gravity), the
the active sludge to become sour and foul. pipes should be of 150 mm diameter. A hy-
Retention times of much longer than 2 h draulic head loss of 30 cm to 40 cm must be
during peak hours in the flow portion of taken into account. If pipes of only 100 mm
the tank would jeopardise this effect. are used, the head loss is likely to be more
than 50 cm. When sludge is removed it should
Water pressure increases with be immediately treated further in drying beds
depth of vessel. or compost pits for pathogen control.
When sludge ferments at the bottom, the The inlet and outlet pipe is made as in a
sludge particles get attached to foul gas septic tank. Pipe ventilation must be pro-
bubbles and start to float upwards, as in vided, as biogas is also produced in the
Imhoff Tank
Cross Section Longitudinal Section
liquid
sludge
Fig. 19.
Flow principle of the Imhoff tank. The water flows quick but undisturbed from rising gas bubbles through
the flow tank; the water does not mix with „ripe“ water or sludge.
73
9 TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 20.
Imhoff tank. Dimensions have been
calculated for 25 m3 of domestic
wastewater per day.
74
9 TECHNOLOGY
lifted from further down. Scum needs to be mass. This surplus together with “hungry”
removed before it grows to the extent that bacteria digests the dispersed or dissolved
it closes the slots between upper and lower organic matter within short retention times.
compartments. Should this happen, gas Most of the bacteria are immobile. They tend
bubbles appearing in rows on the water to fix themselves to solid particles or, e.g.
surface above the slots indicating that scum at the reactor walls. Filter material, such as
must be removed. gravel, rocks, cinder or specially formed
plastic pieces provide additional surface
area for bacteria to settle. Thus, the fresh
wastewater is forced to come into contact
Calculation of Dimensions
with active bacteria intensively. The larger
The upper compartment, inside the funnel the surface for bacterial growth, the quicker
walls, should be designed for 2 h HRT at the digestion. A good filter material provides
peak flow and the hydraulic load should be 90 to 300 m2 surface area per m3 of occu-
less than 1.5 m3/h per 1 m2 surface area. pied reactor volume. A rough surface pro-
The sludge compartment below the slots vides a larger area, at least in the starting
should be calculated to retain 2.5 litre phase. Later the bacterial „lawn“ or „film“
sludge per kg BOD reduced per day of stor- that grows on the filter mass quickly closes
age for short desludging intervals. For longer the smaller groves and holes. The total sur-
intervals use data of spread sheet (Tab. 24.). face area of the filter seems to be less im-
Treatment efficiency lies in the range of 25
to 50% COD reduction. For domestic waste-
water, the upper compartment should have
a volume of approximately 50 l per user
and the sludge compartment below the
slots, should have a volume of approxi-
mately 120 litre per user. This rule of thumb
may be valid for a desludging interval of
one year. For more detailed calculation or
in case of non-domestic wastewater use the
formula of the computer spread sheet.
75
9 TECHNOLOGY
portant for treatment than its physical abil- tic wastewater and all industrial wastewater
ity to hold back solid particles. which have a lower content of suspended
When the bacterial film becomes too thick solids. Pre-treatment in settlers or septic
it has to be removed. This may be done by tanks may be necessary to eliminate solids
back-flash of wastewater or by removing of larger size before they are allowed to
the filter mass for cleaning outside the re- enter the filter.
actor. Nonetheless, the anaerobic filter is Anaerobic filters may be operated as down
very reliable and robust. flow or up flow systems. The up flow sys-
By experience, on an average, 25 - 30% of tem is normally preferred as the risk of
the total filter mass may be inactive due to washing out active bacteria is less in this
clogging. While a cinder or rock filter may case. On the other hand, flushing of the
not block completely, reduced treatment ef- filter for the purpose of cleaning is easier
ficiency is indicative of clogging in some with the down flow system. A combination
parts. Clogging happens when wastewater of up-flow and down-flow chambers is also
finds a channelled way through only some possible. An important design criterion is
open pores as a result of which the high- that of equal distribution of wastewater
speed flow washes the bacteria away. Even- upon the filter area. The provision of ad-
tually, the lesser used voids in the filter get equate space of free water before the filter
clogged. The end result is reduced reten- and the same before the outlet pipe sup-
tion time within the few open voids. How- ports equal distribution. Full-width down-
ever, a sand or gravel filter may block com- flow shafts are preferred to down-flow pipes.
pletely due to smaller pore size. The length of the filter chamber should not
be greater than the water depth.
Anaerobic Filter
gas release
Septic Tank gas release Anaerobic Filter
inlet outlet
scum
liquid filter
sludge grill
76
9 TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 23.
Anaerobic filter. Dimensions have been calculated for 25 m3 domestic wastewater per day.
77
9 TECHNOLOGY
tion of flow. Pipes of at least 15 cm in di- ble in practice, full treatment performance
ameter or down-shafts over the full width is not likely until approximately six to nine
allows desludging at the bottom with the months later.
help of pumps from the top. In case the As with septic tanks, desludging should be
sludge drying beds are placed just beside done at regular intervals. Whenever possi-
the filter, sludge may also be drawn via ble, back-flush the filter before sludge re-
hydraulic pressure pipes. Head losses of moval and cleaning the filter when efficiency
30 to 50 cm have to be counted with. goes down.
Fig. 24.
Down-shaft and down-pipes. Both sys-
tems may be applied alternatively in
anaerobic filters and baffled septic
tanks.
78
9 TECHNOLOGY
part of the digester. It uses this sludge blan- The fully controlled UASB is used for rela-
ket directly as filter medium. Upstream ve- tively strong industrial wastewaters wherein
locity and settling speed of the sludge is in biogas is utilised. Slanting baffles (compara-
equilibrium and forms a locally rather sta- tive to the Imhoff tank) help to separate
ble but suspended sludge blanket. After gas bubbles from solids, whereby solids are
some weeks of maturation, granular sludge also separated from the up-streaming liq-
forms which improves the physical stability uid. These baffles are called 3-phase sepa-
and the filter capacity of the sludge blanket. rators.
To keep the blanket in proper position, the UASB reactors require several months to
hydraulic load must correspond to the up- mature - i.e., to develop sufficient granular
stream velocity and must correspond to the sludge for treatment. Granular sludge is like
organic load. The latter is responsible for big flocs of dust. Similarly, bacterial slime
development of new sludge. This means form chains which coagulate into flocs or
that the flow rate must be controlled and granules. High organic loading in connec-
properly geared in accordance with fluctua- tion with lower hydraulic loading rates
tion of the organic load. Generally, in smaller quicken the granulation process in the start-
units, fluctuation of inflow is high, but the ing phase. To move such sludge granules to
regulation of wastewater flow is not possi- the top requires a much higher velocity then
ble. In addition, it is not possible to stabi- is required for single sludge particles. A
lise the process by increasing the hydraulic granular sludge bed therefore remains more
retention time without lowering the up- stable.
stream velocity. This is most unfortunate,
for otherwise a system which is relatively
simple to build, is rendered unsuitable to Starting Phase, Maintenance and
DEWATS particularly for relatively weak, Calculation of Dimensions
domestic wastewater. The UASB does not belong to DEWATS.
Details of its operation and calculations are
UASB deliberately omitted in this handbook to
cross section
avert the impression that the UASB can still
gas release be build and operated under DEWATS con-
outlet ditions.
gas
liquid gas-liquid-solid
separators
9.6 Baffled Septic Tank
sludge contact zone
The baffled septic tank may be considered
as the DEWATS version of the UASB sys-
inlet tem. It in fact is a combination of several
anaerobic process principles - the septic
Fig. 25.
Flow principle of UASB reactors. Up-streaming water tank, the fluidised bed reactor and the
and gas-driven sludge particles hit the baffles which UASB. The baffled septic tank is also known
causes separation of gas, solids and liquid. as „baffled reactor“.
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9 TECHNOLOGY
The up-flow velocity of the baffled septic been digested in the front part, already.
tank, which should never be more than Consequently, recycling of effluent would
2 m/h, limits its design. Based on a given have a slightly negative effect on treat-
hydraulic retention time, the up-flow veloc- ment quality. The baffled septic tank con-
ity increases in direct relation to the reac- sists of at least four chambers in series.
tor height. Therefore can the reactor height The last chamber could have a filter in its
not serve as a variable parameter to de- upper part in order to retain eventual solid
sign the reactor for the required HRT. The particles. A settler for post-treatment could
limited upstream velocity results in large also be placed after the baffled septic tank
but shallow tanks. It is for this reason that (Fig. 51).
the baffled reactor is not economical for Equal distribution of inflow, and wide spread
larger plants. It is also for this reason that contact between new and old substrate are
it is not very well known and poorly re- important process features. The fresh influ-
searched. ent is mixed as soon as possible with the
However, the baffled septic tank is ideal for active sludge present in the reactor in or-
DEWATS because it is simple to build and der to get quickly inoculated for digestion.
simple to operate. Hydraulic and organic This is contrary to the principle of the Imhoff
shock loads have little effect on treatment tank. The wastewater flows from bottom to
efficiency. top with the effect that sludge particles
The difference with the UASB lies in the settle against the up-stream of the liquid.
fact that it is not necessary for the sludge This provides the possibility of intensive
blanket to float; it may rest at the bot- contact between resident sludge and newly
tom. 3-phase separators are also not nec- incoming liquid.
essary since a part of the active sludge The DEWATS version does not have a grill.
that is washed out from one chamber is It always starts with a settling chamber for
trapped in the next. The tanks put in se- larger solids and impurities followed by a
ries also help to digest difficult degrada- series of up-flow chambers. The water stream
ble substances, predominantly in the rear between chambers is directed by baffle walls
part, after easily degradable matters have that form a down-shaft or by down-pipes
that are placed on parti-
tion walls. Although with
Baffled septic tank down-pipes the total di-
provision for principal longitudinal section
gas release gester can be shorter
inlet (and cheaper), down-
scum outlet
shafts should have pref-
liquid erence because of better
sludge distribution of flow.
Fig. 26.
Flow principle of baffled septic tank. Incoming wastewater is forced to pass through active bacteria sludge
in each compartment. The settler in front prevents larger solids to enter the baffle section.
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Fig. 27.
Baffled Septic Tank. Dimensions have been calculated for 25 m3 domestic wastewater per day.
As already mentioned, the wastewater that plants, when longer compartments are re-
enters a tank should as much as possible quired, the outlets of down pipes (as well
be distributed over the entire floor area. as down shafts) should reach out to the
This is taken care of by relatively short com- centre of the floor area.
partments (length < 50% to 60% of the The final outlet as well as the outlets of
height). In case, distance between down each tank should be placed slightly below
pipes should not exceed 75 cm. For larger surface in order to retain any possible scum.
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Baffled septic tanks may be equipped with Although desludging at regular intervals is
3-phase separators in the form of slanting necessary, it is vital that some active sludge
baffles in the upper third of the tank, how- is left in each of the compartments to main-
ever, this is done rarely. tain a stable treatment process.
The baffled septic tank is suitable for all
kind of wastewaters, including domestic.
Its efficiency increases with higher organic Calculation of Dimensions
load. There is relatively little experience with The up-flow velocity should not exceed 2.0
baffled reactors, because the system is only m/h. This is the most crucial parameter for
used in smaller units. However, it is the dimensioning, especially with high hydrau-
high efficient answer to the low efficient lic loading. The organic load should be be-
septic tank, because simple and efficient low 3.0 kg COD/m3×d. Higher-loading rates
operation goes along with easy construc- are possible with higher temperature and
tion and low cost. Treatment performance for easily degradeable substrate. The HRT
is the range of 65% - 90% COD (70% - 95% of the liquid fraction (i.e. above sludge vol-
BOD) removal. However, three months of ume) should not be less than 8 hours.
maturation should be acknowledged. Sludge Sludge storage volume should be provided
must be removed in regular intervals like for 4 l/m3 BODinflow in the settler and 1.4 l/m3
with a septic tank. Some sludge should al- BODremoved in the upstream tanks. For
ways be left for continuous efficiency. It is exact calculation use the formula applied
noticeable that the amount of sludge in the in the computer-spread sheet Tab. 26.
front portion of the digester is more, than
in the rear compartments.
fully mixed digester
biogas outlet
Starting Phase and Maintenance
Treatment performance depends on the position of inlet and outlet
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9 TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 29.
Traditional biogas plants as fully mixed anaerobic digester. A: The ball-shaped fixed dome plant with
integrated gas storage and expansion chamber. B: The half-ball-shaped fixed dome plant. C: The floating
drum plant with water seal. All three plants are designed for 600 litre substrate per day of 4% organic dry
matter content, at 25°C and HRT of 25 days. The expected gas production is 8,42 m3/d. Comparing space
requirement and gas pressure of all three plants indicate that floating drum plants are preferable in case of
high gas production rates.
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9 TECHNOLOGY
Because the fully mixed digester is used duction. Gas production is directly related
for strong substrate only, biogas produc- to the organic fraction of the substrate. In
tion is high and utilisation of biogas may practice it is calculated as a fraction of the
be recommended. In this case, the gas col- daily substrate that is fed. The fraction used
lector tank and the gas storage tank must for calculation is found by experience, for
be gas-tight. The immediate gas outlet example, 1 kg fresh cattle dung diluted with
should be 30 cm above substrate level. 1 litre of water produces 40 l of biogas. For
Smaller units may use the fixed dome (hy- more elaborate calculation use the formula
draulic pressure) system made out of ma- applied in the computer spread sheet Tab. 27.
sonry structure. Larger units, store the
biogas in steel drums or plastic bags (see
also chapter 12.). 9.8 Trickling Filter
The choice of gas storage system will de- The trickling filter is not considered to be a
pend on the pattern of gas utilisation. Nor- DEWATS solution. However, an understand-
mally, gas production should go together ing of how it works will better one’s under-
with gas consumption, time-wise and vol- standing of the principle of aerobic waste-
ume-wise. For more details, please refer to water treatment.
the chapter “Biogas Utilisation” and the The trickling filter follows the same princi-
abundance of special biogas literature. ple as the anaerobic filter, in the sense that
it provides a large surface for bacteria to
Starting Phase and Maintenance settle. The main difference between the two
systems lies in the fact that the trickling
Starting with some active sludge from a sep- filter works under aerobic conditions. This
tic tank speeds up digestion and prevents implies that the bacteria that are immobi-
the digester from turning sour. In the rare lised at the filter medium must have equal
case that this should happen, reduce the access to air and wastewater. Therefore,
loading rate until the pH turns neutral. It certain doses of wastewater are charged in
may be necessary to remove sand and grit intervals to give time for air to enter the
after some years. reactor during the breaks. Further, water
must be distributed equally over the full
surface in order to utilise the full filter mass
Calculation of Dimensions
efficiently.
The main parameter is the hydraulic reten-
Therefore, the trickling filter consists of
tion time, which should not be less than 15
days in hot climate and not less than 25 ❏ a dosing device
days in a moderately warm climate; a HRT ❏ a rotating sprinkler
of more than 60 days should be chosen for
highly pathogenic substrate. The gas stor- ❏ the filter body which is ventilated both
age volume depends on daily gas use in from the top and the bottom.
relation to daily gas production. The stor- Rocks between 3 to 8 cm in diameter are
age capacity of gas for household use used as filter medium. The outside of the
should exceed 65% of the daily gas pro- filter body is closed to prevent sludge flies
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from escaping into the open. The filter rests filter is a reliable system. Nonetheless, be-
above ground to allow ventilation. The bot- cause it requires a rotating sprinkler and a
tom slab is at a slope to let water and pump to be operated, it is not considered
sludge be rinsed off. The bacterial film has a DEWATS solution.
to be flushed away regularly to prevent clog-
ging and to remove the dead sludge. High
hydraulic loading rates (> 0.8 m3/m3×h) have Starting Phase, Maintenance and
a self-flushing effect. With organic loading Calculation of Dimensions
rates of 1 kg BOD/m3×d, 80% BOD removal
Details for calculation and instructions for
is possible. Higher loading rates would re-
operation are not given in this handbook
duce effectivity.
in order to avoid the impression that the
trickling filter can be built and operated
principle of trickling filter
wastewater is supplied in doses which allows resting time of several
under DEWATS conditions.
minutes or hours between each dose
O2 O2 O2
There are three basic treatment systems
which may fall in the category of constructed
O2 wetlands. These are
O2
O2
❏ the vertical flow filter, and
❏ the horizontal flow filter.
Fig. 30. For overland treatment the water is distrib-
The principle of the trickling filter uted on carefully contoured land by sprin-
klers. The system requires permanent at-
Considering a 2 m high trickling filter and a
tendance and maintenance. For that rea-
wastewater of 500 mg/l BOD, the organic load-
son it does not belong to DEWATS.
ing rate comes to 0.8×24hrs ×0.500 kg/m3
BOD / 2 m height = 4.8 kg BOD/m3×d. A re- For vertical filter treatment the wastewater
moval rate of only 60% BOD may be ex- is distributed with the help of a dosing de-
pected with such a high organic load. This vice on two or three filter beds which are
simple calculation indicates that wastewater charged alternately. Charging intervals must
would have to be re-cycled almost 5 times be strictly followed which makes the verti-
to get the expected treatment quality and cal filter less suitable for DEWATS.
the self-flushing effect. However, the trick- The horizontal filter is simple by principle
ling filter could be operated with lower hy- and requires almost no maintenance, how-
draulic loading rates if regular flushing is ever under the condition that it has been
done. well designed and constructed. Design and
Despite fluctuation in the flow of waste- construction requires a solid understand-
water, the self-flushing (high-rate) trickling ing of the treatment process and good
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principle of vertical filter process technology, although they may look like part
of nature. Before deciding on filter treat-
submerging for
equal distribution of oxygen is drawn-in
oxygen is available
for decomposition ment, one should always consider the al-
ternative of constructing wastewater ponds
wastewater by vacuum effect during resting time
Sand layer
water below ground.
O2 The horizontal and the vertical filter are two
systems that are principally different. The
O2
O2
horizontal filter (Fig. 31.) is permanently
soaked with water and operates partly aero-
bic (free oxygen present), partly anoxic (no
Fig. 32. free oxygen but nitrate -NO3- present) and
The principle of the vertical filter partly anaerobic (no free oxygen and no
nitrate present). The vertical filter (Fig. 32.)
is charged in intervals (similar to a trickling
knowledge of the filter medium that is to
filter) and functions predominantly aerobi-
be used.
cally. Although the vertical filter requires only
Constructed wetlands, especially sand and about half the area of a horizontal filter
gravel filters, are by no means a simple and has better treatment qualities, only the
overflow
internal water level
rizomes
1,0%
bottom slope
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9 TECHNOLOGY
horizontal filter is considered a DEWATS- ments “in the air” concerning the physi-
technology for the reason that it has no cal process of filtration, the intake of oxy-
movable parts and does not require per- gen as well as the influence of planta-
manent operational control. tion on the biological treatment process.
Even if all influencing factors would be
9.10 The Horizontal Gravel Filter known, it is still their interaction which
Planted horizontal gravel filters are also re- is difficult to predict.
ferred to as Subsurface Flow Wetlands (SSF), There are sophisticated methods to cal-
Constructed Wetlands or Root Zone Treat- culate the proper dimensions and treat-
ment Plants. They are suitable for pre- ment characteristics of different filter
treated (pre-settled) domestic or industrial media, especially in respect to hydraulic
wastewater of a COD content not higher properties. However, such calculations
than 500 mg/l. Wastewater must be pre- make sense only if the required param-
treated especially in respect to suspended eters are known quite exactly. This is al-
solids, due to the fact that the biggest prob- most never the case. Rules of thumb,
lem in ground filters is clogging. When test- intelligently chosen, are more than suffi-
ing wastewater, the sediment after 60 min- cient for smaller sized plants in particu-
utes in an Imhoff cone should not be more lar, as is usually the case with DEWATS.
than 1 ml/l, and not more than 100mg SS/l Going beyond these figures based on ex-
in case of non-settling industrial wastewater. perience is not advisable without previ-
If the COD-value of settleable solids is less ous tests. Safety rules of design are:
than 40% the total SS-value, then many of
❏ large and shallow filter bed
the solids are likely to be fat in colloidal
form which can reduce the hydraulic con- ❏ wide inlet zone
ductivity of the filter considerably (as may ❏ reliable distribution of inflow over the
be the case with dairy wastewater). full width of the inlet zone
The treatment process in horizontal ground ❏ round coarse gravel of nearly equal
filters is complex. There are several argu- size as filter medium.
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While large grain size with a high percent- mediate size may be considered. Mixed grain
age of voids prevents clogging, it also re- sizes will not improve hydraulic conductiv-
duces treatment performance. Clogging is ity! Howsoever, removing fine soil from
caused by suspended solids and by newly gravel by washing is more important than
formed biological or mineralised sludge from ensuring the exact grain size.
the decomposition of organic matter. There-
In case the length of the filter bed is more
fore, the front portion must have voids that
than 10 m, an intermediate channel for re-
are small enough to retain enough SS and
distribution of cross-flow could be provided.
large enough to distribute the filtered SS
The distribution channel could serve as a
over a longer distance. Round, uniform
step of terrace of the surface level in case
gravel of 6 - 12 mm or 8 - 16 mm is best.
of high percentage bottom slope (Fig. 34. ).
Conductivity may be only half with edged
The relation between organic load and oxy-
broken stones compared to round gravel
gen supply reduces with length. This hap-
because of turbulent flow within irregular
pens because oxygen is supplied evenly
pores. In case of mixed grain size, it might
over the total surface area, whereas the
be advisable to screen the gravel with the
help of a coarse sieve; use the larger grains organic load diminishes during treatment.
in the front and the smaller grains to the It is therefore most likely that anaerobic
rear. Large grains should be chosen in case conditions prevail in the front part, while
of flat or mixed grain shape, for example aerobic conditions reach to a greater depth
when using chipping made from broken in the rear part. However, only the upper 5
stones. Care is to be taken when changing to 15 cm can really be considered an aero-
from a larger grain size to the smaller, be- bic zone.
cause it has been observed that blockage Clogged gravel filter can become useful
happens predominantly at the point of again after resting periods of several
change. months. This happens due to the bacteria
A rather flat slope (α < 45°) should join having to go without feed and having to
one-grain size to the other in order to ob- live on its own bacterial mass in that pe-
tain a larger connecting area. Particularly riod. This process is called autolysis.
when grain diameter differs considerably, Filter clogging results normally in surface
an intermediate zone consisting of inter- flow of wastewater. This is usually not
Tab. 13.
Theoretical properties of gravel and sand as filter material, lower values should be applied for wastewater
when designing filter beds.
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Fig. 34.
Horizontal gravel filter (subsurface flow filter). A: Filterbasin in masonry and concrete structure, finer gravel
is used in the rear portion. B: Long filter bed with additional distribution trench in the middle, the trench
is filled with rocks and allows a step in the surface level. C: Detail of collection pipe and swivel arm at the
outlet side. D: Details of inlet and outlet structure for improved distribution of flow in case of wider filter
beds. E: Details of filter basins using foils or clay packing for sealing. Sloped side walls are less costly, but
plants will not grow near the rim.
wanted, although it hardly reduces the treat- residences there is no harm to let some of
ment efficiency if flow time on the surface the wastewater run above the horizontal
is not much shorter than the assumed re- surface. Such “overland treatment” produces
tention time inside the filter (this could be very good results especially when the wa-
the case with dense plant coverage). When ter is equally distributed and does not fes-
filters are well protected and far away from ter in trenches.
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The actual retention time regarding voids tend to flow faster below the dense cushion
space plays a decisive role in the treatment of roots. However, treatment performance is
process. Gravel has 30 - 45% voids, de- generally best in the upper 15 cm due to
pending on size and shape. (The calcula- oxygen diffusion from the surface. Therefore,
tion of HRT in the spread sheet of chapter shallow filters are more effective compared
13.1.11 is based on 35% void space, it could to deeper beds of the same volume.
proportionally be reduced if the actual void Uniform distribution of wastewater through-
space is definitely more.) Void space can out the filter is decisively dependent on
easily be found out by measuring the wa- equally distributed supply of water at the
ter that can be added to a bucket full of inlet and equally distributed reception at
gravel (Fig. 35.). the outlet side. Trenches
filled with rocks of 50
measure volume when putting in water measure volume when putting in water
to 100 mm diameter are
provided at both ends
8-litres
mark
8-litres
mark
to serve this purpose. A
perforated pipe that is
connected to the outlet
pipe lies below the strip
of rocks that form the
Volume of water empty bucket and fill Volume of water collection trench. The
= 3,2 litres
= 8 litres in filter medium
height of this outlet is
adjustable through a swivel arm fixed to a
Fig. 35.
Determining pore space of filter medium at site. For flexible elbow. The height is adjusted ac-
example the empty bucket is full after pouring 8 cording to hydraulic conductivity by lifting
litre of water. The bucket filled with gravel absorbs it until water appears at the surface of the
3.2 litre of water: Voids space is 3.2/8 = 0.40 or filter near the inlet. While the top of the
40%. filter is kept strictly horizontal to prevent
erosion, the bottom slopes down from in-
For high conductivity large pore size is more
let to outlet by preferably 1 %. Site condi-
important than total pore volume. There-
tions permitting, greater slope is also pos-
fore it is better to use pre-wetted gravel
sible. To prevent erosion, long filters should
when testing the pore volume; then pores
have a terraced surface instead of a slope
of only capillary size are „closed“ in ad-
(see Fig. 34. (B)).
vance.
Percolation of wastewater into the ground
In reality, short cuts and reduced volume is normally not desired. To prevent this from
by partly clogged areas result in 25% shorter happening the bottom of the filter must be
retention times and consequently lead to sealed. While solid clay packing might do,
inferior performance (A.N. Shilton and J.N. heavy plastic foils are more common. A con-
Prasad in WST, Vol. 34, No. 3-4 Pg. 421). crete basin with straight vertical masonry
For this reason, the filter bed should not walls would allow plants to grow up to the
be deeper than the depth to which plant outer rim, which is not possible with the
roots can grow (30 - 60 cm) as water will smooth embankment that plastic foils would
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9 TECHNOLOGY
require (Fig. 34. (E)). In dry climate, trees Plants are normally not harvested. Phrag-
search for water and their roots may break mites australis (reed) the world over is con-
the walls while trying to grow into the fil- sidered to be the best plant because its
ter. Whenever possible, trees should not roots form horizontal rhizomes that guar-
be planted directly at the side of the filter antee a perfect root zone filter bed.(Fig. 36.).
for the reason that the strong roots of the There could be other plants to suit other
trees could well spoil the structure and fallen wastewater. For instance, typha angustifolia
leaves could seal the filter surface. (cattails) together with scirpus lacustris (bull
rush) has been found most suitable for
Observations in Europe indicate that the
wastewater from petrol refineries. Most
performance of gravel filters diminishes af-
swamp and water grasses are suitable, but
ter some years. How long a horizontal filter
not all of them have extending or deep
might work depends on several factors:
roots. The large, red or orange flowering
grain size and shape of gravel, the nature
iris (sometimes known as “mosquito lily”)
and amount of suspended solids in the
grows well on wastewater. It is a beautiful
wastewater, the temperature and the aver-
plant, however suitable for shallow domes-
age loading rate.
tic gravel beds, only. Forest trees have also
If the filter is drained during resting time, been used and are said to be only slightly
alternate charging could increase treatment less efficient (Kadlec and Knight). Whatever,
performance of horizontal filters. To allow at least 2 bunches of plants or four sprouted
such alternate feeding, it is advisable to rhizomes should be placed per square me-
divide the total filter area into several com- ter when starting plantation.
partments or beds. Other reports insist on
changing the filter every 8 to 15 years. This
too, nevertheless, will depend on the load-
ing rate and structural details, of which the
impact is almost impossible to predict in
practice. Weaker wastewater, lower loading
rates and larger grain size of the gravel is
assumed to increase the lifetime of the sys-
tem.
Ground filters are covered by suitable plan-
tation - meaning any plant which can grow
on wastewater and whose roots go deep BORDA after Bahlo/Wach
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an „actor“. Plants transport oxygen via their When plants are under full load, the outlet
roots into the ground. Some scientists claim level is adjusted according to the flow. Wa-
that surplus oxygen is also provided for ter should not stand on the surface near
creating an aerobic environment while oth- the inlet. If this should happen, the swivel
ers have found out that only as much oxy- arm at the outlet must be lowered. Optimal
gen as the plant needs to transform its own water distribution at the inlet side is im-
nutrient requirement, is transferred. For ex- portant and must be controlled from time
ample Brix and Schierup claim that 0,02 g to time. It is necessary to replace the filter
O 2/m2×d are provided by the plants to the media when treatment efficiency goes down.
filter bed, while 2,06 g/m2×d are used by Since there is no treatment during the time
the plants themselves. Toxic substances near that the filter media is being replaced, it is
the roots may also be eliminated by oxida- advantageous to install several parallel fil-
tion. Howsoever, the complex ecosystem ter beds.
that exists in a gravel filter together with
Stormwater should neither be mixed with
plantation in all respects produces good
the wastewater before, nor should outside
and reliable treatment results, which must
stormwater overflow the filter bed, because
definitely be aerobic, as well. Some reports
of the fine soil particles which come with
claim COD reduction rates of over 95%
that water. Erosion trenches around the fil-
which would not be possible under anaero-
ter bed should always be kept in proper
bic conditions alone. The uptake of nutri-
functioning condition.
ents by plants is of relatively little impor-
tance, especially when plants are not har-
vested.
Calculation of Dimensions
If percolation properties - the so called hy-
Starting Phase and Maintenance draulic conductivity of the filter body - is
Young plant seedlings may not grow on known, then the required cross sectional
wastewater. It is therefore advisable to start area at the inlet can be calculated using
feeding the plant with plenty of fresh water Darcy’s law. To make good for reduced con-
and to let the pollution load grow slowly ductivity after some time of operation only
and parallel to plant growth. a fraction of the calculated figures for clear
Qs
Darcy's Law Ac =
kf × dH / ds
cross sectional area of flow rate [m³/sec]
filter bed [m²] =
hydraulic conductivity [m/sec] × slope [m height/m length]
Fig. 37.
Darcy’s law for calculation of hydraulic conductivity
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9 TECHNOLOGY
water should be used for designing the plant face and small enough to allow enough time
The conductivity given in the spread sheet for oxygen to enter before the next flood-
takes care of that, already. However, not to ing. Correspondingly, the filter material must
the extent of some pessimistic statements be fine enough to cause flooding and po-
which claim that only 4% of the clear water rous enough to allow quick percolation.
conductivity should be
used.
The dimensions of the
filter depend on hydrau-
lic and organic loading
and temperature and
grain size of the filter
medium. As a rule of
thumb, 5 m2 of filter
should be provided per
capita for domestic
wastewater. This would
mean a hydraulic load-
ing rate of 30 l/m2 and an organic loading Fig. 38.
rate of 8 g BOD/m 2×d. For comprehensive Vertical filter during charging. Constructed above
calculation use of the formula applied in ground by Nature & Technique, D. Esser, for a cheese
dairy in southern France. [photo: Sasse]
the computer spread sheet (Tab.28).
During the short time of charging, the
wastewater is also exposed to the open,
9.11 Vertical Sand Filter which can create ‘bad odour’ in case of
The vertical filter functions like an aerobic anaerobic pre-treatment. The vertical filter
trickling filter and consequently must be is not propagated as DEWATS largely be-
fed at intervals with defined resting times cause keen observation of all the above
between the doses of charging. In addition mentioned points are essential. Aside from
to the short intervals that are controlled by this disadvantage, the vertical filter is - com-
dosing devices, longer resting periods of pared to the horizontal filter - the more ef-
one or two weeks are also required. This is ficient and more reliable treatment systems
only possible with at least two filter beds from a technical and scientific point of view,
that are fed alternately. reasons for which its main features are de-
scribed herein.
Feeding in doses is necessary for equal
water distribution. The resting times are The body of the vertical filter consist of a
needed to enable oxygen to enter the filter finer top layer, a medium middle layer and
after wastewater has percolated (Fig. 32.). a rough bottom layer. The area below the
Doses must be large enough to completely filter media is a free flow area that is con-
flood the filter for a short while in order to nected to the drainpipe. The free flow area
distribute the water evenly over the sur- is also connected to the open via additional
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sedimentation pond
inlet longitudinal section outlet high-loaded
anaerobic pond
inlet longitudinal section outlet
scum
liquid
Fig. 41.
Principles of anaerobic ponds. Sedimentation ponds have a HRT of about 1 day, low loaded ponds are
supposed to be odourless because of almost neutral pH, high loaded ponds form a sealing scum layer on top.
Otherwise the pond must be about ten times 1,5 - 3,5 m deep, usually work with a
larger than calculated in the spread sheet 5 days hydraulic retention time (HRT) and
(Tab. 30). organic loads of 20 to 30 g BOD/m3×d. The
energy requirement for aeration is about
Artificially aerated ponds are not con- 1 - 3 W/m3 of pond volume. In case of only
sidered to be DEWATS and are therefore little scum formation only the surface of
not dealt with in this handbook. It may anaerobic ponds may be aerated to reduce
be enough to know that such ponds are foul smell.
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9.12.1 Anaerobic ponds layer will remain aerobic; one may then la-
bel these ponds facultative-anaerobic
Anaerobic ponds are deep (2 to 6 m) and
ponds.
highly loaded (0.1 to 1 kg BOD/m3×d). Be-
cause of that they need less surface area Depending on strength and type of waste-
compared to aerobic-facultative oxidation water and the desired treatment effect,
ponds. Anaerobic ponds maintain their anaerobic ponds are designed for hydrau-
anaerobic conditions only through the depth lic retention time between 1 and 30 days. It
of the pond, therefore a minimum depth of depends on whether only settled sludge or
2 m is necessary. It is possible to provide all the liquid is to be treated. The kind of
separate sludge settling tanks before the wastewater and the type of post treatment
main pond, in order to reduce the organic defines the role of the anaerobic pond. For
sludge load of that pond. Such settling tanks domestic wastewater the anaerobic pond
should have a HRT of less than 1 day, de- may function as an open septic tank. It
pending on the kind of wastewater. should then be small in order to develop a
sealing scum layer. Treatment efficiency is
Anaerobic ponds with organic loading rates
in that case in the range of 50% to 70%
below 300 g/m3×d BOD are likely to stay at
BOD removal, only.
an almost neutral pH. Consequently they
release little H2S and therefore, are almost A stinky effluent is the result of a „wrong“
free of unpleasant smell. Highly loaded retention time. Because, if the retention time
anaerobic ponds are particularly bad smell- is longer than one day, not only bottom
ing in the beginning until a heavy layer of sludge but also the liquid portion starts to
scum has been developed. Before such ferment. On the other hand, if the retention
scum layer has developed, a small upper time is too short for substantial stabilisation
Fig. 42.
Cross sections of anaerobic ponds constructed out of rocks with cement mortar pointing. A and B: The inlet
portion is made deeper in order to accumulate most of the sludge at a limited surface area. C: Two
anaerobic ponds in series. The first pond may be high loaded (scum sealed), the second pond may be low
loaded (neutral pH).
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9 TECHNOLOGY
98
9 TECHNOLOGY
inlet
outlet
Fig. 43.
Flow pattern of aerobic-facultative ponds in series
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9 TECHNOLOGY
Fig. 44.
Section through a large sized aerobic-facultative stabilisation pond. Banks should be protected against
erosion by waves. A: Inlet; banks should also be protected against erosion by influent. B: Cross section B-
B (front view of C). C: Outlet structure with swivel arm to adjust height of pond according to seasonal
fluctuation of water volume.
Erosion of banks by waves could be a prob- Banks and dams could be planted with
lem with larger ponds. Therefore slope should macrophytes, such as cattail or phragmites.
be 1 (vertical) to 3 (horizontal) and prefer- Dams between ponds should be paved and
ably covered with rocks or large sized gravel. wide enough to facilitate maintenance.
Fig. 45.
Details for aerobic stabilisation ponds (basins) of smaller size. A: Inlet structure, concrete flooring,
B: Partition wall, compacted clay flooring, C: Outlet structure, foil flooring (protection against use may be
advisable).
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9 TECHNOLOGY
Fish feed on algae; but fish can only live if tank cannot be guaranteed. The effluent will
there is enough dissolved oxygen available be “stinky” anyhow. If pre-treatment in ponds
- 3 mg/l is the absolute minimum for sludge does not take place, the pond must be pro-
fish. Therefore, the dilution of wastewater vided with a deeper sedimentation zone near
by mixing water from other sources (rivers, the inlet. However, bad odour is to be ex-
already existing lakes) becomes necessary pected. It might be wiser to construct a small
failing which, only low organic loading rates sedimentation pond on which a sealing
are permissible. scum layer will develop. Should the scum
layer become more than 10 cm thick, papy-
Aerobic stabilisation ponds for reasons of
rus that has a beautification effect could
oxygen intake should be shallow but deep
be grown on it.
enough to prevent weed growth at the bot-
tom of the pond. A depth of 90 cm to 1 m
in warm climate and up to 1.2 m in cold
climate zones (due to frost) is suitable. Starting Phase and Maintenance
Deeper ponds become facultative or even The pond matures much faster if it is filled
anaerobic in the lower strata. with river water before the first wastewater
Smaller volumes of wastewater, such as from enters. With the exception of regular con-
schools, hospitals, residential houses should trol of inlet and outlet structures, no per-
better be pre-treated in Imhoff tanks, sep- manent attendance is required. However,
tic tanks, baffled reactors or at least sedi- the performance of the pond should be su-
mentation pits, before reaching the aerobic pervised and any disturbance of the water
stabilisation pond. Properly operated Imhoff quality should be carefully investigated to
tanks that keep water fresh and without find the cause. Excessive accumulation of
smell are preferable. A septic tank would sludge could result in inadequate treatment.
be better if regular desludging of the Imhoff The pond must be emptied and the sludge
must be removed in defined inter-
vals, before treatment quality goes
down.
Calculation of Dimensions
Organic surface load and hydraulic
retention time are the two design
parameters. While minimum hydrau-
lic retention times may be between
Fig. 46.
Papyrus growing on scum of a small sedi-
mentation tank in Auroville / India [photo:
Sasse]
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Fig. 48.
Wastewater treatment tanks using aquatic plants in Calculation of Dimensions
Auroville / India. The plant is placed directly beside
residential houses. Lizards which live among the For practical reasons, the same formula that
water hyacinth take care of mosquito control. The is used for unplanted oxidation ponds may
first settling tank is sealed against bad odour by a be used (Tab. 30.).
thick layer of scum on which papyrus grows (see
Fig. 46). [photo: Sasse]
Fig. 49.
septic tank, anaerobic filter ground filter, polishing
Imhoff tank baffled septic tank aerobic-facultative pond The complete treatment chain of
biogas plant stabilisation pond
DEWATS-technology
anaerobic
sedimentation
pond aerobic- stabilisation ponds Fig. 50.
facultative
Typical combinations for full treatment when using
C DEWATS-technology
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9 TECHNOLOGY
inlet
outlet
Fig. 51.
An example of a hybrid and combined reactor
are regarded here as non-DEWATS are by
no means inferior treatment systems. They
may even be used in a decentralised con-
9.14 Unsuitable Technologies cept. However, not without highly qualified
operational staff which is closely supervised
DEWATS commands low maintenance. This
by an experienced management.
implies that technologies which cannot be
“switched on and off ” as one likes, is inte- The technologies that do not fit in with
gral to the DEWATS concept. DEWATS are DEWATS are:
intended to function every day with the ef- ❏ the rotating disc reactor
ficiency envisaged. Systems, which are
highly efficient but require a great deal of ❏ the trickling filter
regular care to function at an acceptable ❏ the activated sludge process
level, do not suit the concept of decentral-
❏ the fluidised bed reactor
ised wastewater treatment. To avoid any
misunderstanding: The technologies which ❏ the sequencing batch reactor
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9 TECHNOLOGY
Those systems which work with compressed may be suitable if alternate charging of fil-
air - either for aeration or floatation - or ter beds is incorporated into the “produc-
require chemicals for treatment are also ex- tion process” of wastewater itself.
cluded from DEWATS. The UASB is also not The choice of treatment system will depend
suitable, despite its simple technology. High on the management capacity at site. Gen-
eral recommendations could at best only
What will not be maintained, does rank the treatment systems. Much depends
not need to be built on site conditions. For instance, even hori-
zontal ground filters can fail if grain size or
rate trickling filters may be suitable when surface area is insufficient. In situations
the distribution system functions perma- where little to no care is to be expected,
nently. Similarly, vertical planted filter beds only ponds, septic tanks and baffled septic
tanks would be worth
the investment. But of
course, it might be dif-
ficult for the planning
engineer to tell the cli-
ent that he considers
him being careless.
Fig. 53.
Oxidation ditch operated at
a rubber factory in Kerala /
India [photo: Sasse]
105
10 SLUDGE DISPOSAL
10.1 Desludging outlet should always be visible in order to
check and control the colour and consist-
All organic degradation processes produce
ency of the sludge. When the colour of the
sludge. The sludge produced by anaerobic
effluent becomes too light, pumping must
treatment is less than that produced by
be stopped for a while to give the sludge
aerobic treatment. The greater the treatment
time to flow to the mouth of the pump once
efficiency the greater the sludge produc-
again. Free flow rotary pumps that allow
tion. So as not to occupy reactor volume,
sand, grit and smaller solid particles to pass
sludge must be removed at intervals of 1/2
through without blockage are best for
to 3 years in tanks and in 1 to 20 years in
desludging.
ponds. Sludge from industrial processes
may be removed in intervals of one to seven
days, only. In such case, the sludge is not
stabilised and should be treated further in
anaerobic digesters or must be composted
immediately. Sludge, which is not fully sta-
bilised, should not be dried in the open
because of bad odour and the nuisance from
flies.
Bottom sludge from domestic and hus-
bandry wastewater is highly contaminated
by worm eggs and cysts and should be han-
dled hygienically. From a technical point of
view, desludging of septic tanks, baffled
septic tanks and anaerobic filters can be
done with buckets, by pumping or by hy-
draulic pressure. What is important is that
only the oldest sludge is removed and that
the active sludge which is composed of liv-
ing bacteria is left behind in the tank. With Fig. 54.
use of buckets - beside the obvious health Flexible pipes for de-sludging. Sludge is discharged
risk - there is always the danger of remov- by hydraulic pressure when lowering the pipe. [photo:
ing the active sludge together with the old- Sasse]
est sludge, as the old sludge is always found
below the active sludge. Old bottom sludge, because it compacts
Pump heads must be pushed down to the with time through its own weight, can be
bottom of the tank in order to reach the rather “thick”. Consequently, desludging
oldest sludge. The effluent at the pump pipes which work by hydraulic pressure must
106
10 SLUDGE DISPOSAL
107
10 SLUDGE DISPOSAL
Drying beds consist of about 30 cm coarse from an average DEWATS can only add to,
aggregate (>50 mm diameter) or gravel, but not fully substitute other fertiliser, even
covered with 10 to 15 cm coarse sand. Drain- for a small farmer. However, compost has
age pipes are imbedded in the bottom layer. its value as fertiliser and soil conditioner,
The bottom must be sealed when contami- and therefore should be honoured as a re-
nation of ground water would be possible. source, and not disregarded as a waste.
Drying beds with slightly sloped surface are
Composting requires soil or dry organic
easier to drain than completely horizontal
matter, for example straw, to be mixed with
beds. Sludge drying beds should be roofed
in order to reach 50% TS content. Such high
at places of frequent rain.
total solids content is needed for a loosely
packed consistency which is required for
principle cross section of sludge drying bed ventilation (aeration), while the moisture is
needed to provide a suitable environment
splash plate for dumping 30 cm freeboard for aerobic bacteria.
15 cm sand
30 cm gravel
Compost is best prepared by pouring liq-
uid sludge on dry organic matter in several
rocks layers of 10 to 20 cm. The heap is then
drain
covered with soil. The compost should be
turned over several times during matura-
Fig. 56. tion in order to distribute active bacteria
Principle cross section of a sludge drying bed
all within the substrate, and to provide oxy-
gen to deeper layers. Rising temperature is
the best sign for the aerobe decomposition
10.3 Composting process. Temperature drops after matura-
tion, which might be after three months up
Composting of sludge is advisable for hy-
to one year under farm conditions.
gienic reasons, especially in case of domes-
tic and husbandry wastewater. Improving A properly heaped compost produces a re-
fertiliser quality may be a by-product, but action temperature of up to 70°C. The high
has normally no primary importance to the temperature over several weeks of matura-
client. In respect to DEWATS the question tion has a sterilising effect on pathogens,
is first how to get rid of the sludge. including helminths and ova. However, care
Composting is a good method for that, be- must be taken during preparation of com-
cause compost is not only hygienically safer, post.
it is also better to handle by small farmers, Compost is needed at a certain time from
because it can be carried by buckets. an agricultural point of view. Desludging
The amount of compost one may get per must be done before that date, in order to
year from 20 m3 of domestic wastewater allow time for composting. Annual de-
per day is in the range of 25 m3, which sludging is convenient for the farmer, but
shrinks to approximately 12.5 m3 after matu- may not be convenient for the plant opera-
ration. This volume lasts for less than a tor. Longer desludging intervals produce a
quarter acre, which indicates that compost more safe sludge, than shorter intervals and
108
10 SLUDGE DISPOSAL
thus, may be recommended from a hygi- If composting is not possible but sludge is
enic point of view. Howsoever, the opera- to be used fresh on agricultural land, then
tor of the treatment plant has to organise sludge must be disposed in trenches which
the whereabouts of his sludge and should are covered by 25 cm of soil, at least.
come to an agreement with either the farmer
directly or with a transporting enterprise
which collects the sludge at suitable times.
109
11 REUSE OF
WASTEWATER AND SLUDGE
110
11 REUSE
development is directly related to the avail- stage where oxygen deficiency can only be
ability of water from the ground. Thus, re- little, oxygen absorption is also little.
charging of this source becomes absolutely
The pH should be 7 - 8. Fish culture is not
vital to human civilisation. The main ques-
possible when wastewater may be toxic or
tion is how far the wastewater needs treat-
polluted by mineral oils, temporarily or per-
ment before it may be discharged to the
manently.
ground. For that please refer to chapter 6.
Mixing of wastewater with fresh water
should not happen before the fishpond. Oth-
11.3 Fishponds erwise wastewater nutrients would initiate
heavy growth of fungi, algae and other spe-
Wastewater is full of nutrients which can di- cies without being consumed by fish. When
rectly be used by algae, water plants and starting a fishpond, it first should be filled
lower animals which then could become fish with fresh water, wastewater is added later.
feed. But fish need also oxygen to breath,
which must be dissolved in water in pure When using natural lakes for wastewater
form of O2 (4 mg/l for carp species, > 6 mg/l based fishery it should be known, whether
for trout species). Since free oxygen is needed the lake is legally considered being part of
for degradation of the organic matter present the treatment system or already part of the
in wastewater, it cannot be expected to be environment in which wastewater is dis-
in sufficient supply for the survival of fish. charged. With other words, it must be clear
Therefore, pre-treated wastewater must be whether discharge standards must be ob-
mixed with freshwater from rivers or lakes, served at the inlet or whether the effluent
otherwise wastewater ponds must become of the lake will do.
so large that oxygen supply via pond sur- Kind and condition of fishes are an indica-
face overrules the oxygen demand of the tor of water quality. Carp species can live
organic load. in water with lower oxygen content and are
Organic load on fishponds should be be- most common in wastewater based fish cul-
low 5g BOD/ m2×d before 5 times dilution ture. Tilapia has become the most common
with freshwater. This implies that if the “Development Project-Fish” and is also
chances of dilution are non-existent, the growing well in wastewater ponds. Tench
organic load may be 1 g BOD/ m2×d. species often have difficulties to survive,
because they take feed from the ground
If possible, there should be several inlet
and get problems with anaerobic bottom
points in order to distribute organic matter
sludge. It is advisable to empty the ponds
more equally where it comes into contact
once every year in order to remove sludge
with oxygen quickly. It had been mentioned
or at least to expose the bottom sludge to
before that turbulent surface increases the
oxygen for stabilisation.
oxygen intake, and cooler temperature in-
creases the ability to store free oxygen in Fish ponds are normally more turbid than
water. However, it is not worthwhile trying other ponds, because fish swirl up sludge
to increase oxygen intake by special shaped from the ground. Trout species survive sur-
inlet structures or similar measures. In a prisingly well, despite higher turbidity, when
112
11 REUSE
113
11 REUSE
tion, some 60 kg nitrogen, 15 kg phospho- 11.5 Reuse for Process and Domestic
rus and a similar amount of potassium could Purposes
be applied per ha. However, domestic
Pathogenic wastewater, this is from domes-
wastewater in modern households some-
tic sources, slaughter houses or animal sta-
times lacks potassium which might need to
bles should better not be reused for other
be added to mobilise nitrogen and phos-
purposes, except for irrigation. Partly treated
phorus.
organic wastewater (this is more or less all
This booklet deals with wastewater, it can- wastewater from DEWATS-treatment) should
not provide sufficient information on gen- as well better not be reused as process
eral or specific local questions of agricul- water in industries or as flushing water in
ture or nutrient requirements of different toilets. Reuse of wastewater means always
crop. Each farmer has to find out his own some traces of organic matter or toxic sub-
method and his own way of using efficient stances present or even accumulating. Re-
and safe quantities of water. The practical use means as well longer retention times
farmer knows which nutrients are needed in a closed system which might facilitate
for which crop and a studied agriculturist anaerobic processes within pipes and tanks
would also know from the result of waste- which will cause corrosion. There is also a
water analysis whether the composition of theoretical risk of biogas explosion.
nutrients and trace elements suits the pro-
To suppress organic decay one may have
posed plantation. He will also know from
to add lime, which might form lime stone
that analysis whether too much of toxic el-
inside the system, or other inhibiting sub-
ements are remaining in the water (toxic
stances which would make proper final treat-
elements might be there if the COD is much
ment of wastewater costly. For example,
higher than the BOD). Such tests are advis-
even the first washing water in a fruit
able when using industrial or hospital
processing plant or in a potato chip plant
wastewater for the first time. The responsi-
might contain already too much organic
ble person of the wastewater source is
matter for any reuse without adding lime
obliged to inform farmers about toxic or
to oppress fermentation.
otherwise dangerous substances in the ef-
fluent, for example radioactive elements The chance of re-circulation of parts of the
from x-ray laboratories. water to serve the production process is
limited, especially when the wastewater en-
Original saline water will remain saline even
gineer and the production engineer have
after intensive treatment. Copper and other
limited theoretical knowledge. Pollution con-
metals, especially heavy metals accumulate
tent and degree of possible treatment, as
in the soil. Long term application of such
well as demand of water for consumption
water will spoil the soil forever.
and the wastewater flow over a given pe-
riod of one day (or one season) must be
investigated. Construction of intermediate
water stores and installing additional pumps
may become necessary, as well. Reuse of
wastewater is an option which sounds very
114
11 REUSE
reasonable in the context of sustainable de- ter consuming modern industries have re-
velopment. However, the problems which duced their water consumption considerably
go along with it do not allow to recom- in the last years. In most countries, amongst
mend any reuse, in general. them India and China, water consumption
Reuse of industrial wastewater which is only limits are obligatory for many industrial proc-
slightly polluted and where pollution might esses; such as sugar refineries, breweries,
not even be of organic nature, is a com- canning factories, etc.. Saving water in the
pletely different matter. For example, press process is always the better alternative, in-
water in a soap factory may be reused for stead of reusing water which had been care-
mixing the next load of soap paste. All wa- lessly wasted and polluted.
115
12 BIOGAS UTILISATION
Biogas biodegradable COD is removed, which is
involved in the production of methane. In
All anaerobic systems produce biogas. 55%
reality, the gas production rates are lower
- 75% of m ethane (CH4), 25% - 45% of
than this because a part of the biogas dis-
carbon dioxide(CO) plus traces of H2S, H,
solves in water and cannot be collected in
NH3 go to form biogas. The mild but typical
gaseous form. It is also common to relate
foul smell of biogas is due to the hydro-
biogas production to organic dry matter in
sulphur, which after it is transformed into
case of very strong viscous substrate, 300
H2SO3, is also responsible for the corrosive
- 450 l biogas per kg DM can be expected.
nature of biogas. The composition rate of
biogas depends on the properties of The calorific value of methane is 35.8 MJ/m3
wastewater and on the design of the reac- (9.94 kwh/m3). The calorific value of biogas
tor, i.e. the retention time. Theoretically, the depends on the methane content. Hydrogen
rate of methane production is 350 l per kg has practically no role. As a rule of thumb,
removed BODtotal. In practice however, meth- 1 m3 biogas can substitute 5 kg of firewood
ane production should be compared to 1 kg or 0.6 l of diesel fuel.
removed COD of which values are closer to Methane damages the ozone layer of the
the removed BODtotal than to the removed atmosphere. From an environmental point
BOD5 (see Fig. 14.). By doing so, one as- of view it should be burnt to become harm-
sumes that during anaerobic digestion only less. Only CO2 and water remain on burn-
Tab. 20. ing methane. Since the residual CO2 does
Potential biogas production from some selected in- not stem from fossil sources, it is harmless
dustrial processes to the atmosphere.
Biogas production from industrial processes
COD per COD relative gas methane
industry product removal production content
kg / to %
m³ CH4 /
% 12.2 Scope of Use
kg CODin
beet sugar 6-8 70-90 0,24-0,32 65-85 Biogas may be used in burners
starch - potato 30-40 75-85 0,26-0,30 75-85
starch wheat 100-120 80-95 0,28-0,33 55-65 for cooking or in combustion
starch - maize 8-17 80-90 0,28-0,32 65-75 engines to generate power. The
melasses
distillery - potato
180-250
50-70
60-75
55-65
0,21-0,26
0,19-0,23
60-70
65-70
use of biogas will depend on
distillery - corn 180-200 55-65 0,19-0,23 65-70 the regularity of biogas supply
pectine 75-80 0,26-0,28 50-60 and its availability to meet the
potato processing 15-25 70-90 0,24-0,32 70-80
sour pickles 15-20 80-90 0,28-0,28 70-75 minimum requirement of a par-
juice 2-6 70-85 0,24-0,30 70-80 ticular use. If biogas cannot be
milk processsing 1-6 70-80 0,24-0,28 65-75
breweries 5-10 70-85 0,24-0,33 75-85 utilised, it should be released
slaughter 5-10 75-90 0,26-0,32 80-85 in the air by safe ventilation.
cellulose 110-125 75-90 0,26-0,33 70-75
paper / board 4-30 60-80 0,21-0,28 70-80
It is not meaningful to collect,
ATV, BDE,VKS store and distribute biogas
116
12 BIOGAS UTILISATION
when it does not meet any real purpose, in ply, or frequent power cuts that justify the
which case it would not be used anyhow. investment. The light from a biogas lamp
cannot compete in quality and comfort with
What will not be used, does not an electric light.
need to be built
Biogas may be used as fuel in diesel en-
The extraction of carbohydrate (CO2) be- gines and Otto motors. As the ignition point
fore the utilisation of biogas is not essen- of biogas is rather high, it does not ex-
tial. However it might be advisable to re- plode under pressure of a normal diesel
move an unusually high H2S content with engine. Therefore, approximately 20% of
the help of iron oxide. Biogas flows through diesel must be used for ignition, together
a drum or pipe filled with iron oxide (e.g. with biogas. Diesel engines are most suit-
able as they can be run only on diesel in
rusted iron borings). The oxygen reacts with
case of irregular biogas supply. Further, the
the hydrogen to form water, while sulphur
slow flame speed of biogas is better suited
and iron (or sulphide of iron) remain. The
to the slow revolving diesel engine than
iron may be reused after again becoming
Otto motors. Biogas would not have enough
rusty due to exposure to air.
time to burn completely with engines that
The minimum requirement of biogas for a run with more than 2000 revolutions per
household kitchen is approximately 2 m3/d; minute.
below which meaningful use is rare. Approxi- It would be self-defeating to produce and
mately 20 to 30 m3 of domestic wastewater use biogas for the purpose of meaningless
are required daily to produce the minimum demonstration. The only exception may be
amount of gas. From an economical point of to aid natural science teaching in second-
view, biogas utilisation from wastewater ary schools.
becomes meaningful if the strength of the
wastewater is at least 1000 mg/l COD and
the regular daily flow is 20 m3. For more
information see chapter 4. 12.3 Gas Collection and Storage
Biogas is produced within wastewater and
The best way of using biogas is for heat
sludge, from where it rises in bubbles to
production. Biogas burners are simple in
the surface. The gas must be collected above
principle and can be self-made from con-
the surface and stored until it is ready for
verted LPG-burners. There are many fields
use. Even when gas production is regular,
in which biogas can be used: cooking in
the accumulation of useable gas is irregu-
households and canteens or drying and lar. Gas bubbles cause turbulence which
heating as part of industrial processes, are leads to the explosive release of gas in a
some examples. The best use of biogas chain reaction. Stirring of substrate, espe-
would be as fuel for the very process that cially stirring of sludge, has a similar effect.
produces the wastewater. As a result of this effect, gas production
It is also possible to use biogas for direct fluctuates by plus/minus 25% from one day
lighting in gas lamps. It is only meaningful to the other. The volume of gas storage
to do so in the absence of electricity sup- must provide for this fluctuation.
117
12 BIOGAS UTILISATION
The volume of gas in stock changes ac- ing to gas volume. The drum is normally
cording to gas production and the pattern made out of steel. To avoid corrosion, ma-
of gas consumption. With rigid structures, terials such as ferro-cement, HDP and fi-
the volume of the storage tank either breglass have also been tried. As a rule,
changes with changing volume of gas only very experienced workshops have been
present, or the gas pressure increases along successful with such material. Most find
with the stored volume. In fixed dome leakage a problem. The gas pressure is cre-
plants, and with flexible material such as ated by the weight of the drum (the weight
plastic foils, both the volume and the pres- is to be divided by the occupied surface
sure fluctuates. There are two main sys- area to calculate the pressure). A safety valve
tems for rigid materials, namely: is not required as surplus gas is released
under the rim when the drum rises beyond
❏ the floating drum and
a point.
❏ the fixed dome
For flexible material there are two variants, The fixed dome principle (Fig. 29. (A) + (B))
as well, namely has been developed for biogas digesters
for rural households as an alternative to
❏ the balloon, and the corrosion problem of the floating drum.
❏ the tent above water The fixed dome plant follows the principle
of displacing liquid substrate through gas
The floating drum (Fig. 29. (C)) is a tank pressure. The gas pressure is created by
that floats on water, the bottom of which is the difference in liquid level between the
open. The actual storage volume changes inside and outside of the closed vessel. In
together with the amount of gas available case of very high gas pressure, the outlet
and the drum rises above the water accord- pipe functions as a safety valve. Therefore,
the inner level of the outlet
pipe must be higher than
that of the inlet.
In biogas plants of a rela-
tively high gas production
compared to the volume of
substrate, an expansion
chamber is needed to sus-
tain gas pressure during
Fig. 57.
Floating drum plant. The drums
are lifted for re-painting which
allows a view on the double ring
wall of the water jacket. Con-
structed by LPTP and BORDA for
a slaughter house in Java / Indo-
nesia. [photo: Sasse]
118
12 BIOGAS UTILISATION
119
12 BIOGAS UTILISATION
Fig. 59.
Baffled septic tank with biogas utilisation. Only biogas from the settler and the first two baffled chambers
is used. They are arched in order to guarantee a gas-tight structure. The tanks which store biogas are
separated from the three chambers at the rear of which biogas is not collected. The design is based on 25 m3
daily wastewater flow, 4000 mg/l COD and a necessary gas storage volume of 8 m3.
A structure under pressure cannot develop Tent systems (Fig. 60.) are mostly used in
cracks, therefore the structure of the gas case of anaerobic ponds. Balloons may be
storage should be under pressure when- connected to any anaerobic tank reactor.
ever possible. This is the reason why anaero- Balloons and tent systems require the same
bic reactors should have arched ceilings, material. These materials must be gas-tight,
where heavy soil covering creates the re- UV-resistant, flexible and strong. PVC is not
quired pressure. Normally, baffled septic suitable. The weakest points are the seams
tanks and anaerobic filters are rectangular and more so the connections between the
in shape. Since it is difficult and expensive foil and the pipes. To secure gas tightness,
to make these structures gas-tight, and foils of tent plants are fixed to the solid
considering the fact that gas production is structure below the liquid level. Foil cover-
highest in the first part of the reactor, it ing may also be fixed to frames floating on
may be reasonable to collect gas from the the wastewater. Balloons should be laid on
first chambers only. These chambers must a sand bedding or be hung on belts or gir-
be completely gas-tight; rear chambers must dles. It may be necessary to protect them
be ventilated separately. against damage by rodents. The gas pres-
120
12 BIOGAS UTILISATION
sure must be kept under control to fit the Biogas always contains a certain amount
permissible stress of the material, especially of water vapour, which condenses to water
at joints. The provision of a safety valve when gas cools down. This water must be
which functions as a water seal on gas pres- drained; otherwise it may block the gas flow.
sure should solve this problem. Drain valves or automatic water traps to
avoid blockage must be provided at the
Balloon and tent systems, unless securely
lowest point of each pipe sector. Pipes must
fenced and protected against stones or rub-
be laid in continuous slope towards the
bish being thrown on them by children, are
drain points; straight horizontal pipes
not suitable for domestic plants. should not sag.
Gas pressure drops with growing length of
pipe, and more so with smaller pipe diam-
eter. Diameter of pipes must be larger when
the point of consumption is far off. Long
distances are generally not a problem. The
distance should be kept as short as possi-
ble for economic reasons. Connecting stoves
or lamps with a piece of flexible hose to the
main distribution pipe has the advantage in
that equipment can be moved without dis-
connecting the pipe. It also allows for con-
densed water to be drained.
In the case of fixed dome plants, a U-shaped
gas pressure meter (manometer) could be
installed near the point of consumption
Fig. 60.
Tent gas storage above a liquid manure tank. Biogas where it is difficult to see the amount of
plant constructed by SODEPRA and GTZ at a cattle gas available.
park in Ferkessedougou / Ivory Coast. [photo: Sasse]
121
12 BIOGAS UTILISATION
122
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
13.1 Technical Spread Sheets lect the entire theory for sizing a plant
before starting to design.
13.1.1 Usefulness of Computer
Calculation
The purpose of this chapter is to ensure 13.1.2 Risks of Using Simplified
that the engineer can produce his or her Formulas
own spread sheet for sizing DEWATS in any
computer programme that he or she is fa- The formulas used in the spreadsheet have
miliar with. The exercise of producing one’s been constructed for use by practitioners
own tables will compel engineers to deepen who are less bothered by theoretical knowl-
their understanding of design. edge. Nevertheless, the formulas are based
on scientific findings which had been sim-
The curves that have been used as the plified under consideration of practical ex-
basis for calculation in the formulas ap- perience.
plied in the computer spread sheets may
also be of interest to those who may not Even if the formulas were to be 100% cor-
use a computer (chapter 13.3 is addressed rect, the results would not be 100% accu-
to them, especially). As these curves visu- rate since the input data are not fully reli-
alise the most important relations between able. The accuracy of the formulas in gen-
various parameters, they will enhance un- eral is likely to be greater than the accu-
derstanding of the factors that influence racy of wastewater sampling and analys-
ing. There are many unknown factors in-
the treatment process. It should be no-
fluencing treatment efficiency and any „sci-
ticed that the graphs have been developed
entific“ handbook would give a possible
on the base of mixed information. There-
range of results. This book, howsoever „sci-
fore, the ways of calculation follow not
entifically“ based, is made for practical
always the same logic.
people who have to build a real plant out
Computerised calculations can be very of physically real and rigid building mate-
helpful, particularly if the formulas and the rial. The supervisor cannot tell to the ma-
input data are correct. On the other hand, son to make a concrete tank „about 4,90m
what may look impressive may as well be to 5,60m long“, they have to say: „make
‘rubbish in’, ‘rubbish out’. Nevertheless, it exactly 5,35 m“. The following spread
assuming correct input data, the compu- sheets are of the same spirit. Anybody who
ter spread sheet gives a quick impression uses more variable methods of calculation
of the plant’s space requirement and the already, does not belong to the target
treatment performance that can be ex- group of this book and is free to modify
pected. Ready-to-use computer spread formula and curves according to his or her
sheets are especially helpful to those who experience and ability (the author would
do not design DEWATS on a daily basis appreciate any information on improving
and who would otherwise need to recol- the spread sheet).
123
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
Since the formulas represent simplifications tural details or incorrect wastewater data
of complex natural processes, there is a than incorrect sizing.
certain risk that they do not reflect the re- In general, moderate over sizing reduces
ality adequately. However, the risk of the risk of unstable processes and inferior
changes in the reality that is assumed is treatment results.
greater. For example, the expansion of a
factory without enlarging the treatment sys-
tem is obviously of greater influence than
an assumed BOD of 350 mg/l, when in real- 13.1.3 About the Spread Sheets
ity it is only 300 mg/l. The spreadsheets that are presented in this
❏ In respect to using wrong figures for handbook are on EXCEL, version 5.0. Any
sludge accumulation in septic tanks, sedi- other suitable programme may also be used.
mentation ponds, Imhoff tanks and Please note that all calculations have been
anaerobic reactors, the biggest risk is made on the German version of the com-
that shorter desludging intervals may puter programme. Therefore, decimal fig-
become necessary. ures are expressed by a comma and Thou-
sands are expressed by a point. For exam-
❏ In case of anaerobic reactors, severe ple 1.100,5 means „one thousand one hun-
under-sizing could lead to a collapse of dred point five“.
the process, while over-sizing may re-
quire longer maturation time at the be- There might be differences in the syntax of
ginning. formulas, for example 3 2 (second power of
3) may be written =POWER(3;2) or =3^2,
❏ Incorrect treatment performance of pri- similar square root of 9 could be =SQRT(9)
mary or secondary treatment steps could or =9^1/2, cubic root of 27 would be
be the cause of over- or undersized post- =power(27;1/3) or =27^1/3. Some programmes
treatment facilities. This would mean un- may accept only one of the alternatives.
necessarily high investment costs, or the
necessity of enlarging the post treatment The spreadsheets are based on data that is
facilities. normally available to the planning engineer
in the context of DEWATS. For example,
❏ Undersized anaerobic ponds stink, but while the measurement of the BOD5 and
slightly oversized ponds may not develop the COD may be possible at the beginning
sufficient scum as a result of which these of planning, it is unlikely that the BOD5 will
ponds stink as well. be regularly controlled later on. Therefore,
❏ There is no harm in over-sizing aerobic calculations are based on COD or, the re-
ponds, bearing in mind that aerobic sults of BOD-based formula have been set
ponds, which are too small, may also in relation to COD, and vice versa. The term
smell badly. BOD stands in the following for BOD5.
❏ The biggest risk lies in clogging of fil- Some of the formula used in the spread-
ters, in both anaerobic tanks and gravel sheets is based on curves, which had been
filters. However, the risk is more likely obtained from scientific publications, hand-
due to inferior filter material, faulty struc- books and the author’s and his colleagues
124
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
experience. The formulas basically define straight line is expressed in its tangent and
trends. For example, it is well known that the height of a certain point is found by
the removal efficiency of an anaerobic re- multiplying the length with the ratio of the
actor increases when the COD/BOD ratio is slope, i.e. total height divided by total length
narrow. Such curves have been simplified (Fig. 63.).
to a chain of straight lines to allow the
reader to easily understand the formulas 10,5
and to adjust their values to local condi- P
should not be written. For example E6=D5/ BOD/COD removal efficiency compared to COD
wastewater flow volume or wastewater Fig. 64. Change of COD/BOD ratio during anaerobic
strength. Columns which are labelled „cho- treatment. The samples have been taken by SIITRAT
sen“ contain data which may be modified from anaerobic filters, most of them serving schools
in the suburbs of Delhi / India.
to optimise the design, for example hydrau-
lic retention time or desludging intervals.
All other cells contain formulas and should simplified curve of ratio of efficiency of
BOD removal to COD removal
be locked, in order to avoid accidental de- 1,15
1
35% 45% 55% 65% 75% 85% 95%
COD rem. efficiency in %
1,4
logical process while the COD represents 1,3
126
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
13.1.5 Wastewater Production per Capita Formulas used on the spread sheet „waste-
water per capita“
The spread sheet (Tab. 22.) helps to define
domestic wastewater on the basis of the E5=A5*C5/1000
number of persons and the wastewater they F5=A5*B5/E5
discharge. BOD and water consumption fig-
G5=D5*F5
ures vary widely from place to place, and
therefore should be inquired very carefully.
60%
50%
To observe the fact that sludge compacts 40%
127
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
0,50
J6=IF(H5<0,5;1,06;IF(H5<0,75;(H5-0,5)*0,065/
0,25+1,06;IF(H5<0,85;1,125-(H5-0,75)*0,1/
0,40
0,1;1,025)))
factor
0,30
The formula relates to Fig. 65.
0,20
D11=2/3*H11/B11/C11
0,10
F11=D11/2
0,00
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
settling time in hours
H11=IF(H12*(E5-J5)/
1000*A11*30*A5+C5*F5<2*A5*F5/24;2*A5*F5/
Fig. 68. 24;H12*(E5-J5)/
COD removal in settlers 1000*A11*30*A5+C5*F5)+0,2*B11*E11
The formula takes care that sludge volume
is less than half the total volume.
Formulas of spread sheet „septic tank“
I11=(E11+G11)*C11*B11
C5=A5/B5
J11=(D5-I5)*A5*0,35/1000/0,7*0,5
H5=G5/0,6*IF(F5<1;F5*0,3;IF(F5<3;(F5-1)*0,1/
350 l methane is produced from each kg
2+0,3;IF(F5<30;(F5-3)*0,15/27+0,4;0,55)))
COD removed.
The formula relates to Fig. 68. The number
0,6 is a factor found by experience. H12=0,005*IF(A11<36;1-
A11*0,014;IF(A11<120;0,5-(A11-
I5=(1-H5)*D5
36)*0,002;1/3))
J5=(1-H5*J6)*E5 The formula relates to Fig. 67.
A B C D E F G H I J
1 General spread scheet for septic tank, input and treatment data
time of
daily max flow HRT settleable COD
most COD BOD5 COD BOD5
2 waste at peak inside SS / COD removal
waste inflow inflow outflow outflow
water flow hours tank ratio rate
water flow
3 given given calcul. given given chosen given calcul. calcul. calcul.
4 m³/day h m³/h mg/l mg/l h mg/l / mg/l % mg/l mg/l
5 13,0 12 1,08 633 333 18 0,42 35% 411 209
6 COD/BOD 5 -> 1,90 12 - 24 h 0,35-0,45 domestic BODrem.-> 1,06
7 dimensions of septic tank
minimum
inner actual biogas
de- water volume
width of inner length of first length of second volume of 70%CH4;
sludging depth at incl.
septic chamber chamber septic 50%
interval outlet sludge dissolved
tank tank
8 point
9 chosen chosen chosen requir . chosen requir. chose n requir . chec k calcul.
10 months m m m m m m m³ m³ m³/d
11 12 2,50 2,00 3,13 3,10 1,56 1,55 23,46 23,25 0,72
12 sludge l/g BODrem. 0,0042
128
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
Fig. 69.
Illustration to spread sheet for calculation of septic tank dimensions
Imhoff Tank
Except for the fact that sedimentation is Volume, number of peak hours of flow and
more effective in the Imhoff tank, the other pollution load are the basic entries. Start-
treatment properties are comparable to that ing from these data, the “entrance param-
of any settler. However, if wastewater has eters” are - similar to that of the septic
to remain „fresh,“ it cannot at the same tank - HRT and desludging intervals.
time, come into close contact with active
sludge. Therefore, BOD removal from the
liquid is close to zero. Because sedimenta-
tion is more, the COD or BOD removal is
comparable and only reflected in the factor
0.50 of cell H5.
0,30
rectang. 0,30
(circular) 0,08 flow tank
1,41 2,28
2,24 2,82
Fig. 70.
Illustration to spread sheet for calculation of Imhoff Tank dimensions
129
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
Tab. 24.
Spread sheet for calculation of Imhoff Tank dimensions
A B C D E F G H I J
1 General spread sheet for Imhoff tank, input and treatment data
time of
daily max flow HRT settleable COD
most COD BOD5 COD BOD5
2 waste at peak inside flow SS / COD removal
waste inflow inflow outflow outflow
water flow hours tank ratio rate
water flow
3 given given calcul. given given chosen given calcul. calcul. calcul.
4 m³/day h m³/h mg/l mg/l h mg/l / mg/l % mg/l mg/l
5 25,00 12 2,08 633 333 1,50 0,42 27% 460 237
6 COD/BOD 5 -> 1,90 domestic: 0,35-0,45 COD/BODrem 1,06
7 dimensions of Imhoff tank
total inner inner biogas
de- inner space
flow tank sludge width of length of sludge total depth 70%CH4;
sludging width of beside
volume volume Imhoff Imhoff height at outlet 50%
interval flow tank flow tank
8 tank tank dissolved
9 chosen calcul. calcul. chosen chosen calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul.
10 months m³ m³ m m m m m m m³/d
11 12 3,13 3,61 1,30 0,55 2,24 2,82 0,57 2,28 1,08
12 sludge l/g BODrem. 0,0042
C5=A5/B5 F11=D11+E11+0,25+2*0,07
All formulas of dimensions relate to the
H5=G5/0,5*IF(F5<1;F5*0,3;IF(F5<3;(F5-1)*0,1/
2+0,3;IF(F5<30;(F5-3)*0,15/27+0,4;0,55)))
geometry of the Imhoff tank as shown in
The formula relates to Fig. 68. The number Fig. 70.
0,5 is a factor found by experience. G11=B11/(0,3*D11+(D11*D11*0,85/2))
I5=(1-H5)*D5 H11=C11/F11/G11
J5=(1-H5*J6)*E5 I11=H11+0,85*D11+0,3+0,3
E6=D5/E5 J11=(D5-I5)*A5*0,35/1000/0,7*0,5
J6=IF(H5<0,5;1,06;IF(H5<0,75;(H5-0,5)*0,065/
350 l methane is produced from each kg
0,25+1,06;IF(H5<0,85;1,125-(H5-0,75)*0,1/ COD removed.
0,1;1,025))) C12=0,005*IF(A11<36;1-
The formula relates to Fig. 65. A11*0,014;IF(A11<120;0,5-(A11-36)*0,002;1/3))
B11=C5*F5 The formula relates to Fig. 67.
130
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
1,00
basic entries. Starting from that data the 0,90
„entrance parameter“ for the anaerobic fil- 0,80
factor
ter is the hydraulic retention time. The per- 0,70
0,90
of increased depth on HRT is less with gravel 0,85
than with plastic form pieces. When filter 0,80
height shall remain the same, the distance 0 500 1000 1500 2000
COD in mg/l
2500 3000 3500 4000
anaerobic filter, CODrem in relation to HRT, anaerobic filter, CODrem in relation to specific
CODin 1500 mg/l; 25°C filter surface
1,10
80%
75% 1,05
70% 1,00
factor
65%
CODrem
0,95
60%
0,90
55%
50% 0,85
45%
0,80
40% 0 50 100 150 200 250
0 20 40 60 80 100 specific filter surface in m²/m³
HRT in hours
Fig. 74.
Fig. 71. COD removal relative to filter surface in anaerobic
COD removal relative to HRT in anaerobic filters filters
131
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
Tab. 25.
Spread sheet for calculation of anaerobic filter dimensions
A B C D E F G H I J K L
1 General spread scheet for anaerobic filter (AF) with integrated septic tank (ST)
time of COD BOD5 BOD /
daily max. peak lowest HRT in de-
most COD BOD5 SSsettl. / removal removal COD
2 waste flow per digester septic sludging
waste inflow inflow COD ratio septic septic remov.
water flow hour temper. tank interval
water flow tank tank factor
3 given given calcul. given given given given chosen chosen calcul. calcul. calc.
4 m³/day h m³/h mg/l mg/l mg/l / mg/l °C h months % % ratio
5 25,00 12 2,08 633 333 0,42 25 2 36 25% 26% 1,06
6 COD/BOD 5 -> 1,90 0,35-0,45 (domestic) 2h
7 treatment data
specific COD COD rem
COD BOD5 HRT COD
surface of voids in factors to calculate COD removal rate of removal rate of
inflow in inflow into inside AF outflow of
filter filter mass anaerobic filter rate (AF total
AF AF reactor AF
8 medium only) system
9 calcul. calcul. given given chosen calculated according to graphs calcul. calcul. calcul.
10 mg/l mg/l m²/m³ % h f-temp f -strenght f-surface f-HRT % mg/l %
11 478 247 100 35% 30 1,00 0,91 1,00 69% 70% 142 78%
12 80 -120 30-45 24 - 48 h
13 dimensions of septic tank
BOD5 rem inner minimum actual
BOD / BOD5 Volume
rate of width of water inner length of first length of second sludge volume of
COD rem. outflow of incl.
total septic depth at chamber chamber accum. septic
factor AF sludge
14 system tank inlet point tank
15 calc. calcul. calcul. chosen chosen calcul. chosen calcul. chosen calc. requir. calcul.
16 ratio % mg/l m m m m m m l/kg BOD m³ m³
17 1,10 85% 49 1,75 2,25 1,69 1,70 0,85 0,85 0,00 10,00 10,04
18 sludge l/g BODrem.
19 dimension of anaerobic filter biogas production check !
filter
maximum
space height org.load
out of out of up-flow
volume of depth of length of number of width of below (top 40 on filter
septic anaerobic total velocity
filter tanks filter tanks each tank filter tanks filter tanks perforated cm below volume
tank filter inside
slabs water COD
filter voids
20 level)
21 calcul. chosen calcul. chosen requir. chosen calcul. assump: 70%CH4; 50% dissolved calcul. calcul.
22 m³ m m No. m m m m³/d m³/d m³/d kg/m³*d m/h
23 31,25 2,25 2,25 3 2,69 0,60 1,20 0,97 2,10 3,07 1,57 0,98
24 max!! <4,5 < 2,0
132
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
septic tank gas release anaerobic filter septic tank anaerobic filter
inlet outlet
0,40
5
0,60
Fig. 75.
Illustration to spread sheet for calculation of anaerobic filter dimensions
H11=IF(C11<100;(C11-50)*0,1/ K17=IF(OR(K5>0;J5>0);IF(J17*(E5-B11)/
50+0,9;IF(C11<200;(C11-100)*0,06/100+1;1,06)) 1000*I5*30*A5+H5*C5<2*H5*C5;2*H5*C5;J17*(E5-
The formula relates to Fig. 74. B11)/1000*I5*30*A5+H5*C5);0)
The formula controls that sludge volume is
I11=IF(E11<12;E11*0,1612
+0,44;IF(E11<24;(E11-12)*0,07/
less than half the total volume and allows
12+0,6;IF(E11<33;(E11-24)*0,03/ to omit any settler.
9+0,67;IF(E11<100;(E11-33)*0,09/ L17=(G17+I17)*E17*D17
67+0,7;0,78))))
A23=E11*A5/24
The formula relates to Fig. 71.
C23=B23
J11=IF(F11*G11*H11*I11*(1+(D23*0,04))<0,98
;F11*G11*H11*I11*(1+(D23*0,04));0,98) E23=A23/D23/((B23*0,25)+(C23*(B23-G23*(1-
The formula considers improved treatment D11))))
by increasing the number of chambers and G23=B23-F23-0,4-0,05
limits the treatment efficiency to 98% H23=(D5-A11)*A5*0,35/1000/0,7*0,5
K11=A11*(1-J11) 350 l methane is produced from each kg
L11=(1-K11/D5) COD removed.
A17=IF(L11<0,5;1,06;IF(L11<0,75;(L11- I23=(A11-K11)*A5*0,35/1000/0,7*0,5
0,5)*0,065/0,25+1,06;IF(L11<0,85;1,125-(L11- 350 l methane is produced from each kg
0,75)*0,1/0,1;1,025))) COD removed.
The formula relates to Fig. 65. J23=SUM(H23:I23)
B17=L11*A17 K23=A11*A5/1000/(G23*E23*C23*D11*D23)
C17=(1-B17)*E5 L23=C5/(E23*C23*D11)
F17=2/3*K17/D17/E17
H17=F17/2
J17=0,005*IF(I5<36;1-I5*0,014;IF(I5<120;0,5-(I5-
36)*0,002;1/3))
The formula relates to Fig. 67.
133
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
13.1.9 Baffled Septic Tank baffled septic tank, BODrem in relation to organic
load
Volume, number of peak hours of flow and 1,00
factor
eter” for designing a baffled septic tank is 0,80
0,75
the up-flow velocity (cell I17). However, the 0,70
0,95
curve is used used to prevent organig overloading 0,9
overloading caused by too strong wastewater Fig. 77 0,85
0,8
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
BOD in mg/l
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
HRT in hours
Fig. 76.
BOD removal relative to HRT in baffled septic tanks
134
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
Tab. 26.
Spread sheet for calculation of baffled septic tank dimensions
A B C D E F G H I J K
1 General spread sheet for baffled septic tank with integrated settler
time of HRT in COD
daily max peak settleable lowest de-
most COD BOD5 COD/BOD settler removal
2 waste flow per SS / COD digester sludging
waste inflow inflow ratio (no settler rate in
water flow hour ratio temp. interval
water flow HRT = 0) settler
3 avg. given max. given given calcul. given given chosen chosen calcul.
4 m³/day h m³/h mg/l mg/l ratio mg/l °C months h %
5 25 12 2,08 633 333 1,90 0,42 25 18 1,50 23%
6 COD/BOD 5 -> 0,35-0,45 1,5 h
7 treatment data
BOD5 COD /
COD rem, theor. rem COD
removal inflow into baffled BOD5 factors to calculate COD
25°, COD rate acc. rem.rate COD out
rate in reactor ratio after removal rate of baffled reactor
1500 to factors baffle only
8 settler settler
9 calcul. COD BOD5 calcul. calculated according to graphs calcul. calcul. calcul.
10 % mg/l mg/l mg/l/mg/l f-overload f-strength f-temp f-HRT % % mg/l
11 24% 489 253 1,94 1,00 0,84 1,00 1,02% 0,84 72 70
12 1,06 <-COD /BOD rem.factor COD / BOD removal factor-> 1,085
13 dimensions of settler baffled septic tank
inner masonry
total sludge max number of
total COD measurements length of length of depth at
14 BOD5 BOD5 out accum. upflow upflow
rem.rate chosen acc. to settler settler outlet
rem.rate rate velocity chambers
required volume
15 calcul. calcul. calcul. width depth calcul. calcul. chosen chosen chosen chosen
16 % % mg/l m m l/g COD m³ m m/h No. m
17 79% 63% 172 2,00 1,50n 0,0037 2,39 2,40 1,8 5 1,50
18 1,4-2.0 m/h
19 dimensions of baffled septic tank status and gp
area of actual biogas
length of chambers actual width of
single volume of actual org. load (ass: CH4
20 should not exceed width of chambers upflow downflow
upflow baffled total HRT (BOD5) 70%; 50%
half depth velocity shaft
chamber reactor dissolved)
21 calcul. chosen calcul. calcul. chosen calcul. chosen calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul.
3
22 m m m² m m m/h m m³ h kg/m *d m³/d
23 0,75 0,75 1,16 1,54 2,00 1,39 0,25 15,00 14 0,84 3,52
24 HRT reduced by 5% for sludge
TIP: If removal rate is insufficient; increase number of upflow chambers to keep upflow velocity low.
inlet
30 outlet
1,65
settler 1,50 1,50 1,50 1,50
baffled settler
20
baffled reactor
0,75 0,75 0,75 0,75 2,00 (settler)
2,40 0,25 0,25 0,25 0,25 2,00 (baffled reactor)
total length incl. walls in m: 9,51
Fig. 79.
Illustration to spread sheet for calculation of baffled septic tank dimensions
135
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
136
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
example from slaughter houses may have ume which is calculated from the one
again different properties. It is therefore day of bench scale testing.
difficult to find dimensions for all kind of ❏ All settleable and non-settleable solids
„strong“ wastewater for which a biogas will digest within hydraulic retention
plant could be suitable. The following times typical for sludge reactors
spread sheet should be used with certain ❏ 95% of their BOD is removed after 25
reservation and formulas may need to be days and 30°C, this is equivalent to 400 l
adapted locally. of biogas produced from 1 kg of organic
The spread sheet, however, reveals the in- dry matter
fluencing factors. The formulas are based
on the following assumptions: gas production in relation to HRT
settleable solids.
0,7
0,6
factor
0,5
will only make good for the loss in vol- Fig. 80.
ume by compression. Thus, the accumu- Gas production of fixed dome biogas plants in rela-
lating sludge volume is the same vol- tion to HRT
1,20 3,19
3,28 3,13
1,50 1,38
Fig. 82.
Illustration to spread sheet for calculation of biogas plant dimensions
137
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
Tab. 27.
Spread sheet for calculation of biogas plant dimensions
A B C D E F G H I J K L
1 General spread sheet for biogas plants, input and gas production data
solids ideal
lowest
TS (DM) org. DM / org. DM settleable biogas gas production total gas methan
daily flow HRT digester
content total DM content within one product. factors product. content
temper.
2 day at 30°C
3 given given assumed calcul. tested chosen given given calcul. acc. to graphs calcul. assumed
4 m³/d % ratio % ml/l d °C l/kg org DM f-HRT f-temp m³/d ratio
5 0,60 6,0% 67% 4,0% 20 25 25 400 0,97 0,90 8,42 70%
6 200-450
7 values for all digester shapes for all fixed dome plants
free
non-
approx. de- total gas gas holder distance outlet diameter diameter
dissolv. sludge liquid
effluent sludging digester storage volume above above of left of expans.
methan volume volume
COD interval volume capacity VG slurry zero zero shaft chamber
prod.
8 line
9 assumed calcul. chosen calcul. calcul. calcul. given calcul. chosen chosen chosen calcul.
10 ratio mg/l months m³ m³ m³ ratio m³ m m m m
11 80% 7.943 12 4,32 15,0 19,3 65% 5,5 0,25 0,60 1,20 3,19
12 minimum 0,60 m
13 cylindrical floating drum plant ball shaped digester
volume of
wall actual
theor. theor. actual actual empty actual net
radius of width of thickness radius of radius ball digester
14 height of depths of height of depth of space volume of
digester water ring of water gas holder shape radius
gas holder digester gas holder digester above digester
ring (ball)
zero line
15 chosen chosen chosen calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. requir. chosen check
16 m m m m m m m m m³ m m m³
17 1,50 0,25 0,12 1,38 0,92 3,13 1,07 3,28 0,34 1,77 1,80 20,56
18
19 ball shaped digester half-ball shaped digester
volume of actual
gas
lowest slurry level below zero empty radius half digester actual net lowest slurry level below zero gas
pressure
line (fill in trial until "calcul." space round radius volume of line (fill in trial until "calcul." pressure
ball
match "target") above shape (half digester match "target") half-ball
shaped
20 zero line round)
21 trial !! calcul. target calc. calcul. requir . chosen check trial !! calcul. target calc.
22 m m³ m³ m w.c. m³ m m m³ m m³ m³ m w.c.
23 0,90 5,89 5,81 1,50 0,43 2,23 2,25 20,01 0,74 5,91 5,90 1,34
24 1,50 max. 1,50 max.
0,5
0,4
The formula relates to Fig. 80
0,3
0,2 J5=IF(G5<5;0;IF(G5<10;(G5-5)*0,4/
0,1
5;IF(G5<25;(G5-10)*0,5/15+0,4;(G5-25)*0,1/
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5+0,9)))
temperature in °C The formula relates to Fig. 81
Fig. 81.
Gas production of fixed dome biogas plants in rela-
tion to temperature
138
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
K5=H5*I5*J5*A5*D5 B23=PI()*(I11+A23)*(I11+A23)*(K17-(I11+A23)/3)
B11=1,1*((1000*K5*L5/A11/0,35)/ The volume above the lowest slurry level
(0,95*I5*J5))*(1-0,95*I5*J5)/A5 is found by trial and error; p is expressed
The formula finds the influent COD and cal- as PI().
culates the COD removal by assuming 350l C23=I17+H11
methane per kg COD removed; the addi- D23=A23+J11
tional 10% stand for the anorganic COD E23=3,14*I11*I11*(G23-I11/3)
which is not removed.
F23=0,02+POWER((F11+H11/2+E23)/2,09;1/3)
D11=30*C11*A5*E5/1000 The mathematical expression is:
E11=F5*A5
( F11 + H11 / 2 + E 23)
0,02 + 3 ; 2,09 is 2/3π
F11=D11+E11 2,09
H11=K5*G11 H23=2,09*(G23-0,02)*(G23-0,02)*(G23-0,02)-
E23-H11/2
L11=2*SQRT((H11/J11-(K11/2)*(K11/2)*PI())/PI())
The mathematical expression is: J23=PI()*(I23+I11)*(I23+I11)*(G23-(I23+I11)/3)
The volume above the lowest slurry level is
H11 K11 2
− × π found by trial and error; π is expressed as
J 11 2
2× PI().
π
K23=E23+H11
D17=A17-B17/2
L23=I23+J11
E17=H11/(D17*D17*PI())
The mathematical expression is:
H11/(D172 × π)
F17=(F11-POWER(A17-B17-C17;2)*PI()*E17)/
(A17*A17*PI())+E17
13.1.11 Gravel Filter
The mathematical expression is:
Volume, number of flow and pollution load
( A17 − B17 − C17) 2 × π × E17
F11 −
A17² × π
+ E17 are the basic entries. Starting from these
data, the „entrance parameter“ is the de-
G17=E17+0,15
sired effluent quality(BODout, cell E5). The
H17=F17+0,15 hydraulic retention time and temperature
I17=3,14*I11*I11*(K17-I11/3) have the greatest influence on treatment
J17=0,02+POWER((F11+H11/2+I17)/4,19;1/3) performance. The HRT depends on desired
The theoretical digester volume is taken as BOD removal rate (Fig. 84.). The curve ist
the volume below the zero line plus half based on 25°C and 35% pore space. The
the gas storage; 0,02 m are added for plas- pore space inside the filter defines the „real“
ter. The mathematical expression is: HRT, and the type of plantation plays also
a certain role. However, more influencing
( F11 + H11 / 2 + I17) ; 4,19 is 4/3π
0,02 + 3 factors may be near to 1.0 and, more im-
4,19
portantly, the information needed to define
L17=4,19*(K17-0,02)*(K17-0,02)*(K17-0,02)-I17- these factors in any case, are most prob-
H11/2 ably not available at site.
139
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
In practice, the limiting factors are the or- pared to 20 g for aerobic ponds are low.
ganic load and the hydraulic load. The limit This is so because the gravel filter works
for hydraulic load is approximately 100 l/m2 more like a plug flow system, the organic
(0.1 m *d). However, this value could be load in the front part is much higher than
much higher when using coarse filter me- in the rear part and oxygen supply is infe-
dia with guaranteed conductivity. A horizon- rior in the lower part, also. This is the rea-
tal filter should not receive more than 10 g son why cross section area at the inflow
BOD/m2*d, because oxygen supply via the side is also related to organic loading (cell
surface is limited. This value of 10 g, com- E12).
planted gravel filter, 90% BOD rem. Planted gravel filter, 35% pore space; 25°C
1,40
90
1,30
80
70 1,20
60 1,10
HRT days
50
factor on HRT
1,00
40
0,90
30
20 0,80
10 0,70
0
0,60
10 15 20 25 30 35
temp. °C 0,50
0,40
70% 75% 80% BODrem 85% 90% 95%
Fig. 83.
HRT relative to temperature in gravel filters, based
on 90% BOD removal Fig. 84.
Influence of desired BOD removal rates on HRT of
gravel filters, based on 35% pore space at 25°C
Tab. 28.
Spread sheet for calculation of dimensions of horizontal gravel filters
A B C D E F G H I J K L
1 General spread sheet for planted gravel filter, input and treatment data
HRT
min. hydraulic
average COD/BOD outfl. BOD5 factor acc.
2 COD in BOD5 in COD rem. COD out annual HRT conduct.
flow ratio BOD5 rem. rate to
Temp. Ks
k20=0,3
3 given given given calcul. wanted calcul. calcul. calcul. given calcul. calcul. given
4 m³/d mg/l mg/l mg/l / mg/l mg/l % % mg/l C° via graph days m/d
5 26 410 215 1,91 30 86% 84% 66 25 0,86 11,20 200
6 BOD rem.factor via graph-> 1,025 Ks in m/s=> 2,31E-03
7 dimensions results
actual
HRT in depth of cross surface hydr. load org. load
bottom width of length of chosen length surface
35% pore filter at section area on chosen on chosen
slope filter basin filter basin width chosen area
space inlet area required surface surface
8 chosen
9 calcul. chosen chosen calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. chosen chosen check ! calcul. calcul.
10 days % m m² m m² m m m m² m/d g/m² BOD
11 3,92 1,0% 0,60 37,27 62,1 559 9,0 62,5 9,0 563 0,046 9,9
12 ^information only 0,3-0,6 m max BOD 5 150 g/m² always > 62,1 max. loads=> 0,100 10
140
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
rizomes
h= 0,60 1,0%
bottom slope
Fig. 85.
Illustration to spread sheet for calculation of dimensions of horizontal gravel filters
G11=F11/E11
Formulas of spread sheet „gravel filter“
J11=H11*I11
D5=B5/C5
K11=A5/J11
F5=1-E5/C5
L11=K11*C5
G5=F5/G6
H12=E11
H5=B5*(1-G5)
J5=IF(F5<0,4;(F5*0,22/0,4);
IF(F5<0,75;(F5-0,4)*31/35+0,22;
IF(F5<0,8;(F5-0,75)*9,5/5+0,605; 13.1.12 Anaerobic Pond
IF(F5<0,85;(F5-0,8)*12,5/5+0,7;IF(F5<0,9;
(F5-0,85)*17,5/5+0,825;(F5-0,9)*30/5+1))) Anaerobic ponds may be built for sedimen-
The formula refers to Fig. 84. tation only, with very short retention times,
K5=J5*IF(I5<15;82-(I5-10)*37/5;IF(I5<20;45-(I5-
as highly loaded ponds when heavy scum
15)*31/5;IF(I5<25;24-(I5-20)*11/5;IF(I5<30;13- formation may be expected to seal the sur-
(I5-25)*6/5;7)))) face, or as relatively low loaded ponds which
The formula refers to Fig. 83. are almost odourless because of neutral pH
values. The spread sheet may be used for
G6=IF(F5<0,5;1,06;IF(F5<0,75;(F5-0,5)*0,065/
0,25+1,06;IF(F5<0,85;1,125-(F5-0,75)*0,1/
all three categories, Therefore the hydrau-
0,1;1,025))) lic retention time is the „entrance param-
The formula refers to Fig. 65. eter“. Ponds with long retention times (low
organic loading rates) may be divided into
L6=L5/86400
several ponds in a row. The front portion
A11=K5*35% may be separated to support development
D11=IF(A5/L5/B11<A5*C5/E12;A5*C5/E12;A5/L5/ of scum at ponds with short retention times.
B11) The organic load of the effluent may be the
The formula compares hydraulic load to major design criteria which can best be in-
maximum organic load in cell E12. fluenced by the HRT. Ambient temperature
E11=D11/C11 is important and should not be chosen too
F11=IF(A5*C5/L12>A5*K5/C11;A5*C5/ high for want of smaller ponds. It is as-
L12;A5*K5/C11) sumed that temperature has no influence
The formula compares permitted hydraulic on COD removal at short retention times of
load with organic load in cell L12 less than 30 hours.
141
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
Cell G11 should be observed and compared The biogas potential is also calculated to
with F11 when the pond is near residential decide whether a closed anaerobic tank with
houses. biogas collection should be built instead.
factor
0,5 0,3
0,4
0,3 0,2
0,2
0,1
0,1
0 0
0 120 240 360 480 600 720 0 120 240 360 480 600 720
HRT in hours HRT in hours
Fig. 86. Influence of HRT on COD removal of non- Fig. 87. Influence of HRT on COD removal of settled
settled solids in anaerobic ponds solids in anaerobic ponds
Tab. 29a. Spread sheet for calculation of dimensions of anaerobic sedimentation pond (short HRT). In that
example the pond is extremely long and narrow to allow development of scum in the highly loaded front
portion. A partition wall in the front third could support the effect. Would the pond be more square in size,
there would be no highly loaded areas, but as well no sealing scum layer. Both options are possible.
A B C D E F G H I J
1 General spread sheet for anaerobic and sedimentation ponds
settleable
COD / ambient
daily flow COD in BOD5 in HRT SS / COD BOD5 removal factors
BOD5 temp.°C
2 ratio
3 given given given calcul. chosen given given calculated acc. to graphs
4 m³/d mg/l mg/l ratio h mg/l / mg/l °C f-HRT f-temp f-number
5 260 2000 850 2,35 72 0,42 25 57% 100% 100%
6 domestic-> 0,35-0,45
7 treatment data
BOD5 BOD / COD org. load odourless de-
sludge sludge
removal COD removal COD out BOD5 out BOD5 on limit of sludging
accum. volume
8 rate remov. rate total vol. org. load interval
9 calcul. calc. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. chosen calcul. calcul.
10 % factor % mg/l mg/l g /m³*d g /m³*d months l/g BOD m³
11 57% 1,08 53% 943 366 171 263 60 0,0023 512
12
13 dimensions biogas potential
non-
length of potential
water depth of total area width of total length number of methan dissolv.
each pond biogas
volume pond of pond ponds of pond ponds content methan
if equal product.
14 prod.
15 calcul. chosen required chosen calcul. chosen calcul. assumed assumed calcul.
16 m³ m m² m m number m ratio ratio m³/d
17 780 2,0 646 6,00 107,67 1 107,67 70% 50% 68,67
18
142
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
Tab. 29b.
Spread sheet as Tab. 29a but used for calculation of dimensions of anaerobic fermentation pond (long HRT)
A B C D E F G H I J
1 General spread sheet for anaerobic and sedimentation ponds
settleable
COD / ambient
daily flow COD in BOD5 in HRT SS / COD BOD5 removal factors
BOD5 temp.°C
2 ratio
3 given given given calcul. chosen given given calculated acc. to graphs
4 m³/d mg/l mg/l ratio h mg/l / mg/l °C f-HRT f-temp f-number
5 260 2000 850 2,35 480 0,42 25 92% 100% 108%
6 domestic-> 0,35-0,45
7 treatment data
BOD5 BOD / COD org. load odourless de-
sludge sludge
removal COD removal COD out BOD5 out BOD5 on limit of sludging
accum. volume
8 rate remov. rate total vol. org. load interval
9 calcul. calc. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul. chosen calcul. calcul.
10 % factor % mg/l mg/l g /m³*d g /m³*d months l/g BOD m³
11 98% 1,03 96% 88 17 36 263 60 0,0023 881
12
13 dimensions biogas potential
non-
length of potential
water depth of total area width of total length number of methan dissolv.
each pond biogas
volume pond of pond ponds of pond ponds content methan
if equal product.
14 prod.
15 calcul. chosen required chosen calcul. chosen calcul. assumed assumed calcul.
16 m³ m m² m m number m ratio ratio m³/d
17 5.200 2,5 2.432 20,00 121,62 2 60,81 70% 50% 124,29
18
107,67 6,00
Fig. 88.
Illustration to spread sheet for calculation of dimensions of anaerobic ponds (figures of Tab.29a.
I5=IF(E5<30;1;IF(G5<20;(G5-10)*0,39/ F11=A5*C5/(A17+J11)
20+0,47;IF(G5<25;(G5-20)*0,14/ G11=75%*IF(G5<10;100;IF(G5<20;G5*20-
5+0,86;IF(G5<30;(G5-25)*0,08/5+1;1,1))))
100;IF(G5<25;G5*10+100;350)))
The formula refers to Fig. 72. COD removal The formula refers to the rule of thumb given
by sedimentation (HRT <30 hours) is not by Mara, reflected in Tab. 15.
influenced by temperature.
I11=0,005*IF(H11<36;1-
J5=IF(E5<24;1;IF(F17=1;1;IF(F17=2;1,08;IF H11*0,014;IF(H11<120;0,5-(H11-36)*0,002;1/3))
(F17=3;1,12;1,13)))) The formula refers to Fig. 67.
A11=IF(H5*I5*J5<0,98;H5*I5*J5;0,98) J11=30*A5*(C5-E11)*I11*H11/1000
B11=IF(A11<0,5;1,06;IF(A11<0,75;(A11- A17=A5/24*E5
0,5)*0,065/0,25+1,06;IF(A11<0,85;1,125-(A11-
0,75)*0,1/0,1;1,025))) C17=(J11+A17)/B17
The formula refers to Fig. 65. E17=C17/D17
C11=A11/B11 G17=E17/F17
D11=B5-(C11*B5) J17=A5*(B5-D11)*0,35/1000/H17*I17
E11=C5-(A11*C5)
The formula assumes 350 l methane per kg
COD removed.
144
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
1,60
Volume of flow and pollution load are the
basic entries. Starting from these data, the 1,40
HRT factor
1,00
Fig. 91.
oxidation ponds, max org load according to
temperature (and solar energy) Influence of temperature on BOD removal in aero-
40 10 7,5 bic-facultative ponds, based on desired 90% BOD
35 17,5 14 removal
30 30 37
BOD5 / m²*d
25
20
15 plan of pond system
10
inlet
5
0
10 15 20 25 30
9,00 1. pond 2. pond 3. pond polishing
temperature in °C pond 5,00
Suwarnarat, pg. 45
145
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
Tab. 30.
Spread sheet for calculation of dimensions of aerobic-facultative ponds
A B C D E F G H I J K M
1 General spread sheet on aerobic - facultative ponds, input and treatment data
BOD5 rem de-
COD / min. water BOD5 out
daily flow COD in BOD5 in BOD rem. COD rem COD out factor for HRT sludging
BOD5 temp. (wanted)
HRT interval
2
3 given given calcul. calcul. given chosen calcul. calcul. calcul. calcul calcul. chosen
4 m³/d mg/l mg/l mg/l / mg/l °C mg/l % % mg/l % days months
5 20 500 170 2,94 20 30 82% 78% 108 0,59 12,9 12
6 0,05 -1,0
7 dimensions of aerobic - facultative ponds polishing pond 1 day HRT total
accum. permit. actual org. number of area of width of length of
depth of total pond width of length of area of all
sludge org. load load main polish polish. polish.
ponds area ponds each pond ponds
8 volume BOD5 (BOD5) ponds pond pond pond
9 calc. calcul. calcul. chosen calcul. chosen chosen calcul. calcul. chosen calcul. calcul.
10 m³ g/m²*d g/m²*d m m² No m m m² m m m²
11 6,3 19,3 13,2 0,9 258 3 9,00 9,55 22 5,00 4,44 796
12 0,00624 l/g BOD 0,9-1,2 m
146
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
Tab. 31.
Spread sheet for calculation the viability of necessary measures to facilitate biogas utilisation
A B C D E F
1 Economic viability of using biogas
additional additional pay back
Investment operational
constr.cost to operational income from period of
2 cost without cost without
facilitate use cost to use biogas additional
use of biogas use of biogas
of biogas biogas cost
3 l.c. l.c. l.c./year l.c./year l.c./year years
4 307.000 19.955 250 125 3.650 5,7
147
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
A B C D E F G H I J K
1 Calculation of annual costs of DEWATS
2 planning and site supervision cost investment cost total annual cost
transport and total planning
main secondary equipment total total annual total annual
salaries for allowance for cost for cost includ. cost of plot
structures of structures of and parts of investment cost cost
3 planning and visiting or wastewater overheads incl. site
20 years 10 years 6 years cost (incl. land (including (excluding
supervision staying at analysis and preparation
durability durability durability and planning) land) land)
site akquisition
4 l.c. l.c. l.c. l.c. l.c. l.c. l.c. l.c. l.c. l.c. l.c.
5 1.200 650 500 2.350 150.000 295.000 9.000 3.000 459.350 74.359 62.359
6 wastewater data annual capital costs
on main
rate of on secondary on
daily strength of strength of on structures of
COD/BOD interest in % interest structures of equipment of total capital
7 wastewater wastewater wastewater investment 20 years
ratio of inflow p.a. (bank rate factor q = 1+i 10 years 6 years costs
flow inflow outflow for land lifetime (incl
minus inflation) lifetime lifetime
planning fees)
8 m³/d mg/l COD mg/l / mg/l mg/l COD % l.c. / year l.c. / year l.c. / year l.c. / year l.c. / year
9 20 3.000 2 450 8% 1,08 12.000 30.286 1.341 649 37.179
10 operational cost income from biogas and other sources explanat.
cost of cost of other annual
cost of total daily biogas price 1 litre
personal for material for cost of power annual income or total income l.c. = local
treatment production of kerosene
11 operation, operation, (e.g. cost for operational income from savings currency;
pumping) additives (e.g. (70% CH4, 50% (1m³ CH4 = 0,85 l per annum
mainten. and mainten. and cost dissolved) kerosene)
biogas p.a. (e.g.fertiliser, mg/l = g/m³;
chlorine)
repair repair fees)
12 l.c. / year l.c. / year l.c. / year l.c. / year l.c. / year m³/d l.c./litre l.c./year l.c./year l.c./year
13 100 100 50 0 250 12,75 2,69 7.347 0 7.347
148
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
13.3 Using Spread Sheets without formula hidden ‘under’ it. On the computer,
Computer the formula appears in the headline every
time one hits the cell. These formulas can
Not everybody uses a computer. Some may
also be used without a computer in con-
not even have access to a computer. How-
nection with the various graphs. One has
ever, computer formulas may also be use-
to realise that the computer writing differs
ful to those who usually work with a pocket
from normal mathematical writing in some
calculator. The explanations that follow are
points. Most important is that for example
especially given for such persons. The ta-
the usual 4/3x2 is written on the computer
ble (Tab. 33.)for calculating the septic tank
as =4/3/2, and the usual 4x2/3 may be writ-
may be used as example:
ten either 4*2/3 or 4/3*2.
A computer table is described in columns
A.....X, AA...AX, etc. and in rows 1.....>1000. Cell A5 and all other bold written figures
Each table consists of cells that have an contain information to be collected and do
address. For example, the first cell in the not comprise formulas. The cells with hid-
top left corner has the address A1 (column den formulas are these:
A, row 1). On the table below, cell J10 reads C5=A5/B5
m3/d for example and cell D5 reads 633. Cell this is 13,0 [m 3/d] / 12 [hours] = 1,08
I11 reads 23,25. This figure is the result of a [m3/hours]
Tab. 32.
Sample spread sheet which is used to help to understand computer formulas
A B C D E F G H I J
1 General spread scheet for septic tank, input and treatment data
time of
daily max flow HRT settleable COD
most COD BOD5 COD BOD5
2 waste at peak inside SS / COD removal
waste inflow inflow outflow outflow
water flow hours tank ratio rate
water flow
3 given given calcul. given given chosen given calcul. calcul. calcul.
4 m³/day h m³/h mg/l mg/l h mg/l / mg/l % mg/l mg/l
5 13,0 12 1,08 633 333 18 0,42 35% 411 209
6 COD/BOD 5 -> 1,90 12 - 24 h 0,35-0,45 domestic BODrem.-> 1,06
7 dimensions of septic tank
minimum
inner actual biogas
de- water volume
width of inner length of first length of second volume of 70%CH4;
sludging depth at incl.
septic chamber chamber septic 50%
interval outlet sludge dissolved
tank tank
8 point
9 chosen chosen chosen requir. chosen requir. chosen requir. check calcul.
10 months m m m m m m m³ m³ m³/d
11 12 2,50 2,00 3,13 3,10 1,56 1,55 23,46 23,25 0,72
12 sludge l/g BODrem. 0,0042
149
13 COMPUTER SPREAD SHEETS
150
14 APPENDIX
Geometric formulas
Geometrical formulas
rectangel A= a × b
rectangular prism A= 2 × ( a × b + a × c + b × c) V= a × b × c
a+c
trapezium A= ×h
2
trapeziform prism V=
h
3
(
× a × b+ c× d + a × b× c× d )
A= π × r C= 2 × π × r
2
circle
cylinder A(mantle)= 2 × π × r × h V= π × r × h
2
4
sphere (ball) A= 4 × π × r
2
V= × π × r3
3
h
spherical segment A= 2 × π × r × h V= π × h × r −
2
3
h
cone A(mantle)= π × r × s V= π × r ×
2
3
law of pythagoras a 2 + b2 = c 2 sides of 90° triangle: 3/4/5
tan 45° =1
tangent a/b tan 30° = 0,577
tan 60° = 1,732
=∞
tan 90°
velocity v = Q/ A Q = v × A; A= Q/ v
151
14 APPENDIX
152
14 APPENDIX
A B C D E F G H I J
1 Flow in partly filled round pipes
flow moisted hydraulic rough flow
pipe Φ flow area slope flow
2 height area/m radius ness speed
3 chosen given calcul. calcul. calcul. chosen estimat. calcul. calcul. calcul.
4 d h/d A U rhy s rf v Q Q
5 m m/m m² m m % m/s l/s m³/h
6 0,1 0,15 0,00074 0,080 0,0093 1,0% 0,35 0,21 0,153 0,55
7 0,1 0,25 0,00154 0,105 0,0147 1,0% 0,35 0,31 0,478 1,72
8 0,1 0,35 0,00245 0,127 0,0194 1,0% 0,35 0,40 0,969 3,49
9 0,1 0,5 0,00393 0,157 0,0250 1,0% 0,35 0,49 1,932 6,96
10 0,1 0,75 0,00632 0,210 0,0302 1,0% 0,35 0,58 3,641 13,11
A B C D E F G H I
1 Energy requirement and cost of pumping
required annual
main flow flow rate pump assumed efficiency cost of
flow rate power of energy
h/d per hour hight head loss of pump nergy
2 pump cost
3 m³/d h m³/h m m η kW ECU/kWh ECU
4 26 10 2,6 10 3 0,5 0,18 0,15 100,85
153
14 APPENDIX
time SS Removal TS
0 0
rates in settlingBOD
of domestic wastewater
0
tests
0
COD
0
The performance of a settler is sufficient
100
0,25 60 32 15 10 when the effluent of domestic wastewater
90 0,5 85 45 20 12
800,75 90 57 21 15 contains less than 0,2 ml/l settleable sludge
70 1 93 62 23 SS16 after 2 h jar test.
% of total
60
50
1,5 98 68,5 26 TS18
2 100 73 28 20
40
30 3 100 77 32
BOD
23
COD
Flocculent sludge has a settling velocity
between 0,5 and 3 m/h.
20
4 100 79,5 35 26
10
0 5 100 80 35 28,5
0 60,5 1 1,5 2100 80 5 5,5 35 7 29,6
7
2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5
100 time in h 80
6 6,5
35 30 The velocity in a sand trap should not ex-
after Sierp, in Imhoff pg.133 ceed 0,3 m/s [1000 m/h]. The minimum cross
section area is then:
The above graph shows the results of set- Area [m 2] = flow [m3/s] / 0,3 [m/s], or
tling tests in a jar test under batch condi-
Area [m2] = flow [m3/h] / 1000 [m/h]
tions (SS = settleable solids, TS = total
solids; COD is measured as CODKMnO4).
The curve might be different in through-
flow settlers. The more turbulent the flow,
the lesser is the removal rate of settleable
solids. The more old and new wastewater
mixes the higher might be the BOD and
COD removal rates.
Settling and floatation time can be observed in a glass cylinder. The formula is then:
height [m]
velocity[m / h] =
time [h ]
where velocity is settling or floatation velocity, height is height of cylinder, and time is
the observed settling or floatation time.
154
15 LITERATURE
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157
KEYWORDS
aerobic facultative see aerobic COD removal in anaerobic filters 13.1.8
aerobic ponds 9.12.2 COD removal in anaerobic ponds 13.1.12
aerobic process 5.3 COD removal in settlers 13.1.6
aerobic respiration 5.2 COD/BOD ratio 7.5
air/gas mixture 12.5 colloids 7.2
albuminoid nitrogen 7.6 compost 10.3
amino acids 5.2 constructed wetland 9.9
ammonium 7.6
cost of treatment, annual costs 4.2, 13.2.3
anaerobic fermentation 5.2
cost-benefit on biogas 4.3.4,
anaerobic filter 9.4 13.2.2
anaerobic ponds 9.12.1 Darcy’s law 9.10
anaerobic process 5.3 de-nitrification 5.6
anoxic conditions 5.4 DEWATS 2.1.1
anoxic respiration 5.2
difficult degradable 5.4
aquatic plants 9.12.3
discharge standards 3.6.2
area requirement 2.1.4
discharge standards, India 3.4.2
autolysis 5.5.4, 9.10
diseases, water borne 7.11
baffled septic tank (baffled reactor) 9.6
dissemination, pre-conditions 3.2
bio-chemical process 5.1
domestic wastewater 3.7.3.2
biogas plant 12.3,
13.1.10 dosing chamber 9.11
biogas production 12.1 easily degradable 5.4
biogas, pressure gauge 12.4 enzymes 5.2
black box 3.5.1 expertise 3.5ff,
BOD - bio-chemical oxygen demand 7.5 3.7.1.4
158
KEYWORDS
159
This book is for development planers and project managers who intent to disseminate
decentralised wastewater treatment systems. The book helps to understand the scope
and requirements of the technology.
This book is for engineers who need a tool for designing wastewater treatment plants.
The book helps to decide about the most suitable treatment system and enables the
engineer to produce calculation spread sheets for dimensioning and annual cost calcula-
tions on the computer programme he or she is familiar with.
The book is for anybody who needs to understand the reason for wastewater treatment
and the basic principles of the various treatment processes. The book explains the most
common parameters of wastewater analysis.
160