Higher Mathematics. A Text-Book For Clas - Merriman - Mansfield - 1848-1925 PDF

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Text-book for Classical and Engineering ColMerriman and Woodward. Octavo,
HIGHER MATHEMATICS.
A TEXT-BOOK FOR
CLASSICAL AND ENGINEERING COLLEGES.
EDITED BY
MANSFIELD MERRIMAN,
Professor of Civil Engineering
in
Lehigh University,
AND
ROBERT
S.
WOODWARD,
in
Professor of Mechanics
Columbia University.
SECOND EDITION, REVISED.

FIRST THOUSAND.
NEW YORK:
JOHN WILEY
London:
1898.
& SONS.
Limited.
CHAPMAN & HALL,
Copyright,
1896,
BY
MANSFIELD MERRIMAN
AND
ROBERT
S.
WOODWARD.
ROBERT DRUMMOND, ELECTROTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK.
Y
PREFACE.
In the early part of this century it was possible for an industrious student to acquire a comprehensive if not minute knowledge of the entire realm of mathematical science. The
of that time, like Lagrange, Laplace, and were about equally familiar with all branches of pure Gauss, and applied mathematics. Since that epoch the tendency has been constantly towards specialization and additions to pure
;
more eminent minds
theory along with extensions of applications have been made with increasing rapidity, until now the mere quantity of information available presents a formidable obstacle to the simul-
taneous attainment of the breadth and depth of knowledge which characterized the mathematician of a generation ago.
would appear, however, that this obstacle is due to the bewildering mass of details rather than to any considerable Hence the increase in the number of fundamental principles.
It
who seeks to gain a comprehensive view of the mathematics of the present day needs most of all that sort of guidance which fixes his attention on essentials and prevents him
student
from wasting valuable time and energy

essentials.
in the pursuit of
non-
During the past twenty years a marked change of opinion has occurred as to the aims and methods of mathematical The old ideas that mathematical studies should instruction.
be pursued to discipline the mind, and that such studies were ended when an elementary course in the calculus had been In our best covered, have for the most part disappeared.
classical
and engineering colleges the elementary course

ill
in
IV
PREFACE.
is
now given in the sophomore year, while lectures and work in pure mathematics are continued during the seminary It is with the hope of meeting the junior and senior years.
calculus
existing
class
demand
for a suitable text to
be used
in
such upper-
editors enlisted the cooperation of the authors in the task of bringing together the chapters of this
work that the
book.
and
Each chapter, so far as it goes, is complete in itself, intended primarily to give a clear idea of the leading principles of the subject treated. While the authors have been
is
guided by general instructions issued by the editors, each has been free to follow his own plan of treatment. It will be found
that certain chapters adopt the formal method usual in textbooks, while others employ what may be called the historical
and
method. glance at the table of contents will that the chapters of the work present a considerable variety of subjects, thus affording teachers and students an
intuitive
show
opportunity to select such topics as
maybe
suited to their time
and
are given for solution, numerical examples of the application of theory to physical science are freely introduced, and the footnotes set forth much sugtastes.
Numerous problems
gestive matter of a historical and critical nature.
The
Editors.
NOTE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

THIS edition differs from the first only in the correction of those typographic errors which have been detected and in the
alteration of a few paragraphs
which seemed obscure.
Readers
of this edition are requested to bring to the notice of the editors
any remaining
January
i,
errors
which may be discovered.
1898.
CONTENTS.
Chapter
I.
THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS.

By Mansfield Merriman,
Professor of Civil Engineering in Lehigh University.
Article
I.
2. 3.
Introduction Graphic Solutions
Page
3
5
The Regula
Falsi
4.
5.
Newton's Approximation Rule

Separation of the Roots
6
8
6.
7.
8.
Numerical Algebraic Equations Transcendental Equations

Algebraic Solutions The Cubic Equation
10
13
15
9.
17
10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
The Quartic Equation

Quintic Equations Trigonometric Solutions
19
21
24 27
28
31
Real Roots by Series Computation of All Roots
15.
Conclusion
Chapter
II.
DETERMINANTS.
By Laenas Gifford Weld,

Professor of Mathematics in the State University of Iowa.
Article
1.
Introduction
33
2. 3.
Permutations
Interchange of Two Elements Positive and Negative Permutations The Determinant Array 1 Determinant as Function of n Elements of Determinants Examples
Notations
34
35
4.
5.
36 36
6.
7. 8.
37
38
39
9.
10.
11. 12.
Second and Third Orders Interchange of Rows and Columns Interchange of Two Parallel Lines
40
42
43 43
Two
Identical Parallel Lines
VI
CONTENTS.
by a Factor Line of Polynomial Elements Composition of Parallel Lines Binomial Factors Page
44
Article 13. Multiplying

14.
44
45
15. 16. 17.
Co-factors; Minors
18.
19.
20. 21.
Development in Terms of Co-factors The Zero Formulas Cauchy's Method of Development

Differentiation of Determinants
46 47 49
51
52 54
55
22. 23. 24. 25.

26.
27.
28. 29. 30. 31.
Raising the Order Solution of Linear Equations Consistence of Linear Systems The Matrix Homogeneous Linear Systems Co- factors in a Zero Determinant Sylvester's Method of Elimination
56
58
60 60
62
63
The
Multiplication
Theorem
Product of
Rectangular Arrays Reciprocal Determinants
Two
65 68
69
Chapter
III.
PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY.
By George Bruce Halsted,

Professor of Mathematics in the University of Texas.
Article
1.
The Elements and Primal Forms

Projecting and Cutting
70
72
2. 3.
Elements
at Infinity
72
74
:
4.
5.
Correlation and Duality
Polystims and Polygrams
74
77 80
6.
7.
Harmonic Elements
Projectivity
8.
9.
Curves of the Second Degree Pole and Polar

Involution
Projective Conic Ranges
82
87
88
91
10.
11.
12. 13. 14.
15.
Center and Diameter Plane and Point Duality Ruled Quadric Surfaces Cross Ratio
94 96
98
104
Chapter
IV.
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS.
By James McMahon,
Associate Professor of Mathematics in Cornell University.
Article
1.
2. 3.
4.
Correspondence of Points on Conies Areas of Corresponding Triangles Areas of Corresponding Sectors Characteristic Ratios of Sectorial Measures
107
109
109
no
CONTENTS.
Article
5.
Vll
6.
7.
Ratios expressed as Triangle-measures Functional Relations for Ellipse
Page
8. 9.
Functional Relations for Hyperbola Relations between Hyperbolic Functions

Variations of the Hyperbolic Functions Anti-hyperbolic Functions
no in in
112
10.
11. 12.
13.
114 116
116
118
Functions of Sums and Differences Conversion Formulas

Limiting Ratios Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
Derivatives of Anti-hyperbolic Functions Expansion of Hyperbolic Functions
14.
15.
119 120
122
123
16.
17. 18. 19.
Exponential expressions.
...
124
125
Expansion of Anti-functions Logarithmic Expression of Anti-functions
20.
21.
22.
The Gudermanian Function

Circular Functions of Gudermanian Gudermanian Angle Derivatives of Gudermanian and Inverse Series for Gudermanian and its Inverse
127 128
128
129 130
131
23. 24. 25.
26.
27. 28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions Elementary Integrals Functions of Complex Numbers Addition Theorems for Complexes Functions of Pure Imaginaries Functions of x -f *> in the Form X-\- iY
132
135
138
140
141
143
*45
33.
34. 35. 36.
37.
The Catenary The Catenary of Uniform Strength The Elastic Catenary The Tractory The Loxodrome Combined Flexure and Tension
Alternating Currents Miscellaneous Applications Explanation of Tables
14?
*
148
*49
x
50
151
*53
158 l6
38. 39.
Chapter
V.
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
E. Byerly,
By William
Professor of Mathematics in Harvard University.
Article
1.
2.
3.
History and Description Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations
l6 9
172
4.
5.
Problem Problem Problem
in
Trigonometric Series in Zonal Harmonics in Bessel's Functions
174
x
77
l8 3
6.
7.
The Sine Series The Cosine Series

Fourier's Series
l88
x92 T 94
8.
Vlll
CONTENTS.
9.
Article
Extension of Fourier's Series

Dirichlet's Conditions
Page 196
198
10.
11. 12.
Applications of Trigonometric Series Properties of Zonal Harmonics
20a
202 205
13.
14.
15.
Problems
in
Zonal Harmonics
Additional Forms
207
208
16.
17. 18. 19.
Development in terms of Zonal Harmonics Formulas for Development Formulas in Zonal Harmonics Spherical Harmonics.
Bessel's Functions.
209 212
213 213
215
Properties 20. Applications of Bessel's Functions

21.
22. 23.
24.
25.
Development in Terms of Bessel's Functions Problems in Bessel's Functions. Bessel's Functions of Higher Order Lame's Functions
Tables
217
220
221
221
222
Chapter VI.
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE.

By Thomas
S.
Fiske,
Professor of Mathematics in Columbia University.
Article
1.
Definition of Function
226 227 228
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Representation of Complex Variable Absolute Convergence Elementary Functions Continuity of Functions Graphical Representation of Functions Derivatives
229 230 232

233
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Conformal Representation Examples of Conformal Representation Conformal Representation of a Sphere Conjugate Functions Application to Fluid Motion
Point at Infinity Integral of a Function
236
238
244
245
.
246
13. Critical Points 14.

15.
250
256 257
261
16. 17. 18.
19.
Reduction of Complex Integrals to Real Cauchy's Theorem Application of Cauchy's Theorem Theorems on Curvilinear Integrals
Taylor's Series Laurent's Series Fourier's Series
262
264
267
20. 21.
22. 23.
269
271
273
24. 25.
Uniform Convergence One-valued Functions with

Residues
274
Critical Points
278 282
26.
Integral of a One-valued Function
284
CONTENTS.
Article 27. Weierstrass's
28.
IX
Theorem
Page 287
292 298
Mittag-Leffler's Theorem 29. Critical Lines and Regions
30.
Functions having n Values
300
Chapter
VII.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
By W. Woolsey Johnson,
Professor of Mathematics in United States Naval Academy.
Article
I.
2.
3.
Equations of First Order and Degree Geometrical Representation

Primitive of a Differential Equation
303 305
307
308
311
4.
5.
6.
7. 8.
9.
Exact Differential Equations Homogeneous Equation The Linear Equation First Order and Second Degree Singular Solutions Singular Solution from the Complete Integral
Solution by Differentiation Geometric Applications; Trajectories
312
314
317
320
322
325
10.
11.
12. 13. 14. 15.
Simultaneous Differential Equations Equations of the Second Order
327
330
333
The Two
First
Integrals
16.
17.
Linear Equations Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients Homogeneous Linear Equations
Solutions in Infinite Series
336
338
342
18. 19.
344
20.
21. 22. 23. 24. 25.
Systems of Differential Equations 349 First Order and Degree with Three Variables 352 Partial Differential Equations of First Order and Degree... 355 359 Complete and General Integrals 362 Complete Integral for Special Forms Partial Equations of Second Order 365 Linear Partial Differential Equations 368
Chapter
VIII.
GRASSMANN'S SPACE ANALYSIS.

By Edward W. Hyde,
in
Professor of Mathematics
the University of Cincinnati.
Article
1.
2. 3.
Explanations and Definitions Sum and Difference of Two Points
374
375
4.
5-
6.
7. 8.
any Number of Points Reference Systems Nature of Geometric Multiplication

of
Sum Sum
of
Two Weighted
Points
378
381
386
390
392
Planimetric Products
The Complement
399
X
Article
9.
CONTENTS.
Equations of Condition and Formulas Stereometric Products
Page 405
410
10.
11. 12.
The Complement
Space Addition of Sects in Solid Space
in Solid
416
419
Chapter IX.
VECTOR ANALYSIS
and QUATERNIONS.
Lehigh University.
By Alexander Macfarlane,
Lecf.urer in Mathematical Physics in
Article
1.
Introduction
425
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8. 9.
Addition of Coplanar Vectors Products of Coplanar Vectors Coaxial Quaternions Addition of Vectors in Space Product of Two Vectors Product of Three Vectors Composition of Located Quantities
Spherical Trigonometry Composition of Rotations
426
432
439
443
444
449
453
457 463
10.
Chapter X.
PROBABILITY and THEORY OF ERRORS.

By Robert
S.
Woodward,
Professor of Mechanics in Columbia University.
Article
1.
Introduction
467
471
2.
3.
Permutations Combinations
Direct Probabilities
473
4.
5.
476 479 482 484

487
Probability of Concurrent Events

Bernoulli's
6.
7. 8.
Theorem
Inverse Probabilities
Probabilities of Future Events
9.
Theory
of Errors
490
491
10.
Laws
of Error
11.
12.
13.
14.
Typical Errors of a System Laws of Resultant Error Errors of Interpolated Values

Statistical Test of
493
Theory
494 497 504
Chapter XI.
HISTORY OF MODERN MATHEMATICS.

By David Eugene Smith,
Normal
College.
Professor of Mathematics in Michigan State
Article
1.
Introduction
508
511
2.
3.
4.
5.
Theory of Numbers Irrational and Transcendent Numbers Complex Numbers Quaternions and Ausdehnungslehre
513
t
515
517
CONTENTS.
Article
6.
7.
XI
Theory
of Equations
Page 519
524
Substitutions and Groups
8. 9.
Determinants
Quantics Calculus
526
52S
531
10. 11.
Differential Equations 12. Infinite Series

J3. 14. 15.
535
539 543
Theory
of Functions
16.
17.
18.
and Least Squares Analytic Geometry Modern Geometry Trigonometry and Elementary Geometry Non-Euclidean Geometry
Probabilities
550
552
558
563
565
o
19.
Bibliography
568
57 1
Index
HIGHER MATHEMATICS
Chapter
I.

By Mansfield Merriman,
Professor of Civil Engineering
in
Lehigh University.
Art.
1.
Introduction.
In this Chapter will be presented a brief outline of methods, not commonly found in text-books, for the solution of an
equation containing one unknown quantity.
Graphic, numeric,
and algebraic solutions will be given by which the real roots of both algebraic and transcendental equations may be obtained, together with historical information and theoretic
discussions.
algebraic equation is one that involves only the operaIt is to be first freed from radicals so as tions of arithmetic.
An
make the exponents of the unknown quantity all integers; the degree of the equation is then indicated by the highest exponent of the unknown quantity. The algebraic solution of an
to
algebraic equation is the expression of its roots in terms of the literal coefficients this is possible, in general, only for linear, quadratic, cubic, and quartic equations, that is, for equations
;
of the
first,
is
second, third, and fourth degrees.

all its
numerical
equation
an algebraic equation having
coefficients real
numbers, either positive or negative.
For the four degrees
[CHAP.
I.
above mentioned the roots of numerical equations may be computed from the formulas for the algebraic solutions, unless
they
fall
under the so-called irreducible case wherein
real
quantities are expressed in imaginary forms.

th algebraic equation of the n degree may be written with all its terms transposed to the first member, thus
:
An
+ax
x
n-x
-j-
a 1x
i n ~'
-f-
-f-
an -
+a
is,
o,
and, for brevity, the first member will be called f(x) and the The roots of this equao. equation be referred to as f(x)
tion are the values of
x which
satisfy
it,
that
those values of
that reduce f(x) to o. When all the coefficients alt ati . . .aM are real, as will always be supposed to be the case, Sturm's
real roots,
theorem gives the number of
provided they are un-
equal, as also the number of real roots lying between two assumed values of x, while Horner's method furnishes a con-
venient process for obtaining the values of the roots to any

required degree of precision. transcendental equation
is
one involving the operations

as, for
of trigonometry or of logarithms,
example, ^-(~
COS;tr
>
or a 2x
of
general method for the literal solution -\these equations exists but when all known quantities are
xb*
= o. No
expressed as real numbers, the real roots may be located and computed by tentative methods. Here also the equation may
be designated asf(x)
= o,
and the discussions
in Arts. 2-5 will
apply equally well to both algebraic and transcendental forms. The methods to be given are thus, in a sense, more valuable
than
Sturm's theorem and Horner's process, although for It should algebraic equations they may be somewhat longer.
be remembered, however, that algebraic equations higher than the fourth degree do not often occur in physical problems, and that the value of a method of solution is to be measured not
merely by the rapidity of computation, but also by the ease with which it can be kept in mind and applied.
Prob.
1.
Reduce the equation
(a
+ x)* +
unknown
x)l
=
all
2b to an
integers.
equation having the exponents of the
quantity
Art.
2.]
GRAPHIC SOLUTIONS.
Art.
2.
Graphic Solutions.
of the real roots of
algebraic equations
two simultaneous be found by the methods of may plane analytic geometry when the coefficients are numerically expressed. For example, let the given equations be
**
Approximate values
+y = a\
x*
- bx = y - cy,
The
c\
the
first
Drawing two rectangular axes

scribed from
representing a circle and the second a hyperbola. and OY, the circle is de-
OX
a.
with the radius
coordinates of the
center of the hyperbola are found to be
OA = \b
and
AC = \c,
the
while
its
diameter
BD = *J &
from which
two
branches
may
be described.
The
intersections of the circle
with the hyperbola give the real values of x and y. If
^=
and
I,
= 4,
and
3,
there
are but two real values for
x
y,
two
real
values
for
since the circle intersects but
one branch
here
of the hyperbola
Op
the positive and the negative value of x, while rnn

is
Om
is
the positive and
pq
the negative value of y. When the radius a is so large that the circle intersects both branches of the hyperbola there are four real values of both x and y.
By a similar method approximate values of the real roots of an algebraic equation containing but one unknown quantity may be graphically found. For instance, let the cubic equation 3 This may be x -\- ax b = o be required to be solved.*
written as the two simultaneous equations
y
pp. 47-49
x\
ax
-\-b,
*See Proceedings of the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia, 1884,
Vl
IV,
[CHAP.
I.
and the graph
of each being plotted, the abscissas of
their
points of intersection give the real roots of the cubic.
The
curve
I
should be plotted upon cross section paper by the help of a
= x*
/
-J>4?
table of cubes
then
OB
is
laid off
equal to
b,
and
OC equal
to a/b, tak-
^___nl
ing care to observe the signs of a and

b.
The
line
joining
B
b
and
C
is
cuts
the curve at /, and hence qp

real root of x*
-f-
the
the
will
ax
= o.
If
cubic equation have three
real roots the straight line
BC
intersect the curve in three points.
algebraic equations of higher degrees may be graphicFor the quartic equation ally solved in a similar manner. Bz C o, it is best to put z A*x, and thus z* Az*
Some
reduce
it
to the form x"
+ +
#*
bx
o;
then the two
equations to be plotted are
y
the
first
= x* + x\
may be drawn
y=bx +
once for
all
c,
of
which
upon cross-section
paper, while the straight line represented by the second be drawn for each particular case, as described above.*
may
This method
tions
;
is
also applicable to
many
thus for the equation Ax sin^r sin^r write ax o; then y
transcendental equaBs\i\x o it is best to
of a table of sines, while
through the origin. curve represented by y
is readily plotted by help ax is a straight line passing In the same way ax x* = o gives the
= y=
y = x%
the parabola represented by the intersections of which determine the real roots of
= a* and
the given equation.

Prob. 2. Devise a graphic solution for finding approximate 3 o. \zQ. values of the real roots of the equation x*-{- ax -\- bx*-\- ex -f- d Prob. 3. Determine graphically the number and the approximate
values of
the
real
roots
of
the
,
(Ans.
Six real roots,
equation
arc
x
456
8 sin
.)
o.
[
159
430
and
a^
* For an extension of
see Phillips and Beebe's
this
method
to the determination of
imaginary roots,
iphic Algebra,
New
York, 1882.
Art
3-]
THE REGULA
FALSI.
Art.
3.
The Regula
for
Falsi.
One
of the oldest
is
methods
an equation
ple that
if
the rule
known
computing the real root of as " regula falsi," often called
It depends upon the princitwo numbers *, and x% be substituted in the expression/^), and if one of these renders/^) positive and the other renders it negative, then at least one real root of the equation Let the figure represent a f(x) = o lies between x and #s
x
.
the method of double position *
The point- X, part of the real graph of the equation y /{x). where the curve crosses the axis of abscissas, gives a real root of the equation f(x) o. Let OA and OB be inferior and
OX
trial
which are determined either by superior limits of the root or by the method of Art. 5.
OX
Let
Aa
and Bb be the values
of
J{x) corresponding to these limits. Join ad, then the intersection C of

the straight line ab with the axis OB gives an approximate value
OC
is
for the root.
Now
compute
Cc and
join ac, then the intersection

still
x
D gives a value OD which
closer
to the root
OX.
Let x and x^ be the assumed values OA and OB, and let x i) and/(;tr2 ) be the corresponding values oi f(x) represented
by Aa and Bb, these values being with contrary signs. Then from the similar triangle AaC and BbC the abscissa OC is
x%
~
A*t)-A*.)
By a second application x is computed, and by continuing

K
Â*>)-A**)~~ of the rule to x and x

x
*^
%
,
A**)-A*y
another value
the process the value of

2
can be obtained to any required degree of precision.
As
an example
trial
be found by
ham ben
o. x* 5* -f- 7 /(>) that a real root lies between
let
Here it may 2 and 1.8.

was by Abra-
*This originated
in India,
and
its first
publication in Europe
Esra, in 1130.
See Matthiesen, Grundzuge der antiken und moder-
en Algebra der litteralen Gleichungen, Leipzig, 1878.
h,
i~
7 iT

jr,
[CHAP.
For
=
and
2,
f{x)
=
falsi
5,
and
for *,
is
1.8,
then by the regula
there
found x 3
/) = + 4-304;
1.90 nearly.
Again, for
with
jTj
1.90,
f(x
;r 4
z)
f(x^) give
= + 0.290,
1.906,
and these combined

is
which
correct to the
third decimal.
sin x 0.5 = o. example let f[x) = arc;r shows that there is but one real root,, Here a graphic solution and that the value of it lies between 85 and 86. For x, 85V and for x^ = 86, /(.r 2 ) = -f- 0.00342 then 0.01266, fix ) o 00090. Again, by the rule x = 85 44', which gives f(x ) = combining the values for x^ and ,r3 there is found x\ = 85 47',
As
a second
which gives /(^ ) = Lastly, combining the values 0.00009. for x^ and x t there is found x b = 8547 -4, which is as close an
4
/
approximation as can be made with five-place
tables.
In the application of this method it is to be observed that the signs of the values of x and f(x) are to be carefully regarded, and also that the values of f(x) to be combined in one
have opposite signs. For the quickest the values of f{x) to be selected should be those approximation having the smallest numerical values.
operation
should
Prob.
4.
Compute by the
Also those of x*
sin
2X
= o.
regula falsi the real roots of
xb
0.25
= 0.
Art.
4.
Newton's Approximation Rule.

for
is
Another useful method

the real root of an equation
If
approximating to the value of
that devised
by Newton
in
1666.*
of
=f(x) be the equation
real
in the figure represents a o. root of the equation f(x) Let OA be an approximate value of
curve,
OX
/b
to the curve; then
OX, and Aa the corresponding value oif(x). At a let aB be drawn tangent
OB
is
another approximate value of

infinitas, p.
OX^
I
* See Analysis per equationes numero terminorum

of Horsely's edition of
269, Vol.
Newton's works (London,
1779),
where the method
is
given
in
somewhat
different form.
Art.
4.]
newton's approximation rule.

of f(x)
;
Let Bb be the value

let
the tangent
bC be drawn
corresponding to OB, and at b then OC is a closer approxima-
tion to
the process may be continued. df(x)/dx. Let/'(-*0 be the first derivative of/(jtr); ox,f\x) x OA in the figure, the value of f(x ) is the ordiFor x
OX, and thus

x
nate Aa, and the value of f\x^)
is
the tangent of the angle
aBA
this tangent
is
also
Aa/AB.
(2(7
Hence
by
AB = /*,)//'(*i)
and accordingly
(9j5
and
are found
which
to
is
Newton's approximation
the closer value
is
third application found, and the process may be conrule.
By a
tinued to any degree of precision required.
For example,
ative is/'(;r)
let
f(x)
10^.
+ 5^
-}-
= o.
The
first
deriv-
$x*
-f-
Here
it
may
be found by
trial
x
that
2
1.92.
For x 2 is an approximate value of the real root. = 60, whence by the rule x = 5, and /'(#,) /(*,) =
a
Now
for
x^
1.92
are
found
/(#)
0.6599
1.906,
and
is
f(xj) 29052, whence by the rule correct to the third decimal.
which
As
the
second example
derivative
is
let
f(x)
first
f\x) =
by
= x* + 4 sin = o.
;tr
Here
2x
4 cos x.
An approximate
by a graphic solution is .*= u^cx/. For .*, = 1.94, 1.94, corresponding to about as 0.03304 and /'(*,) = 5-3 2 3> whence by the rule /(.*:,) a second application x = 1.9328, which x>= By 1.934.
value of
either
trial
x found
or
corresponds to an angle of
In
uo
54f
the application of Newton's rule it is best that the assumed value of x, should be such as to render /(*,) as small
as possible,
will fail
if
and
also /'(*,) as large as possible.
the curve has a

is
maximum
or
The method minimum between a

falsi,
and
b.
It
seen that Newton's rule, like the regula
and algebraic equaapplies equally well to both transcendental that the rule itself is readily kept in mind tions, and moreover
by help
of the diagram.
8
Prob.
5.

Compute by Newton's
jx
[CHAP.
I.
braic equation x*
+6=
-f-
rule the real roots of the alge-
o.
Also the real roots of the trans2
cendental equation sin x
arc
0.
Art.
5.
Separation of the Roots.
roots of an equation are of two kinds, real roots and imaginary roots. Equal real roots may be regarded as a special class, which lie at the limit between the real and the imaginary. If an equation hasp equal roots of one value and q equal roots of another value, then its first derivative equation has 1 1 roots of the first value and q roots of the second p
value,
The
and thus
all
common
to both primitive
the equal roots are contained in a factor and derivative. Equal roots may
hence always be readily detected and removed from the given For instance, let x* gx* -\- ^x -\- 12 = o, of which equation.
the derivative equation
factor of these
is
^x*
\%x
-|~
=o
as
is
two equations, two

-
of the roots of the primitive
equation are
+2
The problem
of determining the
number
of the real
and
imaginary roots of an algebraic equation is completely solved by Sturm's theorem. If, then, two values be assigned to x the
number
of real roots
between those
limits
is
found by the same
theorem, and thus by a sufficient number of assumptions limits may be found for each real root. As Sturm's theorem is known
to
all
who
read these pages, no applications of
it
will
be here
given, but instead an older method due to Hudde will be presented which has the merit of giving a comprehensive view
of the subject,
and which moreover applies to transcendental
as well as to algebraic equations.*

If
abscissas
any equation y = fix) be plotted with values of x as and values of y as ordinates, a real graph is obtained
intersections with the axis
whose
OX give the
real roots of the

See CEuvres
* Devised by Hudde in 1659 and published by Rolle de Lagrange, Vol. VIII, p. 190.
in 1690.
Art.
5.]
SEPARATION OF THE ROOTS,
o. equaf ion fix) Xg've three values
Thus
in
OX for
three real roots.
the figure the three points marked The curve which
represents
= fix)
has points of
maxima and minima marked
A, and
inflection points
marked B.
Now
let
the
first
deriva-
tive equation
dy/dx=f'(x) be formed and be plotted in the same manner on the axis O'X'. The condition f'(x)= o gives
the abscissas of the points A, and thus the real roots O'X' give To ascertain if a o. limits separating the real roots of fix)
real root
OX lies between two values

=
of
O'X' these two values
are to be substituted infix): if the signs oi fix) are unlike in o lies between the two the two cases, a real root of fix)
limits
;
if
the signs are the same, a real root does not
lie
between
those limits.
In like
manner
f
d*y/dx* = f"{x)
limits
the second derivative equation, that is, be plotted on O" X" the intersections give
if
>
which separate the
real roots of
f\x)
o.
It
is
also
seen that the roots of the second derivative equation are the abscissas of the points of inflection of the curve y = fix). To illustrate this method let the given equation be the
quintic fix)
- $x* +6x + 2 = o. The first derivative 6 = o, the roots of which are equation is /'(*) = 5x* -i$x* + - 1.59, -0.69, +0.69, 4- 1.59. Now let each approximately
=
x*
of these values be substituted for
in
the values
- 00
o,
and
00
and
:
let
the given quintic, as also the corresponding values
of fix) be determined as follows
10
[CHAP,
I.
bs
oo
I.59,
- O.69,
O,
+ O.69, +
+4.7,
I.59,
00
/(*)=-
00,
+2.4,
-0.6, +2,
+1.6,
and
+00.
1.59,
Since f{x) changes sign between x one real root lies between these limits
=
;
00
^=
0.69
since f(x) changes sign

real root lies
%
between x
=
;
1.59
and x^
0.69,
one
between
these limits
since f(x) changes sign
between x
and
= o,
one
real root lies
not change sign between x a nary roots is indicated, the
between these limits; since f(x) does = o and x A = 00 a pair of imagisum of which lies between -f- 0.69
,
and
00
e^ e* a second example let f(x) 2elx is fix) e* derivative equation
As
4 = 0. The first o, which has two
roots e*
For x
;r
= i and e* = = 00 /(jr)
,
o,
the latter corresponding to
^
***
=
;
00
is
negative; for e*
= i, /(^)
is
is
negative
-
for
-f-
00
f[x)
is
negative.
real roots.
The equation
**
=o
has, therefore,
no
first
When
the
derivative equation
not easily solved, the
second, third, and following derivatives may be taken until an equation is found whose roots may be obtained. Then, by
working backward,
limits
may be found
In
in succession for
the
the
roots of the derivative equations until finally those of
primative are ascertained.

ess
many
is
cases,
it is
true, this procit
may prove lengthy and
difficult,
entirely; nevertheless the
method
Zx
and one
in
some
may
fail
of great theoretical
and practical value.

Prob.
positive
6.
Show
Show
x that e
+ e~
4
1
has two real roots, one
and one negative.

7. 1
Prob.
that x*
-{-
= o has
x+
o has no real roots; also that
two
real roots,
one positive and one negative.
Art.
6.
Numerical Algebraic Equations.

th
algebraic equation of the with all its terms transposed to the
An
degree
may
be written
:
first
member, thus
xn
+ a.x"- + a x +
1
M ~2
+a
n _x
+a
Art.
arid
6.]
numerical algebraic equations.

the coefficients and the absolute term are real
is
11
if all
numfirst
commonly member may for brevity be denoted by f{x) and

itself
bers, this
called a numerical equation.
The
by /(V)
= o.
the equation
following principles of the theory of algebraic equations with real coefficients, deduced in text-books on algebra, are here recapitulated for convenience of reference
:
The
(i)
If
is
a root of the equation, /(*)

if
is
divisible
x
by x
xt ;
and conversely,
equation.
(2)
(3)
f(x)
is
divisible
by x
x lt then x
is
a root of the
An equation of the n th degree has n roots and no more. xn are the roots of the equation, then the prodIf x x%%
x ,
is equal tof(x). a the sum of the prodequal to ucts of the roots, taken two in a set, is equal to -f- # 2 the sum of
x
uct (x
(4)
x )(x x The sum of
t)
(x
xn )
the roots
is
x \
the products of the roots, taken three in a set, is equal to so on. The product of all the roots is equal to an and to -f- a n when n is even. odd,
(5)
a3
and
is
when n
The equation /(a;)
=o
ing
second term by substituting y (6) If an equation has imaginary

its
may be reduced to an ajn for x,*

roots, they
1.
equation lack-
occur in pairs of
the
form/
(7)
qi where / represents
sign
is
equation of odd degree has at least one real root whose opposite to that of a n
.
An
equation of even degree, having a n negative, has at least two real roots, one being positive and the other negative.
(8) (9)
An
variations in the signs of
complete equation cannot have more positive roots than its terms, nor more negative roots than
in signs.
If all roots
permanences
(10)
be
real, there are as
many
posi-
tive roots as variations,
and
as
many negative
roots as permanences. f
In an incomplete equation, if an even number of terms, 2w, are lacking between two other terms, then it has at least 2m say
*
By substituting y
remove
-\-py
+ q for x, the quantities / and q may be determined

means
of a quadratic equation,,
so as to
the second and third terms by
the second
fifth
and fourth terms by means of a cubic equation, or the second and

in 1639.
terms by means of a quartic equation. The law deduced by Harriot in 1631 and by Descartes
12
[ChaP.
I.
imaginary roots; if an odd number of terms, say 2tn -f- i, are lacking between two other terms, then it has at least either 2tn -f- 2 or 2m imaginary roots, according as the two terms have like or unlike
signs.*
(11) Sturm's
theorem gives the number of
real roots,
provided
that they are unequal, as also the tween two assumed values of x.
(12) If a r
is
number
of real roots lying be-
the greatest negative coefficient, and

coefficient after
limits
if
as
is
the
greatest negative
real roots lie
between the
is
(13) If an
efficient,
the
first
all changed and (as \} !j0ui*m&y 5*7 negative and a r the greatest negative co-
is
1
into
x, then
ar
then a r
first
is
a superior limit of the positive roots.
If
a k be
the
negative and a s the greatest negative

x,
coefficient after
is
changed into
of the negative roots.
&
then a* /v/w
1 is
a numerically superior limit
(14) Inferior limits of the positive

l
found by placing x = z~ and thus obtaining an equation f(z) whose roots are the reciprocals of f(x) = o.
and negative roots may be
=o
is
z r where r (15) Horner's method, using the substitution x an approximate value of x enables the real root x to be comx ,
x
puted to any required degree of precision.

application of these principles and methods will be familiar to all who read these pages. Horner's method may
The
be also modified so as to apply to the computation of imaginary roots after their approximate values have been found. t
The
older method of Hudde and Rolle, set forth in Art. 5, is however one of frequent convenient application, for such algebraic
equations as actually arise in practice. By its use, with principles (13) and (14) above, and the regula together falsi of Art. 3, the real roots may be computed without any
assumptions whatever regarding their values. For example, let a sphere of diameter and
specific gravity
* Established by
DuGua;
see
fSheffler, Die Auflosung der algebraischen

n,
Memoirs Paris Academy, 1741, pp. 435-494. und transzeridenten Gleichung-
Braunschweig, 1859; and Jelink, Die Auflosung der hoheren numerischen
Gleichungen, Leipzig, 1865.
Art.
-
7.]
transcendental equations.
13
float in water,
mersion.
The
and let it be required to find the depth of iimsolution of the problem gives for the depth v
the cubic equation
As
a particular case let

x*
D=
3^
-f-
2 feet
and
-=0.65; then the
equation
2.6
is
=o
is
to be solved.
The
first
derivative equation
3**
6x
is
=o
whose roots are o and

tive root greater than 2.
2.
Substituting these, there

less
found
one negative root, one positive root
The
and one posiof the question physical aspect

2,
than
excludes the
first
and
last root,
By
(13)
and
(14) an inferior limit of this root

0.5
x
that
it lies
between
and for x^ 2, f(xt ) = For x 3 =i.35,/(^,) =

regula
falsi
is
and the second isto be computed. is about 0.5, so and 2. For x = 0.5, /(jr,) = -j- 1.975,
1.4;
then by the regula
falsi
#,= 1.35.
decimal,
Prob.
of
gives xK the correct depth of immersion of the sphere.

>
0.408, and combining this with x, the 1.204 f eet which, except in the last
8.
The diameter
is is
and which
10 feet
38.x:
to
whose length is 200 feet discharge 100 cubic feet per second under a head
of a water-pipe
real
ft>
M>
given
101
3!
= o.
7.
by Find the value of
the
root
of
x.
the
'
quintic
-
equation
JL
"
$2.
:i
21
^v
Art.
Rules
(1)
Transcendental Equations.
to (15) of the last article have no application to trigonometrical or exponential equations, but the general prin-
2-5 may be always used in attempting their solution. Transcendental equations may have one, many, or no real roots, but those arising from probciples
and methods
of Arts.
lems
in
physical science must have at least one real root.

of such equations will
Two
examples
be presented.
cylinder of specific gravity g floats in water, and it is If required to find the immersed arc of the circumference.
this
be expressed
in circular
measure
sin
it is
given by the transo.
cedental equation
f{x)
2ng =
14
THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS;

first
[CHAP.
I.
cos x derivative equation is I o, whose root is any even multiple of 2n. Substituting such multiples in f(x) it is found that the equation has but one real root, and that
The
this lies
is
substituting \n, \it% and n for x, further found that this root lies between f n and n.
between o and
2;r;
it
a particular case let g 0.424, and for convenience in using the tables let x be expressed in degrees; then
As
fix)
=x = 166
57
.2958 sin
152
.64.
=ss
x
Now proceeding by the regula falsi (Art. 3) let x 180 and and /(.r =-58. 16, whence ^=135, giving /(*,) =+ 27 36
.
2)
166
For x
f(x 3 )
.469,
and hence 166
is
an
approximate value of the root. Continuing the process, x is found to be i66.237, or in circular measure ^=2.9014 radians.
tal tension of a
a second example let it be required to find the horizoncatenary cable whose length is 22 feet, span 20 feet, and weight 10 pounds per linear foot, the ends being sus-
As
pended from two points on the same level. If / be the span, s the length of the cable, and z a length of the cable whose weight equals the horizontal tension, the solution of the problem leads
to the transcendental equation the numerical values,
7 (10 e
is
s=
L
2z
1
2z )
\e
z,
or inserting
IOV
- e~ T )z
first
-is\
O
is
the equation to be solved.

/
The
L
derivative equation
/<(*)
10/ = -V -e*)+-[e>+e
-i_\
')
is
= Q,
less
x
and
this substituted in f(z) 20.

x
shows that one
real root
than
about
Assume n =15, then /(.s^) =0.486 and f\z ) =0.206, whence by Newton's rule (Art. 4) z = 13 nearly. Next for
2
z^
= =
13, /(#,)
=
13.
0.0298 and f'(z 9 )

1
0.322,
/'(<&,)
whence z
13.1.
Lastly for z 3
f(z 3 )
=0.0012 and
= 0.3142,
whence
13.096,
6 e
which
e
is
a sufficiently close approximation.

is
The
horizontal tension in the given catenary

*Since
e~
,
2 sinh 6,
this
equation
hence 130.96 pounds.* may be written n0 iosinhQ,
where
I02 -1
and the solution may be expedited by the help of tables of

See Chapter IV.
hyperbolic functions.
Art.
8.]
algebraic solutions.
9.
15
Prob.
Show
that the equation 3 sin
2x
o has but
one
real root,
Prob.
2x-\- log
10.
and compute its value. Find the number of real roots of the equation 10 000 = o, and show that the value of one of them is
4995-74-
Art.
8.
Algebraic Solutions.
Algebraic solutions of complete algebraic equations are only possible when the degree n is less than 5. It frequently
happens, moreover, that the algebraic solution cannot be used to determine numerical values of the roots as the formulas
expressing them are in irreducible imaginary form. Nevertheless the algebraic solutions of quadratic, cubic, and quartic
equations are of great practical value, and the theory of the subject is of the highest importance, having given rise in fact
to a large part of
modern
algebra.
solution of the quadratic has been known from very early times, and solutions of the cubic and quartic equations were effected in the sixteenth century. complete investigation of the fundamental principles of these solutions was, how-
The
ever,
given by Lagrange in 1770.* This discussion showed, th if the general equation of the n degree, f{x) =0, be deprived o, that the of its second term, thus giving the equation /(j)
first
expression for the root
is
given by
y=
in
cos,-]-
oo\
oo
~^n-i
>
which n
is
cession, each
the degree of the given equation, th roots of unity, 1, e, e\ of the n
go is, in
. .
.
suc-
e n ~\
and
Slt sit
s M _, are
the so-called elements which in soluble cases

of the n
th
I
are determined
instance,
if
by an equation
3
degree.
For
the equation
00
is
of the third degree or a cubic,
the three values of

a?t
are
e,
l,
gd=
-i + i-/ 11! =
go
= -i-iV- 3 = e
*>
Lagrange
* Memoirs of Berlin Academy, 1769 and 1770; reprinted in CEuvres de See also Traite de la resolution Vol. II, pp. 539-562.
(Paris, 1868),
des 6quations numeriques, Paris, 1798 and 1808.
16
[CHAP.
and the three roots are expressed by

y%
in
= h+s
3
>
y%
s2
5
î
+ e\
iyi
es,
which
5,
and
9).
are found to be the roots of a quadratic
equation (Art.
go are the n roots of the binomial equation n be odd, one of these is real and the others if n be even, two are real and n are imaginary 2 are imagi1 o are -f- 1 and 1 those nary.* Thus the roots of go* 1 o are given above those of go* of go 1 o are
The n
1
values of
If
;
oo
= o.
-|*b
I, -fI
!>
an d
2
,
where
is
|
i
1,
is-v/
i-
For the equation
Go
= o the
e, e
1,
real root
e
3
,
denoted by
4
;
to find
and the imaginary roots are these let go" 1 be divided
=0
by
giving
4
1
GO
-\-GO-\-GO-\-GO-\-l=
O,
which being a reciprocal equation can be reduced to a quadratic, and the solution of this furnishes the four values,
=-i(l~ V~$ + V_IO-2i 5), e* = -l(i-V S - V-io-2Vj)>

6
/
=- j(l+ V5 + fC 10+2^
= -i(i+
1
3
<?
^5
3
^-10 +
1,
2V5),
where
it
will
be seen that
5
e.e
and
e .e
as should
be
the case, since e

In order to
1.
method
let it
solve a quadratic equation be of the form
by
this
general
x
and
let
+ 2ax + b =
a,
(
o,
it
x be
replaced
by y
thus reducing
b)
to
y_
Now
the product of
(
a*
_
y
x
o.
the two roots of this are
-f- s t
and y %
s%%
whence
y
a
s^)
and (y
-f%
st ) is
f - s = o.
Thus the value
*
of j
is
given by an equation of the
first
degree,
The values
1
of a> are, in
" vectors " drawn from the short, those of the n

first
center which divide a circle of radius unity into n equal parts, the
GOi
vector
being measured on the axis of real quantities.
See Chapter X.
Art.
s
7
9.]
the cubic equation.

b;
17
a*
and since x
1
-\-y,
the roots of the given
equation are
*x
= - a + y/d
-b,
th
*9
=-a
JlF^lt,
which
is
the algebraic solution of the quadratic.

of the
I
degree upon which the solution of the equation of the n th degree depends is called a resolvent. If such a resolvent exists, the given equation is algebraically solvable but, as before remarked, this is only the case for
;
The equation
quadratic, cubic, and quartic equations.

Prob.
n. Show
that
the
six
6 th
roots
of
unity are
-f- i,
+i(x+ v^3), -*(i- t^). ~h -i(i+

Art.
9.
^J,
-i(i- V=^).
The Cubic Equation.
the result
cubic be
All methods for the solution of the cubic equation lead to commonly known as Cardan's formula.* Let the
x
and
let
-f $ax* -f
Tfix
+ 2c =
o,
(i)
the second term be removed by substituting y x, giving the form,
a for
y + 3fy+2c=o,
B and C are
b,
7
(i')
in
which the values of
B=-a +
Now by
1
C=a*
es,
%ab
c.
(2)
the Lagrangian
1
method
of Art. 8 the values of
y
,
are
y =zs
in
+S
and
e
a
y, ==
eV9
7,
e^ 2
which
Forming the products

e"
are the imaginary cube roots of unity. of the roots, and remembering that
1
and
-|-
-f-
= o,
there are found
at* +y,y,+y>y* For the determination

tions from
s
6 3
= - 3v. = + $b> yj>y* = s? + s?= -2C.

s,
of
and
s2 there are
hence two equa-
which
9
results the quadratic resolvent

o,
+ 2Cs B = and thus s ={-C+V& +')*>

%
s9
= (-C-V#+Cy.
published by Cardan in 1545.
(3)
* Deduced by Ferreo in 1515, and
first
18

of the roots of the cubic in
[CHAP.
I.
One
therefore
is
/i
= (r c+/FF?')
is
+H-* ^ +
/
,
"*)*.
and
this
the well-known formula of Cardan.
algebraic solution of the cubic equation (i) hence conand C by (2) in terms of the given coefficients, sists in finding
The
and then by
(3)
the elements s and s a are determined.

x
Finally,
*, =
(*,
*.),
*,= *,=
When B
is
9
ft*.
*- i(s,
+ + i V'îs, - sj, + - i^/~^r - sj,

s >)
s,)
(4)
3 ( Sl
which are the algebraic expressions of the three
roots.
C* is negative the numerical solution of the not possible by these formulas, as then both s and j a are in irreducible imaginary form. This, as is well known, is
cubic
k
the case of three real roots, s a pure imaginary.* When B*

x
+
-f-
s^
C*
s7 being a real, while s is o the elements s and

1 x
is
s^
**,
are equal, and there are two equal roots, a while the other root is xx 2O.
xt
=x =
3
-f-
When B
-f-
is
positive the equation has one real
and
two imaginary
cubic
roots,
and formulas
(2), (3),
(1).
and
(4) furnish the
numerical values of the roots of
For example, take the

5
= o, = +4 whence by comparison with (1) are found a = 1.5, b Then from (2) are computed B = 1.75, c^+3.125. c 2.5. These values inserted in (3) give s = +0.9142, ^ = 1.9142 ^ = + 2.8284. 1.0 and ^ thus s 4- s = Finally, from (4) - 1.0 = +0.5, x = 1.5 = 2 + 2.4495/, x, = 1.5 +0.5 + 1.4142 V^~3 /:= ^ = 1.5 + 0.5 1.4142 4 ~3 = 2 2.4495/,
x
%
4.5^
+ \2x
which are the three roots of the given cubic.

* The numerical solution of
cosine
is
this case
is
possible
whenever the angle whose
C/
4/
can be geometrically trisected.
ART.
10.]
THE QUARTIC EQUATION.

12.
2
19
o.
Prob.
Compute
5.76.x
the roots of x*
2x
of x
-f-
o.6^
13.
+ 4.32 =
5=
Also the roots
o.
its altitude 6 inches and the diameter of placed with vertex downwards and one fifth of its volume is filled with water. If a sphere 4 inches in diameter be then put into the cone, what part of its radius is immersed in the water ? (Ans. 0.5459 inches).
Prob.
cone has
It is
its
base
5 inches.
Art.
10.
The Quartic Equation.

in
The quartic equation was first solved who separated it into the difference of two
in 1637 resolved
it
1545 by Ferrari,
squares.
Descartes
two quadratic factors. Tschirnhausen in 1683 removed the second and fourth terms. Euler in 1732 and Lagrange in 1767 effected solutions by
into the product of
roots.
assuming the form of the
All these methods lead to

first
cubic resolvents, the roots of which are
to be found in
order to determine those of the quartic.
The methods
similar, first
and Lagrange, which are closely reduce the quartic to one lacking the second term,
of Euler
y + 6B/ + 4Cj> + D = o;
and the general form
of the roots being taken as
3
,
= + Vs + V7 + V7 - VI, - V7 y, = + V7
y
x
3,
y y
2
= - Vs. + VJ, - Vi = -V7 - v7 + Vs.,

x
3 ,
the values slt s9 st are shown to be the roots of the resolvent,

,
+ $Bs* + i(9^ 9.
)*
~ iC* = o.
is
Thus the
solvable
roots of the quartic are algebraically expressed in f
terms of the coefficients of the quartic, since the resolvent
by
the process of Art.
Whatever method
final
of solution be followed, the following
formulas, deduced by the author in 1892, will result.* Let the complete quartic equation be written in the form
x"
+ 4ax> + 6bx* +4cx + d=o.
(1)
* See American Vol. XIV, pp. 237-245. Journal Mathematics, 1892,
20
First, let g, k,
THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS. and k be determined from

s
[CHAP.
g=a*-b, h=b
Secondly,
let /
c'
-2abc
+ dg,
k=
%ac-V-\d.
(2)
be obtained by
h
= \{li + VW+T>) + \{h v,
VF+J*)*
\2gL
(3)
Thirdly, let u,
and
v
be found from
(4)
u=g+/,
Then
= 2g-J, w = 4u* + $k
the four roots of the quartic equation are
x
#
x
x
= = = =
+ Vu + ^v + Vw, a + Vu *v + Vw,
a a
(5)
Vu
Vu
-\-
Vy
Vw,
Vw,
Vv
in which the signs are to be used as written provided that 3 c is a negative number; but if this is positive all 2a lab
radicals except
Vw
are to be reversed in sign.
These formulas not only serve

discussion of the quartic
tions to be
made
is
for the complete theoretic but they enable numerical solu(1), whenever (3) can be computed, that is, when-
ever A* -\-k*
positive.
roots.
For
If
%
this case the quartic has
two
real
and two imaginary
there be either four real roots or
four imaginary roots J? -f- k is negative, and the irreducible case arises where convenient numerical values cannot be obtained, although they are correctly represented
by the formulas.
As an example
and
let
it
let
a given rectangle have the sides
/ and
q,
be required to find the length of an inscribed recwhose width is m. If x be this length, this is a root of tangle
the quartic equation
_ (#
_|_ tf _|_
m )x
i
+ ^pqmx
(/ + tf
n?).*
= o,
and thus the problem is numerically solvable by the above formulas if two roots are real and two imaginary. As a special case let p = 4 feet, q = 3 feet, and m == 1 foot then
;
x*
2jx'
-f-
48^
24 = o.
*"
4-1.
On** '*
"M
ART.
11.]
QUINTIC EQUATIONS.
(i)
21
By
and
comparison with
are found a
(2),
3
^=24.
Then from
is
^=
is
+ -V3.6067.
= o, b =+ g
1
-,
41.,
^
(3)
= + 12,
4
an(j
Thus ^* -j-
positive,
and from
the value of /
12.6067,
From
161.20.
(4) are
and
w= +
x x x
x
now found, u = +0.8933, v=
Then, since
c is positive, the values of the
four roots are, by
(5),
x9
A
+ V'12.607+ 12.697 = + 4.085 = - 0.945 + V12.607 - 12.697 = + 0.945 + 0.30/, = 0.945 V 2.607 12.697 = + 0.945 0.30/,
0.945
feet,
1
= =
0.945
1/12.607
+ 12.697 =
5.975 feet,
Each of evidently the required length. these roots closely satisfies the given equation, the slight discrepancy in each case being due to the rounding off at the third
is
the second of which
decimal.*
Prob.
14.
Compute
the roots of the equation
xA +
'jx
+ 6 = o.
{Ans.
1.388,
1. 000, 1.
194
1.
701/.)
Art.
11.
Quintic Equations.
fifth
The complete
ally solvable, nor
equation of the
is it
degree
is
reducible to a solvable form.
not algebraicLet the
equation be
x*
+ $ax* + $bx* + $cx* + $dx + 2e
o,
and by
substituting
/+ S#/+SCf+SDj> + 2E =
according to Art.
$*
*
for
let
it
be reduced to
o.
The
five roots of this are,
8,
y,
y,
y*
y*
y>
in which
if
e, e',
= + + s + so = &i + \ + e\ + \f = + e% + es + e\, = eV, + es + eV + e's = e% + e % + s + S

*,
6**i
t,
*>
are the imaginary fifth roots of unity. Now the several products of these roots be taken there will be
e
3
.
e*
* This example is known by length of a strut in a panel of the
civil
engineers as the problem of finding the

truss.
Howe
22

(4) of
[CHAP. I*
found, by
Art.
6,
four equations connecting the four ele-
ments
s lf s
4
s3
and
s<,
namely,
B = s,s
C
+ Va> + sfr + s \ + s<\, D = V'd + V*i + V*i + *A - *iV s*s 3

t
*i**
+ ^W.
degree for
s 1 si
s^s 3
s,
50,
V< + *,V. + ^
V + ^Vt)
4
>
but the solution of these leads to an equation of the 120th
However, by taking quantity, a resolvent of the 6th degree is obtained, and all efforts to find a resolvent of the fourth degree have proved unavailing.
or s*
or of the 24th degree for s\ b * -C as the -\- s 3 -f- s 3
unknown
Another line of attack upon the quintic is in attempting to remove all the terms intermediate between the first and the last. By substituting y* + py -\-q for x the values of p and q be determined so as to remove the second and third terms. may by a quadratic equation, or the second and third by a cubic equation, or the second and fourth by a quartic equation, as was first shown by Tschirnhausen in 1683. By substituting y* -{-py* -f- qy -f- r for x, three terms may be removed, as was shown by Bring in 1786. By substituting y*-\~Py -\- qy -\-ry-\-f for x it was thought by Jerrard in 1833 tnat f ur terms might be removed, but Hamilton showed later that this leads to
y
equations of a degree higher than the fourth.

In 1826 Abel gave a demonstration that the algebraic soluof the general quintic is impossible, and later Galois
tion
published a more extended investigation leading to the same conclusion.* The reason for the algebraic solvability of the
quartic equation may be briefly stated as the fact that there exist rational three-valued functions of four quantities. There
are,
however, no rational four-valued functions of five quantities, and accordingly a quartic resolvent cannot be found for
*
Jordan's Traite des substitutions et des equations algebriques; Paris, 1870.
the general quintic equation.

Abhandlungen iiber die algebraische Auflosung der Gleichungen von N. H* Abel und Galois; Berlin, 1889.
ART.
11.]
QUINTIC EQUATIONS.
23
of the quintic of these is the
There are, however, numerous special forms whose algebraic solution is possible. The oldest
quintic of
De
Moivre,
f + SB/ + $&y + 2E = o,
which
sx
is
solved at once by making

;
equations
then
=: s s x 4
and
t
s,
2
,
and
s A are
found, and
=s
are
e's 1
= s = o in the element = + s,\ from which

9
s,"
-\- s t
or
y
while
=(-+ V& + &)* + (- E - VW+&)\

other
roots
the
=
4
es%
.
e\
eV 4
and j 6
+ e^
if
If
+ e\ y = eV, + e ^ B + ^ be negative,
3
,
4 ,
this quintic
has
five real roots;
positive, there are
one
real
and four imaginary
roots.
When any
relation, other than those expressed

t , , ,
,
by the four
element equations, exists between s st st s4 the quintic is solvable algebraically. As an infinite number of such relations
may be
stated,
it
follows that there are an infinite
number
of
In each case of this kind, however, the cosolvable quintics. efficients of the quintic are also related to each other by a
certain equation of condition.
solution of the quintic in terms of one of the roots of its resolvent sextic was made by McClintock in 1884.* 6 6 By this method ^ x s2 \ s3 \ and ^ 4 are expressed as the roots of
,
The complete
a quartic in terms of a quantity / which is the root of a sextic whose coefficients are rational functions of those of the given
quintic.
Although
this has great theoretic interest,
it
is,
of
course, of little practical value for the determination of

ical
numer-
values of the roots.
By means
of elliptic functions the complete quintic can,

first
-shown by Hermite in 1858. For this purpose the quintic is reduced by Jerrard's transformation to the form x $dx-\-2e = o, and to this form can
however, be solved, as was
b
also be
reduced the
degree.
modular equation of the sixth Other solutions by elliptic functions were made by
elliptic
* American Journal of Mathematics, 1886, Vol. VIII, pp. 49-83-
24

in 1861
[CHAP.
I.
and by Klein in 1884.* These methods, the help of tables, have not yet been sysby though tematized so as to be of practical advantage in the numerical
Kronecker
feasible
computation of
roots.
Prob. 15. If the relation ^4 b b * s3 s4 s% show that sf
+
b
= Vt - 2 E. =
of
exists
between the elements

3
Prob. 16.
Compute
3
the roots
-f-
also those of y
ioy
2oy + 6 = o.
+ ioy + 2qy + 6 = o, and
Art.
12.
Trigonometric Solutions.
When a cubic equation has three real roots the most convenient practical method of solution is by the use of a table of If the cubic be stated in the form (1) of sines and cosines.
Art. 9, let the second term be removed, giving
f + $By +2C= o.
Now
suppose y=2r sin
3
0,
then this equation becomes

/?
C
0+2-i
8 sin 0-)-6-8 sin
= o,
and by comparison with the known trigonometric formula 6 sin 6 -\- 2 sin 30 = o, 8 sin' 6
there are found for r and sin 30 the values
r
in
=V
always
By
sin
30
C/
B\
which
B is
negative for the case of three real roots

is
(Art. 9). of sines,
3$ being computed, 3# and then 6 is known. Thus,

sin 6,
Now sin
y
2
found from a table
= 2r
= 2r
sin (120
6),
= 2r
sin (240
0),
are the real roots of the cubic in y.\

* For an outline of these transcendental methods, see Hagen's Synopsis der
I, pp. 339-344. 2 z is negative and numerically less than C' as also when In positive, this solution fails, as then one root is real and two are imaginary. this case, however, a similar method of solution by means of hyperbolic sines
hoheren Mathematik, Vol.

f
When
is
is
possible.
See Grunert's Archiv fur Mathematik und Physik, Vol. xxxviii,
pp. 48-76.
fV
Art.
12.]
trigonometric solutions.
25
For example, the depth of flotation of a sphere whose diamis 2 feet and specific gravity 0.65, is given by the cubic - 3*2 2.6 = o (Art. 6). Placing x = equation x* 1 this y reduces to/ 0.6 = 0, for which B = i and C 37 =+0.3. Thus r = 1 and sin 30 = Next from a table of sines, 0.3. 30 = 17 27', and accordingly 0=5 49'. Then
eter
+ +
y y
Adding
1
=2 =2
sin
49/
sin 125
J,
= 2 sin
*
a
245
= -f 0.2027, 49' = + 1.6218, 49' = 1.8245.

x
are
feet,
to each of these, the values of

feet,
x
and
= + 1.203
= + 2.622
= -0.825
feet
first
evidently, from the physical aspect of the question, the of these is the required depth. It may be noted that the
number 0.3 is also the sine of 162 u', but by using this the three roots have the same values in a different order.
the quartic equation has four real roots its cubic reIn this case the formulas of solvent has also three real roots.
Art. 10 will furnish the solution
if
When
the three values of / be ob-
tained from (3) by the help of a table of sines.
The
quartic
being given, g, h, and k will always be negative for four

r
k are found as before,

real roots.
and the value of
Then
=V
k,
;
sin
30
=
is
h/r\
and 30
is
taken from a table

/ are
0,
thus
known, and the three
values of
/
x
r sin
/f
= r sin(i2o +
of u, of v,
0),
/s
= r sin
(240
0).
Next the three values
and of
those selected which give u, w, and v ties. Then (5) gives the required roots of the quartic.
w are computed, and Vw all positive quanti-
As an example,
Art. 10, and let/
take the case of the inscribed rectangle in

3 feet,
= 4 feet, q =
>
m=
156
Vi$
feet;
then the
quartic equation
jr
is
i_5i jr
+ 48 VT$x
= 0.
26
[CHAP.
I.
Here a
"
o, b
8J-,
=+ 8, ^=
3$ to be
*f*,
= + 12 ^13, and d = 156. and = The trigonometric

/
-jL-
Next work
/
now
sin
begins; the value of r
is
found to be
i607
/,
0.7476; hence from the table 3$ = 4823 and // The three values of / are then computed 40
+ 4f,
and that of
,
by logarithmic
tables,
and found to
/,
be,
/4
= + 1.250,
of
?/,
= + 3.1187,
w are
=- 4.3687.
it is
Next the values
v,
and
obtained, and
seen that
only those corresponding to lx will render all quantities under these quantities are u the radicals positive 1 9.75, v 5-75>
;
=
x
and
*, =
w=
192.0.
Then
the four roots of the quartic are

*,
8.564,
x,
=+ 2.319,
= + 1.746,
= + 4.499
feet,
which only the second and third belong to inscribed rectangles, while the first and fourth belong to rectangles whose
of
corners are on the sides of the given rectangle produced.
Trigonometric solutions of the quintic equation are not b a, and the quintic of possible except for the binomial x
general trigonometric expression for the root its second term isy=2r 1 cos^,+2r2 cos at vof a quintic lacking and to render a solution possible, r and r2 as well as cos d
x
,
De
Moivre.
The
and cos#2 must be found; but these

,
in
:
general are roots of

3
equations of the sixth or twelfth degree in fact r, is the same as the function s s t of Art. II, and r* is the same as s^s 3
.
x
Here cos#, and cos# may be either circular or hyperbolic cosines, depending upon the signs and values of the coefficients
2
of the quintic.
Trigonometric solutions are possible for any binomial equation, and also for any equation which expresses the division of
an angle into equal
parts.
,
Thus the
which
roots of
+ =0 are
1
cos^ 30 The roots

where
i sin
m 30
in
m
5
has the values

6
1, 2,
and
3.
of
$x*-\-$x
2 cos
= o are
4.
2 cos
(m
72+$)
has the values

17.
o, 1, 2, 3,
and
Prob.
Compute by
a trigonometric solution the four roots of
the quartic
xA
+ 4#
24^
76^
29
= 0.
(Ans.
6.734,
1.550,
+ 0.262, + 4.022).
Art.
13.]
real roots by
1 8.
z
series.
2?
Prob.
$bx
+ 5^ x
when
b
Give a trigonometric solution of the quintic equation

2e
\
to* the case of five real roots.
the roots
0.2864,
and
e=
Compute
1.3952*
0.752798.
(Ans.
1.7940,
o-WI,
i-97 10 -)
Art.
13.
in
Real Roots by
Series.
The
value of
as an infinite series.
any algebraic equation may be expressed Let the equation be of any degree, and
first
power
by dividing by the coefficient of the term containing the of x let it be placed in the form
a
= x+ bx + cx + dx' -f ex*+fx* +
%
z
Now
By
let it
be assumed that x can be expressed by the series
= a + mc? + na
-\-
pa
-\-
qc?
inserting this value of x in the equation and equating the coefficients of like powers of #, the values of m, n, etc., are
found, and then
x=a -
ba'
+ (2b' -c)a -(sb -sbc+d)a

2
-{-(i4b
-2ib'c + 6b^+y' -e)^
-(42^-
84
V+28V+28^ -
>jbe- 7cd
+ f)a
+.
.,
In order is an expression of one of the roots of the equation. that this series may converge rapidly it is necessary that a
should be a small fraction.*
apply this to a cubic equation the coefficients d, e,f etc> % 0.6 o; For example, let x to o, 3* x hence a = 0.2^ form is 0.2 this reduced to the given \x\
f
To
are
made equal
o, c
-J,
= and x = 0.2 + i
then
.
0.2
+i
0.2
etc.
= + 0.20277,
which
is
decimal place.
the value of one of the roots correct to the fourth This equation has three real roots, but the
series gives only
one of them
the others can, however, be
found
is
equation
one root approximate values are known. Thus, l.6 there results an about +1.6, and by placing 0.0218,. whose root by the series is found to be in
if
their
x=y +
x
%
and hence
+ 1.62 18
is
is
another root of
J. B.
3*
*This method
given by
Mott
in
The Analyst,
1882, Vol. IX, p. 104.
28
[Chap.
I.
Cardan's expression for the root of a cubic equation can be expressed as a series by developing each of the cube roots by
the binomial formula and adding the results. Let the equation be y* -J- ^By -\- 2C o, whose root is, by Art. 9,
= (_ C + VJ? + Cy +(-C- VBr+C>)\

series,
then this development gives the
^
*
in
v
'
2 2
2.5.8,
2.3.4
2. 5. 8. 11.
14, 2.3.4.5.6
/'
which r represents the quantity (* O/Sw* If r the equation has two equal roots and the third root is 2( C)$. If r is numerically greater than unity the series is divergent, and the solution fails. If r is numerically less than unity and
sufficiently small to
make a quick convergence, the series will serve for the computation of one real root. For example, take % 2 and C 6 6x the equation x o, where 3
hence r
+ =
B=
1/8
1,
and one root

0.01235
is
2.8845(1
is
0.00051
0.00032)
2.846,
which
correct to the third decimal.

is
In comparatively few
cases, however,
this series of value for the solution of cubics.
other series for the expression of the roots of equations, particularly for trinomial equations, have been devised. One of the oldest is that given by Lambert in 1758, whereby
Many
the root of
xn
+ ax
=o
ascending powers of b/a. Euler and Lagrange. These series usually give but one root, and this only when the values of the coefficients are such as to
render convergence rapid.
developed in terms of the Other solutions were published by

is
1771), pp. 143-150,
Prob. 19. Consult Euler's Anleitung zur Algebra (St. Petersburg, and apply his method of series to the solution of
a quartic equation.
Art.
14.
Computation of all Roots.

and valuable method for the solution of was developed by McClintock, in 1894, by
A comprehensive
equations by
series
ART.
14.]
COMPUTATION OF ALL ROOTS,
29
this
means
of his Calculus of Enlargement.*
By
method
all
the roots, whether real or imaginary, may be computed from a The following is a statement of the method as single series,
applied to trinomial equations
:
Substitute
= nAx + B be the given trinomial equation. = By and thus reduce the equation to the form ' = nay + where a = A/B Then B positive, the
Let x
n n n~ k
if
is
roots are given
by the
l
series
= co -{-co -* a + oo 1
l
2k
(i
2k-\- n)c?/2
-\-oo
-^{\
4k-\-n)(i
4k-\-2n)(\
4^+3^/4 !+...,
in
If,
which
0,1
however,
represents in succession each of the roots of unity. n is negative, the given equation reduces to
= nayn ~
1,
and the same
series gives the roots

I.
if
co
be
taken in succession as each of the roots of

In order that this series
n convergent the value of a k~ H thus for the quarmust be numerically less than k~\n k) the value of a must and k where n tic y* 3, 4 1, 4ax
may be
be
less
than 27-*.
/=
in
apply this method to the cubic equation x'=z$AxB\ Bx. It then becomes n 2, and put y 3 and k place and the series is I where a A/B\ lay
To
y=
co
+ Go*a
$Goa*
+ iafa*
-(-
which the values to be taken for co are the cube roots of 1 3 2x For example, let x 5 =0. or 1, as the case may be. Here #=0.228, this reduces toy =0.684 y+i.
Placing
co
y= $*x,
and as
this is less
than 4-* the series

is
is
convergent.
Making
i,
the
first
root
y sss
American
I -J-
0.2280
O.OO39
+ O.OOO9 =
I.2250.
p. 3; also
Vol. See Bulletin of American Mathematical Society, 1894,

Vol. Journal of Mathematics, 1895,
I,
XVII, pp. 89-110.
SO
[CKAP,
I.
Next making go = and the corresponding
+iV
root
is
3, go
is
3,
found to be
Again, be the conjugate imaginary of the second. each value of y by 5*,
= - 0.6125 + O.3836 V^. \ \V 3 the third root making go =

y
x
2.095,
is
found to
Lastly, multiplying
I-I3 6
= - 1.047
x
3
V^,
to
which are very nearly the roots of x*

In a similar manner the cubic
-\3
=
i
= o. 2^ + 5 =0 reduces
2x
5
I,
0.684J/
1,
for
which the
series is convergent.
Here
the three values of
go are,
*
in succession,
y = 0.388
+i
3>
anc
the three
roots are
+4 ~ 3 y= 0.777
J
'
and
1. 1 37*'.
When
fails
all
the roots are
real,
the method as above stated
The given equation can, because the series is divergent. k roots by one however, be transformed so as to obtain n of the general series and k roots by another. As application
an example,
tion this
is
o. 330 to be written in the form
let x*
243^
-f-
For the
first
applica-
x=z S_
243
for which n
330
243'
and k
2.
To make
the last term unity
place
ss
-v,
and the equation becomes
whence a
= 330 /3.243'.
8
These values of
k,
and a are now
inserted in the above general value of y, and go made unity; thus ^=0.9983, whence x x =1.368 is one of the roots. For
the second application the equation

*>
is
to be written
= _33V, + 243> T *" 243
Art.
for
15.]
conclusion.
31
which n
= 2 and k =
3.
Placing
243*7,
tms becomes
whence #
values of
and
go is
110/243', and the series is convergent. These and a are now inserted in the formula for y, n, k, 1 in succession, thus 1 and made giving two
values for y, from which x^ 14.86 and other roots of the given cubic.
16.22 are the
McClintock has
method applicable
The equation
na
.
is
also given a similar and more general to other algebraic equations than trinomials. reduced to the form y n na (J>y 1, where
<py
Then
denotes all the terms except the first and the the values of y are expressed by the series
last.
^=(+
(w I
-"0^.^+^
~M
^^
n
~w
(0^)
n
.-j
+{în
^^- ^-i\+
when
the conver-
which the values of go are to be taken as before. The method is one of great importance in the theory of equations, as it enables not only the number of real and imaginary roots
to be determined, but also gives their values gence of the series is secured.
Prob. 20.
quartic x*
Compute by the above method

10
all
the roots of the
+*+
this
= 0.
Art.
While
15.
Conclusion.
to the theory of Chapter forms a supplement
equations as
in college text-books, yet the to it has prevented the discussion and debrief space allotted Chief among these velopment of many interesting branches. of is the topic of complex or imaginary roots, particularly their graphical representation and their numerical computation. are required in the solution Although such roots rarely, if ever, is a matter of problems in physical science, their determination
commonly given
of
much
theoretic interest.
It
may be
mentioned, however,
32
[CHAP.
I.
that both the regula falsi and Newton's approximation rule may, by a slight modification, be adapted to the computation
of these imaginary roots, approximate values of
first
them being
obtained by
trial.
A
which
method
of solution of numerical
algebraic equations,
may
be called a logarithmic process, was published by
in deriving
Graffe in 1837, and exemplified by Encke in 1841.* It consists from the given equation another equation whose
roots are high powers of those of the given one, the coefficients of the latter then easily furnishing the real roots and the moduluses of the imaginary roots. The method, although
without doubt one of high practical value, as logarithmic tables are used throughout; moreover, Encke states that the time required to completely solve an equation of
little
known,
is
the seventh degree with six imaginary roots, as accurately as can be done with seven-place tables, is less than three hours.
algebraic solutions of the quadratic, cubic, and quartic equations are valid not only for real coefficients, but also for
The
imaginary ones. In the latter case the imaginary roots do not The method of McClintock has the necessarily occur in pairs.
great merit that
it
nary coefficients;
Prob. 21.
tion
it
is applicable also to equations with imagiconstitutes indeed the only general method
by which the roots

x
3
in
such cases can be computed.

series the roots of the equa-
Compute by McClintock's
1
ix
= o.
Prob. 22. Solve the equation cos
equation x
e*
= o.
x cosh.* -j-i o, and also the answers see Crelle's Journal fur Mathe(For
pp. 1-62.)
matik, 1841, Vol.
XXII,
*See
Crelle's Journal fur
Mathematik, 1841, pp. 193-2480
Art.
1.]
INTRODUCTION.
33
Chapter
II.
DETERMINANTS.
By Laenas Gifford Weld,
Professor of Mathematics in the State University of Iowa.
Art.
1.
Introduction.
early as 1693 Leibnitz arrived at some vague notions regarding the functions which we now know as determinants.
this subject, the first account of which is contained in his correspondence with De L'Hospital, resulted simply in the statement of some rather clumsy rules for elimiin
As
His researches
nating the unknowns from systems of linear equations, and exerted no influence whatever upon subsequent investigations in the same direction. It was over half a century later, in
formulated an intelligible and general definition of the functions, based upon the recognition of the two classes of permutations, as presently to be set forth.
first
1750, that Gabriel
Cramer
Though Cramer failed to recognize, even to the same extent as Leibnitz, the importance of the functions thus defined, the
development of the subject from this time on has been almost continuous and often rapid. The name " determinant" is due
to Gauss, who, with
Vandermonde, Lagrange, Cauchy, Jacobi, and others, ranks among the great pioneers in this development.
Within recent years the theory of determinants has come
into very general use, and has, in the hands of such mathematicians as Cayley and Sylvester, led to results of the greatest
interest
and importance, both through the study of special forms of the functions themselves and through their applica*
tions.*
list
of writings
on Determinants
is
given by Muir
in
Quarterly Journal
of Mathematics, 1881. Vol.
XVIII, pp. 110-149.
34
DETERMINANTS.
[CHAP.
II.
Art.
2.
Permutations.
The
be arranged
various orders in which the elements of a group in a row are called their permutations.
may
Any two
orders
:
elements, as a and
ba.
ab and
third, as
in
c,
b, may be arranged in two may be introduced into each

:
of these
two permutations
;
three ways
before either element,
or after both
thus giving
3X2 = 6 permutations of the three
manner an additional element may be introduced into each of the permutations of i elements in (i -\- 1) before any one of them, or after all. Hence, in ways general, if Pt denote the number of permutations of i eleelements.
In like
:
ments,
jP4
P = (r+ 1)/^ = 4 X 31=4!; and, n Pn = n{n

i+l
is,
Now,
P = 3x2x1=3!;
%
hence
being any integer,

i)(n
2)
.
.
That
the
all
number
of permutations of n elements
is
!.
For
If
integral values of n greater than unity, n
is
an
even number.
the elements of any group be represented by the different letters, a, b, c, ., the alphabetical order will be considered
. .
as the natural order of the elements.
If
:
represented by the
same
letter with different indices, thus
a tt a
or thus
a',
is
a", a'"
.,
the natural order of the elements
that in which the indices
form a continually increasing
series.
elements, whether adjacent or not, standing in their natural order in a permutation constitute a permanence
Any two
in
standing
inversion.
the reverse of the natural, an in the permutation daecb, the permanences Thus,
is
;
an order which
are de, ae, ab, ac
the inversions, da, dc, db,
ec, eb, cb.
into
of the elements of a group are divided even or positive permutations, in which the number of inversions is even and odd or negative permu-
The permutations
two
classes, viz.:
tations, in
which the number of inversions
is
odd.
ART.
3.]
INTERCHANGE CF TWO ELEMENTS.
35
When
number
the elements are arranged in the natural order the of inversions is zero an even number.
#,,
Thus, the even or positive permutations of the elements a a % are a <z 2 a 3f #a a 3 alf a a, # a
t 3
;
while the odd or negative permutations are a 3 a t a lt a, a 3 a a2 a a%

x
Art.
It will
3.
Interchange of
that
if,
Two Elements.
now be shown
elements of a group, two of

class of the permutation will
any permutation of the the elements be interchanged the be changed.

in in question.
Let q and
be the elements
all
Then, represent-
ing collectively
P those which
%
fall
the elements which precede these two by between them by R, and those which follow
of the
by
any permutation
group
may
in
be written
PqRsT.
Of
the elements R
supposed to be r
of
"
number,
let
q,
q,
s,
represent
h the
i
number
"
"
"
"
an order higher than " " " " lower

" "
" "
j
k
"
"
lower
higher
"
"
s.
"
order of the elements qRs or T. can affect their relations to the elements of either Then, passing from the order PqRsT to the order
It is evident that
no change
in the
PRqsT
changes the number
this to the order
of inversions
by
{h
i)
and passing from
PsRqT
again changes the
j
number
of inversions
by (J
(
k)
I,
the
'
minus
Sign
(
bdng USCd
in the
aS q
Ser
is,
0rder than S
The
total
change
number
in
of inversions
due to the
inter-
change of the two elements
question
therefore,
36
DETERMINANTS.
i
[CHAP. IL
But since
=r
h and k
== r
j\ this
may be
written
A h +J ~
which
is
r)
an odd number for
all
admissible values of
//,/,
and r
Hence, the interchange of any two elements in a permutation ch anges the number of inversions by an odd number, thus
changing the class of the permutation.
Art.
4.
Positive and Negative Permutations.
Of
all
half are even
the permutations of the elements of a group, one and one half odd.
this,
To
tation.
prove
write out
all
the permutations.
in
Now choose
each permu)
any two
of the elements
and interchange them

be the same
set of
(
The
result will
before, only differently arranged.
But each
permutations as even > permutaQ
tion of the old set has been converted into an
the new.
tations as
Prob.
(i)
i.
Hence, in odd that

;
either set,
is,
even ( one in there are as many even permuj
one half are even and one half odd.
Classify the following permutations:

;
bcdea
a"
a* a'
(2)
m vi
II iv;
(3)
fteyZafi;. (8) F.Tu. M. Th. W.; (7) x x xt x;x;x% xt Prob. 2. Derive the formula for the number
(4)
a"
a'"; (5)
\
(6) (9)
knimlj; 52413;
fiKviX.
of permutations of
n elements taken
Prob.
3.
at a time.
(Ans. n\/\n
m)\.)
How many
may
Show Art.
natural order
n\/tn\(n
combinations of m elements arranged in the be selected from a group of n elements? (Ans.
m)\.)
4.
Prob.
that o!
1.
(
y\~y\[
.'!:_.
5.
The Determinant Array.

:
elements arranged in n vertical ranks or columns^ and n horizontal ranks or rows, thus
n*
.
Assume
a( a,"
a^
'
a "
(M)
Art.
6.]
determinant as function of
n*
elements.
37
In this array all the elements in the same column have the same superscript, and those in the same row the same subscript. The columns being arranged in order from left to right, and
the rows likewise in order from the top row downward, the position of any element of the array is shown at once by its
indices.
Thus, a"'
is
in
the third column and the
fifth
row
of the above array.
a n(M) diagonal passing through the elements a/, a%", that passing is called the principal diagonal of the array (M) the secondary diagonal. The posia n \ a n . '\ #, through
.
The
tion occupied
position.
by the element a/
is
designated as the leading
Art.
6.
Determinant as Function of
n*
Elements.
array just considered, inclosed between two vertical thus bars,
The
dl a;'
f
ai aj
a^ a^
a
{n)
a'
is
a"
ments called
as follows
:
used in analysis to represent a certain function of its n* eleThis function may be defined their determinant .*
Write down the product

diagonal, taking
of the elements on the principal

:
them
in
the natural order; thus
This product
is
called the principal term of the determinant.

in this principal
Now
undisturbed. To such of possible way, leaving the superscripts the n\ resulting terms as involve the even permutations of the to those involving the odd subscripts give the positive sign
;
permute the subscripts
term
in
every
This notation was
first
employed by Cauchy
in
1815.
See Dostor's
Theorie des determinants, Paris, 1877.
38
DETERMINANTS.
[Chap.
II.
permutations, the negative sign. The algebraic sum of all the terms thus formed is the determinant represented by the?
given array.
Art.
7.
Examples of Determinants.
Applying the process above explained to the array of four

elements gives
a,
a.
a:a m
a% a
pansion,
~ a
t
l
As an example of a determinant may be written

~ a
ft
x
of nine elements, with
its
ex-
~ a
tti
x
a a2 as
x
It is evident,
-f-
<z a
aââl"
a 'a,"a9
x
'"
- aââ;".
+a
a^
(2}
from the mode of
its
formation, that each term
of the
expansion of a determinant contains one,
and only
one,,
element from each column and each row of the array.

It
neous function of
with respect to minant. Thus,
respectively.
follows that every complete determinant is a homogeThe degree of this function, its elements.
its
elements,
is
called the order of the deter-
(1)
and
(2)
are of the second and third order
The
article
is
definition of
once more
a determinant given in the preceding^ illustrated by the following example of a

its
determinant of the fourth order with
complete development
a
x
a b
x
cx
a, b, c3
a% b%
c%
a, b A c t
d dt d d
x
+ a bj d + a bf/l
x
a b% cK d
x
b,c,dt -f
a b t c3 dz
x
afi^d,
afi c% d%
x
aJ> x c %
+ +
-f
aj> x c k d%
-f-
a 3 b c^di
x
ab
3
c 4 d^ -\- aj> c z
x
+ +
-f-
ajb % c
a%bfxd%
a% bj d
K
d a bcd aj>j d
aJb A c
A 9
x
aJb % c
%
d c d aJ> aJb c d
x
-\- ajb,1 c x
K
d d aJ) c d a 6,c d
t
A
(3)
Art.
It
8.]
NOTATIONS.
3D
the columns are ranked
will
be noticed that,
in this case,
alphabetically instead of by the numerical values of a series of

indices.
Art.
8.
Notations.
is
Besides the notations already employed, the following very extensively used
:
U
0*1
0,8
2
'
'
01.
0*
0, a m
This
is
a
;
called the double-subscript notation
the
first
subscript
indicating the rank of the row, the second that of the column. Thus the element # is in the second row and the third column.
The
letters are
sometimes omitted, the elements being thus
represented by the double subscripts alone.*
Instead of writing out the array in full, it is customary, when the elements are merely symbolic, to write only the prinThis is called cipal term and enclose it between vertical bars.
the umbral notation.
is
Thus, the determinant of the

a: a
in)
n
nth.
order
written
or,
using double subscripts,

|
#n
22
>
These
last
two forms
|
are sometimes
still
further abridged to
|
a
ôectively.
Prob.
nants:
5.
and
|
a hH
Write out the developments of the following determi-
w
though he
a, b
* Leibnitz indicated the elements of a determinant
in this
same manner,
made no use
of the array.
40
Art. 9]
SECOND AND THIRD ORDERS.

first
4L
in
Beneath the square array let the

order, as
two rows be repeated
shown
in the figure.
Now write down six terms, each

the product of the three elements lying along one of the
six oblique lines parallel to the diagonals of the original square.
Give to those terms whose
ele-
ments
tive
lie
on
lines parallel
to __,
the principal diagonal the posisign; to the others, the
*
-f-
negative sign. the required expansion.
The
result
is
Ap-
plying the method to the determinant just written gives a K c% a Atv a b. c iVs ajb^ aj.c, aj>x c% After a little practice the repetition of the first two rows will
I
be dispensed with. The above methods are especially useful in expanding determinants whose elements are not marked with indices, or
in evaluating
those having numerical elements.
No
such sim-
ple methods can be given for developing determinants of higher orders, but it will be shown later that these can always be
resolved into determinants of the third or second order.

Prob. n. Develop the following determinants: o n a h m
(i)
h b
f
c
g f
(4)
(s)
*,.r,
(7)
cos
(8)
cos
42
DETERMINANTS.
[Chap.
II.
Art.
10.
in
Interchange of Rows and Columns.

the development of the determinant a
|
Any
term
{H)
x
j
may-
be written
**'
a!
a .()
I, 2, 3,.
.
in
which hij
./is
some permutation
of the subscripts
.
.n+
/. Also, let Designate by u the number of inversions in hij v be the number of interchanges of two elements necessary to bring the given term into the form
.
.
a
in
(<?)
W
in
(0
which the subscripts are arranged

.
the natural order, while

(M)
',
pqr
/ is
a certain permutation of the superscripts
", '",
odd.
This permutation is even or odd according as v is even or But u and v are obviously of the same class that is,
;
both are even or both odd.

. . .
Hence the permutations

;
hij
and the term will have the and pqr / are of the same class same sign, whether the sign be determined by the class of the
permutation of the subscripts when the superscripts stand in the natural order, or by the class of the permutation of the
superscripts
when the order

that the
of the subscripts
is
natural.
It follows
same development
of the determinant
array will
Art.
6,
if, instead of proceeding as indicated in the superscripts of the principal term be permuted, the
be obtained
subscripts being left in the natural order, and the sign of each of the resulting terms written in accordance with the class of
the permutations of
its
superscripts.
Passing from one of these methods of development to the other amounts to the same thing as changing each column of
the array into a row of the same rank, and vice versa. Hence, a determinant is not altered by changing the columns into cor-
responding rows and the rows into corresponding columns.
Thus:
a"
aj a n
"
.
am
()
a n{n)
a^>
a,
ART.
11.]
TWO IDENTICAL PARALLEL

therefore,
is is
LINES.
43
Whatever theorem,
columns.
demonstrated with reference
to the rows of a determinant
also true with reference to the
The rows and columns

called lines.
of a determinant array are
alike
Art.
If
11.
Interchange of Two Parallel Lines.

parallel lines of a determinant be interchanged,
any two
the determinant will be changed only in sign.

For, interchanging any two parallel lines of a determinant array amounts to the same thing as interchanging, in every
term of the expansion, the indices which correspond to these lines. Since this changes the class of each permutation of the indices in question from odd to even or from even to odd, it changes the sign of each term of the expansion, and therefore
that of the whole determinant.
It follows
from the above that
if
any
line of a
determinant
be passed over ;// parallel lines to a new position in the array the new determinant will be equal to the original one multiplied
by
m
(
i)
to the leading position over the (k i) preceding rows, and by passing the /th row This the sth column over the (s i) preceding columns.
{s)
The element ak
may be brought
being done the determinant
is
multiplied
by
l)*+*,
(_
which changes
even.
its
,)*-
(_ i)~
(-
sign or not according as {k
s)
is
odd or
The when (k
{s) is called a positive position position occupied by a k a negative position when {k s) is odd. s) is even
;
Art.
12.
Two
in
Identical Parallel Lines.

parallel lines are identical
A determinant
is
which any two
equal to zero.
For the interchange of these two
parallel lines, while it
44
DETERMINANTS.
will in
[Chap.
II.
changes the sign of the determinant,

value.
no way
alter its
The
value then,
13.
if finite,
can only be zero.
Art.
Multiplying by a Factor.
Multiplying each element of a line of a determinant by a given factor multiplies the determinant by that factor.
Since each term of the development contains one and only one element from the line in question (Art. 7), then multiplying each element of this line by the given factor multiplies each term of the development, and therefore the whole deter-
minant, by the same factor.

It follows that,
if
contain a
common factor,
*.,
the elements of any line of a determinant this factor may be canceled and written
;
outside the array as a factor of the whole determinant
thus
# 31
m a. ma
2i
a,
a m ..ma ni
.**
which the elements of any line have a common ratio to the corresponding elements of any parallel For this common ratio may be written line is equal to zero. Its outside the array, which will then have two identical lines.
determinant
in
value
therefore zero (Art. 12). determinant having a line of zeros

is
is
equal to zero.
Art.
14.
Line of Polynomial Elements.
A determinant
the
sum
of
sum
having a line of elements each of which is two or more quantities can be expressed as the two or more determinants.
of
Let
{b
*.
+b bj + b:> {b>>
b:
,,,)
.
Cx
(1)
ct
c3
a3
{Bt
-b + b
'
...)
if
be such a determinant.
Then,
i
B =b
i
-bi^br.
Art.
15.]
composition of parallel lines.

of the determinant
45
is
any term of the expansion

ah BiCj
. . .
A
cj
ak
ah
hi c s
ip
.
ah
.
bl
;
b(' cj
. .
2)
the expansion of A are obtained by permuting the subscripts h, i,j\ ... of a h B{ But permuting at Cj the same time the subscripts of the terms in the second member of (2), and giving to each term thus obtained its
in
.
The terms
proper
sign, there results
J = \a B^...\
1
\aAc ...\-\a
3
b;c % ...\
+ \aA' c
,
...\...
which proves the theorem.
Art.
If
15.
Composition of Parallel Lines.

line of a
each element of a
determinant be multiplied by
ment
a given factor and the product added to the corresponding eleof any parallel line, the value of the determinant will not
;
be changed thus: a u a a lt
.
av
a>
*n *
#
On
2
+ ***)
+ ma
ni )
x
;
#*, '!
#, #, "-H2 "M3
0*,
(a M%
a nn
appear upon resolving the second member into two determinants (Art. 14), one of which will be the given deThis
will
terminant, while the other, upon removal of the given factor,

will vanish
because of having two identical
lines.
In like
manner any number
of parallel lines
may
be com-
in any way the elements to which added multiples of corresponding elements from other For example, a l>n is equivalent to parallel lines.
bined without changing being taken not to modify
the value of
the determinant, care
are
*n
(^11
..
- ma * +'")
*!*
a xn
-m(a
i?
+ Xa +
15 )
.)
46
DETERMINANTS.
[Chap.
II.
Art.
16.
Binomial Factors.
is is
A
and
determinant which
b,
of
such that
if
a rational integral function of a substituted for a the determinant

factor.
vanishes, contains {a
^)asa
a*
For example,
a-\-r
b
Jee
p*
1
9-pp
is divisible
b-q
q
+r
r
by
{a
b).
To prove this, let the expansion of any such determinant be written in the form
A
the coefficients
,
= m,
iy
-j-
m & + wi-P? +
x .
m m
tn
being independent of
a.
Now
Hence,
when
is
substituted for a the determinant vanishes.
o = m + mjb
%
-\-
mj?
Subtracting this from the precedfng gives
= m {a - b) + m,(a* t
F) +...
is
This being divisible by (a

Prob.
13.
b),
the theorem
proven.
:
Prove the following without expansion
(0
x
o
X y
o
(2)
my mnz nz
(3)
+
b
c c
a
a
b
+
c
a -\-b a
(4 )
*_t a
c
+a
Art.
17.]
co-factors
minors.
47
Prob. 14. Prove that
x 1 x ix 3
1
1
a y a y
b
x
b
b
a y^
43
DETERMINANTS.
[Chap.
II.
row of the array (Art. 7). If, therefore, in selecting the elements for any term, any other element than a/ be taken from the first column, the one taken from the first row must be zero. Hence, the only terms which do not vanish are those which
contain the element a/.
Moreover,
in the
not vanish, a/ is multiplied by (n from each column and each row of
terms of the expansion of (1) which do 1) elements chosen one
an
.a
()
(2)
There are
written
class of the
{n
1)!
,V/"
such terms, any one of which may be a ^ n) tne s,*S n being determined by the
1, t f
permutation of the n subscripts
j\
I.
But
since this is of the same class as the permutation of the (n 1} a t (n \ aâl'a-" subscripts i,j\ .'../,- the sign of any term,
.
of the expansion of (1)
is
sponding term,
ax
'
a" a/"
a2
the same as the sign of the corren) of the expansion of (2). ,a} Hence,.
\
(3)
.
a 7 #a
Art.
18.]
development
in
terms of co-factors.
is
49
The
co-factor thus obtained
represented by the symbol
the sign-factor of which,

the symbol
itself,
(is
1)*+*, is
intrinsic,
i.e.,
included in
which
The
co-factors
:
of
accordingly written as positive. the various elements of \a u a n a are as Si

\
follows
An =
50 group.
DETERMINANTS.
In
all
[Chap.
II.
of them, then, there are
nX{n
is
i)! or
;/!
dif-
ferent terms of the determinant, which
the whole number.
Hence,
|
a^ = aiAi + a^'A,"
|
+ aj*Ai*\
.
(i)
Similarly (Art. io),

|
a
|
==
0VA
+ **AP +
Ai
n
\
+ aPAt
(i) or (2),
(2)
Any
determinant may, by means of either
be
re-
solved into determinants of an order one lower.

these formulas
Since, in
A k\
or
A^,
A^
s)
are themselves
determinants, they may be resolved into determinants of an order still one lower in the same manner. By continuing the
process any determinant may ultimately be expressed of determinants of the third or second order, which
easily
in
terms
may be
expanded by methods already given (Art.

let
.
I
9).
A=
For example,
I
a b%
t
c3
4
4
be required to develop the determinant 1, gives Applying formula (1), letting k

it
A =
a,
c*
Upon
a second application of the
same formula
this
becomes
Art.
19.]
the zero formulas.

19.
i
51
Prob.
Develop the following determinants:
to
52
Similarly,
DETERMINANTS.
[CHAP. II.
p and
fl,^
being different superscripts,
+ aiA +
Cauchy's
+ *ia.CP =
o.
Art.
It is
20.
Method of Development.
frequently desirable to expand a determinant with reference to the elements of a given row and column.
n) and the given row Let the determinant be A a} and column the ht\\ and pth respectively. Then is A h(p) the
| |
co-factor of a h(p\ the element at the intersection of
the two
p)
given
lines.
The
co-factor of
{s
any element a
s)
of
will
be
designated by
(n
2).
\ this being
a determinant of the order
The
required expansion
may now be
:
obtained by
means
of the following formula,

|
due to Cauchy
mf*
2,
.
.
= mJ*AP- 2aPaiBP.
.
(i)
in
which k
.
I,
I,
-f- I,
.
n,
and
I, 2, ..
./
i,
p -\- I, .. n, successively. To prove this, consider

terms
a
p)
that
of
{s)
is
the
of
.
the
expansion
which contain
{p)
.
aggregate of all the product

.
These terms are included in ah A Now, every term in the expansion which does not contain ah must contain some other element ah from the /ith. row and also some other from the pth column, and thus contains the prodelement a p) uct ali ai But this product differs from ah ak only in the order of the superscripts and is, therefore, in the expansion of
ak
{s)
{f>)
{s)
p)
s)
{p)
{s)
A, multiplied by an aggregate of terms differing in sign only Bk is the coefficient from that multiplying a h ip) a k Hence, in the required expansion. of ah a k
(s)
i$)
(s)
{p)
In the formula ah {p)

are also {n
[p)
gives (n
i)
terms of A.
{s)
{s)
There
taining (n
(n
i)
I
-\-
ah a k(p) Bk each coni)* such aggregates as terms. The formula therefore gives 2) a n terms, which is the complete (n i) {n 2)
,
\
!
expansion.
When
the expansion
is
required with reference to the ele-
Art.
20.]
cauchy's method of development.
53
ments
of the first
explicitly,
\a W|
column and the becomes

tf,
x
first
row the formula, written
= a/A/- afa/'B," - aâ B m - ... - */*,, - a;a;'B:' - a;<x;"B:" - ... - a 'a^B^

%
3
- an'a "BH" - aJa^'BJ" - ... - a;ay>B*\

x
(2)
in
which
(s)
has intrinsically the sign
i)*
+s .
Cauchy's formula is particularly useful in expanding determinants which have been bordered such as
;
-Q
u a \\ a \i a \%
i
(3)
U % a%x a
u % a 3l a
3,
ait
a S3
Applying formula
(2) to this
determinant gives
-Q =
"
^22 ^23
54
(4)
DETERMINANTS.
Art.
22.]
RAISING THE ORDER.
55
written
Prob. 25.
Show
that Cauchy's formula
may be
J==la. w
6A ah W daW
22.
Saâ^
d*J
da^da^
Art.
' the elements at
Raising the Order.
Since, in the expansion of the determinant (1) of Art. 17 aj do not appear, these may be replaced
t
.
.
by any quantities whatever, as Q, value of the determinant thus

; :
T, without
changing the
a/ o a % a,
o
a,
,
o
()
a/ o
au'aj'aj"...a
Similarly,
Ta" a"
()
...a
O
o
G*," o
*,'*,"*.'" ...*,<>
%
...
R La '"...a
a' a" a'" un un un

in
a n(M) u
. .
TNa " ...a

f
which Q, R,
and Z,
N are any quantities whatever.

)
Finally,
âJ'...aH ?r <*i
n) -
'
a,
o
t
o o
Qa
a' n-i <* h-i a" u
"...o
ari-i u (M-I) o u
T N...C a^
that
the elements on one side of the principal diagonal are zeros the determinant is equal to its principal term, and
is, if all
the elements on the other side of this diagonal
may be
replaced
by any quantities whatever.
By what
precedes,
.
x
in,
t
an
a n ()
Ta'..a, ()
56
DETERMINANTS.
[Chap.
II.
Hence, a determinant of the nth order
may be
expressed
as a determinant of the order (n -\- i) by bordering it above by a row (to the left by a column) of zeros, to the left by a
column (above by a row)

writing
I
of elements chosen
arbitrarily,
and
con-
at the intersection of the lines thus added.
By
tinuing this process any determinant
may
be expressed as a
determinant of any higher order.

Prob. 26. If
all
onal are zeros, what
the elements on one side of the secondary diagis the value of the determinant ?
Prob. 27. Develop the determinant
a h
h b
g u
o
o
t
f
c
v o
g f
U V
o
{s)
w
o
t
w
o
s
{k)
a s and au {k) o is Prob. 28. A determinant in which a k Prove that every skew-symmetric detersaid to be skew-symmetric. minant of odd order is equal to zero.
r
Art.
23.
Solution of Linear Equations.
Of the many analytical processes giving rise to determinants the simplest and most common is the solution of systems of
simultaneous linear equations. a ;x>
Thus, solving the equations
+ a;>x" = kJ
:
by the methods
of ordinary algebra gives
a; a,"
- a^r
"
*/*,"
-*
Art.
23.]
SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS.
57
numerator of the fraction giving the value of x' is formed from this denominator by replacing each coefficient of x' by the corresponding absolute term. Similarly for x"
.
The
difficulty of solving
systems of linear equations by the
ordinary processes of elimination increases rapidly as the number of equations is increased. The law of formation of the
roots explained above
is.
however, capable of generalization,

all
being equally applicable to
complete linear systems, as
will
now be shown.
Let such a system be written
a> x -f a ,"x"
f
<*?
a n 'x'
" <' x
+ +
4-
*w*w =
n)
*,
+<
.
{n)
">
>
(I)
.
+ aj'x" +
D=
+ a^x =
()
*- ()
Kn
Now
equations
form the determinant of

;
the coefficients of
these
thus
a a
x
()
x
()
an
a,
s)
M
a,}
and
let
A^
be the co-factor of a
in
this
determinant.
The
function
i
+ a w AJ +
(Art. 18)
.
+ a,}* A ^
n
is
equal to
D when/ = s
Af\ Af\
.
to zero
when p and
are
different superscripts (Art. 19).
Then, multiplying the given

]
equations by
of
respectively, the
sum
of the
in which resulting equations is a linear equation x is equal to Z>, while those of all the other
the coefficient
unknowns
vanish.
The sum
jR*
is,
therefore,
K Af*
M
+ *AW +
a*
,
.
+K A
is
S)
'
2)
But the second member
of this equation
what
D becomes
& by
upon
replacing the coefficients
the absolute terms
k9
a?\ .-.:.# of the unknown in order. ** Hence, ,
58
tf
;b
|A<6. a.
-
Art.
24.]
CONSISTENCE OF LINEAR SYSTEMS.
59
obviously depend upon some relation among the coefficients. This relation will now be investigated for the case of [n i) linear equations involving n unknowns. Let the equations be
+ ... + <*
-v()
-_
K.
*v + ... +
If
=/cK
the above equations are consistent the values of the obtained by solving any n of them must satisfy the
equation.
unknowns
Solving the
preceding article, obtained in the last equation, and clearing of fractions, the result reduces to (Art. 18)
y
. .
remaining n equations by the method of the xP* thus substituting the values of x', x"
first
.
E~
a/ an
a n+i
.
()
= o,
(*)
+i
^+i
which
is
the condition to be
fulfilled
by the
coefficients in order
that the given equations
may
be consistent.
linear equa-
Hence the condition of consistency for a set of tions involving a number of unknowns one less than
of equations
is
the
number
that the determinant of the coefficients and
absolute terms, written in the same order as in the given equaThis determinant is called the resultant* tions, shall be zero.
or eliminant of the equations.
Thus the equations

x-{-y-{-z
x-\-y
= o, x
y-{-z
= 2,
= 4, x-\-y-\-z = 6
are consistent, for the reason that

I
o.
60
DETERMINANTS.
[Chap.
II.
Art.
25.
The Matrix.
Assume
greater than
r linear equations involving n unknowns, r being n. as follows

:
al'x -p...
an 'x'
ajx'
+ af>j* =
*,, 1
+ .:. + aM*P> = K +
. . .
nt
+ a^x = K
r.
The
minant
consistency of these equations requires that every deterof the order (n+ i), formed by selecting (n i) rows
from the array whose elements are the coefficients and absolute terms written in order, shall be zero.
the elements of the array expressed thus
If
:
fulfill
this condition the fact is
a/ ...a:
o;
()
x
<)
*
. .
.
a r() u
.
K,
/C.
Kr
the change of rows into columns being purely arbitrary. The above expression is called a rectangular array, or a matrix.
Art.
26.
Homogeneous Linear Systems.

of the given
Let the equations
system be both linear and
homogeneous
thus
al x> 4.
.-,
. ;
.J.
a**&*
= o, ]
o.
J
au'
x'
+ a^x^ =
= o/E.
Representing the determinant of the coefficients by E, the general solution, as given by the formula (3) of Art. 23, is
x^
That
is, all
tions have
the unknowns are equal to zero, and the equano other solution than this unless
E = o.
Art.
26.]
homogeneous linear systems.

in this
61
But
only
in
the
knowns may
becomes
unknown is obtainable indeterminate form o/o. The ratios of the unbe readily obtained, however. For, dividing each
{s
case the value of each
equation through by any one of these, as x
the system (i)
X*
JT^
-1 *
jw-r
-tî
xw
-r a
M
{s+ J >
2>
r< w >
xis)
-t-
-t-^
- - ^.
Now
the condition
(2)
E = o establishes the
1)
consistency of the
ratios (Art. 24),
equations
involving the {n
x>_
unknown
&>
'" x^
*P
'
x^
x<*>
'
" x
'*'
;
o the given equations (1) are consistent that is, Hence, if ii the values of the above {n 1) ratios obtained by solving any of them will satisfy the remaining equation. Any n (;/ 1)
among themselves the ratios thus determined " x are will satisfy the given equations. Thus, if x x " Xx \ A being any n such quantities, so also are \x A x
quantities having
{n)
',
Q
y .
(u
factor whatever.
The determinant
geneous
the system. When the
of
of the coefficients of the given

is
homo-
linear equations
called the resultant or eliminant of
unknowns
of equations is greater than the number the conditions of consistency are expressible in
number
the form of a rectangular array, as in Art. 25. As an example, consider the five equations
2x
2>y
+2= x +y
>
4*
z
y
first
~~
>
7X
+W+*~
o.
= o,
$x
Sy
+z=
Dividing each of the

for the
two equations by z and solving
x y two unknowns - and gives
_3
5
62
DETERMINANTS.
[Chap.
II.
or
x\y\z\\2
:3
5;
and any three quantities having these ratios will satisfy the two equations, as 10, 15, and 25. That the third equation is consistent with the first two is shown by the vanishing of the
determinant
2-3 1=0. 4- -7 3
1
I
1
the equations are consistent the determinant of the coefficients of any three of them must vanish that is,
If all
;
4-
= o.
Art.
28.]
SYLVESTER
METHOD OF
is
EI
WINATION.
63
Hence, when a determinant

of the elements of
equal to zero, the co-factors
any
line are proportional to the co-factors of

line.
the corresponding elements of any parallel
Art.
Let
it
28.
Sylvester's
Method of Elimination.*
be required to eliminate the unknown from the two
equations
a% x%
+ ay
-f-
ax
x
+ a, =
-\-
O,
by -fThis
will
= o.
be done by what is called the dialytic method, the invention of which is due to Sylvester. Multiplying the first of the given equations by x, and the second by x and x* successively, the result
is
a system of five equations,

%
viz.:
ax
%
a 3 x*
-\-
ay a x a ay + ay + a x by -f b x + b bx b x + by
-\-fx
-f-
-f-
by + b x" + by
x
= o, = o, = o, = o, =a
The
eliminant of
x, x*,
these five equations,

x*
is
involving the
four
unknowns
x\ and
(Art. 24)
64
DETERMINANTS.
first
[Chap. IL
obtained which involve as unknowns the
(m
-\-
i)
powers of
x.
The
of the order {ni
eliminant of these equations is a determinant -\- n), which is of the nth. degree in terms of
the coefficients of the equation of the mt\\ degree, and vice The law of formation of the eliminant is obvious. versa.
The same method may be used

the variables from a pair of
in
eliminating one or both
homogeneous equations.
an example, from the equations

2x*
As
let
it
be required to eliminate the variables
$*y
9J
first
=o
x
and
3^
jxy
6y x
;
= o.
the second
Dividing the
by y\ and multiplying by
by y*, and multiplying by

in all, five
twice in succession, there result,
X X
equations involving
,
X
,
-r,
and
Eliminating
these four ratios gives
E~
25 09
o
o
o o
3-76
o
3-7-6
,3-7-6
consistent.
the vanishing of which shows that the two given equations are
Prob. 31. Test the consistency of each of the following systems

of equations:
(1)
(2)
x+y+2Z=g, x+y
x y
2Z
z=o, 2xy-\-z=$, *
z
3)'+ 22=1;
=0,
o,
(3)
- xf = ix*y
2x
-{-y
= o, 2X 2y + - 5/ = o. Sx*y + Sx/
y
42
$y
o;
Prob. 32. Find the ratios of the unknowns in the equations

2z
= o,
4W
= o,
+1)
2iv
+x
[i
5V
+ * = o..n]
Prob. 33. In the equations

ak'x'
-f-
+<**<*>*<">
+a
:
(n
+W
::
5s o,
:
prove
that
*':...: x
(n)
x< n+1)
M'
M M M<n+
:
where
Art.
29.]
THE MULTIPLICATION THEOREM.

is
66
i)'
*M
the determinant obtained by deleting the *th
column
from the rectangular array
M~
a/ ...
a n '... a
a<*>
a^
M+1)
a***
r
Prob. 34.
From **+*?
p
+ *! = "* + ?+* = Mx+Xy + nz

q
66
DETERMINANTS.
result of
[Chap.
II.
The
such transformation
is
%
>
(.Ai (*. Ai
+ iAtK + fa-Ai + *M*% = + **h)*i + (M + .A.K + iA. Ai + <*.At

Now
o-
(3)
The vanishing
of the determinant
*A,
tf
a
+ ** *n*n + ad>
x*
;
(4)
is
is,
the condition that the equations (3) may be consistent that the condition that they may have solutions other than
the equations (3) may be consistent because of the consistency of the equations (1), in which
,
ux
=O=
(Art. 26).
case the determinant
a%% an
vanishes.
Or, this condition failing, and the

l
thus having no solution other than x =. o (3) will still be consistent if the equations if the determinant
= x%y
equations (1) the equations

so
;
(2) are
that
is,
KK
vanishes.
(6),
<
6>
vanishing of either of the determinants (5) or It follows therefore, causes the determinant (4) -to vanish.
(5)
The
(6)
that
and
are factors of (4)

(4)
, .
and since
their product
and
the determinant
are of
. ,
the coefficients an
blx ,
the same degree with respect to . . r, they are the only factors.
.
Hence,
a x\ a xi
Art.
29.]
THE MULTIPLICATION THEOREM.

process indicated by this formula *
:
67
The
follows
may be
described as
the determinant \p ltH \> which is the product of determinants \a 1>n and \& un \, first connect by plus signs two the elements in the rows of both \a 1>n and b 1<n Then place the first row of \a un upon each row of \b 1>n in turn and let
\
To form
each two elements as they touch become products. This is the first row of \pu \. Perform the same operation upon \b hn
\
with the second row of \a hH to obtain the second row of \p 1>n and again with the third row of |tf 1)M |to obtain the third row
\
\
f|A.|; etc
Any
element of
Pks
this
product
is
*Ai
+ a**K +
+ **A..
(9)
the two determinants to be multiplied together are of different orders the one of lower order should be expressed as a determinant of the same order as the other (Art. 22), after
When
which the above
rule
of
is
applicable.
The product
two determinants may be formed by
columns, instead of by rows as above. In this case the result Thus the product of the deis obtained in a different form. terminants (5) and (6) by columns is
a iA%
Prob. 41.
(1)
+ a*A*
a iA*
+ a*&*
:
Form
the following products
(3)
Art. Prob. 42. Generalize the last example (see Prob. 22,
18).
Prob. 43.
By
forming the product
68
DETERMINANTS.
of
[Chap. Ik
show that the product

squares,
is itself
two numbers, each the sum of four
the
sum
of four squares.
Art.
30.
Product of Two Arrays.
process explained in the preceding article may be apwhat is conventionally termed the product of two rectangular arrays. It will appear, however, that multiplied to form
The
plying two such arrays together by columns leads to a result radically different from that obtained when the product is
formed by rows. Let the two rectangular arrays be
and
M.A.
,AAs
is
The product
=
of these
by columns
a
x
*.Ai
+ aj^
J>x >
+ aj>
%l
aj u
^.3^13
+ aj>
%l
*iAi
+ *t'Ai
A
is
#iAs
iAi
&*J>*t
The determinant
uct of
of
plainly equal to zero, being the prod-
two determinants formed by adding a row of zeros to one the given rectangular arrays and a row of elements chosen
In general, the product by columns of two rectangular
arbitrarily to the other.
arrays having
rows and
ft
determinant of the n th order
columns, m being less than whose value is zero.
is
Multiplying together the above rectangular arrays by

the result
is
rows,,
J'
lAl
+ *lAi + *lA.
*xxK
At
iAi
aâ x%
In the same
+
manner
it
*,A.
&*A*
a,, a.
KA
bj>.
may be shown that the product by rows of two rectangular arrays having m rows and n columns, m being less than n, is a determinant of the m th order, which may be expressed as the sum of the n \/m {n m) determinants
!
Art.
31. J
RECIPROCAL DETERMINANTS.
69
of the arrays by deleting {it m) columns, each multiplied by the determinant formed by deleting the same columns from the other array.
formed from one
Art.
31.
Reciprocal Determinants.
replacing each element of a
The determinant formed by
given determinant by its co-factor is called the reciprocal of the given determinant.* Thus, the reciprocal of
a,, a.
IS
AA
**
.A.
.A,
a,a
av
A 21-"- 22 A
nl
.
dnxdn-i.
(1,
A Am
two determinants
is
The product
6.4=
of these
(tn\Au-\-.
.-\~a nn
Am
a n iA<n-\-.
.-\-a nn A 2n
a m A n \-\--
-\-a nn
A nn
is
Each element on the

equal to S (Art.
19).
18),
principal diagonal of this product

all
while
the other elements vanish (Art.

or
Hence,
6.
= So...
o d
. .
.
o (w)
<T,
6'
oH o
<?
That
equal to
is,
the reciprocal of a determinant of the n ih order

th
is
its (n
i)
power.
* The term reciprocal as here used has reference to the algebraic transformation concerned in the passage from point coordinates to line coordinates, called
reciprocation.
The
reciprocal of a determinant
is
also called the determinant
adjugate.
70
[CHAP. Ilk
Chapter
III.
By George Bruce Halsted,
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Texas.
Art.
i.
'
1.
The Elements and Primal Forms*

determined
A
'
line
by two points on
it
is
called
straight.'
2.
On any two
join.'
points can be put one, but only one, straight,
their
3.
it is
A surface
'
determined by three non-costraight points on
called a
plane.'
lie all on one and only one plane, their 'junction.' on a plane, so does their join. 5. If two points lie 6. The plane, the straight, and the point are the elements
4.
Any
three points, not costraight,
in projective
7.
straight
It
points.
geometry. is not to be considered as an aggregate of is a monad, an atom, a simple positional concept as

'
primal as the point. It is the 'bearer is the bearer of any planes on it.
of
any points on
it.
It
is
8. Just so the plane is an element coeval with the point. It the bearer of any points on it, or any straights on it.
9.
A point A
'
is
the bearer of any straight on

is
it
or any plane
called
on
it.
10.
point which
on each of two straights
is
their
cross.'
* This Chapter treats Projective Geometry entirely by the synthetic method. Metric relations are not considered, and nothing is borrowed from Analytic
Geometry.
ART.
1.]
THE ELEMENTS AND PRIMAL FORMS.

Planes
all
71
all
11.
on the same point, or straights

'
with the
same
their
cross, are called
copunctal.'
lie
12.
'
Any two
meet.'
planes
both on one and only one straight,

join, planes
13.
Like points with the same

called costraight.
with the same
meet are
14.
plane and a straight not on

their
'
it
have one and only one
point in
15.
common,
pass.'
Any
three planes not costraight are copunctal on one

'
and only one point, their apex.' 16. While these elements, namely, the plane, the straight, and the point, retain their atomic character, they can be united into compound figures, of which the primal class consists of
three forms, the
17.
*
'
range,' the
'
flat-pencil,'
the
'
axial-pencil.'
The aggregate
'
of all points
If point-row,' or range.' intersection.' it is called their

'
on a straight is called a a point be common to two ranges,

is
18.
'
piece of a range bounded by two points
called a
sect.'
19.
The aggregate
of all coplanar, copunctal straights
is
called a 'flat-pencil.'
point.'
20.
The common
plane
'
cross
4
is
called the
'
pencil-
The common
is
called the
pencil-plane.'
piece of a flat-pencil
called an
angle.'
bounded by two
of the straights,
as
sides,' is
21.
'
The aggregate
of all planes
on a straight
is
called an
*
axial-pencil/ or 'axial.'
Their
common
meet, the
of
axis,' is
their bearer.
22.
sides, is
piece of the axial bounded called an axial angle.'

'
by two
its
planes, as
23.
24.
of,
it is
Angles are always pieces of the
figure, not rotations.
No
use
is
made
of motion.
If
moving point
its
is
spoken
to be interpreted as the
mind
of
shifting
attention.
25.
When
there can be no ambiguity of meaning, a figure
in a pencil,
though consisting only
some
single elements of
so,
a pencil. Just the complete pencil, may yet itself be called may be called a range. certain costraight points
separate
72
[CHAP.
III.
Art.
26'.
2.
'
Projecting and Cutting.
project from a fixed point (the projectionvertex ') a figure, the original,' composed of points B, C, D, etc., and straights b, c, d, etc., is to construct the projecting
'
' ' '
'
To
straights
MB, MC, MD, and

is
the
'
'
projecting planes
Mb, Mc,
and
Md.
Thus
obtained a
new
figure
'
composed
'
of straights
planes, all
27.
on M, and called an
'
eject
ju
of the original.
'
To
cut
'
'
by a
fixed
plane
of
(the
picture-plane
/?,
')
figure, the
subject,'
made up
Thus
is is
planes
y,
/*/?,
6,
etc.,
jud,
and
straights
b, c, d, etc., is
to construct the meets
py,
and
'
the passes
jub, p.c, jud.
obtained a new figure com-
posed
of straights
and points,
' '
all
on
}x,
and called a
'
cut
of
the subject. If of the subject is

28.
'
an eject of an original, the cut the subject an image of the original.
(the
Axial projection. To project from a fixed straight m projection-axis '), an original composed of points B, C, D,
construct the projecting planes
etc., is to
is
mB, mC, mD.
Thus
obtained a
called an
new
'
figure
composed
'
of planes all
on the axis m,
and
axial-eject
of the original.
29.
To
cut
by a
fixed
/3,
straight
etc.,
m
is
(to 'transfix
')
a subject
composed
mft,
of planes
y, #,
to construct the passes

is
my, md.
'
The
'
cut obtained
by transfixion
a range on
'
'
the
transversal
m.
fixed
30.
(7\)
primal figures are called projective when one can be derived from the other by any number of
Any two
projectings and cuttings.*
Art.
31.
It is
3.
Elements at
for every
is
Infinity.
in
assumed that
element
either of the
in
three primal figures there

others.
always an element
each of the
*Pascal (1625-62) and Desargues (1 593-1662) seem to have been the first to derive properties of conies from the properties of the circle by considering the fact that these curves lie in perspective on the surface of the cone.
Art.
3.]
elements at infinity.
73
'
32.
On
each straight
is
one and only one point

others are
*
'
at infinity,'
or
'
figurative' point.
The
proper
'
points.
Any
point going either way (moving in either sense ') ever forward on a straight is at the same time approaching and receding
from
its
point at infinity.
its
The
straight
is
thus a closed line
compendent through
'
point at infinity.
33.
34.
Parallels
'
are straights on a
in
it
common
point at infinity.
Two
sect
proper points
divide a range into a finite sect
and a
through the
it
proper point in
('rays').
infinite. Its figurative point and a divide a range into two sects to the infinite
35. All the straights parallel to each other on a plane are on the same point at infinity, and so form a flat-pencil whose penSuch a pencil is called a parallel-flatcil-point is figurative.
'
pencil.'
36. All points at infinity
on a plane
Its
lie
on one straight at
infinity
or
figurative
straight.*
is
straight on the plane

straight.
with any proper the point at infinity on the proper

cross
straight in
same plane have all a the straight at infinity on which common, namely, are the figurative pencil-points of all these pencils.
37.
Parallel-flat-pencils
on the
38.
Two
planes whose meet
is
a straight at infinity are
called parallel.
39. All the planes parallel to
each other are on the same

axial pencil
figurative straight,
infinity.
and so form an
axial
is
whose axis
is
at
Such an
called a parallel-axial.
40. All points at infinity
and
all
straights at infinity lie
on
is
a plane at infinity or figurative plane.
This plane at infinity
common
Prob.
to
1.
all parallel-axials,
since
it is
on the axis of each.
From each
of the three primal figures generate the other
two by projecting and
cutting.
infinity.
* This statement should not be interpreted as descriptive of the nature of In the Function Theory it is expedient to consider all points in a
plane at infinity as coincident.
74
[CHAP.
III.
Art.
41.
4.
Correlation and Duality.

*
when every element with one and only one element of the other. paired Correlation is a one-to-one correspondence of elements. The paired elements are called 'mates.'
figures are called
Two
is
correlated
'
of each
42.
Two
figures correlated to a third are correlated to each

just
other.
For each element of the third has
one mate
in
each of the others, and these two are thus so paired as to be themselves mates.
a plane, any theorem of configuration and determination, with its proof, gives also a like theorem with its
43.
On
proof,
by simply interchanging point with
straight, join
with
cross, sect with angle.*
This correlation of points with straights on a plane
is
termed a
Prob.
'
principle of duality.'
is
Each
'
of
two
9
figures or theo-
rems so related
called the
'
dual
of the other, f
2. When two coplanar ranges ///, and m are correlated as 9 cuts of a flat-pencil M, show that the figurative point of v or Q 9 or of the the one is mated, in general, to a proper point
>
other.
Prob.
1'.
3.
Give the duals of the following:

'
2'.
3,.
Two coplanar straights determine a flat-pencil on their cross. Two coplanar flat-pencils determine a straight, their concur/ Two points bound two explemental sects.
'
'
Prob. 4. To draw a straight crossing three given straights, join the passes of two with a plane on the third.
Art.
44,.
5.
'
Polystims and Polygrams.

is
'
polystim
a system of
'),
44'.
'
'
polygram
is
a system
(*
n coplanar points
all
('
('
dots
with
of n coplanar straights
sides
'),
ranges connectors ').
the
they determine
Assume
that
no
the flat-pencils they determine ('fans'). Assume that

all
with
three dots are costraight.
no three
sides are copunctal.
* Culmann's Graphic Statics (Zurich, 1864) made extensive use of duality. Reye's Geometrie der Lage (Hannover, 1866) was issued as a consequence of the
Graphic Statics of Culmann.
f In Analytic
of the
Geometry the principle of duality consists in the interpretation same equation in different kinds of coordinates point and line or point
and plane coordinates.
Art.
5.]
POLYSTIMS AND POLYGRAMS.

i)
75
In each dot intersect (n
In each side
fans, going
concur (n
1)
connectors, going through the reSo there i) dots. maining (n

are n(n
45,.
through the remain-
ing (n
1) sides.
So there are
i)/2 connectors.
n(n
3,
i)/2 fans.
For n greater than

will
the
in
connectors
intersect
45'. For n greater than 3, the fans will concur in straights other
points other than the dots. Such intersections are called 'codots.'
46,.
than the
are called
46'.
sides.
'
Such concurs
diagonals.'
There are
i)(n
There are
i){n
n(n
2){n
3)/8 codots.
n(n
nals.
2){n
3)/8 diago-
Proof of
connectors.
[n(n
46,.
In a polystim of n dots there are n(n

intersect in
i)/2
These connectors
i)/2
i)/2][(
;
i]/2
= n(n
i)(;z
- n-
2)/8
i)/2
points
things,
i.e.,
the
number
of different combinations of n(n
two at a time. But some of these
ones are codots.

each dot.
Now
intersections are dots, and the remaining (n 1) of these connectors meet at

is
Therefore each dot
repeated (n
1) in
2)/2
times; or the
number
of times the connectors intersect in

i)(n
is
points not codots, i.e. in dots, is n{n Therefore the number of codots
2
2)/2.
n(ti
i)(;/
n
a
2)/8
n{n
i)(
2)/2
= =
47,.
[n(n
(/*
i)/8][^
\){n
n2-4(n- 2)]
3)/8.
47'.
2){n
A set of
n connectors may-
set of
;/
fans
may be
be selected in several ways so that two and only two contain each one of the n dots. Such a set of connectors is called a
*
'
selected in several ways so that
two and only two contain each one of the 71 sides. Such a set
of fans of fans.
48'.
is
called a
'
complete
set
complete
48,.
set
of connectors. are
(n
1) 1/2
There
There
are
1)
\/2
complete
sets of connectors.
complete
sets of fans.
Proof of
single
48,.
(
dot
In a polystim of n dots there are through any and hence (0 i){n 2)/2 1) connectors,
pairs of connectors.
Consider one such
pair, as
BC and
BE.
76
[CHAP.
III.
The number
from
{n
of different sets (each of n

etc. [there
2 connectors)
to
E
is
through A, D, F, G>
(n
3)
!,
being {n
3)
such dots],
i.e.
3) things.
Hence
the
number of permutations of number of complete sets of conthe

is
nectors having the pair
BC and BE
[n
3)
Therefore the
whole number of complete

(n
49,.
sets of connectors
(
is
I)(
_ 2)[( _ 3) !]/ 2 _
49'.
_
is
j) !/2 .
In any complete set of connectors, when n is even, the

first
In
any complete
set
of
fans, when n
and
' '
the
(/2 + i)th
'.
'
are
even, the first and ' the (/2+i)th are called opposite.'
called
x
.
opposite
5o A tetrastim is a system of four dots with their six connectors.
tetragram is a system of four straights with their six

50'.
'
'
Each
pair of opposite
fans.
Each
in
connectors intersect in a codot.
concur
three
'
These three
the
'
codots
'
determine
pair of opposite fans a diagonal. These determine the diagonals

'
codot-tristim
of the tetra-
diagonal-trigram
of the tetra-
stim.
gram.
correlated polystims whose paired dots and co51. dots have their joins copunctal are called 'copolar.'
52.
Two
Two
and
tersect
4
correlated polystims whose paired connectors inhave their intersections costraight are called
coaxal.'
53. If
two non-coplanar
tristims be copolar, they are coaxal.
For
since
AA' crosses BB\

two non-coplanar
therefore
AB and A' B'
intersect
on
the meet of the planes of the tristims.

54. If
tristims be coaxal, they are copolar.

f
r
,
For
The
these four points are coplanar. three planes ABA'B', ACA'C\ BCB'C are copunctal. Hence so are their meets AA\ BB\ CO,
intersects
55.
since
AB
AB
taking the angle between the planes evanescent, is seen that coplanar coaxal tristims are copolar and then by reductio ad absurdum that coplanar copolar tristims are coaxal.
By
56.
If
are said to be
two coplanar polystims are copolar and coaxal they complete plane perspectives.' Their pole and
*
Art.
6.]
'
harmonic elements.
center of perspective' and the
'
77
axis of
axis are called the

perspective.'
57.
If
two coplanar
tristims are copolar or coaxal, they are
complete plane perspectives.

If two coplanar polystims are images of the same polyfrom different projection vertices Vlt Vif they are comstim For the joins of pairs of correlated plete plane perspectives.
58.
points are all copunctal (on the pass of the straight V F2 with the picture plane), and the intersections of paired coni
nectors are
all
costraight (on the meet of the picture plane

original).
and the plane of the

Frob.
5. In a hexastim there are 15 connectors and 45 codots. In a hexagram there are 15 fans and 45 diagonals. Prob. 6. If the vertices of three coplanar angles are costraight,
make three tetragrams whose other diagonals are copuncby threes four times. [Prove and give dual.] Prob. 7. The corresponding sides of any two funiculars of a given system of forces cross on a straight parallel to the join of the poles of the two funiculars.
their sides
tal
Art.
59.
lie
6.
Harmonic Elements.
If
Fundamental Theorem.
two correlated tetrastims
on different planes whose meet is on no one of the eight dots, and if five connectors of the one intersect their mates,,
then the tetrastims are coaxal.
fixed
For the two
pairs of tristims
by the
If
five pairs of intersecting
connectors being coaxal
are copolar.
60.
Hence the
sixth pair of connectors are coplanar.

if
the tetrastims be coplanar, and
five intersections
of
pairs of correlated connectors
are costraight, this the
coplanar
case can be
depend upon the other by substituting for one 6f the tetrastims its image on a second plane meeting
to
first
made
the
on the bearer of the

the axis
five intersections.
61.
If of
If
two
a figurative straight, the theorem reads : correlated tetrastims five pairs of mated connectors
is
are parallel, so are the remaining pair.

62.
Four costraight points
are called
'
harmonic
points,' or
78
if
[Chap.
III.
a harmonic range,'
'
the
first
and third are codots of a
tetra-
stim while the other two are on the connectors through the
third codot.
63.
By
three costraight points and their order the fourth

is
harmonic point
uniquely determined. For
if
the three points
in order are
A, B,
C,
draw any two

Join
third through
B to
cross these at
CK, crossing
join
AM at N.
K and M respectively.
from B.
straights through
A, and a
Join
LN crosses the straight
CM, crossing AK at L. Then the ABC, always at the same point D,
the fourth harmonic to
A BC separated
64. In projecting from a point not coplanar with it a tetrastim defining a harmonic range, the four harmonic points are projected by four coplanar straights, called harmonic
'
straights' or a 'harmonic flat-pencil.'

65. The four planes projecting harmonic points from an axis not coplanar with them are called 'harmonic planes,' or a
harmonic
axial-pencil.'
harmonic primal figure gives always again a harmonic primal figure. 67. By three elements of a primal figure, given which is the
66. Projecting or cutting a
second, the fourth harmonic

68.
is
completely determined.
Defining harmonic points by the tetrastim distinguishes
ART.
6.]
HARMONIC ELEMENTS.
79
two points made codots from the other two. Yet it may be shown that the two pairs of points play identically the same
role.
First,
arated two
from the definition of four harmonic points each sepmay be interchanged without the points ceasing to
be harmonic
codots.
[or,
if
A BCD
is
ADCB, CBAD,
and
CDAB\
a harmonic range, so is also For the first and third remain
Second, to prove that in a harmonic range the two pairs of separated points may be interchanged without the four points is a harmonic range ceasing to be harmonic [or, if
ABCD
(and therefore
the joins
ADCB, CBAD, DABC, BCDA, and DCBA] Through the

:
and CDAB), then
also
is
BADC
O
third codot
draw
AO
and CO.
These determine on the connectors

four
NK, KL, LM, and

tively.
MN
new
points, S, T, U, V, respec-
The
tetrastim
KTOS has
B; hence
In like
for
its
two codots
and
C,
and
has a connector though
must pass though D.

the tetrastim
remaining connector manner, the connector

y
TS
of
UV
MVOU must
of each of the tetrastims

fore
B and D are
The
pass through D and LUOT and VNSO through B. Therecodots of a tetrastim STUV with the remain-
a connector
ing connectors, one through A, one through C.

69.
separated points
points,' as also are

'
B and
D.
conjugate Either two are said to be 'harto the other two.
and
are called
'
monic conjugates with respect

Prob.
8.
To
accessible cross
X of two given straights n and
determine the join of a given point

n'.
with the in-
80
[Chap.
III.
'
at
D and D'
Through
M draw any two

.
straights crossing ndXB and B\ and draw Join Z>Z? and Z/i?', crossing on A. Through third straight crossing any
and Join ^'Z>" and

n at
B"
'
at Z>".
>'",
Then crossing at Z. is the join required.

Proof.
LM
The
tetrastim
XBMD
XB'LD'
does
makes AB'C'D'
AB"C"D".
and cutting the eject are costraight.* C", C", and Prob. 9. Through a given point to draw with the straight-edge a straight parallel to two given parallels.
a harmonic as range, But projecting AB"C"D" from X, by AB'D' gives a harmonic range. Therefore
Prob. 10.
To
inconstructible join
determine the cross of a given straight m with the x of two given points and N'. Join any two
points on m with JV and N' giving b and b' on JV d and </' on N*i Join the crosses db and </'' On a take by 0.
y
f
any third point

ing with
N
A
joinin b"
in
and with
quired.
T/
d"
Join the crosses
b'
d" and
8,
<W
by
/.
Then Im
is
the cross re-
[From
range.
Prob.
by
duality.]
Prob. 11. Cut four coplanar non-copunctal straights in a har-
monic
12. On a given straight determine a point from which the of three given points form with the given straight a harmonic ejects
Prob.
pencil.
Art.
70.
7.
Projectivity.
Two
If
jective.
primal figures of three elements are always proone be a pencil, take its cut by a transversal. If
the bearers of
ABC
and
AB C
' '
be not coplanar, join
AA\
'.
BB\ CC\
and cut these joins by a transversal, ;/z. Then ABC and A'B'C are two cuts of the axial mAA' mBB' mCC
,
Surveying may be solved by the application of the preceding principles, but such application has not been found advantageous in See Gillespie's Treatise on Land Surveying, New York, 1872. practice.
in
* Numerous problems
Art.
7.]
projectivity.
81
If
the bearers are coplanar, take on the join
projection vertices
at
M and
,
M\
Join
MB
.
and
Join
&'\ join
at
MC and M' C
Then
M B\ crossing
f
A A'
any two
crossing
.
crossing at
C"
B" C"
AA'
A".
ABC and
A' B'
C are images of A" B" C"

of
71. If any four harmonic elements are taken in one of two projective figures, the four elements correlated to these are also
harmonic.
For both
ejects
and cuts
harmonic figures are
themselves harmonic.
72. Two primal figures are projective if they are so correlated that to every four harmonic elements of the one are
For and cuttings which derive A' B' the same projectings from ABCv\\\ give D from D. Therefore A'B'CD, is harmonic. B C D' is harmonic. Therefore D is D But by hypothesis
correlated always four harmonic elements of the other.
C
1
'
'
'
'.
73.
If
two primal
figures are projective, then to every con-
secutive order of elements of the
a consecutive order of
a bearer.
74.
one on a bearer corresponds the correlated elements of the other on

primal figures having three elements For two self-correlated elements
Two
projective
self-correlated are identical.
cannot bound an interval containing no such element, since they must harmonically separate one without it from one
within.
75.
Two
ranges are called
'
'
perspective
if
cuts of the
same
flat pencil. flat pencils are perspective if cuts of the same axial Two axials are perspective or ejects of the same range. pencil, if ejects of the same flat pencil.
Two
A
flat
range and a flat pencil, a range and an axial pencil, or a pencil and an axial are perspective if the first is a cut of
the second.
76,. If two projective ranges not costraight have a self-correlated point A, they are perspective.
76'.
flat
two coplanar projective pencils not copunctal have

If
a self-correlated straight a, they

are perspective.
82
[Chap.
III.
Let the join of any pair of f cross the correlated points at V. join of any other pair
BB
CC
Let the cross of any pair of correlated straights bb' join the cross of any other pair cc' by m.
Cutting the two given
cils
flat
Projecting
the
two
given
are
pen-
ranges from
tive
V, their ejects
by
m, their cuts are identical,
identical, since they are projec-
since
and have the three
straights
they are projective and have the three points tna, mbb\
mcc' self-correlated.
VA,
lated.
VBB\ VCC'
Art.
self-corre-
8.
Curves of the Second Degree.

non77'.
77r
If
two
coplanar
If
two
coplanar
non-
copunctal flat pencils are projective but not perspective, the

crosses
costraight ranges are projective but not perspective, the joins of
of
' '
correlated
'
straights
form a
gree,' or
range of the second deconic range.
correlated points form a pencil of the second class,' or 'conic

pencil.'
'
78,.
If
two copunctual
non-
78'.
If
two
flat
copunctal
non-
costraight axial pencils are projective but not perspective, the
coplanar tive but

planes
'
pencils are projecnot perspective, the
meets of correlated planes form a conic surface of the second

'
of
correlated
*
straights
order,' or 'cone.'
form a pencil of planes of the second class,' or cone of planes.'
All results obtained for the conic range or the conic pencil are interpretable for the cone or cone of planes, since the eject of a conic is a cone and the cut of a cone is a conic.
79.
8o,.
On the cross A of
of correlated straights a
any pair and a

x
80'.
On
the join a of any pair
of correlated points
and
of
Art.
8.]
CURVES OF THE SECOND DEGREE.

flat
83
of the projective
pencils
the projective ranges u and take two points and
x
.
The ejects
abc and a b x c x
x
being projective and having a pair of correlated

straights a, a x coincident, are perspective, both be-
ing ejects of the range on the join of the crosses a

,
bb
and
cc x .
Any
joined
point with
D
V
by
of
d,
u,
is
then
correlated
to
the
of
and V draw two and u

x
x
straights
cross of u x with the join and the cross du t

.
d
x
The
cuts
ABC
and
ABC
X
Any
D joined to
its
so de-
being projective and having a pair of correlated points A, A coincident, are perspective, both
x
termined, gives the conic pencil
p K,
a straight of
being cuts of the pencil on the cross of the

joins
2f
BB
and
cc,.
Any straight d of ^crossing u at B>, is then

correlated
to
the join of x with the cross > of u and

x
the join
DVV
Any d crosses its d so deterx
mined, at P, a point of the conic

range
8 1,.
k.
The
pencil-points V, Vx
8i'.
The
bearers u, u
their
of the
of the generating pencils pertain to the conic, since their join

crossed by the element correlated to it in either pencil
X
generating ranges pertain to the

conic, since
cross
uu
is
VV
is
joined to the element correlated to it in either range by its bearer.
at
its
pencil-point.
84
82,.
[Chap. Ill
The
x
lated to
VV
its
correstraight on ' is called the tan-
82'.
The
is
to u u
x
point on u correlated called the contact on

'
!
gent' at V.
on
V is
Every other straight join with a second

straight, as #,
Every other point on u is its cross with a second straight of

u.
point of the conic.
the conic.
83^
On
any
on
83'.
On any
any point second element

with the join
84,.
t
of
the
is
conic, its cross
its
any second element

the cross u u^
x
straight a
point, as V, on of the conic, its

is its
join q with
V VV
X
From
}
VV AMZ
P.
join
of
the five given points construct a sixth,

>
84'.
From
the
five
The
cross
of u with the
cross
straights u, ,, a, struct a sixth
DD
q-y
rlt of
,
K conThe
given
VP, and the

.
or p.
of u
are costraight with the join VX Therefore* the three with F2
join
with the cross up, and the join dx of V with the cross u p are copunctal with w 2
of
x
x
opposite pairs in every complete set of connectors of a hexastim
whose dots are

sect in
in a conic inter-
opposite pairs in every complete set of fans of a hexagram whose sides

f
Therefore
the
three
three costraight whose bearer is called a

straight.'
codots
'
are in a conic concur
in
three
Pascal
copunctal diagonals whose bearer is called a Brianchon point.'

'
This hexastim has sixty Pascal straights, since it has sixty complete sets of connectors. 85,. The ejects of the points of a conic from any two are projective.
86,. five
chon
This hexagram has sixty Brianpoints, since it has sixty

sets of fans.
complete
cuts of the straights 85'. of a conic by any two are projective.

86'.
The
By
is
of
its
points a
By
is
five of its straights
conic
87,.
completely determined. Instead of five points
conic
87'.
completely determined. Instead of five straights

given the two bearers pairs of correlated
given the two penciland three pairs of correpoints
may be
may be
and three
If one given the join of the pencilstraight points, then four points and a tangent at one of them are given.
lated
straights.
is
points. If one given point is the cross of the bearers, then four straights
and a contact point on one of them are given.
Thus by four of its points and the tangent at one of them a

*
Pascal, 1640.
Thus by four of its straights and a contact-point on one of

f Brianchon, 1806.
Art.
8.]
CURVES OF THE SECOND DEGREE.

completely determined.
of
at
its
85
completely deits
conic
is
them a conic
termined.
88'.
is
88^ By three
points
By
three of
straights
and the tangents

the conic
is
two of them
completely deter-
and the contact-points on two of them the conic is completely

determined.
Interpreting a pentagram hexagram with two sides coinciding gives: In every com89'.
mined.
89^ Interpreting a pentastim as a hexastim with two dots

coinciding gives: In every complete set of connectors of a pentastim whose dots are in a conic, two pairs of non-consecutive
as a
whose
pairs
plete set of fans of a pentagram sides are in a conic, two

of
non-consecutive
fans
connectors
determine by their
determine by their two concurs

a point on which is the join of the fifth fan-point with the contact-point on the opposite side.
two intersections a straight on which is the cross of the fifth

connector with the
tangent at the opposite dot. Thence follows the solution of the problems
90^ Given
five
points
of
90'.
Given
five straights of
conic, to construct tangents at the points, using the ruler only.
conic, to find contact-points on the straights, using the ruler only.

91'.
9 1 j.* pair of
The
hexastim
with
The hexagram
opposite connectors re-
of opposite fans replaced
with a pair by con-
placed by tangents gives:

intersections of the
pairs in
The
two opposite every complete set of
tact-points gives: The concurs of the two opposite pairs in every complete set of fans of a tetra-
connectors of a tetrastim with dots in a conic are both costraight

with the crosses of the two pairs
of tangents at opposite dots. tetrastim with dots in Or:
gram with
sides in a conic are
both copunctal with the joins of the two pairs of contact-points
on opposite
Or:
sides.
A tetragram with sides in a
a conic has each pair of codots costraight with a pair of fanpoints of the tetragram of tangents at the dots.
conic has each pair of diagonals copunctal with a pair of connectors of the tetrastim of contacts
on the
sides.
The
92,.
figure
for
91,
and that
for 91'
are
identical,
and
called Maclaurin's Configuration.
(See page S6.)

92'. The contact-points of a conic pencil are a conic range.
The
tangents of a conic
* Due
range are a conic pencil.
to Maclaurin, 1748.
86
93.
all
[Chap. III.
The
on a curve, a
points of a conic range may now be conceived as-, conic curve,' their bearer. The straights of
'
the
corresponding
conic
pencil,
tangents of this conic range,
may
on
now
this
also be conceived
as all
same conic curve on which

contact-points.
is
are their
Consedual to
quently the conic curve

itself,
and
so the principle of dual-
ity
on a plane receives an impor94. It follows
tant extension.
immediately from
all
their generation that
conies are
closed curves, though they
may
be compendent through one or
two points
'hyperbola with none,
95.
If
at infinity.
With two
is
points at infinity the

;'
'
curve
called
with one, 'parabola;* *
ellipse.'
gents to 'without'
*
point has on it tanthe curve, it is called

a
the
curve;
if
none,
within
'
the curve.
all
The
contact-
point on a tangent
is
'
on
'
the curve
other points on a tan-
* The generation shows that a straight cuts the curves in two points and Hence the that from any point two tangents to the curves may be drawn.
curves are of the second order and of the second class, that
is
they are identical
with the conies of analytic geometry. o,. Analytically the equations P-\-XQ P' -f- XQ' o, where P, Q, P', (7 are linear functions of point coordinates,
represent two projective pencils, the correlated rays corresponding to the same Hence the locus of the intersection of correlated rays is reprevalue of A. sented by PQ' Q o, a second-degree point equation. Projective ranges
'
are represented by
= R XS
-j-
o,
R'
AS'
= o,
where R,
S, R', S' are linear

is
functions of line coordinates.
The envelope
of the joins of correlated points
represented by
The
a second-degree line equation. projective generation of conies is developed synthetically in Steiner's
R S'
R' S
= o,
Theorie der Kegelschnitte, 1866, and in Chasles' Geometrie superieure, 1852. For the analytic treatment see Clebsch, Geometrie, vol. 1, 1876.
Art.
9.]
pole and polar.
87
gent are without the curve. Every straight in its plane contains innumerable points without the curve, since the straight crosses every tangent.
of them,
Prob. 13. Given four points on a conic and the tangent at one draw the tangent at another.
Prob. 14. If the n sides of a polygram rotate respectively about n fixed points not costraight, while {n 1) of a complete set of fanpoints glide respectively on (n 1) fixed straights, then every remaining fan-point describes a conic*
Prob.
of
15.
In any tristim with dots on a conic the three crosses

the
the
connectors with
tangents
at
the
opposite
dots
are
costraight. f
Prob. 16. If two given angles rotate about their fixed vertices so that one cross of their sides is on a straight, either of the other
three crosses describes a conic. \
Prob. 17.
straights
Construct a hyperbola from three given points, and

its
on
figurative points.
Art.
96.
9.
Pole and Polar.
Taking every tangent to a conic as the dual to its own contact-point fixes as dual to any given point in the plane one polar,' of which the point is the particular straight, its
'
'pole.'
polar of
Z
B
reference to any given conic, to construct the any given point in its plane. Put on the given point two secants crossing the curve, one at A and D, the other at
97.
With
and
C.
The
join of the other codots
X and
as
Y of ABCD
is
the polar
of Z,
must always be the cross 5 of the tangents at A and D, and also the point which D and A harmonically separate from Z (given by each of the variable
change
this polar, since
it
Varying on
either
secant,
ZBC,
does not
tetrastims
98.
BXCY).
join of
The
is
any two codots
of a tetrastim with dots
on
a conic
*
f
\
the polar of the third codot with respect to that
Due to Braikenridge, 1735. From Pascal dual from Brianchon. Given by Newton in Principia, Book
;
I,
lemma
xxi,
under the name of
'the organic description " of a
conic.
88
conic,
[CHAP.
III.
and either codot
is
the pole of the join of the other

its
two.
Any
point
is
harmonically separated from
polar
by
the conic.
with ruler only the tangents to a conic from a point without, join it to the crosses of its polar with the
99.
To draw
conic.
ioo,.
Two
points
are
called
100'.
Two
straights are called
'conjugate' with reference to a conic if one (and so each) is on the polar of the other.
ioij.
'conjugate' with reference to a conic if one (and so each) is on

the pole of the other.
101'. All
are
All points on a tangent conjugate to its contact-
tact-point
straights on a conare conjugate to its
point.
io2j.
tangent.
The
points of a range
102'.
The
are
are projective to their conjugates on its bearer.
pencil
straights of a flat projective to their

its
conjugates on
103'.
bearer.
103^ With reference to a given

conic,
the
all
'
polars of
kerncurve,' points on a second

'
the
With reference to a given the 'kerncurve,' the poles conic, of all tangents on a second conic
conic
make
is
bearer
a conic pencil, whose of the polarcurve

'
make
is
a conic range, whose bearer the polarcurve of the second

'
'
the second conic.
conic.
Prob. 18. Either diagonal of a circumscribed tetragram is the polar of the cross of the others. Prob. 19. A pair of tangents from any point on a polar harmonically separate
it
from
its
pole.
Prob. 20.
A pair of tangents are harmonic

on
their cross
conjugates with respect
to any pair of straights respect to the conic.
which are conjugate with
Art.
10.
Involution.
throw
')
104. If in a primal figure of four elements (a
first
any two be interchanged, then the other two, the result jective to the original.
[That is, ABCD a BADC a Let ABCD be a throw on m.
eject
is
pro-
CDAB
a DCBA.~]
it
by a
straight (m')
on A.
Project The cut
from
V.
Cut
this
is
AB'CD'.
by
Now
project ABCD from
C.
The
cut of this latter eject
V B is
Art.
10.]
involution.
89
B'BVH. Project B'BVH from D and cut the eject hyui. The cut is B'AD'C, which is perspective to BADC.
105. Two projective primal figures of the same kind of elements and both on the same bearer are called conjective.' When in two conjective primal figures one particular element has the same mate to whichever figure it be regarded as be'
longing, then every element has this property.

If
is
AA'BB'
is
projective to
A'AB'X, then by
104,
AA'BB'
projective to
AA'XB', and having
three elements self-corre-
lated,
they are identical.
106.
Two
conjective
('
figures such that

')
the elements are
mutually paired
ple,
coupled
form an
'
Involution.'
For exam-
the points of a range, and, on the same bearer, their conjugates with respect to a conic, form an involution. Every
eject
and every cut of an involution is an involution. 107. When two ranges are projective, the point at
is
infinity
its
of either one
*
correlated to a point of the other called
vanishing point.'
' '
108. When two conjective ranges form an involution the two vanishing points coincide in a point called the center of
the involution.
109. If
two
lated elements, these are called the

involution.
for
figures forming an involution have self-corredouble elements of the

'
'
An
involution has at most two double elements
were three
self-correlated, all
would be
self-correlated.
a primal figure of four elements is projective with a second made by interchanging two of these elements, they harmonically separate the other two.
HO.
If
For project the range
ABCD
from
Fand
cut the eject
by a
90
straight on A.
[Chap.
III.
The
cut
AB'CD'
tive
is
projective
to
is
ABCD,
projec-
which by hypothesis
to
ADCB. Therefore ADCB is perspective to

AB'CD'.
cross
So
VCC
is
on the
of the joins
DB' and
BD'.
of the tetrastim
VD'XB' while A
',
So and C
and
are codots
are on the connectors
through C, in. If an involution has two double elements these sepaLet A and C be rate harmonically any two coupled elements.
the double elements.
therefore by
1 1
the third codot.
Then ABCB'
is is
is
projective to
AB'CB
no ABCB'
involution
harmonic.
completely determined by two couples. 7\ A'AB' ... is For the projective correspondence AA'B completely determined by the three given pairs of correlated elements, and since among them is one couple, so are all corre2.
.
An
lated elements couples. 113. When there are double elements, then the elements
no couple are separated by those of another couple. Inversely, when the elements of one couple separate those of
of
another, then the elements of every couple are separated those of every other, and there are no double elements.
114'.
by
The
three pairs of op-
posite fan-points of a tetragram are projected from any projec-
tion-vertex by three couples of an involution of- straights.
The three pairs of opconnectors of a tetrastim posite

114,.
are cut
by any transversal
in
three couples of a point involution.*
*Due
to Desargues, 1639.
Art.
It.]
PROJECTIVE CONIC ranges.
9t
Let
QRST
connectors
RT and
be a tetrastim of which the pairs of opposite QS, ST and QR, QT and RS are cut by
in
any transversal respectively
and A',
and
',
C and C\
'
From
5.
the projection-vertex
the ranges
ATPR and ACA B
are perspective.
But
A TPR and ABA' C

is
are perspective from
Therefore
ACA'B'
and
6?
projective to
ABA'C, and
therefore
(
to^'C042?(
are i? and
115.
i?',
104).
Since thus A and
^4'
and
are coupled, so
105)
To
construct the sixth point

given,
C of
The
an involution of
which
at R.
five points are
which take any two points
draw through C any straight, on and T. Join AT, B'Q crossing

join
Join BT, A'Q crossing at 5. bearer of the involution in C '.

Prob. 21. Find the center
RS
cuts the
of a point involution of
which two
couples
AA'BB'
are given.
and iV on m are harmonically sepaProb. 22. If two points rated by two pairs of opposite connectors of a tetrastim, then so are they by the third pair.
Prob. 23. To construct a conic which shall be on three given points, and with regard to which the couples of points of an involution on a given straight shall be conjugate points.
Art.
11.
Projective Conic Ranges.
116. Four points on a conic are called harmonic if they are projected from any (and so every) fifth point on the conic by four harmonic straights.
two conies are called projective when so correlated that every four harmonic elements of the one correspond to four harmonic elements of the
117.
A conic
and a primal
figure or
other.
If a conic range and a flat pencil are projective, and element of the one is on the correlated element of the every conic is projected from other, they are called perspective.
118.
every point on it by a flat pencil perspective to it. Inversely the pencil-point of every flat pencil perspective to a conic is,
on the
conic.
S2
119.
[CHAP.
III.
pencils respectively Therefore any three perspective .elements in one can be correlated to any three elements in the other, but this completely pairs all the elements.
to
120.
Two
conies are projective if them are projective.
flat
Two
two
different conic ranges
on the same bearer have
at most
121.
self-correlated elements.
in
Two different coplanar conic ranges with a point V common are projective if every two points costraight with
correlated.
V.
pencil on
;
For both are then perspective to the flat Every common point other than V is self-correlated but V only when they have there a common tangent. They can have at most three self-correlated points.
122. If a flat pencil
V are
V and conic range k are coplanar and but not perspective, then at most three straights of projective the pencil are on their correlated points of the conic but at
;
least one.
For any
flat
pencil
M perspective
in general a
and with it determines must have in common with k every point which lies on its correlated straight of V, So if more than three straights of V were on their correlated points of k, the conies would be identical and V perspective to k.
Again, since every conic is compendent, and so divides its plane into two severed pieces, therefore the two different conies
if
projective to F, second conic range which

is
to k
they cross at their cotnmon point
M must
it
cross again, say

correlated,
at P.
and so
In this case the straights VP and VP is on the point correlated to
MP are
on
k.
In case they do not cross at their common point M, the corresponds to the common tangent at M, and so straight
VM
to the point
123.
correlated to
it
on
k.
projective conic ranges on the same curve form an involution if a pair of points are doubly correlated. Besides be any other two correlated and the couple V let
Two
AA
X
points, so that
B B B corresponds AA
x
to
u.
AA
and
BB
call U,
and
its
polar
A AB r The Project AA B
x
cross
of
from
Br
Art.
11.]
projective conic ranges.
93
X X
Project
A AB
t
from B.
The
ejects
are projective, and having the straight self-corre) (or The crosses of their correlated elelated, so are perspective.
X X
B {AA B) and B(A AB } BB BB

X X
ments are therefore

correlated straight
costraight.
X
But the cross of
BA
X
with
its
BA
is
known
to be on u, the polar of U, the
cross of
is
AA
with
BB
Likewise the cross of

x
BA
X
with
BA
on
u.
of
CU
Therefore the point C correlated to C with the curve. So C and C are coupled.
x
.
is
the cross
124. If
two conic ranges form an

all
involution, the joins of

'
coupled points are
copunctal on the
involutioncenter.'
125. Calling projective the conic pencils dual to projective
conic ranges, if these ranges form an involution, so do the all costraight pencils, and the crosses of coupled tangents are
on the
'
involutionaxis.'
pencils forming an involution are cut by each Two of their straights in two ranges forming an involution.
So two conic
conic ranges forming an involution are projected from each of

their points in
126. If
forming an involution. the involutioncenter lies without the conic bearer

flat pencils,
it
two
of an involution,
has two double elements where
it is
cut
by
the involutionaxis.
127.
To
construct the self-correlated points of two pro-
jective conic ranges on the three points of k, and

x ,
same
x ,
x
conic.
Let A, B,
A B C
their correlated points of

X
X X
be any kv
The
projective
flat
pencils
A(A B C ) and A {ABC) have

X
X X
AA
to a range on self-corresponding, hence they are perspective of AB and A B with the cross of AC the join u of the cross
X
94
[CHAP.
this join
III.
and
C.
The
crosses of the conic
and
n are the
self-correlated points of
k and k
on a conic, the six points where a straight not on a dot cuts the conic and two pairs of
128. If the dots of a tetrastim are
opposite connectors form an involution. For the two flat pencils in which the two crosses of
with the conic, P, Pi9 and two opposite dots R, T, are projected from the other two dots Q, S, are projective, and consequently so are the cuts of these
flat
X
pencils
X
X
by
X
tn\
that
is,
PBP A PBP A
X
a PA P B 7\P B PA
X X
But
PA P B A P B PA
X
X
Therefore
129,. Conies on which are the dots of a tetrastim are cut by a transversal in points of an involu-
to 129'. Copunctal tangents conies on which are the sides of
a tetragram form an involution,
tion.
At
its
is
transversal
double points the tangent to two of
The double
of
point.
straights touch
at the
two
those conies
pencil-
those conies.
Prob. 24. The pairs of points in which a conic is cut by the straights of a pencil whose pencil-point is not on the conic form an
involution.
Art.
130.
12.
Center and Diameter.

of a point at infinity with
is
The harmonic conjugate
respect to the end points of a finite sect

sect.
the
'
center
'
of that
pole of a straight at infinity with respect to a certain conic is the center of the conic.
131.
'
'
The
polar of any figurative point the conic, and is called a diameter.'

132.
'
The
is
on the centre of
133. If a straight
crosses a conic the sect between
the
crosses
is
called a
'
chord.'
is
The
134.
center of a conic
the center of
all
chords on
it.
The
centers of
all
diameter are
chords on straights conjugate to a on the diameter.
135. Two diameters are conjugate of the figurative point on the other.
when each
is
the polar
ART.
12.]
CENTER AND DIAMETER,
95
136.
The tangents
at the crosses of a straight with a conic

is
cross on the diameter which
a conjugate to that straight.
137. The joins of any point on the conic to the crosses of a diameter with the conic are parallel to two conjugate diameters.
138. Of two conjugate diameters, each is on the centers of the chords parallel to the other and if one crosses the conic, the tangents at its crosses are parallel to the other diameter.
;
center of an ellipse is within it, for its polar does not meet the curve, and so there are no tangents from it to the
139.
The
centre of a parabola is the contact point of the The centre of a hyperbola lies without the figurative straight. The tancurve, since the figurative straight crosses the curve.
curve.
The
gents from the center to the hyperbola are called asymptotes.' Their contact-points are the two points at infinity on the
'
curve.
140. If a
gents at its crosses can
diameter which cuts the curve be given, the tanbe constructed with ruler only, and so
straights conjugate to the diameter.
however many chords on

141.
Every flat pencil is an involution of conjugates with Hence the pairs of conjugate diamto a given conic. respect eters of a conic form an involution.
If
the conic
is
a hyperbola, the asymptotes are the double
straights of the involution.

eters
totes
Hence any two conjugate diamof a hyperbola are harmonically separated by the asympand since the hyperbola lies wholly in one of the two
explemental angles made by the asymptotes, one diameter cuts the curve, the other does not.
one pair of conjugate diameters of an ellipse is always separated by any other pair. Any one pair of conjugate diameters of a hyperbola is never separated by any other pair.
142.
Any
and
tangent to a hyperbola cuts the asymptotes at A then the contact-point B is the center of the sect AC, since the tangent cuts the harmonic pencil made by the diameter through B the conjugate diameter and the asymptotes, in
143. If a
y
the harmonic range
ABCD where D
is
at infinity.
Just so the
96
is
[CHAP. IIL
center of any chord by the asymptotes.

144. If a point
the center of the costraight sect bounded
is
the center of two chords

is
it
is
the center
of the conic, for its polar

145.
the figurative straight.
As many
structed
With
ruler
points as desired of a conic may be conthe ruler alone. by the aid of one fixed conic all problems solvable by
and compasses can be solved by ruler alone, that is, by pure projective geometry. For example Of two projective primal figures (say ranges) on the same bearer, given three
:
pairs of correlated elements to find the self-corresponding ele-
ments, if there be any. V of the given conic.

projective conic ranges.
These
Project the two ranges from any point ejects are cut by the conic in
Of these determine the
self-correlated
points by
127.
The ejects cut the bearer of the Project these from V. original ranges in the required self-correlated points.
Prob. 25. Find the crosses of a straight with a conic given only
by
for
five points'.
Prob. 26. Given a conic and
its
center, find a point
two given points A, C, the center of the sect

Prob. 27.
B such that AB shall be C.

two
coinitial sects
is
The join of the other extremities of to the join of their centers. parallel
Prob. 28. In an ellipse let CA, CB with the curve.
f
.
and B be crosses of conjugate diamThrough A' the cross of the diameter conjugate to CA with the curve draw a parallel to the join AB. Let Then CB' is the diameter conjugate it cut the curve again at B to CB.
eters
Art.
146!.
13.
Plane and Point Duality.

5
On
a plane are 00 points,
146'.
On
a point are
oo
1
00
planes,
'
point-field.'
147,.
a
1
'
plane-sheaf.'
147'.
The
oo
planes of a sin-
The
gle axial pencil
have on them
all
gle range
have on them
3
points of a sinall the

so
the
points of point-space; 3 there are just oo points.
so
planes of plane-space;
are just oo
there
Point-space
is
tridimensional.
planes. Plane-space is tridimensional.
Art.
13.]
PLANE AND POINT DUALITY.
97
is
148.
With the
straight as element, space

2
of four dimen-
sions.
On
a plane are
oo
straights,
1
On
On
a point are
oo
straights,
a 'straight-field.' On a straight are
straight-sheaf.'
00
1
planes,
a straight are
00
3
00
points,
and so
00
straights.
2
and so
2
straights.
oo
2
On
each of the
00
a plane are the

oo
4
points on straights of a
00
On
each of the
oo
2
planes on
a point are the

straight-field;
oo
4
straight-sheaf; so there are just

straights.
i49j.
straights of a so there are just
straights.
149'.
planes determine a straight, their meet.

i50j.
Two
Two
points determine a points determine a
straight, their join.

150'.
Two planes determine

on
their meet.
an
Two
Two
axial-pencil
range on
planes
151'.
their join.
15
j.
Two
bounding
bounding
sect.
points
determine an axial angle.

152,.
determine a
152'.
A
it
not on
pass.
i53j.
plane and a straight determine a point, their

axial
its
A
it
point and a straight
not on
determine a plane.
An
flat
plane not on
pencil and a bearer deter-
153'.
on
its
A range and a point not bearer determine a flat
mine a
pencil.
pencil.
154'. Three points determine a plane, their junction. 155'.
154^ Three planes determine

a point, their apex.
155^ Three planes determine a plane-sheaf.

156^
Three points determine
a point-field.
156'.
iVo
coplanar straights
Two
copunctal straights
are copunctal.
157.
are coplanar.
Any figure, or the proof of any theorem of configuand determination, gives a dual figure or proves a dual theorem by simply interchanging point with plane. Thus all the pure projective geometry on a plane may be read as geometry on a point.
ration
Prob. 29. If of straights copunctal in pairs not then all are coplanar.
all
are copunctal,
Prob. 30. On a given point put a straight to cut two given straights. Prob. 31. If two triplets of planes afty, a' ft'y' are such that the meets fty and ft'y', yoc and y'a\ aft and a' ft' lie on three
yy'
planes a", ft", y" which are costraight, then the meets <xa' y ftft\ are coplanar.
98
[Chap.
III.
Prob. 32. Describe the figures in space dual to the polystim and
the polygram.
Art.
158.
14.
Ruled Quadric Surfaces.

' '
The joins of the correlated points of two projective whose bearers are not coplanar form a ruled system ranges of straights no two coplanar. For were two coplanar, then two points on the bearer tn and two on the bearer m would all four be on this plane, and so m and m coplanar, contrary
x
x
to hypothesis. 159. Let the straights n,n iy // 2 be any three of the elements of a ruled system, and iV2 any point on ;/ 2 Put a plane on iV2 and the straight n if and let its pass with n be called N. The
.
straight
NN^
cuts n> n iy
n.2 all
three.
ranges of the ruled system (on the bearers

straight iv7V2 (or
pencils,
Projecting the generating and ) from the
Q)
as
axis produces
which having three planes m 2 n, sponding, are identical. Therefore every pair of correlated points of the ranges on m and ;;/, is coplanar with ;;/ 2 that
x
two projective axial mji mjt^ self-corre,
is,
m^ cuts every element of the ruled system.
By varying
all
the
oo
the point N^ 00 straights are obtained, all cutting straights of the original ruled system and making
on every two projective ranges. Of the straights so obtained no two cross, for that would make two of the first ruled system
coplanar.
a 'ruled
Either of these two systems may be considered as generating Each of the surface,' which is the bearer of both.
is
two systems
completely determined by any three straights From of the other, and therefore so is the ruled surface also. the construction follows that the straights of either ruled
the straights of the other in projective ranges. So any two straights of either system may be considered as bearers of projective ranges generating the other system, or
system cut
all
indeed the ruled surface.

160.
two
each point of this ruled surface are two and only straights lying wholly in the surface (one in each ruled
On
Art.
14.]
ruled quadric surfaces.
99
is
system).
also
surface.
So a plane on one
straight of the ruled surface
on another straight
of this
161. If in the
two generating
projective ranges the point at infinity of one is correlated to the
point at infinity of the other, the ruled surface is called a hyper'
bolic-paraboloid.'
The
is
join
of
these figurative
on the figurative plane. points Therefore the plane at infinity
common
cuts the surface in a straight and so has a second straight in with the ruled surface.
That a hyperbolic-paraboloid has two straights in common with the plane at infinity may also be proved as follows
:
n,
and let Call the bearers of the generating ranges m and lt n be any two elements, and /the element at infinity. By 159 the ruled surface may be considered as generated by the
x
But all these straights straights on the three elements n, n /. must be parallel to the same plane, namely, to any plane on/. On /and each one of these straights put a plane these planes
x
a parallel-axial-pencil, and cut any two of the original elements in projective ranges with the figurative points correlated. Therefore the figurative straight joining the figurative
points of n and
162.
#, is
make
wholly on the ruled surface.

all
From
plane.
161 follows that
same ruled system on a hyperbolic-paraboloid are

the
straights pertaining to the parallel to

'
same
Such planes
is
are called
asymptote-planes.'
hyperbolic-paraboloid completely determined by two nonand an asymptote-plane cutting them. To coplanar straights
get an element cut the two given straights by any plane parallel to the asymptote-plane, and join the meets.
163.
Three non-crossing
straights, all parallel to the
same
Let m, plane, completely determine a hyperbolic-paraboloid. be the given straights. The passes of planes on tnv ///, %
100
[CHAP.
III.
with
and
are projective ranges
whose
joins are a ruled
system.
But from the hypothesis one of these planes is parallel to both m and m.. Therefore their points at infinity are correlated and the ruled surface is a hyperbolic-paraboloid.
164. If
two non-coplanar projective ranges be each
axially
projected from the bearer of the other, two projective axial pencils are formed, with those planes correlated on which are If A, A be correlated the correlated points of the ranges.
l
the meet of correlated planes. Thus two projective axial pencils with axes not coplanar genIf the whole figure be cut by a plane, erate a ruled system.
points, then the straight
1
AA
is
this will cut these axial pencils in
two projective
will
flat
pencils,
and the conic generated by these

surface.
be the cut of the ruled
So every plane
cuts
it
in a conic or a pair of straights.
straight not wholly on the surface can cut it in more than two points. The surface is therefore of the second degree
Hence no
(quadric).
the plane at infinity cuts the ruled surface in a pair of If not, it is called a straights, it is a hyperbolic-paraboloid.
If
hyperboloid of one nappe,' a ure of which is here shown.

1
fig-
allel to
164J. Copunctal straights parthe generating elements of
a hyperboloid of one nappe are on a cone. Copunctal straights parallel to
the generating elements of a hyperbolic-paraboloid are on a
system of two planes.
For the figurative plane cuts the hyperboloid of one nappe in a conic curve, but cuts the hyperbolic-paraboloid in two straights and each of the copunctal straights
;
goes to a point of the figurative cut. 165. Each straight in one ruled system of a hyperboloid of
ART.
14-]
RULED QUADRIC SURFACES.

is
101
one nappe
loid
parallel to one, but only to one, straight in the
other ruled system.
Of the
straights on a hyperbolic-parabox
,
Let n and n any two elements of parallel. one ruled system, be the bearers of the generating ranges R and R,. If V is the vanishing point of R, then the straight on
no two are
V parallel
1
to n
is
an element of the other ruled system.
But
for the hyperbolic-paraboloid

66.
Fis
itself
a figurative point.
is
Any
'
straight of
'
one ruled system on a ruled surface

of the other ruled system.
cut by
167'.
called a
167!-
guide-straight
A
of
ruled system
its
is
ruled system
is
pro-
any two
guide-straights in
jected from any two of

cils.
its
guide-
projective ranges.
straights in projective axial pen-
For
if
m,
m m
it
be any three guide-straights of the ruled
and in projective ranges the system, the planes on m^ cut joins of whose correlated points are the elements of the ruled be projected axially from t system. Again, if the points on and * the meets of the planes so correlated are the ele1
ments
of the ruled system.
168.
Four
if
straights of a ruled system are called
harmonic
harmonic points by one (and so straights three straights, no two coplanar, by every) guide-straight. By a fourth harmonic is determined lying in a ruled system with
they are cut in four
the given three and on a fourth harmonic point to any three costraight points of the given three.
of one cutting the ruled surface in a straight n of the other ruled system and consequently also in a straight ruled system has in common with the surface no point not on
169.
A plane
For any straight from such a point cutting both these straights would lie wholly on the ruled surface and so therefore would their whole plane, which is impossible. Any third straight coplanar with m and n on their cross has no second point in common with the surface and so
one of these
straights.
;
is
a tangent,
and the plane of
m and n
is
called tangent at their
cross, the point tnn.
102
[CHAP. IIL
The number
of planes tangent to the ruled surface
and on
a given straight equals the number of points the straight has in common with the ruled surface, that is two so the ruled
;
surface
170.
is
of the second class.
Project the two generating ranges of a ruled system
from any projection-vertex Fnot on it. The eject consists of two copunctal projective flat pencils. The plane of any two correlated straights is on an element of the ruled system. All
such planes form a cone of planes.
points of contact of these planes with the ruled surface The planes tangent to a ruled surface at are a conic range. the points on its cut with a plane form a cone of planes.
cut of a hyperbolic-paraboloid by a plane not on an element has on it the meets of the plane with the two figu171.
The
The
rative elements,
is
and so
in
on the plane,
is
is a hyperbola except when their cross which case it is a parabola. The figurative
plane
a tangent plane.
172. The planes tangent at the figurative points of a hyperboloid of one nappe are all proper planes, copunctal and forming a cone of planes tangent to the asymptote-cone of the
'
'
hyperboloid.
Each element
to the asymptote-cone
is
parallel
to one element of each ruled system.
Any
it is
nappe cuts
plane not on an element of the hyperboloid of one it in a hyperbola, parabola, or ellipse, according as parallel to two elements, one, or no element of the asympis,
tote-cone, that
rative conic
173.
If
according as
it
has
in
common
with the
figu-
on the hyperboloid two points, one, or no point.
an axial pencil and a ruled system are projective,

in
they generate
general a
'
twisted cubic curve,' which any
plane cuts in one point at least and three at most. For a plane cuts the ruled system in a conic range perspective to it,
of
which
in
general three points at most
lie
on the correspond-
ing planes of the pencil.

174.
The
ruled quadric surface
is
the only surface doubly
Art.
14.]
ruled quadric surfaces.
103
of the
ruled.
two so united ruled systems is one most noteworthy discovered by the modern geometry.*
figure of
175.
The
Let u lt
find the straights crossing four given straights. u % u t be the given straights. Projecting the range on ux from the axes u 2 and u % gives two axial pencils, each
u.t ,
,
To
and consequently projective. The meets of perspective to their correlated planes are all the oo straights on u ,u^, u %r and form a ruled system of which u lt u 2 u z are guide-straights.
t
The two
'
two same kind and on the same bearer
projective axial-pencils cut the fourth straight u K in [Two projective primal figures of the conjective ranges.
'
are called conjective.]

,
If
now
uK
in
a straight
of the ruled system crosses u A
then the two
correlated planes of which this straight
is
the meet must cut
the same point, which consequently is a self-correspondSince there are two ing point of the two conjective ranges. such (the points common to u t and the ruled surface), so there
are
two
given that for the two self-correlated points of two conjective ranges.
straights (real or conjugate imaginary) crossing four Their construction is shown to depend on straights.
This important problem

'
straights,
what
is
common
the four-dimensional space of to four straights ? is the analogue

in
'
' '
the space of points, what is common to three points?' and its dual in the space of planes, what is common to three planes?
of the
problem
in
fundamental diversity, but also, as the inhercompared to points-geometry and planes-geometry,

It
shows not only
their
ently quadratic character of straights-geometry.

Prob. S3- Find the straights cutting two given straights
parallel to a third.
and
Prob. 34. Three diagonals of a skew hexagram whose six sides are on a ruled surface are copunctal. are Prob. 35. If a flat pencil and a range not on parallel planes on the points of the range parallel to the projective, then straights a hypercorrelated straights of the pencil form one ruled system of
bolic-paraboloid.
*See Monge, Journal de
l'Scole polytechnique, Vol. I.
104
Prob. 36.
[CllAP. III.
What
is
the locus of a point harmonically separated

?
from a given point by a ruled surface
Art.
176.
15.
Cross-Ratio.
Lindemann has shown how every one number, whether

or irrational,
integer, fraction,
or
may
be correlated to
one point of a straight, without making any use of measurement, without any comparison of sects by application of a unit He gets an analytic definition of the cross-ratio of sect.*
'
'
Then this expression is applied to four copunctal straights. Then is deduced that the number prefour costraight points.
viously attached to a point on a straight is the same as the cross-ratio of that point with three fixed points of the straight. Thus analytic geometry and metric geometry may be founded
without using ratio in its old sense, involving measurement. Thus also the non-Euclidean geometries, that of Bolyai-Lobachevski in which the straight has two points at infinity, and that of Riemann in which the straight has no point at infinity,
be treated together with the limiting case of each between them, tire Euclidean geometry, wherein the straight has one
may
but only one point at
infinity.
Relinquishing for brevity this
pure projective standpoint
and reverting to the old metric usages where an angle is an inclination, a sect is a piece of a straight, and any ratio is a number; distinguishing the sect AC from CA as of opposite
*
sense,' so that
AC =
CA, the
called the cross-ratio of the range
ABCD
where
and B, called conjugate be looked upon as the extremities of a or externally by C and again by D.\
* Von Staudt
in
[AC/BC]/[AD/BD] is and is written [ABCB] of the cross-ratio, may points

sect divided internally
ratio
projective definition of number, and thus
Beitrage zur Geometrie der Lage, 1856-60, determines the makes the metric geometry a consestated in the Mathematical Colis
quence of projective geometry. f The fundamental property of cross-ratio

lections of Pappus, about
is
370 A.D.
The
cross-ratio
the basis of Poncelet's
Traite des propriety projectives, 1822, which distinguishes sharply the projective
and metric properties of curves.
.Art. 15.]
cross-ratio.
105
177. If
un
ABCD
respectively be the straights abed co-
punctal on V, then
A C/BC= A A VC/AB VC or A C/BC = iA V. VC sin (ac)/\B V. VC sin (be). AD/BD = A A VD/ABVD = iA V. VD sin (ad)/bV. VD sin (bd).
[A BCD]
Therefore
[sin (ae)/s'm (&)]/[sin
^/sin (&/)]
Thus
as the cross-ratio of any
on any
pencil u(a/3yd) may transversal.

178.
flat pencil V[abcd] or axial be taken the cross-ratio of the cut ABCD
Two
As
1.
inversely two equicross primal

179.
projective primal figures are 'equicross;' and figures are projective.
approaches the point at

cross-ratio
infinity,
AD/BD
is
ap-
proaches
equals
180.
The
[ABCD] when
ABC,
figurative
A C/BC.
Given three costraight points
to find
D so
that
On any ma)' equal a given number n (-|- or ). on C take A' and B' such that CA'/CB' =n; A' and straight B' lying on the same side of C if n be positive, but on opposite sides if n be negative. Join AA', BB', crossing in V. The For if parallel to A' B' on Fwill cut AB in the required D. D' be the point at infinity on A'B\ and ABCD be projected
[ABCD]
from
V, then
A' B'CD'
is
a cut of the eject
so
,
[ABCD]
181. If
[A' B'CD']
=A
C/B C-n.
then Z\ coincides with Z>. be complete plane perspectives, four figures costraight points (or copunctal straights) in one are equicross with the correlated four in the other. Let O be the center of
[ABCD]
two
= \ABCD^
182. If
any pair of correlated points and N' another pair of correlated points lying on the straight OMM' whose cross with the axis of perspective is X. Then [OXMN] = [OXM'N'].
iV^
Let perspective. of the two figures,
M and M' be
[OM/XM]/[ON/XN] = [OM>'/XM']/[ON> /XN'\ Therefore [OM/XM]/[OM' /XM'] = [ON/XN]/[ON' /XN']. That is, [OXMM'] = [OXNN']; or the cross-ratio [OXMM']
'
That
is,
106
is
all
[CHAP. IIL
constant for
pairs of correlated points
M and M' taken

Since
on a straight
OX on
OLL
the center of perspective.
Next
let
and L' be another pair of correlated points and

with the axis of perspective.
the cross of
LM
if
and
L M'
'
OXMM'
is
cross on some point Z of the axis XY, therefore be projected from Z, the cut of the eject by OY
;
is
OYLL'. So \dXMM']-=\_dYLLJ]
constant for
It is called
all
or the cross-ratio
\OXMM'\
pairs of correlated points.
the 'parameter' of the correlation. When the is harmonic, and two i, the range parameter equals correlated elements correspond doubly, are coupled, and the
OXMM'
correlation
183.
is
'involutorial.'
When
is
the correlation
is
involutorial
and the center of
the figurative point on a perpendicular to the perspective axis of perspective, this is called the 'axis of symmetry/ and
the complete plane perspectives are said to be
184.
'
symmetrical.'
When
the correlation
is
involutorial
and the axis of
perspective is figurative, then the center of perspective is called the 'symcenter,' and the complete plane perspectives are said to be symcentral.'
'
With the
to
it.
Prob. 37. In a plane are given a parallelogram and any sect. ruler alone find the center of the sect and draw a parallel
Prob. 38. The locus of a point such that its joins to four given points have a given cross-ratio is a conic on which are the points. Prob. 39. If the sides of a trigram are tangent to a conic, the
joins of two of its fan-points to any point are conjugate with respect to the conic.
on the polar of the third
Prob. 40. If from any point of the sect between the contactpoints of a pair of tangents to a parabola straights be drawn parallel to these tangents, the join of their proper crosses with the tangents
will
be a tangent.
ART.
1.]
CORRESPONDENCE OF POINTS ON CONICS.
10?
Chapter IV.
By James McMahon,
Assistant Professor of Mathematics in Cornell University.
Art.
1.
Correspondence of Points on Conics.

way
for a general treatment of the hyperis
To
prepare the
given on the relations between hyperbolic sectors. The method adopted is such as to apply at the same time to sectors of the ellipse, including
bolic functions a preliminary discussion
the circle;
the hyperbolic and circular functions will be obvious at every step, since the same set of
of
in
and the analogy
connection with either the hyperbola convenient to begin with the theory of correspondence of points on two central conics of like species, i.e. either both ellipses or both hyperbolas.
or the ellipse.*
It is
equations can be read
To
1
2 B^ conjugate radii of any other central conic of the same species be two points on the curves; and let their coordilet 2
1
, ;
be conjugate
obtain a definition of corresponding points, let radii of a central conic, and OÂ 2
O A lt
x
P P
l , x ,
nates referred to the respective pairs of conjugate directions
be (x
jp,),
(x 2
j/2 );
then,
by analytic geometry,
9
~
a,'
'
b?
ai
6,'
W
is
* The hyperbolic functions are not so named on account of any analogy " The with what are termed Elliptic Functions. elliptic integrals, and thence
the elliptic functions, derive their
name from
the early attempts of mathemati-
cians at the rectification of the ellipse.

.
... To
a certain extent this
because we employ the name hyperbolic function to de. disadvantage; note cosh u, sinh u, etc., by analogy with which the elliptic functions would be ." (Greenhill, Elliptic merely the circular functions cos <p, sin cp, etc.
. .
.
Functions,
p. 175.)
108
if
[Chap. IV.
Now
the points
P P
1
,
be so situated that
(2)
a,'
b*
the equalities referring to sign as well as magnitude, then If are called corresponding points in the two systems. 3
P
Q
P
Q
be another pair of correspondents, then the sector and
tri-
angle
O Q are said to correspond respectively with the These definitions will apply also sector and triangle 7 O^Q^. then referred when the conies coincide, the points x 2 being to any two pairs of conjugate diameters of the same conic.
x
x
P P
,
In discussing the relations between corresponding areas it convenient to adopt the following use of the word " measure": The measure of any area connected with a given central conic is the ratio which it bears to the constant area of the triangle
is
formed by two conjugate diameters
of the
same
x
conic.
x
x
For example, the measure
of the sector
A OP
is
the ratio
sector
triangle
A OP A OB
x
Art.
3.]
areas of corresponding sectors.

to be
109
and
x x
is
x
A OP
and
A OB
x
x
regarded as positive or negative according as are at the same or opposite sides of their
x
common
initial line.
Art.
2.
Areas of Corresponding Triangles.

ii
i
P Q be (x ,y (x ',y '\ and let those of their correspondents P g be (xit y ) (x^y/); let the PfiJ2i De T T and let the measuring tritriangles P O Q A O B A O B be K K and their angles aolt g? angles
For,
let
The <
areas of corresponding triangles have equal measures. wi immjSUbww u hii mm H M W mm m

i
ii
iii
i i
ii
the coordinates of
x ,
),
lt
it
%
2 ;
then,
and
analytic geometry, taking account of both direction of angles, areas, and lines,
by
magnitude
T\
_ \{xy - x;y )sm

f
x
x
gd x
_ x,
a
i
K\
7\
iÂ sm
y^ __ */ y^
&i
i
'
&i
l
_ j(xjr 'xM
t
sin
a>,
_ x\
a2
y/
bt
_ x^^
a t b^
(3)
\<*J>* sin g? 2
Therefore
J3.
= ~\
Art.
Areas of Corresponding Sectors.
The
For
areas of corresponding sectors have equal measures. conceive the sectors Sl9 S, divided up into infinitesimal
;
corresponding sectors then the respective infinitesimal corre-. sponding triangles have equal measures (Art. 2) but the of these infinitesimal given sectors are the limits of the sums
;
triangles,
hence
^ ^ k = k;
x x x
(4)
ures
In particular, the sectors A O Pxs A,0,P2 have equal measfor the initial points A l9 A, are corresponding points.
;
It
may be proved
if
conversely by an obvious reductio ad

initial
points of two equal-measured sectors correspond, then their terminal points correspond.
absurdum that
the
Thus
if
any
radii
OA
x
x ,
OÂ, be the
initial
lines of
x x,
two
t
equal-measured sectors
whose terminal
radii
are
OP OP
110
[CHAP. IV.
are corresponding points referred respectively to the pairs of conjugate directions Ot lt O B and vA v O^B^;
xJ
2
tken
P P
x ,
that
is,
*i
y:
y*
Prob.
i.
x
Prove that the sector
to the mid-point of joining spectively, to the median as
P\QV
POQ
x x
is
bisected by the line
(Refer the points

axis of
P Q
lt
re-
common
opposite conjugate directions as axis of y, are then corresponding points.)

Prob.
Prob.
2.
x, and to the two and show that Q
x ,
Prove that the measure of a circular sector

its
is
equal to
the radian measure of

3.
angle.
elliptic
Find the measure of an
quadrant, and of the
sector included by conjugate radii.
Art.
4.
Characteristic Ratios of Sectorial Measures.

x
Let
A OP =
x x
PM
X
vS,
x
be any sector of a central conic; draw

x ,
let
x
O
x
M = x MP
x
ordinate to
xi
OA
X
i.e.
parallel
x
x
to
the
tangent
at
=y,, O A =#,, and
OB
bx
then the ratios
xja yjb
x
,
the conjugate radius are called the charac. x

x
the given sectorial measure S /K These ratios are constant both in magnitude and sign for all sectors
teristic ratios of
of the
same measure and species wherever these may be
situ-
Hence there exists a functional relation beated (Art. 3). tween the sectorial measure and each of its characteristic
ratios.
Art.
5.
Ratios Expressed as Triangle-measures.
and its complementary triangle are measured by the two characteristic ratios. For, let the triangle A O P and its complementary triangle P O B be denoted by
triangle of a sector
x
x
The
x ,
7V; then
K-
^^
l
sino?
_^
(s)
ART.
7.]
FUNCTIONAL RELATIONS FOR

6.
ELLIPSE.
Ill
Art.
Functional Relations for Ellipse.

its
The
for
all
functional relations that exist between the sectorial

characteristic
ratios
measure and each of

elliptic,
are
the same
in-
cluding circular, sectors (Art. 4).
Let/*,,
be corresponding points on an ellipse

2
and a
circle, referred
dix
to the conjugate rections O A O

x
and
A0,B^,
right angles
let
the angle Afi^P^
the latter pair being at 6 in radian measure; then
K,
1/7
'
(6)
= cos -1
at
hence, in the
ellipse,
sin
bn
[*.
= *,
by Art.
-^
cos
= sin
measure of the
4, b x
K,
Prob.
4.
(7)
Given x
\a\\ find the
A1O1P1.
Prob.
Also find
5.
is
its
area
when a
3, a?
elliptic sector
6o.
whose
Find the characteristic

\n. Write
ratios of
an
elliptic sector
measure
Prob.
6.
down
the relation between an elliptic sector and

5.)
its triangle.
(See Art.
Art.
7.
Functional Relations for Hyperbola.

the case of the hyperbola
S,
-XI,
The
functional relations between a sectorial measure and
its characteristic ratios in
may
be
written in the form

,
,
cosh
= sinh
two
;
lines
and these express that the

right.
ratio of the
on the
left is
a certain definite function of the ratio of the two areas on the
These functions are
called
by analogy the hyperbolic
112
[CHAP. IV.
cosine ana the nyperbolic sine.
Thus, writing u for

V
'
S /Kv
x
the
two equations
X _
cosh u
7^ =
sinh u
(8)
serve to define the hyperbolic cosine and sine of a given sectoand the hyperbolic tangent, cotangent, secant,, rial measure u and cosecant are then defined as follows
;
tanh u
= =
sinh u
cosh&
7,
,
coth u
cosh&
sinh
i
w
(9>
>.
sech u
csch u
cosh u
sinh u
The names
"
h-sine," M
of these functions
may
be read " h-cosine,"'
h-tangent," etc.
Art.
8.
Relations between Hyperbolic Functions.
the six functions there are five independent relations, so that when the numerical value of one of the functions Four of is given, the values of the other five can be found.
Among
these relations consist of the four defining equations fifth is derived from the equation of the hyperbola
(9).
The
< K
giving
cosh*
11
'
sinh &
1.
(10}
By
a combination of
2
some
of these equations other subsidi(10) successively
ary relations
by cosh
u,
may.be obtained; thus, dividing sinh u, and applying (9), give

1
2 tanh u
coth u
= sech = csch
u.
Equations
serve to express (9), (10), (11) will readily
the
value of any when tanh u is given,
function in terms of
any other.
For example,
2
coth u
tanh u
sech u
=J
tanh
u,
Art.
8.]
relations between hyperbolic functions.

i
113
cosh u
=
V
i
I
,
sinh u
=
y
I
tanh u
,
tanh #
tanh 2 # tanh u
tanh #
csch u
a/
The ambiguity in the sign of the square root may usually be removed by the following considerations The functions cosh u, sech u are always positive, because the primary char:
acteristic ratio
x /a
x
the abscissa
M
x
is
positive, since the initial line
OA
x
and
are similarly directed from
on which-
ever branch of the hyperbola may be situated; but the functions sinh u, tanh u, coth u, csch u, involve the other characx
is positive or negative according as or opposite signs, i.e., as the measure y and b x have the same u is positive or negative hence these four functions are either Thus when any one of the funcall positive or all negative.
teristic ratio
x
y /b
x
which
tions sinh u, tanh

sign, there
is
?/,
csch
u,
coth
in
no ambiguity
;
given in magnitude and the value of any of the six

ti,
is
but when either cosh u or sech u is hyperbolic functions is ambiguity as to whether the other four functions given, there
shall
be
all
positive or
all
negative.
as the ratio of
The hyperbolic tangent may be expressed

two
lines.
For draw the tangent

/;
line^C=
tanh u
then
=y
b
114
[Chap. IV.
u.
Prob. 7. Express all the hyperbolic functions in terms of sinh Given cosh u = 2, find the values of the other functions.
Prob.
8.
r,
Prove from eqs.

sech u
10,
n,
that
cosh&>
sinh
u,
cosh#>i,
tanh u
<
<
1.
Prob.
and area of sector A OP = 3; find the sectorial measure, and the two characteristic ratios, in the elliptic sector, and also in the hyperbolic sector; and find the area of the triangle A OP. (Use tables of
cos, sin, cosh, sinh.)
9.
In the figure of Art.
1, let
OA = 2 OB=i, AOB =
,
6o,
Prob. 10. Show that coth u, sech u, csch u may each be expressed as the ratio of two lines, as follows: Let the tangent at make on the conjugate axes OA, OB, intercepts OS n\ m, in R, let the tangent at B, to the conjugate hyperbola, meet
OT =
OP
making BR =
I;
then
coth u
Prob.
l/a,
sech u
m/a,
csch u
is
n/b.
u.
n. The measure
of segment
AMP
sinh u cosh u
Modify
8, 10.
this for
the ellipse.
Modify
also eqs.
10-14, an d probs.
Art.
9.
Variations of the Hyperbolic Functions.
Since the values of the hyperbolic functions depend only
on the sectorial measure,

half
it
is
ations,
tracing their varito consider only sectors of one
convenient,
in
rectangular hyperbola, whose and to take the conjugate principal axis OA as the common initial
of a
radii are equal,
line
of
all
the
sectors.
The
sectorial
00,
measure u assumes every value from

through
o,
to
-f-
00
as the terminal point
comes in from infinity on the lower branch, and passes to infinity on the upper
branch
;
that
is,
as the terminal line
OP
tion
y
is
x,
swings from the lower asymptotic posiIt is here assumed, to the upper one, y = x.
the sector
but
as
proved
in Art. 17, that
A OP
becomes
infinite
P passes
to infinity.
u,
Since the functions cosh
sinh u tanh u, for

y
any position
ART.
9.]
VARIATIONS OF THE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS.

are equal to the ratios of x, y, evident from the figure that
t,
115
of
a,
0P
it is
to the principal radius
cosh
o=l,
become
sinh
0,
tanh
0=0,
//,
(15)
and that
as u increases towards positive infinity, cosh

infinite,
sinh u
are positive and as a limit thus

;
but tanh u approaches unity
cosh
go
00
sinh
00
co
tanh
00
1.
(16)
Again, as u changes from zero towards the negative side, cosh u is positive and increases from unity to infinity, but
sinh u
negative and increases numerically from zero to a and tanh u is also negative and increases negative from zero to negative unity hence numerically
is
infinite,
cosh
00)
= 00
sinh
(-
00)
00,
tanh
00
1.
(17)
For intermediate values
of u the numerical values of these

16, 17,
functions can be found from the formulas of Arts.
and
are tabulated at the end of this chapter. general idea of their manner of variation can be obtained from the curves in
abscissa,
Art. 25, in which the sectorial measure u is represented by the and the values of the functions cosh u, sinh u, etc.,
are represented by the ordinate.
The
Thus
relations
between the functions
of
u and of u are
8.
evident from the definitions, as indicated above, and in Art.
cosh
sech
() = + ()= +
(
cosn u
sech
>
smn
csch
(~~ u )
~~
sm ^ u
csch
>
?/,
tanh
u) =
()=
(
u,
>
J
(18)
tanh
u,
coth
= u)
coth
u.
from
u,
Prob. 12. Trace the changes in sech u> coth u, csch u, as u passes 00 to -}- 00 Show that sinh #, cosh u are infinites of the
.
same order when u

cosh u are
of u.)
is infinite.
(It will
infinites of
an order
appear in Art. 17 that sinh infinitely higher than the order
Prob. 13. Applying eq. (12) to figure, page 114, prove tanh
tan
u,
A OP.
116
[CHAP. IV.
Art.
10.
Anti-hyperbolic Functions.
The equations
cosh
u,
y -r
t
//,
sinh
tanh
u,
etc.,
may
u
also be expressed
by the inverse notation u

t
cosh -1
x
-,.
sinh
_1
y
,
tanh -1 -T,
etc.,
which may be read: "u
is
the sectorial measure whose hyperbolic cosine is the ratio a" etc. or " u is the anti-h-cosine of x/a," etc.
;
to
Since there are two values of
u,
correspond to a given value of cosh u,
with opposite signs, that it follows that if u be
determined from the equation cosh u = m, where m is a given number greater than unity, u is a two-valued function of m. The symbol cosh" 1 tn will be used to denote the positive value
of
u that
satisfies
1
symbol sech"
satisfies
the equation cosh u m. Similarly the will stand for the positive value of u that
///. the equation sech u -1 _1 coth -1 functions sinh //z, tanh f,
The
;;/,
signs of the
1
other
csch" ;, are the
same
as the sign of m. Hence all of the anti-hyperbolic functions of real numbers are one-valued.
Prob. 14. Prove the following relations:
cosh" 1
/^
sinh" 1
Vm*
1,
sinh" 1
//*
=
,
cosh" 1 Vm*
-f-
1,
the upper or lower sign being used according as _1 1 cos" Modify these relations for sin negative.
.
is
positive, or
2,OB i,AOB 6o; find 15. In figure, Art. i,let OA the area of the hyperbolic sector AOP, and of the segment y -1 is 3. from the tables for cosh.) if the abscissa of (Find cosh
Prob.
AMP
Art.
(a)
11.
Functions of Sums and Differences.
To
sinh
prove the difference-formulas sinh u cosh v cosh (// v)
cosh (u
= = cosh u v)
//
sinh v,
v.
cosh v
sinh u sinh
I
)
09)
Let
OA
AOQ
sector
be any radius of a hyperbola, and let the sectors AOP, v is the measure of the have the measures u, v\ then u
be the radii conjugate to OA, OQ; Let OB, the coordinates of P, Q, Q' be (x j/,), (x, y), (x' y') with reference to the axes OA, OB; then
QOP.
OQ
and
let
ART.
11.]
FUNCTIONS OF SUMS AND DIFFERENCES.
ikr
117
[Art.
5.
sinh
= sinh _
sector
^
sin
z>
= tria "g le ggg
K-^Ji
^)
x
<
_
~~
jî
x
yx
x
;
\a x b sin a?
b ax
b ax
= sinh
& cosh
cosh u sinh #
cosh (u
^)
cosh
SeCt r
^P =
y
b:
triangle
/W
bx
[Arfc
$>
KxyyS) sin
Jtf,^ sin g?
&?_
y ^ _#<
^
a
x
a;
(20)
but
since Q, Q' are extremities of conjugate radii
hence
z>.
cosh (u
v)
= cosh u
is
cosh ^
sinh u sinh
is
In the figures u
positive
and v
positive or negative.
Other figures
in
may may
be drawn with u negative, and the language

all.
the text will apply to
In the case of elliptic sectors,

1
similar figures
be drawn, and the same language win apply, that the second equation of (20) will be x'/a y/b except
x
x;
therefore
sin (u
cos {u
(b)
= sin u cos v = cos u cos v v)

v)
cos u sin
-f-
v,
v.
sin
u sin
To
prove the sum-formulas
sinh (u
cosh
+ v) sinh u cosh v + cosh u sinh + v) = cosh a cosh v + sm ^ w smh v

(19)
v,
-
(21)
S
These equations follow from
by changing v into
118
for sinh
(
[CHAP. IV.
and then
v) t
cosh
v),
writing
sinh
v,
cosh v
(Art. 9, eqs. (18)).

(c)
To prove v
(
that tann
-= (uv) = itanhtanhv
v
'
(22) ; V
Writing tanh
s>)
=s
cosh (u
v,
expanding and dividing

z/,
v)
numerator and denominator by cosh & cosh

tained.
eq. (22)
is
ob-
Prob. 16. Given cosh u
=
.
2,
cosh
3,
find cosh (u
-\- z>).
1.
2.
3.
Prob. 17. Prove the following identities: 2 sinh u cosh sinh 27/ 2 2 2 1 -f- 2 sinh u 2 cosh u cosh 211 sinh ^ cosh'tt 2 2 1 2 cosh -#, cosh u 2 sinh -. 1 cosh u
= =
+
,
,
+
z/
1.
4.
tanh }*
.
=
1
sinh
5.
6.
sinh 2U
sinh 3#
7. '
cosh
-4'
= 2 -_ cosh 2U tanh u = 3 sinh w 4 sinh cosh i-i. u = + anh i* sinh t^\~r, ,
cosh u tanh u
= cosh
=
1
/cosh :
i\*
.
sinh u
\cosh u -j2 i-4- tanh u

.
1/
tanh u
3
-j-
= 4 cosh'tf
3 cosh ^.
t,
tann -#
sinh z;)=cosh (& -f- v) sinh (# -jsmn )(cosh v (cosh u=v= 9. Generalize (8); and show also what it becomes when a 2 2 2 2 sin 7. sinh ^: cosh a: sin v 10. sinh ^: cos'_v
8.
v).
.
11. 12.
cosh -1 /#
sinh
_1
cosh _1
sinh
-1
>z
==
cosh~ 1 \_mn
_1
y(m
1
i)(tz
i)J.
sinh
[w y
?
yi + *?i
(22),.
Prob. 18.
What
modifications of signs are required in (21),
in order to pass to circular functions
Prob. 19. Modify the identities of Prob. 17 for the same purpose.
Art.
12.
Conversion Formulas.
To
prove that
cosh
cosh u
j+ cosh u
1
2 cosh \{u
-\-
u 9 ) cosh \(u
&,)
2)
u 7),
9 ),
cosh u t
-j-
2 sinh \{u
x
sinh #, sinh #,
sinh
it,
sinh u %
= 2 sinh \{u = 2 cosh \{u
+ + +&
sinh |(#,~
cosh J-(,
sinh
(?/,
# a ), # a).
^
a)
Art.
13.]
limiting ratios.
it
119
From
the addition formulas
follows that
v)
z/,
and
v
= 2 cosh & cosh cosh + v "" cosn (&?>) = 2 sinh & sinh v, = 2 sinh & cosh v, sinh (& sinh ( ^) 2 cosn w smn ^> sinh (# + z ~~ smn (^ ~ *0 v = u %t u = \{u + then by writing u-\-v = u iy u
cosh (u
(
-f-
v) -J)
cosh (u
-f-
-f-
z^)
a ),
(,
# 2 )>
these equations take the form required.
Prob. 20. In passing to circular functions, show that the only modification to be made in the conversion formulas is in the algebraic sign of the right-hand member of the second formula.
cosh 2U ... Prob. 2i. Simplify -r. r J
smn
2
+ cosh av r:
cosh 2U
,
-f-
cosh av
-f sinh av
2
cosh
cosh av
y).
Prob. 22. Prove sinh
.*
2
sinh
.*
2
.y
2
sinh (x -\-y) sinh (x sinh

2
2
Prob. 23. Simplify cosh Prob. 24. Simplify cosh
cosh
2
sinh ^.
2
ji>.
cos y
+ sinh * sin
Art.
13.
Limiting Ratios.
approaches zero, of
tanh u
u
in form.
To
find the limit, as u
sinh u
which are then indeterminate
By
eq. (14), sinh
u> u>
tanh u
and
if
sinh u and tanh u

inequalities,
it
be successively divided by each term of these follows that , Jrr ^ L vJCk*

1
^ <
sinh u ^
<
u
cosh u
sech u
<
tanh U
<V
but when u-^zO, cosh u

lim. sinh
= _
I,
sech
=: i,Tience
Hm. tanh ^
u
==.0
1.
u == o
(24)
\V
120
[Chap. IV.
Art.
14.
Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions.
To
prove that
^(sinh
(a)
ft)
du
d(cosh
ft)
= =
cosh
ft,
(*)
du
d(tanh
ft)
sinh
ft,
w
(rf)
du
<^(sech
2/)
= sech
=
2/,
(25)
du
d(cotri
ft)
sech u tanh
ft,
w
(/)
(<z)
du
<f(csch
ft)
csch
ft,
du
ft,
csch u coth
ft.
Let y
= sinh + ^ w ~~ smn * jy = sinh = 2 cosh \{2u ^) sinh \Au, .sinh JJ Ay -~ = cosh -f $-;
(ft
-j-
.,
ZJft)
Take the
limit of
both
sides, as
Au
= o,
ft)
'
and put
lim
lim.
dy = Hi = </(sinh ^ cosh + i^) = cosh
Ay
(ft
ft,
sinh
lim.
\Au 7 A iAu
(see Art. 13)
dT(sinh u)
du
= cosh
ft.
()
Similar to
(a).
dftanh u) ~
dfa
d
'
sinh
2/
ft
<& cosh
cosh u
2
sinh
8
8
ft
cosh u
cosh
=
?/
sech*
Art.
15.]
derivatives of hyperbolic functions.

Similar to
(c).
121
j(V)
.
u w ~^^ = ^-îi^ = -îh^ = - sechatanh

^(sech u)
i
sinh
"-
(/)
Similar to
(e).
It thus appears that the functions sinh u, cosh u reproduce themselves in two differentiations and, similarly, that the circular functions sin u, cos u produce their opposites in two
;
differentiations.
In this connection
it
may be
noted that the
frequent appearance of the hyperbolic (and circular) functions in the solution of physical problems is chiefly due to the fact
that they answer the question What function has its second derivative equal to a positive (or negative) constant multiple of the function itself ? (See Probs. 28-30.) An answer such as
:
y = cosh mx is not, however, to be understood as asserting that mx is an actual sectorial measure and y its characteristic ratio but only that the relation between the numbers mx and y is the
;
same
as the
known
and
its
relation
bolic sector
characteristic ratio
between the measure of a hyperand that the numerical

;
value of y could be found from a table of hyperbolic cosines.

Prob. 25.
Show
that for circular functions
the only modifica-
tions required are in the algebraic signs of
(b), (d).
Prob. 26.
Show from
their derivatives
which of the hyperbolic
and
circular functions diminish as u increases.
Prob. 27. Find the derivative of tanh u independently of the derivatives of sinh u, cosh u.
Prob. 28. Eliminate
equation^ = A cosh mx + B sinh mx, and prove that
the constants by differentiation from the
dy/dx
= m?y.
Prob. 29. Eliminate the constants from the equation
and prove
tial
=A that d^y/dx' =
y
down
cos
mx
-f-
B sin
mx,
my.
Prob. 30. Write
the most general solutions of the differen-
equations
d*v
d*y
d*y
122
15.
[CHAP. IV.
Art.
Derivatives of Anti-hyperbolic Functions.

-1
^(sinh
(a)
x)
dx
l
Vx*
x)
__
i
+i
w
(A W
d(cosh.~
dx
1
^(tanh- x)
"1
dx
4coth~ ^) _ dx
-1
1
- *_]*<,'
(26)
i
(d\ 1 ^
-i
?3TJ^
i
w
,
^(sech
*)
<r
-1
* Vi
#)
I
-.
^(csch
x Vx*
(#)
+
&,
Let
ss sinh"" #,
then
= sinh
dx
= cosh
</
=
{b)
Vi
+ sinh
&
udu
Vi
-\-
x* du,
du
= <&:/ VT+1?.
2
Similar to
(a).
(c)
Let
tanh" x,
2
then
.r
(i
tanh
&)afo
(i
= tanh u, dx = seen u du du = dx/i x*. x*)du,
(d) Similar to
(c).
("
4f:, =sK)=7/&-')'%iij(e).
1
(/) Similar to
Prob. 31. Prove
^(sin" x)
_
Vi
_ ~
1 1
d(cos~
x)_
Vi
dx
^(tan
-1
1'
dx
1
x*
x)
djcot- x)
dx
+ x*
dx
+x*'
Art.
16.]
expansion of hyperbolic functions.
123
Prob. 32. Prove

tfsinh
_,x
dx
.
^cosh
x -
dx
</tanh
x
a
-=
a'
adx
l
~|
,
x 5 _\x <a
1
</coth-
# -=
a
dt^tr
"1
xs
a Jx>m
Prob. 33. Find ^(secli" x) independently of cosh -1 *.
x is real, prove that coth* Prob. 34. When tanh and conversely; except when x 1. nary,
-1
is
imagi-
Prob. 35- Evaluate
sinh"
cosh
-1
x
,
-^-,
when x
cc
Art.
16.
Expansion of Hyperbolic Functions.
For
this
purpose take Maclaurin's Theorem,

/'(o)
/()
= Ao) +
+2
',
y"(o)
+ j,
/'"(o)
+
.
.,
and put f(u)

then
= sinh u, f{u) cosh &, f"(u) = = 0, /'(o) = cosh o = /(o) = sinh

1,
.
sinh
.;
,...,
hence
sinh u
=u+
2
u*
+ -j u"
4
:
-f-
(27)
and
similarly, or
by
differentiation,
cosh u
& H 214! a +
r
(28)
By means
cosh
of these series the numerical values of sinh u y
u, can be computed and tabulated for successive values of the independent variable u. They are convergent for all values
of #, because the ratio of the nth term to the preceding
is
in
the
first
case
2){2n
u /{2n
>
\){2n
2),
and
in
the second
less
case
u*/(2n
3),
both of which ratios can be made
than
unity by taking n large enough, no matter what value u

have.
may
124
[CHAP. IV.
:
From
these series the following can be obtained by division
tanh u
sech u
u
i
\u
-j-
T jU
-f-
j^V*'
6
= - u* + û* TVo^ coth & = + i^ y* + -gls^ 8U CSCh W = - -V + J ^ - T AVtf'+

i
3
4
+ +
.,
(29)
i
These four developments are seldom used, as there is no observable law in the coefficients, and as the functions tanh u, sech u, coth u, csch &, can be found directly from the previously
computed values
of cosh u, sinh u.
Prob. 36. Show that these six developments can be adapted to the circular functions by changing the alternate signs.
7^
cosh u
Art.
17.
Exponential Expressions.
(27), (28)
Adding and subtracting

1
give the identities

u*
+ sinh u = + u 4- 2!
sinh u
1
ri?
3!
+ 4! u* +
%
u
,
cosh u
uA
-1? 2!
-u*
3!.
+ r^* ^4!
u
(>
e~
u
,
hence cosh u
tanh u
J(^
+ e~%
e
u,
sinh #
e~
u
),
= eu
sech u
2
e -\-e'
u
r
u,
(3)
etc.
e -\-e~
The
analogous exponential expressions for sin
u,
cos u are
cos u
\e +e~
e
ui
ui
ui
),
sin
(***
e~
ui
(i
=V
1)
where the symbol

jc in the
stands for the result of substituting ui for
exponential development
This
will
be more
28, 29.
fully
explained in treating of complex
numbers, Arts.
Art.
18.]
expansion of anti-functions.
125
Prob. 37. Show that the properties of the hyperbolic functions could be placed on a purely algebraic basis by starting with equations (30) as their definitions
;
for example, verify the identities
sinh
(
2
u)
1,
sinh u, sinh (u
,
cosh
u)
cosh
-j-
u,
cosh u
2
sinh
u=
+ v) = sinh
^
2
u cosh v
cosh u sinh v%
.
^ (cosh
Tj
mii)
= tn
cosh mu,
sinh
(sinh
mu)
'-
=m
sinh mu.
Prob. 38. Prove (cosh u

2
-f-
)*.
= cosh
nu -f sinh nu.
u,
Prob. 39. Assuming from Art. 14 that cosh

differential
written
how
to
= Aeu + Be~ u where A, B are arbitrary constants show determined, B in order to derive the expressions for cosh u y
y
,
;
equation d y/du*
= y,
sinh u satisfy the
whose general solution may be
sinh u, respectively.
[Use
eq. (15).]
Prob. 40. Show how to construct a table of exponential functions from a table of hyperbolic sines and cosines, and vice versa.
Prob. 41. Prove u
log,,
(cosh u
-f-
sinh u).
is
Prob. 42. Show that the area of any hyperbolic sector when its terminal line is one of the asymptotes.
infinite
Prob. 43.
2
From
the relation 2 cosh u
= eu + e~ u prove
(n
n_1
(cosh #)
=cosh nu+n cosh {n2)u-\-\n{n\) cosh
4)^4-..
.,.
and examine the last term when n is odd or even. Find also the corresponding expression for 2* _1
(sinh u)
Art.
.
18.
-1
Expansion of Anti-Functions.
x) j
Since
tdTsinh
7tt^ = _Iy + Ii 2
I
fw = (i+ "
,
9N
24
,._I3I je 246
> .
hence, by integration,
sinh
23' 245
z T"T" 2467
1
>
V3
/'
the integration-constant being zero, since sinh" x vanisheswith x. This series is convergent, and can be used in compu-
126
tation, only
[CHAP. IV.
x >!,
^sin
is
when x < I. Another series, convergent when obtained by writing the above derivative in the form
dx
i i
2 X*
4_I3I_I3iI, T 2 4^ 2 46/ r,
2 t
"I
"J'
.
.-.
sinh"
C+log x+- 2x 2
~l
2
4 4**
,+i 2
1 4 6
3.
i--.
6
(32) y
6;tr
where C is the integration-constant, which will be shown in Art. 19 to be equal to loge 2.
development
of similar
form
is
obtained for cosh
-1
x; for
rf(cosh-x)
_t=1 /
_iW
-ir14.II4.II-L4.II 5 16T 1 4. *L T 2^ T 24j4T 246j "J'

hence
eosh-^C+log.-I^-Ii^-Ilii-...,
(33)
In in which (7 is again equal to log, 2 [Art. 19, Prob. 46]. -1 order that the function cosh ^ maybe real, x must not be
less
than unity; but when x exceeds unity, this series vergent, hence it is always available for computation.
is
con-
Again,
*
^^
tanh"
1
^-1+^ + ^4 *+-.,
9
and hence
= x+-*
3
-f \x*
5
I* +7 +
7
(34)
From
sech
-1
are (32), (33), (34)
derived:
= cosh -1
x
x
x*
=C
log 5
I.3.* -
2.2
2.4.4
\ 2.4.6.6
1.3. 5. X D
9
. .
.
, \ (35) K0DJ
ART. 19
LOGARITHMIC EXPRESSION OF ANTI-FUNCTIONS.
127
csch
-J
= sinh-
IJ_-lI.1J_I!I_L_i
2 $x* 2
4 $x
246
jx
;
= C _,og * + _-_l_ + _ l_l__... :

coth- *
(36)
= tanh- I = I +
Show Show
-L
+ JL. +
-L
..
( 37)
Prob. 44. Prob. 45.
that the series for tanh -1 x, coth -1 x, seen -1 x, that one or other of the two developments of the
is
are always available for computation.
inverse hyperbolic cosecant
available.
Art.
19.
Logarithmic Expression of Anti-Functions.
Let
therefore
cosh
1,
u,
I
then
vx
x-\- \ x
u,
cosh u
-f-
= sinh u; sinh u = eu
I
,
and
Similarly,
= cosh" x, log {x T sinh -1 ^ = log (* + Vx ~+ 1).

l
-j-
Vx
i).
(38)
(39)
Also
1 sech -1 ;r= cosh" - == log
-V"
!
(40)
csdi"
sinh" 1 !
log
+ Vl + x
X
l.
(41)
Again,
let
128
[CHAP. IV.
Prob. 47. Derive from (42) the series for tanh" 1 .*; given in (34). Prob. 48. Prove the identities:
log*=2tanh"
log sec
log tan
=tanh _1
-1
2
=sinh" ^(^
^ _1)=cosh" l(^+^ _1 );
1
'
x
x
== 2
tanh
tan \x\ log esc
2 tanh'
2jc
tan*(ar
-j-
ix);
tanh -1 cos 2^
20.
sinh -1 cot
cosh -1 esc 2X.
Art.
The Gudermanian Function.

of sectors of the
It is
The correspondence
cussed in Arts. 1-4.
same
now convenient
species was disto treat of the

different
correspondence that
species.
may
,
exist
between sectors of
v a on any hyperbola and ellipse, are said to with reference to two pairs of conjugates O A correspond
Two
1 ,
points
P P
,
,.
and OÂ %
respectively,
when
(44)
xja
and when
jj/ x
,
= ajxv
sign.
jj/ 2
have the same
The
sectors
A O Piy
x
x
are then also said to correspond.
sectors of central conies of different
Thus corresponding species are of the same
sign and have their primary characteristic ratios reciprocal. Hence there is a fixed functional relation between their re-
The elliptic sectorial measure is called spective measures. the gudermanian of the corresponding hyperbolic sectorial
measure, and the latter the anti-gudermanian of the former. This relation is expressed by
or
= gd S,/K, v = gd u, and u = gd
SJK,
-1
#.
(45)
Art.
21.
Circular Functions of Gudermanian.

terms
its
The
six hyperbolic functions of u are expressible in
of the six circular functions of
gudermanian
cos
v,
for since
=
a,
cosh
u,
=
a,
(see Arts. 6, 7)
in
which
u,
v are the measures of corresponding hyperbolic
and
elliptic sectors,
Art.
22.]
gudermanian angle.
cosh u
sinh u
sec
*
129
hence
v,
1
[eq. (44)]
= VsecV = tan v tanh u = tan v/szc v = sin v, coth u = esc v, sech u = cosz/, csch u = cot z\
The gudermanian
if
(46)
is
sometimes useful
in
computation
for
sinh u be given, v can be found from a table of instance, natural tangents, and the other circular functions of v will give the remaining hyperbolic functions of u. Other uses of this
function are given in Arts. 22-26, 32-36.

Prob. 49. Prove that gd u
Prob. 50. Prove
Prob. 51. Prove
= sec _1 (cosh u) = tan _1 (sinh u) = cos -1 (sech u) =sin~ (tanh u), -1 -1 gd~ v = cosh (sec v) = sinh (tan v) = sech" (cos v) = tanh _1 (sin v). = ^n, gd o = o, gd 00 = Jzr, gd( 00) gd" 0=0, gd-îar) =00, gd- (-l ) =
1
7r
Prob
52.
Show
that gd u
and gd~
x z'
are
odd functions of
u, v.
Prob. 53. tion tanh \u
From
the
first
= tan \v.
identity in 4, Prob. 19, derive the rela-
Prob. 54. Prove
tanh" J (tan u)
-J
gd
2fc,
and tan _1 (tanh ^)
= ^ gd _1 2^.
Art.
If
22.
Gudermanian Angle
a circle be used instead of the ellipse of Art. 20, the gudermanian of the hyperbolic sectorial measure will be equal
to the radian measure of the angle of the corresponding circular This angle will be sector (see eq. (6), and Art. 2, Prob. 2).
gudermanian angle but the gudermanian function v, above defined, is merely a number, or ratio and this number is equal to the radian measure of the gudermanian angle 6, which is itself usually tabulated in degree measure thus
called the
;
as
i%ov/7t
(47)
130
[Chap. IV.
ed
Prob. 55. Show that the as follows:
gudermanian angle of u may be construct-
Take the
principal radius
.
OA
initial
of an equilateral hyperbola, as the as the terminal line, and
OP
line, of
the sector whose measure
is
u;
from M, the foot of the ordinate of P, draw tangent to the circle whose diameter is the transverse axis;
MT
is
then
AOT
Prob. 56.
the angle required.* Show that the angle

.
never exceeds 90
Prob. 57. The bisector of angle M bisects the sector (see Prob. 13, Art. 9, and Prob. 53, Art. 21), and the line AP. (See Prob. 1, Art. 3.) Prob. 58. This bisector is parallel to TP, and the points T,
AOT
A OP
are in line with the point diametrically opposite to A.
Prob. 59. The tangent at ordinate of T, and intersects Prob. 60. The angle
P
is
TM on the tangent A. APM half the gudermanian angle.

at
passes through the
foot of the
Art.
Let
then
23.
Derivatives of Gudermanian and Inverse.
= sec v = sec v tan vdv = sec vdv =

v
_1
gd
u,
u,
gd
_1
v,
cosh
sinh u du,
du, sec vdv.
(48)
therefore
^(gd
v)
Again,
therefore
dv
d(gd u)
sinh u
= =
cos v du
sech u du
sech u du.
(49)
Prob. 61. Differentiate:
y
y
= =
gd
u,
-f-
tanh u sech u
gd
u,
y y
= =
sin v
+ gd"
v,
tan v sec v
-f-
gd
-1
v.
* This angle was called by Gudermann the longitude of u, and denoted by lu. His inverse symbol was It; lnus u H(^)' (Crelle's Journal, vol. 6, 1830.)
Lambert, who introduced the angle 0, named it the transcendent angle. (Hist, Hottel (Nouvelles Annales, vol. 3, 1864) de l'acad, roy de Berlin, 1761). called it the hyperbolic amplitude of u, and wrote it amh u, in analogy with the Cayley (Elliptic amplitude of an elliptic function, as shown in Prob. 62.
Functions, 1876)
made
the usage uniform
by attaching
in
to the angle the
name
of the mathematician
who had used
it
extensively
tabulation and in the
theory of
elliptic
functions of modulus unity.
Art.
24.]
series for
gudermanian and
its inverse.
131
Prob. 62. Writing the "elliptic integral of the
first
kind"
in
the form
J
k
Vi
/c
sin
0'
is,
being called the modulus, and
the amplitude; that

/c),
=
show
u
cos
am
u,
(mod.
that, in the special case
when K
=.
1,
y
am
= =
gd~ 0,
sech
u,
tan
am u am &
gd u
sin
am
tanh
&,
sinh u;
and that thus the
elliptic
functions sin
am
u, etc.,
is
degenerate into
the hyperbolic functions,
when the modulus
unity.*
Art.
24.
Series for Gudermanian and its Inverse.

u,
Substitute for sech
sec v in (49), (48) their expansions,

'
Art. 16, and integrate, then
= ugd-'z, = v +
g du
+ &u - j%û + K + +y^ +

%
1
(50) (5i)
constants of integration appear, since gd u vanishes with and gd" ^ with v. These series are seldom used in compuu,
1
No
tation, as
gd u
is
best found and tabulated
by means
of tables
of natural tangents and hyperbolic sines, from the equation
gd u
= tan -1 (sinh
u),
and a table of the
direct function can be used to furnish the

;
numerical values of the inverse function
or the latter can be

-1
obtained from the equation,

-I
gd
z>
sinh
-1
(tan v)
cosh
( sec
v )>
To
obtain a logarithmic expression for gd"V, let
gd"V
* The relation gd u
= u,
1),
= gd u,
name
the function
= am
u,
(mod.
led Hoiiel to
gd
u,
In this the hyperbolic amplitude of u, and to write itamh u (see note, Art. 22). connection Cayley expressed the functions tanh u, sech u, sinh u in the form
sin
gd
u, cos
gd
u, tan
gd
u,
and wrote them sg

1); etc.
u,
eg
u,
u, tg u, to
correspond
tan
with the abbreviations sn u, en u, dn u for sin
am
cos
am
u,
am
u.
Thus tanh u
It is
sg u
sn u, (mod.
well to
note that
neither the
elliptic
received their
special case.
names on account
of the relation existing
nor the hyperbol'c functions between them in Sl
(See foot-note, p. 107.)
132
therefore
sec v
[Chap. IV.
= cosh u, sec v + tan v = cosh u =

u,
-\-
tan v
=
#)
sinh u,
,
-f-
sinh u
-|-
= eu
sin
*"
cos ($7t
sin (J
-f-
cos v
tan (iw
+ iv),
(52)
t
v)
gd
-r.
,
'?,
== log, tan (i?r -f j?).
^ Prob.
,
gd 2 63. Evaluate
# U
u~\
,
5
f
gd
V
.
z>~|
(
l=o
sin
_}v=o
fifth
order,
Prob. 64. Prove that gd u when u o.
is
an infinitesimal of the
Prob. 65. Prove the relations
\n
+ \v = tan"VM
25.
\n
\v
tan"V" M
Art.
Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions.
Drawing two rectangular axes, and laying down a series of points whose abscissas represent, on any convenient scale, successive values of the sectorial measure, and whose ordinates represent, preferably on
the same scale, the corresponding values of the
locus traced
function to be plotted, the out by this
series of points will
be a
graphical representation of the variation of the function as the sectorial meas-
Art.
25.]
GRAPHS OF THE hyperbolic functions.
133
ure varies.
The equations
:
of the curves in the ordinary carte-
sian notation are

Fig.
Full Lines.
Dotted Lines.
A
B C
D
Here ^
is
= y= y= y=
cosh x,
sinh x,
tanh x,
= y = y=
y
seen
csch
x x x
coth
gd
x.
u,
written for the sectorial measure

u, etc.
and y
for the
numerical value of cosh

variables x,
It is
thus to be noted that the
y are numbers, or ratios, and that the equation x merely expresses that the relation between the y numbers x and y is taken to be the same as the relation between a sectorial measure and its characteristic ratio. The
cosh
numerical values of cosh//, sinh u, tanh?/ are given in the tables at the end of this chapter for values of u between o and
4.
For greater values they may be computed from the developments of Art. 16.
The
curves exhibit graphically the relations
sech u
=
<
1,
csch u
coth u
=
tanh u
cosh u
sinh u
cosh u
sinh
(
sech u
>
I,
tanh u
cosh
(
>
u)
I,
gd u
>
\n,
etc.;
u)
tanh
cosh
= u) =
sinh u,
tanh
sinh sinh
(
u,
gd
u)
= cosh u, = gd u,
csch
(
etc.;
0=1,
= 0,
00)
tanh
= 0,
,
(o)
=00
etc.;
cosh
00)
= 00,
00
tanh
00)
1,
etc.
dy/dx = cosh x,
Its direction
sinh x is given by the equation slope of the curve y that it is always positive, and that showing the curve becomes more nearly vertical as x becomes infinite.
The
of curvature
is
proving that the curve
obtained from dy/dx* concave downward when x

is
sinh x,
is
nega-
The point of inflexion is tive, and upward when x is positive. at the origin, and the inflexional tangent bisects the angle
between the axes.
134
[Chap. IV.
The
direction of curvature of the locus

%
by (Py/dx
sech
is
sech x{2 tanh 2
i),
and thus the curve
is
given con-
cave downwards or
upwards
\ 4|M' \^
.
8 according as 2 tanh
negative or positive. flexions occur at the
x i is The inpoints
= tanh" 707, = .881, = .707 and the slopes of y

x
1
the
inflexional
tangents
are
1/2.
The curve y
csch
is
asymptotic to both axes, but
approaches the axis of x more rapidly than it approaches the

axis of y, for
when x
not
*$,
is
C
that
is
so small as
.1.
The
only curves
.1,
but
it is
till
cross at the points
.881, y =
y
I.
= csch x, y = sinh x
y=
10
Art
26.]
ELEMENTARY INTEGRALS.
cosh
*
135
2;
Prob. 69. Solve the equations:
gd x
= x+
sinh
= U~
"
'
\n.
Prob. 70. Show which of the graphs represent even functions and which of them represent odd ones.
Art.
26.
Elementary Integrals.
The
14, 15,
following useful indefinite integrals follow from Arts.
23:
Hyperbolic.
Circular.
,
1.
sinh u
du
cosh
Ain
u du
=
=
cos u
2.
y cosh
udu
sinh 0,
/"cos u
du
sin #,
3.
Aanh udu =
/ coth u
log cosh
a,
Aan udu
/ cot
^/
log cos
4.
du
log sinh
log sin
5.
/csch #</#
sa
= logtanh-, J csc u du = = sinh-^csch a), =

gd
u,
log tan
cosh-^csc
),
6.
/ sech u du
I sec
udu
gd
-1
&,
,/^
a
osh,f,
.
=cos1
-,
9. *
.x P;dx P dx ~1 I / -^ u a x J x<a =-tanh~ -, * a a / -^-j 5 a -\-x
=-tan- ,*
1
* Forms 7-12 are preferable to the respective logarithmic expressions (Art. 19), on account of the close analogy with the circular forms, and also because they involve functions that are directly tabulated. This advantage
appears more clearly
in 13-20.
136
[CHAP. IV.
r -dx l
10.
/ *
x*aJ x>a
a
=-COth,
1 ,
a
i
-, v / a **
.
aa h- xr dx
.
=a
cot
-1
-, a
/
l2
-
dx
,
=
-2
seen
x
,
P
/
=
J
sec
.x r dx r dx i / / J xVa'+x =~csch- a' d x Vx* _ a a " Va' +x

,
x
CSC
' ,
From
derived:
these fundamental integrals the following
may be
/dx +
Vax*
v==
=,= sinh~ Va 2dx+c

.
-= +
ax
dtfT -f-
b
%
,
Vac-b
.
a positive. ac> V
'
.
.
; '
-=cosh~
#
,
Va
Vb'ac
-1 -
^positive,
ac<b;
cos
ax -\,
b
,
a
1
Vtfac
"
a negative.
b
/dx
v <r
=
#
**"+2t*+<
i
^^
<2^4-^
ax
tan
-\-
yz=y
ac>
\
Vbac
coth1
=
Thus
>
,/Ti-^ Vbac
~===, ^ < Vbac

,
a
,
^+
>
,
|/^
_^
f~^ZT~Zn\
1
=coth- (*
,
2)1
=coth- 2
coth-^
= tanh- (.5)-tanh- (.3333)=:. 5494-. 3466^.2028.*

e
P^+
dx
=-tanh-(^-2)J r tanh-o-tanh-X. 5 )
=-
-5494-
(By interpreting these two integrals as areas, show graphically that the first is positive, and the second negative.)
IK. D
(a-x) Vxb
.
2
.
Va-b
tanh
lxb
\ /
\J
7, a-b
y
*For tanh -1 (.5)
interpolate between tanh (.54)
.4930, tanh (.56)
.5080
(see tables, pp. 162, 163);
and similarly
for
tanh- 1
(.3333)-
Art.
26.]
elementary integrals.
2
137
or
tan
xb
-7
,
\l
or
b
coth- \ /
2
,
, 1
lxb
the real form to be taken.

/c l6
(Put
=z
and apply
9, 10.)
dx
(a-^Vb^-^T^^
2
lbx \/b^'
2
ox
Vba
coth-
. .,
lb/ <^ /
*'
,
or
tan
'l
.
\/
/.*:
1
;
the real form to be taken.

17.
yV By means
a cosh
a *? dx
= -*(* - a
)*
- -a
cosh" -.
is
of a reduction-formula this integral
easily
made
to depend on 8. It may also be obtained by transforming the expression into hyperbolic functions by the assumption
#,
when
the integral takes the form

I (cosh 2u
a* I sinh'
udu=
i)du
= -a*(sinh 28 211) = J#'(sinh u cosh u u),

#,
which gives 17 on replacing a cosh u by

2
and a sinh
by
{.r
a 9 )*.
The
it
-evident, as
geometrical interpretation of the result is expresses that the area of a rectangular-hyper-
bolic
segment
sector
AMP
is
the difference between a triangle
OMP
and a
,
OAP.
2
g.
/V - *)*</* = -*(rt
- x'f + -tf
sin" -.
i 9.
20.
yv + ^>^ = =A Aec
3
^
I
**)*
+ J* sinh_i J
2
1
0^/0
+ tan2 ^)*^ tan ^ = i tan 0(i + tan 0)* + J sinh" = sec tan + 4 gd" 0.
t
1
(tan 0)
21.
sech
</=
What
Show
-J
sech
tanh u
-j-
4 gd
?/.
Prob. 71.
Prob. 72.
is
the geometrical interpretation of 18, 19?

9
that / (tf*
2 bx
+ <r)fe reduces
to 17, 18, 19,
138
respectively:
[Chap. IV.
when a
is
and when a
is- positive, with ac P. positive, with ac
< b*
when a
is
negative
>
Prob. 73. Prove
/ sinh u tanh u du
sinh
gd u
/
Prob. 74. Integrate
(J?
cosh u coth u du
=
1
cosh
+ log tanh
+
2X
+ 2^ + 5)"^,
Prob. 75. In the if be the length of arc measured from the vertex, and the angle which the tangent line makes with the vertical tangent, prove that the intrinsic equation of 3 -1 the curve is ds/dcp 2p sec <p, s p sec (p tan -f-/gd 0.
+2X + sY dx, s parabola y = 4px,

(*
2
(*"
+ $fdx.
Prob. 76. The polar equation of a parabola being r referred to its focus as pole, express s in terms of 0. Prob. 77. Find the intrinsic equation of the curve y/a
a sec*\Q y
cosh x/a%
and of the curve y/a
= log sec x/a.

cosh""
1
Prob. 78. Investigate a formula of reduction

also integrate
f or /
1
cosh n xdx;
by parts
.*
dx, tanh"
1
.*:
dx,
(smh~ xydx; and

/ cos ^sin
show that the ordinary methods
of reduction for
^^:
can be applied to / cosh w x sinh M x dx.
Art.
27.
Functions of Complex Numbers.
As vector quantities are of frequent occurence in Mathematical Physics and as the numerical measure of a vector in terms of a standard vector is a complex number of the
;
form x-\-iy,
in
which
x,
are real,
and
stands for
1;
it
becomes necessary
in treating of
any
class of functional oper-
ations to consider the
meaning of these operations when performed on such generalized numbers.* The geometrical definitions of cosh//, sinh u, given in Art. 7, being then no longer
it
applicable,
is
necessary to assign to each of the symbols
* The use of vectors in electrical theory is shown in Bedell and Crehore's The advantage Alternating Currents, Chaps, xiv-xx (first published in 1892).
of introducing the
into the differential equaProc. Elec. Congress, 1893; while the additional convenience of expressing the solution in hyperbolic functions of these complex
complex measures of such vectors
tions
is
shown by Steinmetz,
is
numbers
exemplified by
Engineers, April 1895.
Kennelly, Proc. (See below, Art. 37.)
American
Institute
Electrical
Art.
27.]
functions of complex numbers.
139
cosh (x -f iy), sinh (x iy\ a suitable algebraic meaning, which should be consistent with the known algebraic values of cosh x, sinh x, and include these values as a particular case
when y
assigned should also, if possible, be such as to permit the addition-formulas of Art. u to be made general, with all the consequences that flow from them.
= o.
The meanings
Such definitions are furnished by the algebraic developments in Art. 16, which are convergent for all values of u, real or complex. Thus the definitions of cosh (x -J- iy), sinh (x -f- iy)
are to be
cosh (x
iy)
= + L(x + iy)' + 2
i
I
-fx
'
iy)'
+
(52)
sinh (x
iy)
= (x+ iy) +
+ -^(x
+ ...
+
come
From
sinh (x
tion,
these series the numerical values of cosh (x iy\ iy) could be computed to any degree of approximaare given.
when x and y
In general the results will
out in the complex form*

cosh (x
sinh (x
-f- iy)
-\-
=a =c iy)
-f- ib,
-f- id.
The
other functions are defined as in Art.
7,
eq. (9).
Prob. 79. Prove from these definitions that, whatever u
may
be,
cosh
u)
= =
cosh u
sinh
u) =
sinh
u.
du
cosh u
sinh #,
-r-
du
sinh #
= cosh
-7-=
cosh
mu
m* cosh mu,
-r-r
sinh
w =
m* sinh
/.+
*It
is
to be
borne
braic operators
in mind that the symbols cosh, sinh, here stand for algewhich convert one number into another; or which, in the lan-
guage
of vector-analysis,
change one vector into another, by stretching and
turning.
themselves in Mathef The generalized hyperbolic functions usually present 2 2 matical Physics as the solution of the differential equation d'^/du <, where <p, m, u are complex numbers, the measures of vector quantities. (See
=w
Art. 37.)
140
hyperbolic functions.
[chap. iv.
Art.
28.
Addition-Theorems for Complexes.
The addition-theorems for cosh ( -f- v), etc., where u, v are complex numbers, may be derived as follows. First take u, v
as real numbers, then, by Art.
II,
v\
cosh (u -\-v)
hence
i-,(
+ sinh u sinh + vf +. ..=(i+u' + .)(i + f+.

u cosh v
..
= cosh
.)
+ (* +
,
^+
3
)("
+3 V+--)
^ are any real numbers. It This equation is true when be an algebraic identity. For, compare the terms must, then, of the rth degree in the letters u, v on each side. Those on the
left
are
\(u-\- v)
and those on the
right,
when
collected,
form an rth-degree function which is numerically equal to the former for more than r values of u when v is constant, and for more than r values of v when u is constant. Hence the terms
of the rth degree on each side are algebraically identical functions of u and v.* Similarly for the terms of any other degree. Thus the equation above written is an algebraic identity, and
is
true for
all
values of
its
u, v,
whether
it
real or
complex.
Then
writing for each side
symbol,
follows that
-{-
cosh (u
-f- 7;)
= cosh u cosh v
v,
sinh u sinh v\
(53)
and by changing v
cosh (u
into
v)
cosh u cosh v
is
sinh u sinh
v.
(54)
In a similar manner
sinh (u
v)
found
cosh u sinh
v.
sinh u cosh v
(55)
In particular, for a
complex argument,
(56)
cosh (x
sinh (x
iy) = cosh x cosh iy + sinh x sinh iy,) = sinh # cosh 27 cosh sinh iy. /y)
;tr
* '* If two rth-degree functions of a single variable be equal for more than r values of the variable, then they are equal for all values of the variable, and are
algebraically identical."
Art.
29.]
functions of pure imaginaries.
141
sin u, cos u,
u,
Prob. 79. Show, by a similar process of generalization,* that if exp u \ be denned by their developments in powers of then, whatever u may be,
sin (u
-f-
v)
cos
-f v)
exp
(z*
+ v)
3
= sin u cos v + cos = cos cos sin = exp exp v.

z/
z> z*
u sin
z>,
sin v,
Prob. 80. Prove that the following are identities:
cosh u
sinh u
-[-
cosh &
cosh &
sinh
sinh
= = exp ^, & = exp

1,
( (
u) f
u)],
)].
cosh u = J[exp a -f exp sinh u = i[exp & exp(
Art.
29.
Functions of Pure Imaginaries.
In the defining identities
cosh u
=
=
-\
T u*
-I
7 u*
4-
. ,
2!
4!
-
sinh #
&
-|
tU*
3!
-|
-f-
. ,
5*
put for
the pure imaginary
ty,
then
.
cosh iy
sinh z>
=
= =
/ + JLy _
=
.
cosjj/,
(57)
z>
+
~
(z
+ -|^ +
4
*\y
and,
-jj/
z)/
+ ~j\f tan
j/.
=*
.J
sin j,
(58)
(59)
by
division,
tanh
* This method of generalization is sometimes called the principle of the " permanence of equivalence of forms." It is not, however, strictly speaking, a
"principle," but a method; for, the validity of the generalization has to be demonstrated, for any particular form, by means of the principle of the algebraic identity of polynomials enunciated in the preceding foot-note. (See Annals of Mathematics, Vol. 6, p. 81.)
f
cal
with t*
The symbol exp u stands when u is real.
for "exponential function of
," which
is
identi-
142
[Chap, IV.
These formulas serve

functions.
to interchange hyperbolic
and
circular
cosine of a pure imaginary is real, and the hyperbolic sine and tangent are pure imaginaries. The following table exhibits the variation of sinh u, cosh u,
The hyperbolic
tanh
u
u,
exp
u,
as u takes a succession of pure imaginary values.
Art.
30.]
functions of x
cosh (x
sin (x
/
-f-
iy in
the form
/.*),
X+
*#),
Y.
143
iy)
*
cos (#
= cos (y =F = / sinh = cosh (y qp
(j> =F
*#).
a;
Prob. 84.
From
the product-series
for sin
derive that
for
sinh
sin^
=
=
4-J)(i-^)(i-^ )...
5
sinh
*(,
J)(,
+ -,) ( + pp)
x
..
Art.
30.
Functions of *
+ *>
in
the Form X+z'F.

#
*"
By
the addition-formulas,
cosh (x
sinh (#
iy)
cosh
;tr
cosh y/
cosn iy
-f-
sinh
sinh sinh
iy,
iy->
-f~ iy)
smn *
+ cosn
*
= sin y, sinh cosh zj = cos y, but = cosh x cos y -\-i sinh x sin 7, hence cosh (x iy) sinh (x yO = sinh x cos J + cosh # sin y. c Thus cosh (x + iy) = a + ^, sinh (x iy) # = cosh cos y, # = sinh ^ sin y, = cosh x sin j. = sinh x cos 7,
zj/
-f-
(60)
-f-
if
-\-
-\- id,
then
^r
(61)
<^
From
these expressions the complex tables at the end of
this chapter
have been computed.
Writing cosh z
on Argand diagrams, in complex numbers the usual way, by the points whose coordinates are (x, y), {X, Y); and let the point z move parallel to the j-axis, on a
given line
tions
= Z, where z x z, Z be represented Z
-f- iy,
Z = X-\- iY;
let
the
m, then the point
will describe
an ellipse
whose equation, obtained by eliminating y between the equa-
X = cosh m cos y, Y= sinh m sin y,

(cosh
is
my
(sinh
my
foci is
and which,
as the
parameter
varies, represents a series of
confocal ellipses, the distance between whose
unity.
144
Similarly,
if
[CHAP. IV.
the point z move parallel to the ^r-axis, on a given will describe an hyperbola whose equaline y n, the point obtained by eliminating the variable x from the equations tion,
X= cosh x cos
n,
Y=
sinh
sin n, is
X*
(cos
F
(sin
nf
nf
and which, as the parameter n varies, represents a series of hyperbolas confocal with the former series of ellipses.
close intervals
;
These two systems of curves, when accurately drawn at on the Z plane, constitute a chart of the hyperand the numerical value of cosh {in -f- in) can be bolic cosine read off at the intersection of the ellipse whose parameter is with the hyperbola whose parameter is n*
85.
P^r^Prob.of curves systems

'
that, in the case of sinh (x -J- iy) % the above two are each turned through a right angle. Compare the chart of sin (x iy). iy) 9 and also of cos (x i sin ay sinh 2X , , x Prob. 86. Prove the identity tanh (* iy) cos 2 cosh 2jC
Prove
+
,
Prob. 87. If cosh (x
-\- iy),
= a + ib
be written
in the
+ "
modulus
and amplitude" form

r
2
as r(cos
2
i sin 6),
r exp W, then
2
= c? -f P = cosh x sirfy = b/a tanh x tan y. tan

sin (x
cos
j^
sinh x,
Prob. 88. Find the modulus and amplitude of sinh (x
iy)>
iy),
exp (x
+
+
/.
-\-
Prob. 89.
also sinh
The
is,
functions sinh
sinh (u
period 2in; that
2tn)
(u+îrt) =i
(
cosh
/?r)
#,
sinh u, cosh
= sinh u, cosh cosh (^ + ^/7r) =

cosh
u.
u,
cosh u have the pure imaginary cosh 2in) (
;.
sinh ^, sinh (u-\-in)>
Prob. 90. The functions cosh"V/z, sinh~V/ have multiple values at intervals of 2in, but each has a unique value (called the principal n for the value) in which the coefficient of i lies between o and
former, and between
\n and
+ \n for the latter.

t
* Such a chart is given by Kennelly, Proc. A. I. E. E., April 1895, and is used by him to obtain the numerical values of cosh {x-\-iy) sinh {x-\-iy), which present themselves as the measures of certain vector quantities in the theory of
alternating currents.
(See Art. 37.)

1.2;
The
chart
is
constructed for values of
and of y between o and
but
it is
available for
all
values oiy t on account of
the periodicity of the functions.
Art.
31.]
the catenary.
145
Art.
31.
The Catenary.
is
A flexible
curve in which
inextensible string
points, and takes up a position
of equilibrium
suspended from two fixed under the
action of gravity.
it
It is
required to find the equation of the
hangs.
AP
T
be the weight of unit length, and s the length of arc measured from the lowest point A then ws is the weight of the portion AP. This is balanced by the terminal tensions,
;
Let
acting in the tangent line at P, and
in the horizontal
tangent.
Resolving horizontally and
vertically gives
T cos
in
H,
T sin
ws
s
ws,
which
is
the inclination of the tangent at P; hence
tan0=i=ir=-,
where
c
is
written for
H/w,
;
constant horizontal tension
the length whose weight therefore

s ~7_ %t
'
is
the
dy
_s
c'
.
ds
dx _
c
ds
Vs'
dx
dx
,
.
Y
.
+
=
c*'
x c
= sinh -1
s
c
x
c
-, sinh
s
c
dy y j-, dx v
x
cosh -,
c
which
axis of
is
x drawn
the required equation of the catenary, referred to an at a distance c below A.
The
following trigonometric
:
method
illustrates the use of

s
= c sec d(p hence dx, = = dss'm 0, = <;sec tan (pd<p; thus x=c gd" <f>,y = c sec 0; dy, = sec gd x/c = cosh x/c and whence y/c = sec = tan gd x/c = sinh x/c. s/c
d(t>
;
1
the gudermanian 2 c sec gives ds
The
" intrinsic
equation," ds cos 0,
c tan 0,
;
Numerical Exercise. A chain whose length is 30 feet is suspended from two points 20 feet apart in the same horizontal find the parameter c, and the depth of the lowest
;
point.
146
[CHAP. IV.
The equation
by putting 10/c
s/c
= z,
sinh x/c gives \^/c may be written i,$z
ining the intersection of it appears that the root
= sinh lo/c, which, = sinh^. By examthe graphs of/ = siting, y = of this equation z = 1.6, nearly.
1,5,3,
is
To
find a closer
approximation to the
in the
form f(z)
sinh z
i.$z
root, write the equation
o,
then,
by the
.0244,
.0024,
tables,
/(1.60)
=
=
2.3756
2.4000 2.4300 2.4600
/(1.62) == 2.4276
/[1.64)
2.4806
it is
= = =+
.0206;
o,
whence, by interpolation,
z
1.622
1,
10/z
is
found that /(1.6221) ==
and
6.1649.
The
ordinate of either of
the fixed points
given by the equation
y/c
cosh x/c
cosh 10/c
cosh 1.622 1
2.6306,
from tables; hence y

vertex
16.2174,
=y
and required depth of the
10.052$ feet.*
Prob. 91. In the above numerical problem, find the inclination

of the terminal tangent to the horizon.
be drawn from the foot of the Prob. 92. If a perpendicular is equal to the conordinate to the tangent at prove that is equal to the arc AP. stant c and that Hence show that
MN
is the involute of the catenary, and has the propthat the length of the tangent, from the point of contact to the erty axis of x, is constant. (This is the characteristic property of the
the locus of
NP
MN
tractory).
Prob. 93. The tension at any point is equal to the weight of a of the string whose length is equal to the ordinate/ of that portion
point.
Prob. 94.
feet
An
wide and 10
feet high;
arch in the form of an inverted catenary f is 30 show that the length of the arch can be
z
obtained from the equations cosh z

* See a similar problem
Britannica.
in
=1,
25
sinh
z.
Chap.
I,
Art. 7.
f For the theory of this form of arch, see
" Arch "
in the
Encyclopaedia
Art.
32.]
catenary of uniform strength.

32.
147
Art.
If
Catenary of Uniform Strength.
the area of the normal section at any point be made proportional to the tension at that point, there will then be a
constant tension per unit of area, and the tendency to break will be the same at all points. To find the equation of the
curve of equilibrium under gravity, consider the equilibrium of an element PP whose length is ds, and whose weight is gpaods,
f
where
go is
is
the section at P, and p the uniform density.
This
balanced by the difference of the vertical components weight of the tensions at Pand P\ hence
d(T sin
(p)
d(T cos 0)
therefore
= gpoods =o
;
T cos
H, the tension
if
at the lowest point,
and
Again, then by hypothesis go/oo
T= //sec 0.
go
=
sin
be the section at the lowest point, T/H sec 0, and the first equation
0)
becomes
Hd(sec
or
= gpoo
ds,
sec <pds,
cd
c
tan
sec
stands for the constant H/gpoo^ the length of string is equal to the tension at the {of section oo ) whose weight lowest point hence,
where
ds
c sec <pd(p,
s/c
gd-'0>
the intrinsic equation of the catenary of uniform strength.
Also
dx
hence
= ds cos = c d(p, dy = ds sin x y = c log sec 0,

c<f>,
= c tan
d(p
and thus the Cartesian equation

y/c
log sec x/c,
is
in which the axis of
is
the tangent at the lowest point.
Prob. 95. Using the same data as in Art. 3 r find the parameter gd s/c (The equation x/c < and the depth of the lowest point. becomes s, 10/V gd 15A, which, by putting 15/V gives
148
[Chap. IV.
gd
f(z)
=f = gd z
z.
From
*,
the graph it is seen that z is nearly 1.7. If then, from the tables of the gudermanian at the
end of
this chapter,
= + .0447, 1667 = + .0129, /( -75) i-i79 6 1.2000 = 1804 /(1.80) = .0196, z = 1.7698 and c = 8.4755. whence, by interpolation, Again, and 1.1799 radians y/c = log* sec x/c but x/c = 10/c = 1.1799 = 67 36' 29"; hence y = 8.4755 X .41914 X 2.3026 = 8.1798, the
/(1.70)
I
1.
1780
1.
1333
1.
1.
required depth.) Prob. 96. Find the inclination of the terminal tangent.
Prob. 97.
Show
that the curve has two vertical asymptotes.
go,
Prob. 98. Prove that the law of the tension T, and of the section at a distance s, measured from the lowest point along the
is
curve,
H=
is
GD
<z>
= cosh
,
-; %
c
and show that in the above numerical example the terminal section
2.85 times the
minimum
section.
Prob.
W= H
An
=c
99. Prove that the radius of curvature is given by cosh s/c. Also that the weight of the arc s is given by sinh s/c, in which s is measured from the vertex.
Art.
33.
The Elastic Catenary.
elastic string of
ral state is
uniform section and density in its natususpended from two points. Find its equation of
equilibrium. Let the element dcr stretch into ds; then, by Hooke's law, ds dcr(i -f- A.T), where X is the elastic constant of the string
hence the weight of the stretched element

gpoods/{i -{-XT),
ds,
= gp coder,
=.
Accordingly, as before,
d(T sin
and
hence
in
= gpoods/il + A T), T cos = H = gpooc, sec 0), ^(tan 0) = ds/(i +

0)
jj.
;
which
pi
stands for XH, the extension at the lowest point
Art.
34.]
THE TRACTORY.
ds
s/c
a
149
therefore
^(sec
-f-
sec3 0)^0,
= tan
-f-
/*(sec
tan
+ gd"
0),
which
of the
is
the intrinsic equation of the curve, and reduces to that
o. The coordinates x, y catenary when }x may be expressed in terms of the single parameter by put2 ds cos ting dx -f- jx sec (p)d(p, <r(sec 2 ds sin dy /* sec 0) sin <:(sec ^0. Whence
common
= =
_1
x/c
gd
//
tan 0,
j/c
= sec
yu
tan 2 0.
result of
These equations are more convenient than the eliminating 0, which is somewhat complicated.
Art.
34.
The Tractory.*
the equation of the curve which possesses the that the length of the tangent from the point of conproperty tact to the axis of x is confind
To
stant.
Let FT, P'T' be two consecutive
tangents
c,
such
let
that
PT=P'T' = = t\ draw TS
to FT'-,
is
and
OT
perpendicular
then
if
evident
that
PP' = ds, it ST' differs
from ds by an infinitesimal of a higher order. Let FT make with OA, the axis of y; then (to the first order of an angle
infinitesimals)
=
is
= TS = cd(p = cos c sin 0, = (gd

PTd<p
used
TT'
t
cos 0; that
is,
cf)dt y
= c gd
i
-1
0,
-1
sin 0),
= c cos 0.
all
This
a convenient single-parameter form, which gives

is
* This curve
p. 242)
;
in Schiele's anti-friction
pivot (Minchin's Statics, Vol.
i,
theory of the skew circular arch, the horizontal projection of the joints being a tractory. (See "Arch," Encyclopaedia Britannica.) The gd t/c furnisher a convenient method of plotting the curve. equation <p
and
in the
150
values of x,
[CHAP. IV.
as
increases from o to \n.

is
The
value of
s,
ex-
pressed
ds
in
the same form,

r
found from the relation

c
= ST = dt sin
=
tan
cpd(fi,
=c
log,,
sec 0.
the point A, o, /=o, /=<:. o, ^ o, ^ Cartesian equation, obtained by eliminating 0, is
At
=
-1
The
=
If
-1
gd
(cos
-1
-J
sin (cos
-\
cosh
-1
/i
-.
= gd u,
jy
& be put for //*:, and be taken as independent variable,. u tanh u, y/c =. sech #, s/c log cosh #. x/c
Prob. 100. Given
/=
2C t
.265SY,
.*
1.0360*:.
show that At what point
0= 75
is t
= cl
35', s
1.3249^,
Show that the evolute of the tractory is the catenary. Prob. 92.) (See Prob. 102. Find the radius of curvature of the tractory in terms and derive the intrinsic equation of the involute. of ;
Prob. 101.
Art.
35.
The Loxodrome.
the surface of a sphere a curve starts from the equator in a given direction and cuts all the meridians at the same
angle.
On
To
:
find its equation
in latitude-and-longitude co-
ordinates
Let the loxodrome cross two consecutive meridians
AM, AN in
let
J/jV
the points
Q;.
PR
;
be a parallel of
lati-
tude let OM x, MP = y = dx, RQ = dy, all in radian measure and let the angle MN MOP=RPQ = a; then tan a = RQ/PR, but PR = MN cos MP* hence dx tan a = dy sec y, and x tan a = gd y, there being^
;
_I
no integration-constant since y vanishes with x; thus the required equation

*
is
gd (x tan
a).
Jones, Trigonometry (Ithaca, 1890), p. 185.
Art.
36.]
combined flexure and tension.
151
To
find the length of the arc
OP:
Integrate the equation

s
ds
= dy esc a,
whence
= y esc a.
To illustrate numerically, suppose a ship sails northeast, from a point on the equator, until her difference of longitude is 45, find her latitude and distance
:
Here tan a
radians: s
40.980.
If
I,
andj/
= gd x = gd \n =
radii.
gd (.7854}= .7152
is
=y
V2
1.0114
The
latitude in degrees
modified as follows
tion
the ship set out from latitude y l9 the formula must be Integrating the above differential equa:
between the limits

(*.
(^,, j/,)
and (x yt ) gives
g d ">2
- O tan
-1
gd">iJ
hence
gd~y =
7
gd
^,
latitude can be found
ence of longitude are

(fi
-|- <X when the initial latitude and the differThe distance sailed is equal to given.
*i) tan a, from which the final
fi) csc
radii,
a radius being 60
i8o/7r nautical miles.
In this projection the meridians are parallel straight lines, and the loxodrome becomes the straight line y' x tan a, hence the relations between the coordinates of f x corresponding points on the plane and sphere are x
Mercator's Chart.
=
~
y'
is
= gd
"
;
y.
Thus the
latitude
tabulated under the

the values of
name
magnified into gd y, which of " meridional part for latitude
"
is
y and of y' being given in minutes. A chart y constructed accurately from the tables can be used to furnish graphical solutions of problems like the one proposed above.
Prob. 103. Find the distance on a
(30
rhumb
line
between the points
N, 20
E) and (30
S,
40
E).
Art.
36.
Combined Flexure and Tension.

is
A beam
other, and
that
is
built-in at
one end carries a load
P at
Q
the
also subjected to a horizontal tensile force apfind the equation of the curve plied at the same point; to Let x, y be any point of the its neutral surface assumed
by
152
[Chap. IV.
elastic curve, referred to the free

is
end as
origin, then the
bend-
Px. Qy ing moment for this point notation of the theory of flexure,*
Hence, with the usual
dx*
dx
=
l
?i*{
mx).
m=P
Q
2
,
Q EI
which, on putting/
mx =
u,
zxAd %y/dx %
=d
n/dx becomes
whence
that
is,
= A cosh nx B sinh nx, = mx A cosh nx B sinh nx.

-f-
-f-
-j-
The
must be
arbitrary constants A,
are to be determined
by the
terminal conditions.
zero,
At
the free end
y=o;
hence
and
dx
but at the fixed end,
= mx + B sinh nx, _f- = m + nB cosh nx

y
I,
and dy/dx
= o,
hence
B=
and accordingly
y
m/n
cosh
nl,
= w^r
x
;;z
sinh
;
nx
~.
cosh nl
To
obtain the deflection of the loaded end, find the ordinate
of the fixed
end by putting
deflection
=
v
/,
giving
= mil
tanh/z/). '
of a cast-iron beam,
Prob. 104.
Compute
the deflection
2X2
inches section, and 6 feet span, built-in at one end and carrying a load of 100 pounds at the other end, the beam being subjected
to a horizontal tension of 8000 pounds.
[In
this
case
/=
4/3,
E=
*
15
io
6
,
Q = 8000, P =
100
hence n
^5(72
deflection
= ^(72
50 tanh 1.44)
1/50,
m=
1/80,
44-69)
-34* inches.]
Merriman, Mechanics of Materials (New York,
1895), pp. 70-77, 267-269,
Art.
o7.]
153
Prob. 105. If the load be uniformly distributed over the beam, say w per linear unit, prove that the differential equation is
= @y ~ ^ wx^ or = n *(y - mx fa and that the solution isy = A cosh nx B sm\\nx -\-mx
EI
~ci?
l
*)>
-\-
-\
^-.
ti
Show
also
how
to
determine the arbitrary constants.
Art.
37.
Alternating Currents.*
In the general problem treated the cable or wire is regarded as having resistance, distributed capacity, self-induction, and although some of these may be zero in special leakage
;
cases.
circuit
The
of
line will also
be considered to feed into a receiver

;
any description
insulated.
clude the particular cases
in
and the general solution will inwhich the receiving end is either
grounded or
electromotive force may, without loss of generality, be taken as a simple harmonic function of the time, because any periodic function can be expressed in a
The
Fourier series of simple harmonics. f

current,
The E.M.F. and the

will
which
may
differ
in
phase by any angle,
be
supposed to have given values at the terminals of the receiver and the problem then is to determine the E.M.F. circuit
;
and current that must be kept up at the generator terminals and also to express the values of these quantities at any intermediate point, distant x from the receiving end the four
;
line-constants being supposed known,
viz.:
R = resistance, in ohms per mile, L = coefficient of self-induction, in

C=
capacity,
in
henrys per mile,
farads per mile,
G
It is
coefficient of leakage, in
mhos per mile4

that
if
shown
in
standard works
foot-note Art. 27.
any simple harmonic

Chapter V, Art. 8. Steinmetz writes
j for
* See references
\
in
Kennelly denotes these constants by r, /, c, for G, and he uses C for current. coL, K for ooC, Thomson and Tait. Natural Philosophy, Vol
of Sound, Vol.
I.
g.
I.
p. 40;
Rayleigh, Theory
p. 214.
p. 20;
Bedell and Crehore, Alternating Currents,
154
function a sin
(pot -\- 6)
[CHAP. IV.
be represented by a vector of length
a and angle Q, then two simple harmonics of the same period 27t/gd, but having different values of the phase-angle 0, can be
combined by adding their representative vectors. Now the E.M.F. and the current at any point of the circuit, distant x from the receiving end, are of the form
e
=e
sin (oot
-j- #),
=i
sin (oot
-j-
6'\
(64)
values t v and the phase-angles 0, 0\ These simple harmonics will be represented by the vectors ejd, ijd' whose numerical measures
in
which the
all
maximum
<?
are
functions of x.
complexes j sin 0'), which will be denoted by e, i. The relations between e and l may be obtained from the ordinary equations f
di
,
are the
e x (cos 6 -\-js\n 0)*, ix (cos 0' -\-
^de
de
_.
di
,^
for, since
de/dt
ooe
cos
(oot -f- 0)
ooe x sin (Got -{Goe 1
-\-
^n) >
then
dfe/dfr will
be represented by the vector

x
/0
-fl
\n
and
di/dx by the sum of the two vectors Ge /0, Cooe /0 \n ; whose numerical measures are the complexes 6V, jooCe-\ and thus the relations similarly for de/dx in the second equation
;
between the complexes
e, 1
are
5 = (<?+>cy,
*In
f
= (*+>)*
(66)t
electrical theory the symbol j is used, instead of i, for |/ 1. Bedell and Crehore, Alternating Currents, p. 181. The sign of dx
is
is
changed, because x
leakage, G,
is
measured from the receiving end.

is
The
coefficient of
usually taken zero, but
here retained for generality and sym-
metry.
%
These
relations
derives
them from
first
have the advantage of not involving the time. Steinmetz For instance, principles without using the variable /.
he regards
to
i,
R -f joaL
as a generalized resistance-coefficient, which,
when
in
applied
gives an E.M.F., part of which

i.
with
Kennelly
calls
R+
phase with i, and part the conductor impedance; and JgoL

is
in
quadrature
-f-
JaoC the
dielectric admittance; the reciprocal of
which
is
the dielectric impedance.
Art.
37.]
155
Differentiating and substituting give
(67}
and thus
^~,
are similar functions of x, to be distinguished only
by
their terminal values.

It is
now convenient
to define
two constants
m ^m
i
by the
equations*
w = R +jgdL)(G +jooC)
>
m?
= (R +JgoL)/(G +J&Q
then be written
(68)
and the
differential equations
may
the solutions of which are f
=A
cosh
?#;tr -|-
B sinh
;/z.r,
= A'
cosh
;;z;tr
-f~ i?'
sinh
mx
wherein only two of the four constants are arbitrary

stituting in either of
cients, give
for subcoeffi-
the equations
(66),
and equating
(G+jgdC)A = mB\
whence
B'
let
(G+ja>C)B
A'
= mA\
= A/m v
= B/m =
. x
the assigned terminal values of e, o gives be denoted by E, J; then puttings
Next
i,
at the receiver,.
whence
B = mj
e
B'
= E/m
mx
A, I A\. and thus the general solution is
E=
= E cosh mx + mj sinh =
i
mx,
|
I cosh
-f-
~E sinh mx.
(7o>
variable length
f
* The complex constants m, ;i are written z, y by Kennelly; and Steinmetz writes v for m. x is written Z 2
, .
the-
See Art.
14,
Probs. 28-30; and Art. 27, foot-note.
156
If desired,
[Chap. IV.
these expressions could be thrown into the ordinary complex form X-\-jY, X' -\-jY', by putting for the letters their complex values, and applying the addition-theorems
quantities X, Y, X', Y' would then be expressed as functions of x and the repre 2 2 sentative vectors of e, i, would be e /0, i /#', where e' -|;
for the hyperbolic sine
and
cosine.
The
=X
#,
= X" +
Y'\ tan 6
7 Y/X, tanl =Y'/X.
For purposes
mulas
of numerical computation, however, the for-
(70) are the most convenient, when either a chart,* or a table,f of cosh u> sinh u, is available, for complex values of u.
2 ohms per mile, Prob. 106. \ Given the four line-constants: 20 millihenrys per mile, 1/2 microfarad per mile, 0; and given go, the angular velocity of E.M.F. to be 2000 radians
R=
L=
C=
per second; then
= 40 ohms, conductor reactance per mile; R -\-jooL = 2 + 40/ ohms, conductor impedance per mile; 00C = .001 mho, dielectric susceptance per mile; G + jooC = .001/' mho, dielectric admittance per mile; 000;' ohms, dielectric impedance per mile; {G-\-jooC)~ = = [R jooL){G -\-jooC) .04 .0027, which m
ooL
l
-\-
-f-
is
the
measure of .04005
/177." 8';
therefore
m=
l
measure of .2001 /88

200
34'
= .0050 + .2000/,
ohms
per mile.
an ab-1
,
stract coefficient per mile, of dimensions [length]
mm = m/(G + jooC) =
Next
5/'
let the assigned terminals conditions at the receiver be: 1000 volts, whose phase may be taken o (line insulated) and as the standard (or zero) phase; then at any distance x, by (70),
/=
E=
= E cosh mx
1
y
sinn
x
mx
in
which
mx
is
an abstract complex.
Suppose it is required to find the E.M.F. and current that must be kept up at a generator 100 miles away; then
* Art. \ See Table II. 30, foot-note. The data for this example are taken from Kennelly's article. %
Art.
37.]
157
(.5
20/'),
e=
but,
iooo cosh
89,
by Prob.
cosh
+ 20/), = 200(40 /)-' sinh + + 20/) = cosh (.5 + 20/ 67tj) = cosh + 1.15/) = .4600 + .475/
(.5
1
(.5
(.5
obtained from Table II, by interpolation between cosh and cosh (.5 1.2/); hence
(.5
1.17)
460
+ 475/' = ^(cos 6 +j sin

=
sinh
6),
where log tan 6 = log 475 log 460 = .0139, = 460 sec # = 625.9 volts, the required E.M.F. *,
Similarly sinh (.5
-+-
= 45
55',
and
207)
(.5 -f- 1.157)
= .2126 +
1.02807V
and hence
l
= --(lOO +7)(.2I26 4- I.O287) = 9.70684, log tan 0'

let it
~2
(4046
+ 20607)
6/'
26 #'/i6oi amperes, the phase and magnitude of required current.
where
#'=
= 1,(008 = 4046 sec 59', ^

x
4-7
sin 6'),
= 2.77
Next
e
be required to find
-f-
e at
8;
then
1000 cosh (.04
1.67)
=
>
10007
smn
C4 + '3j')f
Interpolation be-
by subtracting %7tj\ and applying Prob. 89. l tween sinh (o 07) and sinh (o j) gives
sinh (o
Similarly
-|-
.037)
-
= 00000
I
-J-
.029957.
.030047'.
sinh
(.1 -f
ZJ)
ooo4
-j-
Interpolation between the

sinh (.04
last
two gives
+ 'OS J) = .04002 + .029997.

29.994- 40.027
Hence/ =7(40.02 +29.997')=

where
log tan 6
volts.
=^(cos
0-\-jsin #),
.12530, 6
126
51',
<?,
=
x
29.99 sec I2 ^
'
==
01
Again,
e ==
let it
be required
to find e at
=
4~
16; here
1000 cosh (.08 4" 3*27)
=
cosh
1000 cosh (.08 4- .067),

(.1
but cosh (o 4- -067)
= .9970 4"
j\
6/)
1.0020 4- .0067;
hence
cosh (.08 4" 06J)

e
= 1.00 10 -f- 00487,

#),
and
where 6
10014-4.87
= <?,(cos 0+j sin

Thus
at
180
17', ^,
is
1001 volts.
a distance of about
16 miles the E.M.F.
the
same
as
at the receiver,
but
in
opposite
158
phase.
Since
e is
[CHAP. IV.
proportional to cosh (.005 4- .2j)x, the value of

.
which the phase is exactly 180 is n/,2 15.7. Similarly the phase of the E.M.F. at x = 7.85 is 90 There is agreement in phase at any two points whose distance apart is 31.4 miles.
for
In conclusion take the more general terminal conditions in
which the line feeds into a receiver circuit, and suppose the current is to be kept at 50 amperes, in a phase 40 in advance of the electromotive force; then/
5o(cos 40
)
+/ sin 40 = 38,30 + 32.14/;

-j-
and
e
substituting the constants in (70) gives
1000 cosh (.005
-j-
.y)x
+ (7821
62367) sinh (.005
-f- .2j')x
460+475/ -4748+9366/= -4288+984iy=^(cos 0+/sin
0),
where This is
10730 volts, the E.M.F. at sending end. 113 times what was required when the other end was insulated. 17 Prob. 107. If the receiving end be grounded, that is if =0; and if a current of 10 amperes be caused to flow to ground; find
33', e
l
6=
the E.M.F. and current to be kept up at the generator. Also compute these quantities, and their phases, at the distances 7.85,
15.7, 31.42, 94.25 miles
from the receiver.
Prob. 108. If self-induction and capacity be zero, and the receiving end be insulated, show that the graph of the electromotive force is a catenary. Prob. 109. Neglecting leakage and capacity, prove that the
solution of equations (66)
is
1
/, e
= E+
(R
+ jooL)Ix.
how
the sending end, show equations (65), (66) are to be modified; and prove that 1 _ _ sinh m IQ sinh mx, 1 7 cosh mx cosh mx a
Prob.
no.
If
x be measured from
=E
~E
mx
where
refer to the sending end.
Art.
1.
38.
Miscellaneous Applications.
The
The
tf(sinh
y = J/(cosh+logtanhJ), in which M=
2.
length of the arc of the logarithmic curve length of arc of the spiral of
ax
is
i/loga, sinh w
=y/M.
Archimedes r
= aO
is
=
3.
2u +- 2u), where sinh u

1
0.
In the hyperbola x^/a* y /& 1 the radius of curva2 2 ture is p=(a* sinh u-{-d>* cosh iCf/ab', in which u is the,
measure
4.
of the sector
A OP,
i.e.
cosh u
= x/a,
sinh u
y/b.
In an oblate spheroid, the superficial area of the zone
ART.
38.]
MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS.
parallel plane at a distance
is
159
between the equator and a

(sinh 2u eccentricity, n
7r^
5.
5=
is
2ii)/2e,
wherein b
the axial radius,
the
and/ parameter of generating ellipse. length of the arc of the parabola 2px, measured from the vertex of the curve, is / i/(sinh 2u-\-2u), in which sinh u tan 0, where is the inclination of the termiy/p
ey/p,
The
nal tangent to the initial one. 6. The centre of gravity of this arc
is
given by
411)
;
llx
=/ (cosh
a
i),
64/y
p* (sinh 411
is
and the surface

7.
of a paraboloid of revolution of inertia of the
5= 2n yl.
its ter*
pi
The moment
is
same
3
arc about
minal ordinate
I=
pi\_x/(x
2x)
-{-
^T p N], where
is
the mass of unit length, and
JV
8.
\ sinh 2u
\ sinh 4
-\-
-^ sinh 6u.
The
centre of gravity of the arc of a catenary measured

is
from the lowest point
given by
4fy=
in
its
2
<r
sin h
2u
;
+ 2u), fx = c\u sinh u

is
cosh u
1),
which u
= x/c
3
and the moment of
inertia of this arc
about
terminal abscissa
/ = /^ (tV
9.
sinh
3?/
sinh u
11
cosh
11).
of bars are given in RayApplications to the vibrations Vol. I, art. 170: to the torsion of leigh, Theory of Sound, to the flow of heat prisms in Love, Elasticity, pp. 166-74; Fourier Series, pp. 75-81 to wave and electricity in Byerly,
;
motion
Bassett,
in fluids in
Rayleigh, Vol.
arts.
I,
Appendix,
384; to
p. 477,
and
in
Hydrodynamics,
120,
in
the
theory of
Maxwell, Electricity, arts. potential in Byerry p. 135, to Non-Euclidian geometry and many other subjects
and
and VI. Several Gunther, Hyperbelfunktionen, Chaps. V are worked out in Laisant, Essai sur les numerical examples
in
172-4;
fonctions hyperboliques.
160
[CHAP. IV.
Art.
In Table
y
39.
Explanation of Tables.
I
y
sinh u cosh u
the numerical values of the hyperbolic functions tanh u are tabulated for values of u increasing
.02.
from o to 4 at intervals of may be used.
When
u exceeds
4,
Table
IV
Table II gives hyperbolic functions of complex arguments,

in
which
cosh (x
iy)
=a
ib>
sinh (x
iy)
= c zh
id,
and the values of a, b, c, d are tabulated for values of x and of y ranging separately from o to 1.5 at intervals of .1. When interpolation is necessary it may be performed in three For example, to find cosh (.82 -f- 1.342') First find stages. cosh (.82-]- i-30 by keeping at 1.3 and interpolating between
:
jj/
the entries under x
= .8 and* =
.9
next find cosh
(.82
i-4*)>
by keeping y = .8 and x
cosh (.82
in
at 1.4
and interpolating between the entries under .9, as before; then by interpolation between
1.31)
and cosh
at .82.
(.82
1.42) find
is
cosh( .82
-f- 1.342),
which x
is
kept
The
table
available for
all
values
of y,
however
-\-
great,
by means
of the formulas
sinh (x
It
2in
= sinh^r,
x
is
cosh (x-\-2i7t)
greater than
1.5,
= cosh
x, etc.
sel-
dom
does not apply when occurs in practice.
but this case
This table can also be used as a com-
plex table of circular functions, for

cos (y
ix)
= a =F
x
tb,
sin
(y
ix)
is
= d -.ic
by
and, moreover, the exponential function
given
d),
exp
in
iy)
= ac
i(b
which the signs of c and afare to be taken the same as the sign of x, and the sign of i on the right is to be the product of
the signs of
x and
of
on the
left.
Table III gives the values of v
gd
manian angle
0=
180
v/ir, as u changes
u, and of the guderfrom o to I at inter-
Art. 39] vals of .02,

intervals of
explanation of tables.
from
.1.
I
161
to 2 at intervals of .05,
and from
2 to
4 at
In Table
cosh
u,
IV are given the values of gd u, log sinh u, log as u increases from 4 to 6 at intervals of .1, from 6 to
.2,
7 at intervals of
and from 7 to 9
be
at intervals of
.5.
In the rare cases in which

sary, reference
more extensive
In the
tables are neces-
may
made
to the tables* of
first
Gudermann,
Glaisher, and Geipel and Kilgour.
the Guderman-
ian angle (written k) is taken as the independent variable, and increases from o to 100 grades at intervals of .01, the corre-
sponding value of u (written Lk) being tabulated. In the usual case, in which the table is entered with the value of u, it gives
circular functions
by interpolation the value of the gudermanian angle, whose would then give the hyperbolic functions
of u.
When
is
is
large, this angle
is
so nearly right that interthis
polation
not reliable.
To remedy
inconvenience Gu-
dermann's second table gives directly log sinh u, log cosh u> log tanh u, to nine figures, for values of u varying by .001 from
2 to
5,
and by
.01
from
to 12.
e*
Glaisher has tabulated the values of

nificant figures, as
and
e~ x to nine sig,
varies
10,
by
.001
I
from o to
.1,
by
.01
from o
these
to
2,
by
.1
from o to
and by
from o to 500.
From
the values of cosh x, sinh
are easily obtained.
Geipel and Kilgour's handbook gives the values of cosh;tr, sinh x, to seven figures, as x varies by .01 from o to 4. There are also extensive tables by Forti, Gronau, Vassal, and there are four-place tables in Byerly's Callet, and Hoiiel
;
Fourier Series, and
in
Wheeler's Trigonometry.
In the following tables a dash over a final digit indicates that the number has been increased.
in Crelle's Journal, vols. 6-9, 1831-2 (published separately Theorie der hyperbolischen Functionen, Berlin, 1833). Glaisher in Cambridge Phil. Trans., vol. 13, 1881. Geipel and Kilgour's Electrical Handbook.
Gudermann
title
under the
162
Table
I.
[Chap. IV.
Hyperbolic Functions.
u.
Art.
39.]
TABLES.
163
Table
u.
I.
Hyperbolic Functions.
164
Table
II.
Values of cosh
(x
[CHAP. IV.
(x
-4-
iy)
and sinh
iy).
Art.
39.]
tables.
Table
II.
165
Values of cosh
(x -f iy)
and sinh
(x -f
iy).
16G
Table
II.
[CHAP.
(x -f
iy).
IV*.
Values of cosh
(x
+ iy)
and sinh
Art.
39.]
tables.
Table
II.
167
Values of cosh
(x -f iy)
and sinh
(x
-\--iy.)
168
Table
III.
[Chap. IV
ART.
l."|
HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION.
169
Chapter V.
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
By William
E.
Byerly,
Professor of Mathematics in Harvard University,
Art.
1.
History and Description.
What
is
known
and development
as the Harmonic Analysis owed its origin to the study of concrete problems in various
branches of Mathematical Physics, which however all involved the treatment of partial differential equations of the same
general form. The use of
Trigonometric Series was

in
first
suggested by
Daniel Bernouilli
1753
in
his
researches on the musical
vibrations of stretched elastic strings, although Bessel's Functions had been already (1732)
employed by him and by Euler
in dealing with the vibrations of a heavy string suspended from
one end; and Zonal and Spherical Harmonics were introduced by Legendre and Laplace in 1782 in dealing with the attraction of solids of revolution.
was greatly advanced by Fourier in 1812-1824 in his remarkable work on the Conduction of Heat, and important additions have been made by Lame (1839) anc by a
The
analysis
host of modern investigators.
The
differential equations treated in the
problems which
have just been enumerated are
170
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
;
[CHAP. V.
for the transverse vibrations of a musical string
dt
ox
oxl
for small transverse vibrations of a
uniform heavy string sus-
pended from one end
ox*
"*"
ay
;
&*
u>
which
is
Laplace's equation
and
for the conduction of heat in a
homogeneous
solid.
Of these Laplace's equation (3), and (4) of which (3) is a special case, are by far the most important, and we shall concern ourselves mainly with them in this chapter. As to their interest to engineers and physicists we quote from an article
in
The
"
Electrician of Jan. 26, 1894,

is
by Professor John Perry:

is
There
a well-known partial differential equation, which
the same in problems on heat-conduction, motion of fluids, the establishment of electrostatic or electromagnetic potential, certain
motions of viscous
fluid,
certain kinds of strain and stress, currents

elastic solids, vibrations of flexible
in a conductor, vibrations of
strings or elastic membranes,
and innumerable other phenomena.
The
equation has always to be solved subject to certain boundary
or limiting conditions, sometimes as to space and time, sometimes

as to space alone,
and we know that

is
if
we
obtain any solution of a

Further-'
particular problem, then that
the true and only solution.

is
more,
if
a solution, say, of a heat-conduction problem
obtained
by any person, that answer is at once applicable to analogous problems in all the other departments of physics. Thus, if Lord Kelvin draws for us the lines of flow in a simple vortex, he has drawn
for
Lord Rayleigh
which
is
us the lines of magnetic force about a circular current: if calculates for us the resistance of the mouth of an
organ-pipe, he has also determined the end effect of a bar of iron
magnetized; when Mr. Oliver Heaviside shows his match-
ART.
1.]
HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION.
171
less skill
and
familiarity with Bessel's functions in solving electrois
solving problems in heat-conductivity 01 the strains in prismatic shafts. How difficult it is to express exactly
th-e
magnetic problems, he
distribution of strain in a twisted square shaft, for example,
and
yet
how
easy
it
is
to
understand thoroughly when one knows the
perfect-fluid analogy!
How
easy, again,
it is
to imagine the electric
current density everywhere in a conductor
when
transmitting alter-
nating currents
viscous-fluid analogy, or even the heat-conduction analogy! " Much has been written about the correlation of the physical sciences; but when we observe how a young man who has worked
when we know Mr. Heaviside's
almost altogether at heat problems suddenly shows himself acquainted with the most difficult investigations in other departments
of physics,
we may say
that the true correlation of the physical
sciences
lies in
the equation of continuity
~ a ,/diu
Wây + aW*
av
av\,
In the Theory of the Potential Function

of
in
the Attraction
Gravitation, and
in Electrostatics
(3) is
Vxn Laplace's equation

tion, at
and Electrodynamics,* the value of the Potential Func-
any external point {x, y, z\ due to any distribution of matter or of electricity; in the theory of the Conduction of
Heat
in a
homogeneous
solid f
is
the temperature at any
point in the solid after the stationary temperatures have been established, and in the theory of the irrotational flow of an
incompressible fluid % V is the Velocity Potential Function and (3) is known as the equation of continuity.
If
we
use spherical coordinates,
(3)
takes the form
si
xVZ\rV), 1 r?L 3? '"iinT

f
"49 ^ d
1
sin'
0B<p' J
n_ c W
. '
rrt
Boston. * See Peirce's Newtonian Potential Function. See Fourier's Analytic Theory of Heat. London and
Brunswick.
New
1895.
York, 1878
or Riemann's Partielle Differentialgleichungen.

%
See Lamb's Hydrodynamics.
London and New York,
172
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
if
[CHAP. V.
and
we
use cylindrical coordinates, the form
*V
r\^\^Z^Z=o.
1
(6)
In the theory of the Conduction of Heat in a homogeneous solid,* u in equation (4) is the temperature of any point {x, y, 2) of the solid at any time t, and a is a constant deter-
mined by experiment and depending on the conductivity and

the thermal capacity of the solid.
Art.
2.
Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations.
general solution of a differential equation is the equation expressing the most general relation between the primitive variables which
The
consistent with the given differential equation and which does not involve differentials or derivatives. general solution will always contain arbitrary (i.e., undeteris
mined) constants or arbitrary functions.
particular solution of a differential equation
is
a relation
between the primitive variables which is consistent with the given differential equation, but which is less general than the
general solution, although included
Theoretically,
in
it.
every particular solution can

in
be obtained
from the general solution by substituting
the general solution particular values for the arbitrary constants or particular functions for the arbitrary functions but in practice it is often
;
easy to obtain particular solutions directly from the differential equation when it would be difficult or impossible to obtain the
general solution.
(a) If a
problem requiring
is
for its solution the solving of a
determinate, there must always be given in addition to the differential equation enough outside condidifferential equation
all the arbitrary constants or functions that enter into the general solution of the arbitrary
tions for the determination of
equation
tial
in dealing with such a problem, if the differencan be readily solved the natural method of proequation
;
and
ART.
2.]
HOMOGENEOUS LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
175
cedure
is to obtain its general solution, and then to determine the constants or functions by the aid of the given conditions.
happens, however, that the general solution of the differential equation in question cannot be obtained, and then,,
if determinate, will be solved, if by any solution of the equation can be found which will also satisfy the given outside conditions, it is worth while to try to get particular solutions and so to combine them as to form a
It often
since the problem,
means a
result
which
shall satisfy the given conditicns
without ceasing
to satisfy the differential equation.

(J?)
A differential
if
degree were regarded as algebraic unknown quantities. If it is linear and contains no term which does not involve the dependent variable or one of its derivatives, it is said to be linear and
first
equation is linear when the dependent variable and
it
would be
its
of the
all
derivatives
homogeneous.
All the differential equations given in Art.
I
are linear and
homogeneous.
(c)
If
a value of the dependent variable has been found
given homogeneous, linear, differential equation, the product formed by multiplying this value by any constant will also be a value of the dependent variable which
will satisfy
which
satisfies a
the equation. the terms of the given equation are transposed member, the substitution of the first-named value
to
For
to the
if
all
first
must reduce that member

value
the
fore
is
zero
equivalent to multiplying each

substitution
substituting the second term of the result of

factor,
first
by the same constant
which there-
may
be taken out as a factor of the whole

factor being zero, the product
is
first
The remaining
equation
is
member. zero and the
satisfied.
of the (d) If several values
dependent variable have been
the given differential equation, for if the sum of the values their sum will satisfy the equation in the equation, each term of the sum in question is substituted
found each of which
satisfies
174
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP. V.
will give rise to a set of
terms which must be equal to zero, and therefore the sum of these sets must be zero.
(e)
generally possible to get by some simple device solutions of such differential equations as those we particular have collected in Art. I. The object of this chapter is to find
It
is
methods
any
of so
combining these particular solutions as to
satisfy
given conditions, which are consistent with the nature of
the problem in question.
This often requires us to be able to develop any given func-
which enter into the expression of these conditions in terms of normal forms suited to the problem with which we happen to be dealing, and suggested by the form of
tion of the variables
particular solution that
we
are able to obtain for the differential
equation.
These normal forms are frequently sines and cosines, but they are often much more complicated functions known as
Legendre's Coefficients, or Zonal Harmonics; Laplace's .Coefficients, or
drical
Spherical Harmonics; Bessel's Functions, or CylinHarmonics; Lame's Functions, or Ellipsoidal Haretc.
monics;
Art.
3.
Problem
in
Trigonometric Series.
problem
:
As an
illustration let us consider the following
large iron plate
n centimeters
thick
is
heated throughout
to a uniform temperature of ioo degrees centigrade; its faces are then suddenly cooled to the temperature zero and are kept
at that temperature for
5
seconds.
What
will
be the tempera-
ture of a point in the middle of the plate at the end of that
time?
Given
a*
=0.185
in
C.G.S. units.
Take the
and the axis
origin of coordinates in
of
one face of the plate perpendicular to that face, and let u be the
in
temperature of any point

ing begins.
the plate
seconds after the cool-
suppose the flow of heat to be directly across the plate so that at any given time all points in any plane parallel
shall
We
ART.
3.]
PROBLEM
IN
TRIGONOMETRIC
SERIES.
175
to the
faces of the plate will have
the same temperature.

;
Then
it
depends upon a single space-coordinate x

(4),
o and
=0, and
Art.
I,
reduces to
^=^.
Obviously,
(1)
and and we need

ditions
= u = u =
ioo
when
o,
(2)
(3)
;
o when ^ o when
.r
= o, =
?r
(4)
to find a solution of (1) which satisfies the con-
(2), (3),
and
(4).
We
we
tion
is
shall begin
shall use a device
linear
by getting a particular solution of (1), and which always succeeds when the equaand homogeneous and has constant coefficients.
u
Assume*
tute in
(1)
v', where fi and y are constants; substiand divide through by e^ x+yi and we get y = # 2 /f
eP
and
if
this condition is satisfied,

efi*+**fi*t
/?.
i
x eP +y* is
a solution of
(1).
then a solution of
(1)
no matter what the
value of
11
We can modify the form of Let fi = fxi,\ then u = e^ ^ n e^ = e~ ^^'e~

a
"'**'
this solution
is
with advantage.
is
xi
a solution of (i\ as
also
By
(d),
Art.
2,
u
is
= e-+**
is
e~ a
W cos px
2<
(5)
a solution, as
also
*- "m*
f.
= *-V
Sin
^
It
6)
and
/* is
entirely arbitrary.
must be tested
* This assumption must be regarded as purely tentative.
by substituting
f
in the equation,
i
and
is
justified
if it
leads to a solution,
The
letter
will be
used to represent 4/
1.
176
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP. V.
By giving different values to p. we get different particular solutions of (i) let us try to so combine them as to satisfy our conditions while continuing to satisfy equation (i).
;
it px is zero when x = o for all values of n if yu is a whole number. If, then, we write is zero u equal to a sum of terms of the form Ae~ aimn sin mx, where m is an integer, we shall have a solution of (i) (see {d), Art. 2)
e~ a ^ n sin
jjl
when x =
which
satisfies (3)
and
(4).
Let
u
this solution
ait
be
4ait
=A e~
1
sin
x
.
+ A,e~
(7)
sin
2x
+ A e~
3
9an
sin
3*
+ ...,
(7)
A lt A %i A tf
When
u
If
t
being undetermined constants.

reduces to
;r
= o, =A
sin
+ ^s sm
2;r
+ ^3 sin
A^
$x
+
.
(8)
form
series
now it is possible (8) we have only
to develop unity into a series of the
to substitute the coefficients of that
each multiplied by 100 for
l%
in (7) to
have
(2)>
a solution satisfying (1)

(3),
and
all
the equations of condition
and
(4).
We
shall
prove
later (see Art. 6) that
sin
" sin
^x
~
-f-
sin
%x
for all values of
x between o and x
n.
Hence our
solution
is
^[f-^ sin
+ -e~
of u
9aH
sin
3*
+V
25 " 2 '
sin
5*
. . .
|
(9)
To
to
get the answer of the numerical problem
we have only
seconds.
compute the value

is
when x
and
As
there
no object
in
place tables will
more than
going beyond tenths of a degree, foursuffice, and no term of (9) beyond

Since sin 2
71
the
first
will affect the result.
I,
we have
to
compute the numerical value
of
Art.
4.]
problem
in
zonal harmonics.
a3
10
177
400
7t
7 log a
e~ an
where
= 0.185
and
5.
log
log eft log log e & &

log log log
If
9'
= 9.2672 = 0.6990 = 9.9662

Q.6378 y j/
log 400
2.6021
colog
10 10
colog e**
.
=
=
9.5059
9.5982
,
10 10
^ =
f"
9.6040
10
g ^
=1.7062
50- 8.
= 0.4018
of
n centimeters
the breadth of the plate had been c centimeters instead it is easy to see that we should have needed
the development of unity in a series of the form
.
x
nx
sin
+ A, sin
,
2nx
+ A, sin
,
%nx
+ ....
Prob. 1. An iron slab 50 centimeters thick is heated to the temperature 100 degrees Centigrade throughout. The faces are then suddenly cooled to zero degrees, and are kept at that temperature for 10 minutes. Find the temperature of a point in the middle of the
slab,
and of a point 10 centimeters from a face
at the
end of that
time.
Assume
.
that
.
4/ - sin
ttx
r-
\7tx
sin
~ sin
?rx
,
from x
o to
c.
Ans. 84.o; 49.4.
Art.
4.
Problem in Zonal Harmonics.

let
As
a second
example
us consider the following problem
Two
equal thin hemispherical shells of radius unity placed together to form a spherical surface are separated by a thin
air. charge of statical electricity is placed upon one hemisphere and the other hemisphere is connected with the ground, the first hemisphere is then found to be at poten-
layer of
tial 1,
At what
the other hemisphere being of course at potential zero. " field of force" due to potential is any point in the
shall use spherical coordinates
the charge?
We
and
shall let
Fbe
the
potential required.
Then Fmust
satisfy equation (5), Art.
178
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP. V.
But since from the symmetry

independent
of 0,
if
we take
of the problem is obviously the diameter perpendicular to the

-
plane separating the two conductors as our polar axis,

zero,
is
and our equation reduces to
rftrV)
dr"
9
.
Si (
"^ sin 6
"4) _
dV
r
(l)
Fis given on the surface
of our sphere, hence
V=/(0)
where /(d)
when
and f(6)
I,
(2)
if
< 6 < -,
=O
if
<6<
ir.
Equation
an
(2)
infinite distance
and the implied conditions that V is zero at and is nowhere infinite are our conditions.
To
which
is
find particular solutions of (1)

is
we
is
shall use a
method
where
generally effective.
Assume*
6,
that
V = RG
we
get
a function of r but not of

r.
and
a function of 6 but
not of
Substitute in (1) and reduce, and
rd\rR)
dr*
d \ sm
6
-de)
.
(3)
R
Since the
first
sin 6
dd
and the
member
of (3) does not contain 6
second does not contain r and the two members are identically Let us call this equal, each must be equal to a constant.
constant, which
is
wholly undetermined, m{in
-\- 1)
then
R^
r
d%rR)
-w^ro-^r- = m{m+l);
1
,
s '"
de)
whence
,'
m(in
-\-
i)R
= o,
(4)
dJ smedQ\
\
and
lel
^Te'-ê
* See the
first
+ *0*+i)e. = o.
(5)
foot-note on page 175.
Art.
4.]
PROBLEM
(4)
IN
ZONAL HARMONICS.
179
Equation
can be expanded into
d'R
r--j-i
dR + 2r^- - m(m +1)^ =

,
,'
0,
and can be solved by elementary methods.

solution
is
Its
complete
R
Equation
(5)
=.
Arm + Br~ m -\
(6)
can be simplified by changing the independ-
ent variable to
x where x
'
cos
0.
It
becomes
1
( dx\J r[
^S] + m{m +
)&
= 0l
is
(7)
an equation which has been much studied and which

as Legendre's Equation.
known
We
tive
(7)
;//, which is wholly undetermined, to posiand we can then get particular solutions of whole values,
shall restrict
by the following device
Assume*
coefficients.
.
that
can be expressed as a
sum
or a series of
terms involving whole powers of x multiplied by constant
Let
2anxn
i)a n x
n -'J
and substitute
n(n
-f-
in (7).
M
We
get
n
2[n(n
i)<V
+ m(m + i)a x =
n
]
o,
(8)
where the symbol 2 indicates that we are to form all the terms we can by taking successive whole numbers for n.
Since
(8)
must be true no matter what the value

any given power
of x, as for instance
of x, the
coefficient of
xk must
,
vanish.
(k
Hence
+ 2){k + i)a - k(k -\-j)a + m(m + i)a =

k+t
k k
o,
and
If
a k+ ,
m{m+i) k{k-\-i) * (k+l){k+2 )
fe)
now any
taken,
If
= k = m,
set of coefficients satisfying the relation (9) k 1Ea kx will be a solution of (7).
be
then ak+%
= o,
first
a k+i
= o,
etc.
* See the
foot-note on page 175.
180
Since
it
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
will
[Chap.
V..
answer our purpose

.
if
we
set of coefficients that will
obey the condition
pick out the simplest: (9), we can take
a set including a m Let us rewrite
(9) in
the form
.
**
~ ~ (*+2)(*+ !)*, + - k)(m + k (m =m

1)
( IO>
I)'
We
*""
Um - A
get from (10), beginning with k
2,
-~
m(in
2\2m-i)
_ ~ m(m
\){m
a""
2)(m
3)
~2.4.(2m- i)(2^-3)
*m%
$)(m
""- ~~
If
is
~ m(m
is
i)(m
2)(m
2.4.6. (2m
even we
a. t .
i)(2m
- z){2m -
4)(m
5)
5)
""
'
etC
'
m
am
see that
the set will end with a
if
odd, with
xm L
mitn
2. {2m
I
1)
\x
1)
9 m-.
,
mjm '
i)(m
- 2)(m - 3)
i)(2m
3)
2. 4.
^_ _
t
n
"'J'
(2m
where a m is entirely arbitrary, is, then, a solution found convenient to take a m equal to
of (7).
It is
(2m
and
it
i)(2w
3) ...
will
be shown later that with this value of a m

1.
when
.r
=
.
@
than
is
a function of
x and
contains no higher powers of
xm
It is usual to write it as
Pm (x).
Pm (x)
from the
We
formula
proceed to write out a few values of
P (** ^-W- <
2m -
)(
2m
- 3)
\
r 1m
.
Mm2.
1)
[J
(2m -if (2m 1)
*f(
i)(m-2)(m-s)
i)(2m
3)
^ m _<
,j jx
2.4.
(2;;z
ART.
4.]
PROBLEM IN ZONAL HARMONICS.

have
I
:
181
We
Pjx)
x
= or P (cos 6) = P {x) = x or P^cos 6) = cos - I) or P (cos 6) = J( 3 cos Plx) = (3* P (x) = i($x> - 3*) or P (cos 60 = i(5 cos 0- 3 cos 6\ (12) ^W = K35^ -30^ +3) or P (cos 0) = 4(35 cos # - 30 cos + 3), ~ 70x* + 15*) or ^.(*) = K6 3* = K63 cos 70 cos #+ 15 cos /'.(cos 0) We have obtained Q == /^(.ar) as a particular solution of (7), and Q = Pm (cos 6) as a particular solution of (5). Pm {x) or Pm (cos 0) a new function, known as a Legendre's Coefficient,
I,
0,
i),
I-
6>
61
6). j
is
or as a Surface Zonal Harmonic, and occurs as a normal form

in
many important
problems.
is
V'=
is
rm
Pm (cos 6)
6)
a particular solution of
(1),
and r m Pm (cos
6)
sometimes called a Solid Zonal Harmonic.

Q
V = A P (cos
satisfies (1), is
+ A rP {cos + A^P^cos + AyP (cos6)+...

l
6)
6)
(13)
not infinite at any point within the sphere, and
reduces to
V=A P (cos + ^(cos + A,P,(cos + A P (cos6)+...

0)
6)
6)
3
when
(14)
1.
v= Af,(cos6) r
satisfies (1), is
AfXcosd)
r*
PJjcos0) z r
~*
r-.-
(15)
is
equal to zero
If
when
not infinite at any point without the sphere, 00 and reduces to (14) when r r 1.
then
(14),
form
we can develop f{6) we have only to put
[see eq. (2)] into a series of the
the coefficients of this series in
A,, get the value of Ffor a t within the sphere, and in (15) to get the value of Fat a point point without the sphere.
place of the
,
... in (13) to
182
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
shall see later (Art. 16, Prob. 22) that
if
[CHAP. V.
We
o
f(0)
for
<
<
and f{6)
o f or
<
<
n,
Hence our required

l
solution
is
V= - + \rP,(cos ti)-\\ -r'P (cos

s
(f)
+ I?- 2
at
-^
C0S
^---
<">
an internal point
and
V=
^+4 r \-\P 2r
=
7 {cosB)-- 8 2 r ---\pU:ose) J 3V
+I7-^?^C0S *)
?t an external point.
If
< l8 >
and
= o,
(17) reduces to
To two
is
decimal places
F=
0.68,
and the point r
=
4
o-
at potential 0.68.
If r
and
(18)
and Table
I,
at the
end of
this,
chapter, give
and the point r

If
5,
7t
is
at potential 0.12.
is
the radius of the conductor

in (17)
a instead of unity,
(18).
we
have only to replace r by
and
Art.
5.]
PROBLEM
2.
IN BESSEL's FUNCTIONS.
18o
Prob.
ameter
is
One half the surface of a solid sphere 12 inches in dikept at the temperature zero and the other half at 100 de-
grees centigrade until there

at
is no longer any change of temperature within the sphere. Required the temperature of the any point center of any point in the diametral plane separating the hot and
;
cold hemispheres
axis of
symmetry
of points 2 inches from the center and in the and of points 3 inches from the center in a di-
ameter inclined at an angle of 45

Ans. 50
;
to the axis of symmetry.

;
50
73.9; 26.i
77.i
22.q.
Art.
5.
Problem
in Bessel's Functions.
:
As a last example we shall The base and convex surface of
take the following problem a cylinder 2 feet in diameter and 2 feet high are kept at the temperature zero, and the upper base at 100 degrees centigrade. Find the temperature of a
point in the axis one foot from the base, and of a point 6 inches from the axis and one foot from the base, after the permanent
state of temperatures has been set up.
If
or, representing the temperature by u and observing that from the symmetry of the problem u is independent of 0,
;
base
we use cylindrical coordinates and we shall have to solve equation (6),
take the origin

Art.
1
in
the
(1)
184
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
;
'
[CHAP. V.
contain r
therefore the
is
first
member
we can
cannot.
write
(5)
Hence each
member
of (5)
a constant, and
R
when
7
~dr*
+ rR
d*Z -dz
dr~~
Z dz
=~
1
'
jj
is
entirely undetermined.
Hence
and
^Z
x
o,
(7) x 7
d*R
\dR _+__ +
x
,*
= 0L
general solution
is
(8)
Equation
(7) is easily solved,

~
and
2
,
its
Z = ^^* + ite ^ Z = C cosh (/*#)

We can
reduce
(8) slightly
or the equivalent form

Z> sinh
(/*#).
-(-
(9)
it
by
letting //r
.
= x, and
becomes
,
<
d*R
u + * =sa 25?+52F
.
\dR
I0N >
Assume, as in Art. 4, that 7? can be expressed in terms of whole powers of x. Let R = 2a n x n and substitute in (10).
We
get
2[n(n
\)a n x
n "
+ na x
n
n -
-J-
<V M] = o,
x.
an equation which must be
true,
no matter what the value of

of x, as
The
coefficient of
any given power

i)a k
a
~*,
must, then,
vanish, and
k(k
or
-
+ ka + a ^ + ^_ =
h
2
= o,
(11)
o,
whence we obtain
^_ =
3
k*ak
as the only relation that need be satisfied by the coefficients in order that 2akxk shall be a solution of (10).
R=
If
= o,
a k _^
0,
ak _
0,
etc.
We
can, then, begin with
= o as
the lowest subscript.
Art.
5.]
186
If
i
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP. V.
now we can develop
unity into a series of the form
S,/.(Mxr)
ITO
+ B,/,(M,r) + BJj^r) + ...,

/^" r
T
,
"=
\~B. sinh (/u.z)
Linnr(^
B sinh ujz) T / (lv)+ )+iiHhT2^N

,
"1
-
'
(I5)
satisfies (i)
and the conditions
(2), (3),
and
(4).
We
shall see later (Art. 21) that
it
/Ax)
= -
*& ax
J
(l6)
~
for values of
\w/wyiu&i + iUK) +
r
''
<
I.
Hence
=
is
200
r /.(^r)
sinh
sinh
(/i,*)
L^/,0^)
At
^
1
7.(w)
sinh
(/y )
"*"
* '
(2/i.)
^/X^)
sinh
(2//,)
J ^ 7>
"|
our required solution.

the point r
= o, z =
sinh
(17) reduces to
_i_
= 200 r
___iiiih
/i,/
1
^
(
L^/X/O
L/ij/,0*,)
sinh (2/1J
()"t)
sinh
2 /0
"J
'J*
cosh
"
/*,
/i./X/iJ'cosh
/7,
since
If
7 () =
we
III, at
and sinh
(2.ar)
2 sinh
^ cosh
x.
and
use a table of Hyperbolic functions* and Tables II the end of this chapter, the computation of the
is
value of u
easy.
We
have
/i(/0 = 0.5190
colog
"
^=2.405
= =/X^)
yU 2
5.52O
0.3402
9.2581
0.4683/*
= 9.6189 7<X> = 0.2848

/*,
10
colog
"
/*,=
10
/.(*.) =
M cosh /*,= 9.2530
10
coshyw a
7.9037
10
10
9.1567
* See Chapter IV, pp.
tions.
10
7.6301W
162, 163, for a four-place table
on hyperbolic func-
Art.
5.]
problem in bessel's functions.

(/*i/(/0 cosh Mi)' 0*i/i(/O cosh
= ^y =
1 1
O.1434
0.0058
0.1376;
a=i3.8
At
the point r
= J, z =
7^>
I,
(17),
reduces to
,,-icef
~
I
^^
/i,/, (^9 )
-I/i f
L MxJiiMd cosh
/*,
cosh
1 J
/ (/0 = 0.6698 log/(/0 = 9-8 2 59 colog MiA(Mi) cosh//,

9.1567
8.9826
/.(*/<.)
10
10
10
= - 0.1678
log /.(i/O colog A/AM*) cosh /I,
188
harmonic functions.
[chap. v.
Art.
6.
The Sine
3, it is
Series.
As we have
seen in Art.
sometimes important to be
able to express a given function of a variable, x, in terms of sines of multiples of x. The problem in its general form was first
solved by Fourier in his " Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur"
and its solution plays an important part in most branches of Mathematical Physics.
{1822),
Let us endeavor to so develop a given function of x,/{x), sin x, sin 2x sin $x, etc., that the function and the series shall be equal for all values of x between o and n.
in
terms of
We
fix)
can of course determine the coefficients a lf # a a %

,
an
so that the equation
=a
;
sin
+#
sin
2x
-f-
sin
$x
-f~
-|-
an
sin
nx
(1)
shall hold
O and n
any n arbitrarily chosen values of x between good for we have only to substitute those values in turn
for
in (1) to get
n equations of the
first
degree, in which the n co-
efficients are the
For instance,
3 Ax,
<i).
.
only unknown quantities. we can take the n equidistant
values Ax, 2Ax,

lot
nAx, where
Ax
=
n-\1
a
and substitute them
in
We get /{Ax) = a
sin
Ax + #
Ax -f- ^
sin
2Ax -f- a
-f-
sin
sin
$Ax
nAx,
6 Ax
an
s
J[2Ax)
=a
sin 2
f{$Ax)
=a =a
sin 3
Ax -f-
+ 2nAx, + a^ sin 6Ax + a sin gAx + a sin $nAx,

a
sin
Âx -f- a
sin
an
3
sin
1. .
(2)
-\-
/(nAx)
sin
n Ax
-f-
a^ sin
2nAx
-f- <^ 3 -f-
sin 3z/jtr
sin
-4-
an
M^r,
^ equations of the first degree, to determine the n coefficients a a t a% an Not only can equations (2) be solved in theory, but they can be actually solved in any given case by a very simple and
x ,
,
Art. 6
the sine
series.
189
a,n
ingenious method due to Lagrange,* and any coefficient be expressed in the form
can
am
--T-2E A kAx)
K ~n
sin (*
A*)-
(3)
If
now n
is
indefinitely increased the values of
for
which
(i) holds good will come nearer and nearer to forming a conand the limiting value approached by a m will tinuous set probably be the corresponding coefficient in the series required
;
to represent fix) for
all
values of
x between
zero and n,
Remembering
question
is
that (n
+ \)Ax = n,
the limiting value in
easily seen to be
am
= - ff{x) sin
tnxdx,
(4)
This value can be obtained from equations (2) by the lowing device without first solving the equations
:
fol<
Let us multiply each equation in (2) by the product of Ax and the coefficient of a m in the equation in question, add the form of the resulting equation equations, and find the limiting
as n increases indefinitely.
The
sin
coefficient of
any
.
a,
aK
in
the resulting equation

sin sin
is
kAx
sin
mAx Ax + sin
-\- sin
2k Ax uk Ax
2mAx Ax -\nmAx Ax,

. .
Its limiting value, since (n
+ i)Ax =
sin
.
ar,
is
/
but
it
sin
kx
mx dx
f sin kx sin mx.dx = i/*[cos (m

if
k)x
cos(^
+ *)x]dx = o
and k are not equal.

Riemann's Partielle Differcntialgleichungen, or Byerly's Fourier's and Spherical Harmonics.
* See
Series
190
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP. V.
The
A*(sin
coefficient of a m
3
2
is
2
mAx -j- sin 2mAx -\- sin imAx -\is
+ sin
nmAx).
Its limiting value
ysin
o
w^ .dx =
2
The
first
member
sin
;;/
is
/{Ax)
J^r
Jjr -\-fi2Ax) sin

+/(/zz/;tr) sin
2m Ax Ax +
.
mnAx
z/^r,
and
its
limiting value
is
fix) sin
mx.dx.
by the
final
Hence the
as n
is
limiting form approached

is
equation
increased
/ fix) sin
mx dx =
.
# wt
Whence
as before.
tf
= -J
fix) sin
mx.dx
(5)
This method
equation
f{x)
is
practically the
same
a
as
multiplying the
=a
sin
-f-
a^ sin
2x
-f-
sin
$x
(6)
tt.
by
sin w;r. akr

It is
and integrating both members from zero to
this article are in
important to realize that the considerations given in no sense a demonstration, but merely estab-
lish a probability.
elaborate investigation * into the validity of the development, for which we have not space, entirely confirms the results n the o and x formulated above, provided that between x
An
* See Art. 10 for a discussion of this question.
Art. 6
the sine
is
series.
infinite
191
and single-valued, and has not an ber of discontinuities or of maxima or minima.

function
finite
num-
It is to
be noted that the curve represented by
y=fix)
need not follow the same mathematical law throughout its length, but may be made up of portions of entirely different
curves.
For example, a broken
line or a locus consisting of
finite parts of several different
and disconnected straight
lines
can be represented perfectly well by
a sine series.
As an example
Here
of the application of formula (5) let us take
the development of unity.

fix)
1.
am
=
.
/sin
mx dx
.
/[
/
sin
ir
mx ax =
T
cos
mx
.
sin
mx .dx
m (1
if
cos nnt)
w
(
m [1
l) ] J
m
if
is
even
is
=
Hence
I
m
.
odd.
sin
4 /sin x
(
$x + -^-+ -sin
xx
+^
sin
,
Jx
+...).
(?)
It is to
be noticed that
c.
(7)
gives at once a sine development
for
any constant
It
is,
_4f/ sin;r
Prob.
sin
3*
s in
$*
..
4-
Show
Tsin
2\
that for values of
x between zero and

xx
sin
7t
w
,
.
(a)
x
.
=
.
sin
2
jc
2x
Li
+
.
sin
4X
4
sin
J
.
(*)/W =
.,.
4 Tsin
sin
![_
r+1
,
%x
sin 5 a:
nx
+---J
192
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP. V.
if
f(x)
= x f or o < x <
-, and f(x)
=n
f or
- < x
<
tt.
w /(*) =
2
Tsin
jc
2 sin
2.2:
sin
xx
sin s.x
2 sin 6jc
sin nx
if
fix)
(</)
for o
<x<
71
,
and /(#)
7t
o for
2
<x <
/r.
sinh
sinh
x
tt
=
sin
2
n
(e)
x
5
sin
2x
-\
sin
xx
17
sin
ax
10
x*
=
?7 sin
x
Z[\t
7 sin
7.
~
\J
?J
sin 3
*~
sin
*+
-J*
Art.
The Cosine
Series.
in a series
Let us now try to develop a given function of x

of cosines, using the
method suggested by the
last article.
Assume
j\x)
b^-\-b cos
x
x -\- &,
cos 2x -\-b % cos 3^

(1)
-f-
(1)
determine any coefficient b m multiply and integrate each term from o to n.

IT
To
by cos
mx .dx
I b cos
w
mx
dx
= o.
and k are not equal.
I b k cos
kx cos
w^ dx=o,
.
if /
/7t
b m cos
2
#z;tr
dx
#w
if
#z is
not zero.
it
Hence
if /
w =
/ / f(x)
cos
mx ,dx>
(2)
is
not zero.
Art.
7.]
the cosine
get b multiply
(i)
a
series.
193
to n.
To
by dx and integrate from zero
Jb.dx
IT
Z>
7T,
1 b k cos
kx dx
.
= O.
IT
Hence
which
if
~Jf{x)dx
(3)
is just half the value that would be given zero were substituted for m.
by formula
(2)
To
save a separate formula
(1) is
usually written
f(x)
= ib + b
cos
cos 2x
+b
cos 3*
.,
(4)
and then the formula

ficients.
(2) will
give b as well as the other coef-
Prob.
5.
Show
7C
that for values of
x between o and
,
7t
w
,
.
* w
=
x
--!(-7-+-7
8 /cos 2X
l
/,n
(4) /[*).=
+^L + * _ ___^_ _+_- + ? _-+...

/COS
. ,
COS
7.X
COS KX
);
cos6x
cos io#
\
J,
if
/(*)
, .
=
..
a:
for o
<x<
2
and f{x)
COS 3^
=
,
7T
x
<3:
for
2
<
n;
1,2 W /M - j+jH
%
/COS
.#
COS
s
-)'
for
if
/(*)
for o
<x<
and fix)
=o
1
- < x <
2
7T -f- 1)
n^
(^) sinh
= 21
n
(cosh
n
2.2:
1)
(cosh
cos
-\
(cosh
1)
cos
(cosh
COS
-j-
1)
cos 3*
\;.
n*
/cos
COS 2X
3JC
cos 4X
194
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP. V.
Art.
Since a sine series
of an
8.
Fourier's Series.
an odd function of
the development in such a series must hold good from
is
odd function
ft
of
x
it
=
is
to
ft,
except perhaps for the value

is
o,
where
easily seen that the series what the value of the function.
if
necessarily zero,
no matter
see that
In like manner
its
ft
we
f{x)
is
an even function of
valid from
development
in a cosine
series
must be
to
ft.
be developed into a Trigonometric n and n. series to which it is equal for all values of x between be the given function of x. It can be expressed Let/(^) as the sum of an even function of x and an odd function of x
Any
function of
x can
by the following device
jy)=
=Q identically; but
Mz* + M^k=Jl
'
'
(I)
-A
no t changed by reversing
the sign of
x and
is
therefore an even function of x\ and
when
we
reverse the sign of x,

its
^
2
is
affected only to the
extent of having function of x.
sign reversed,
and
is
consequently an odd
Therefore for
J\ x ) -h J\
j
all
values of
x between x
-\-b % cos
n and n
2x
_ _^ =
ft t/
o
_|_
ft
cos
+
.
cos ix
where
bm
cos
mx dx
and
A*) -i
A
-
) '-
=a
sin
x -f- #
,..-, +
3
sin
2x
^ 3 sin $x
-f-
where
am
2 ft
}f(x)j\^^
2
X) sin
.
'-
mx
.
.
dx.
Art.
8.]
Fourier's series.
little.
195
b m and a m can be simplified a

bm
71
Jy
'
'
U/
It
X 2
^-cos
mx. dx
It
j
o
Ax )
cos
mx dxJ
;r,
rJA
o
x)
cos tnx d-r

.
;
|
-J
but
ir
if
we
replace
^ by
we
f{
get
cos
jA
x) cos
w* dx=
w
x)
fnx.dx^
JAX
*
Q0S inx.dx,
fl-
an d we have
In the same
I
It
Ax
cos
w;lr
dx
way we can reduce

it
the value of a m to
I
it
Ax
+
-\ir
sm mx >dx.
Hence
Ax = - +
)
&o
î
cos *
sin
â
cos
2;p
-|-
tf,
a^ sin
+ ^ cos 3^ -f 2# ^s sm 3 X +
-f~
>
2)
where
#w
J Ax
7T
cos
w;tr
d*>
(3)
and
and and
this
tc.
tf
sin ** w = l-fA*)
*
x between
(4)
development holds
for all values of
The second member

The developments
development
Prob.
e*
6.
of (2)
is
known
as a Fourier's Series.
are special cases of
of Arts.
6 and 7 x from
1
in Fourier's Series.
Show
that for
1
all
values of
to
n
.
2 sinh 7rf~i
7t
cos #-4
2
.1
5
cos
2.*
\_2
10
cos $x-\
.1
17
cos4#+..
~]
196
2
,
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
sinh
it
[CHAP. V.
Ti
sin
sin 2JC 4-
sin
3^
sin
4*
-\-
Prob.
7.
Show
*,
that formula (2), Art.
8,
can be written
COS (2* COS (3*
1
f(x)
=-
COS#,
+C
2
COS (X
fix)
+C +
<T
- A)
A) +
where.
Prob.
8.
cm
(,
)*
and
fim
= tan"
8,
-~"
Show
can be written
sin
(
f(x)
= ~c
2
sin /5 9
+c
sin (*
+ A) + +c
and
fim
'.
2X
+ A)
+ /? +
3)
.
sin (3a;
1
where
cm
{a
J + b,*)*
= tan'
Art.
9.
Extension of Fourier's Series.
In developing a function of
is
into a Trigonometric Series it
often inconvenient to be held within the narrow boundaries
=
Let
n and x
it
it.
Let us see
be required to Trigonometric Series which shall be equal to f(x) for c. c and x of x between x
we cannot widen them. develop a function of x into

if
all
values.
Introduce a new variable

z
7t
X,
c,
which
is
equal to
z
)
n when x
and to n when x
c.
f(x)
(2), (3),
= /(
and
(4).
can be developed in terms of z by Art. S y
We
have
cos *
sin
f[~z)
=
2
+*
-\-
+^
-f-
cos 2 *
sin
2^r
#2
+^ +^
.
cos $ z
sin
+ 3# +
(1)
where
bm
J f\zj cos mz
<&,
(2)
Art.
9.]
extension of Fourier's
series.
197
and
and
(1)
'
am
//(
n
A
n
sm
m%
dz
(3)
holds good from z

its
to z
n.
(1)
Replace z by
f(x)
value in terms of
cos
c
x and
f'
becomes
b u,t
-f-
cos
*
.
\-
0^
o 3 cos J
'
+ a sm+tf,sm
l
+ a, sin
+..,.;
(4)
and
(2)
and
(3)
can be transformed into
= =
y
c
/(*) cos
j-dx>
(5)
and
(4)
holds good from
ff( x x =
c
sin
^r-dx,
x
(6)
c to
c.
In the formulas just obtained c may have as great a value as we please so that we can obtain a Trigonometric Series for
f(x) that
will
an interval as we
It
be equal to the given function through as great may choose to take.

if
can be shown that

00
this interval c
its
is
increased indefi-
nitely the series will
approach as
00
limiting form the double

is
integral
I f(X)d\ I cos a{X

00
x)da, which
known
as a
Fourier's Integral.
So that
+00
so
/(*)
-~f f(X)d\ f cos at{\
- x)da
(7)
for all values of x.
of
of Fourier's Integral and for examples use in Mathematical Physics the student is referred to Riemann's Partielle Differentialgleichungen, to Schlomilch's
For the treatment
its
Hohere Analysis,
and
to
Byerly's
Fourier's
Series
and
Spherical Harmonics.
198
Prob.
9.
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP.
Show
9,
can be written
f(x)
-ct cos
+c
cos
(
Ay +A cos
3
^-^/?,j
3
+ , cos(^-/? )+...,
where
Prob. 10.
C*
= (" + bm y
and
/?,
=
9,
tan" 1
-.
Show

'1
can be written
/(*)
c% sin Po
sin
(^T
+ Aj +
'1
sin
(^ + AJ
-^.
where
^=
)*
and
/? w
tan -1
Art.
10.
Dirichlet's Conditions.
In determining the coefficients of the Fourier's Series representing f(x) we have virtually assumed, first, that a series of the required form and equal to f(x) exists
it is uniformly convergent ; the results obtained as only provisionally established.
and second, that and consequently we must regard

;
It
is,
however, possible to prove rigorously that

=.
finite
and single-valued from x
to
7t
if f(x) is and has not
an infinite number minima between x

(2),
of (finite) discontinuities, or of
maxima
or
n and x
n, the Fourier's Series of
Art.
for all
and that Fourier's Series only, is equal to f{x) n and ?r, excepting the values of values of x between
8,
x corresponding n and n and

;
to the discontinuities of f{x),
and the
values.
that
if
c is a
value of
corresponding to a
discontinuity of f{x), the value of the series
when x
iJQ[A* + )+/(
x
)];
and
is
that
when
= c is = n or
it
the value of the series
$'[/(*)
+/(
*)].
This proof was first given by Dirichlet in 1829, and may be found in readable form in Riemann's Partielle Differentialgleichungen and
in Picard's Traite
d'Analyse, Vol.
I.
Art.
10.]
dirichlet's conditions.
deal of light
is
199'
A good
we
thrown on the peculiarities of
trigo-
nometric by the attempt to construct approximately the curves corresponding to them.

series
If
construct
y=a
sin
x and y
=a
sin
2x and add the
ordinates of the points having the tain points on the curve
same
abscissas,
we
shall ob-
y=
If
a sin
1
x -f
%
a^ sin 2x.
now we
construct
x
y
a2
=a
sin
-f-
those
of y = a
sin
x
t
-f
sin ^x and add the ordinates to 2x we shall get the curve
y
By
=
x
sin
a9
sin
2x
-\-
a%
sin $x.
continuing this process we get successive approximations to
=a
sin
+#
sin
2*
tf
sin
$x
sin
^x
'
200
tion to this curve.
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP. V.
In each figure the curve y the series, in question are drawn in continuous and the approximations
and the preceding approximation and the curve corresponding to the term to be added are drawn in dotted lines.
lines,
Prob. ii. Construct successive approximations to the series given in the examples at the end of Art. 6. Prob. 1 2. Construct successive approximations to the Maclaurin's
Series for sinh x,
namely x
x-\
x
-j
-|
Art.
(a)
11.
Applications of Trigonometric Series.
at potential zero,
tential
is
Three edges of a rectangular plate of tinfoil are kept and the fourth at potential I. At what po-
any point
in
the plate
solve
is
Here we have
to
which, since the problem
Laplace's Equation (3), Art. two-dimensional, reduces to
I,
a^+
subject to the conditions
W=
"
>
(I)
V=
o when x
V=o V=o v=i

V
"
= o, = a, y = o, y =
x
t-
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Working as in Art. 3, we readily get sinh/?jj> sin fix, sinh fiy cos fix, cosh /3y sin fix, and cosh fiy cos fix as particular values of satisfying (1).
sinh
^
Cc
sin
^
CL
satisfies (1), (2), (3),
and
(4).
V = ^\
is
[-sinh
^Lsinh^ a
-^~+
'
sinh^
3 sinh
*1
it
*L*
a
1
"I
sin
+ T
when y
J
=
b.
(6>
the required solution, for (7), Art. 6.
reduces to
See
ART.
11.]
APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC SERIES.

harp-string
is
;
201
(b)
initially distorted into
a given plane
curve and then released
find its motion.
The differential equation for the small transverse vibrations of a stretched elastic string is
as stated in Art.
i.
Our conditions
if
we take one end
of
the string as origin are
y y
-^
o when
=
=
"
x *
/
o,
= =
=
(2)
(3 )
(4) (5)
/,
y
Using the method
of (1)
=fx
3,
"
o.
of Art.
we
easily get as particular solutions
y j
= =
sin
#r
/for
sin
a fit,
tf/?/",
cos
sin
and
y = y =
sin
/far
cos
tf/^,
cos /?* cos a fit.
sin
j- cos
.
satisfies (1), (2), (3),
and
(4).
am
mnx
1
sin
cos
mnat
;
,
\p)
where
am
= j Cf{x) sin ^^
;
dx
(7)
is
our required solution

9.
for
it
reduces to/(*)
when/ = o. See
Art.
Prob. 13. Three edges of a square sheet of tinfoil are kept at

potential zero, and the fourth at potential unity Ans. 0.25. is the centre of the sheet ?
;
at
what potential
Prob. 14.
kept
what
Two opposite edges of a square sheet of tinfoil are at potential zero, and the other two at potential unity Ans. 0.5. is the centre of the sheet ? potential
at
;
Prob. 15.
Two
adjacent edges of a square sheet of tinfoil are
202
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAR V.
kept at potential zero, and the other two at potential unity. what potential is the centre of the sheet ? Ans. 0.5.
Prob. 16.
harp-string
is
At
Show
that
if
a point whose distance from the end of a

is
-th the length of the string
drawn aside by the
player's finger to a distance b from its position of equilibrium and then released, the form of the vibrating string at any instant is given
by the equation
2bn
(n
1
^
)
nnt
mnx
sin " n* ^-* Km* n
sin
cos
m7iat\ mnat\
>
Show from this that all the harmonics of the fundamental note of the string which correspond to forms of vibration having nodes at the point drawn aside by the finger will be wanting in the complex note actually sounded.
iron slab 10 centimeters thick is placed between and two other iron slabs each 10 centimeters thick. The temperature of the middle slab is at first 100 degrees Centigrade throughout, and of the outside slabs zero throughout. The outer faces of the outside slabs are kept at the temperature zero. Required the temperature of a point in the middle of the middle slab fifteen minutes after the slabs have been placed in contact. Given a % = 0.185 m C.G.S. units. Ans. io.3.
Prob. 17.*
An
in contact with
Two iron slabs each 20 centimeters thick, one of which temperature zero and the other at 100 degrees Centigrade throughout, are placed together face to face, and their outer faces are kept at the temperature zero. Find the temperature of a point in their common face and of points 10 centimeters from the common face fifteen minutes after the slabs have been put together. Ans. 22.8 15.! ; i7.2.
Prob. 18.*
is
at the
Art.
In Art.
12. t
Properties of Zonal Harmonics.
as a particular solution of Art. 4] by the device of assuming Legendre's Equation [(7), that z could be expressed as a sum or a series of terms of
4,
= Pm {x) was obtained

then
the form a n x n and

* See Art.
f
3.
determining the
coefficients.
We
The student should review
Art. 4 before beginning this article.
Art.
12.]
PROPERTIES OF ZONAL HARMONICS.
203
can, however, obtain a particular solution of Legendre's equation
by an
entirely different
method.
potential function for any point (x, y, z) due to a unit of mass concentrated at a given point (xx ,yx% ,) is
The
V=
and
[(3),
(I)
this
Art.
must be a particular solution of Laplace's Equation is easily verified by direct substitution. 1], as
transform
(i)
If
we
to spherical coordinates
1
we
get
V=
Vr
=
sin 6 sin d x cos
2rr,[cos
cos B
-\-
(00,)]
+r
%
x
(2)
as a solution of Laplace's Equation in Spherical Coordinates

[(5),
Art.
i].
x >
x
the given point (x xt y z ) is taken on the axis of X, as it must be in order that (2) may be independent of 0, 0, O, and
If
^=
is
r* V,-,
2rr, cos
4.
.-v
+r
.
x
13)
a solution of equation (1), Art. Equation (3) can be written
^('"V
and
if
08
*+)"*'
(4)
is
less
than
r,
2^1
cos 6
can be developed
- be this series,
1
into a convergent
power
series.
Let 5?/
6.
/,
being of course a function of

(1),
Then
V=2pm r
I
w
is
solution of
Art.
4.
in the equation, and rememSubstituting this value of bering that the result must be identically true, we get after a
slight reduction
204
but, as
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP. V.
we have
seen, the substitution of

[(7),
= cos
6 reduces this
Art. 4]. Hence we infer that the coefficient of the mth. power of z in the development of i 2xz-\-z*)~ iz a function of x that will satisfy Legendre's >(i
to Legendre's equation
êquation.
(i
2XZ
+ Z )"* =
2
[i
2(2X
*)] -*,
;
and can be developed by the Binomial Theorem the coefficient m of z is easily picked out, and proves to be precisely the function of x which in Art. 4 we have represented by Pm (x), and have called a Surface Zonal Harmonic.
We
if
have, then,
t l -2xz+S)-*=P,{x)+Pl(x).*+P,(x).S+PJLx).e+.. (5)
the absolute value of z
If
(I
is
less
than
I.
x=
I, (5)
reduces to
9
l
.
_ 2g+ j?)-i = P (l)+P (t).i+PJil).S+ />(!) *> + but (1 - 2*+ f)-*=(i--*)- =i+s+ J +*>+...;
1
hence
Pm (l) =
Surface Zonal Harmonic
I.
(6)
Any
two
of
may
be obtained from the
next lower orders by the aid of the formula

(n
+ l)PnU*) ~ (2* + WU*) +

1
Pu-
(*)
= O,
(7)
which
is
easily obtained,
is
and
is
convenient when the numerical
value of x
given.
z,
Differentiate (5) with respect to

(
and we get
il
z L+* = p>w +2PM -' +3PM'*+----
Avhence
^1
2XZ-\-S y
or by
(I
- 2*8 +
+ (s
(5)
+ Z/fc) .* + 3/>,(*) ." x){P,(x) + />,(*) * + ^.(*)

)(/,(*)
*
+)=
0.
(8)
ART.
13.]
PROBLEMS
(8)
is
IN
ZONAL HARMONICS.
205
Now
power
of z
must vanish.
identically true, hence the coefficient of each n Picking out the coefficient of z and
writing it equal to zero, we have formula (7) above. By the aid of (7) a table of Zonal Harmonics is easily com-
puted since we have

for
P (x) =
1,
and
P {x) =
x
x.
Such a
table
cos
is
given at the
end of
this chapter.
Art.
13.
Problems in Zonal Harmonics.
In any problem on Potential if Fis independent of sa that we can use the form of Laplace's Equation employed in
Art. 4, and
if
the value of
Fon
or as
the axis of ^fis known, and
can be expressed as
2am rm
^ 3+I> we
can wr ite out
our required solution as
V=2am r~Pm (cos8) each of for since Pm(i) =

1
or
V^^ ^'^
value on the axis

satisfies
and as we have seen
these forms reduces to the proper in Art. 4 each of them
the reduced form of Laplace's Equation.

let
As an example,
of electricity placed
lar disk,
tial
us suppose a statical charge of units on a conductor in the form of a thin circu-
be required to find the value of the PotenFunction at any point in the " field of force" due to the
let it
and
charge.
The
from
its
surface density at a point of the plate at a distance
centre
is
<T
M
4#7T Va*
.
and
all
points of the conductor are at potential

(
See Pierce's
Newtonian Potential Function
61).
The
value of the potential function at a point in the axis
ot the plate at the distance
x from
the plate can be obtained
without difficulty by a simple integration, and proves to be
V = M cos-*.x
2a
x*
+ a*
,
v ' (1)
206
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP. V.
The second member

series.
of (i)
is
easily developed into a
power
M cos
2a
x* x*
- a*
+a
.
MYn
x*
x*
;.
Hence
-lJi>.(cos )+-...] 5
is
(4)
our required solution
if
<a
<0
and
<
-, as
is
F=
jj-
- VP, (cos + -
P (cos
t
0)
-lJ/>.(cos)
+ ...]ifr>,
(5)
The series in (4) and (5) are convergent, since they may be obtained from the convergent series (2) and (3) by multiplying the terms by a set of quantities no one of which exceeds one
in absolute value.
Pm (cos
The
6)
always
lies
For it will be shown in the next 1. between 1 and
article that
Prob. 19. Find the value of the Potential Function due to the attraction of a material circular ring of small cross-section.
value on the axis of the ring can be obtained by a simple
integration,
ring.
and
M
=
is
if
is
the mass and c the radius of the

c
At any point
in space, if r
<
Vm
and
if
y [/'.(cos
>
c
1 0)- -
p,(cos 6)
+ 1^ /,(* 60 -
],
ART.
14.]
ADDITIONAL FORMS.
I
2
207
T= - f-^ (cos 6) C
Lr Art.
14.
-3 P (cos 2
6)
+ 2 -^ r (cos 0) 0>
T
.
4V 4
'
.1 J
Additional Forms.
have seen in Art. 12 that m (x) is the coefficient of (#) m in the z 2xz-\- #*)-* in a power series. development of (i
(l
We
2XZ
~
Z*)
= =
01
[I
*(*'
+
K
e~
1
')
+
^*0
(I
**')"
]-* "*
we develop nomial Theorem

If
(i
(i
ze ')-*
and
(i
ze~ 9i)-l by the Bi-
their
product
will give a
is
development
for
2xz
+ z*)~l.
The
m coefficient of z
easily picked out
and reduced, and we get
PJcos
6)
1
=
I
1.3.5... (2m 3.4.6... 2m

i
'
i)
n 2C0sw,g
+2
Wl
i.(2 W -.)
C08
^-
2) g
3-
(*-)
I.2.(2W-l)(2W-3)
V cos(
_ 4) g + 17
I
1 J
(I)
is odd the parenthesis in (1) ends with the term conif is even, with the term containing cos o, but cos taining in the latter case the term in question will not be multiplied by the factor 2, which is common to all the other terms.
If
Since
positive,
all
the coefficients in the second

0)
member
#
of (1) are
its
Pw (cos
has
its
maximum
value
when
= o, and
value then has already been shown in Art. 12 to be unity. 1. Obviously, then, its minimum value cannot be less than
we integrate the value of Pm {x) given in (11), Art. 4, (b) If times in succession with respect to x, the result will be
differ
tound to
from
'3-5
^-^.
^ {2m)\
(
2m
0/
171th.
\x*
W m
i) '
t.
by terms m-
volving lower powers of
than the
Hence
PJfi
^^~
I*
(*)
208'
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
Other forms for
[CHAP.
VI.
(c)
Pm {x\
m
i)
which we give without demon-
stration, are
PJ
^~
=
m
>
dx
tv + y + /
i_
(3 >
IT
PJx)
\f\* +
Vxî
cos <] V0.
(4)
P,(*)
= l/
^j/
#
[*
.
.
V -T
COS 0] m+1
(j)
(4)
and
(5)
can be verified without difficulty by expanding
and integrating.
Art.
15.
Development
as in Art. 4,
in
Terms of Zonal Harmonics.

the value of the Potential
Whenever,
we have
Function given on the surface of a sphere, and this value depends only on the distance from the extremity of a diameter,
it
of
becomes necessary to develop a function the form
of 6 into a series
Aflcos
or,
d)
+ ^(cos + Aflcos +
6)
0)
what amounts to the same
thing, to develop a function of
into a series of the form
AJ>.{?)
+ Aflx) + A fix) + ....

r
is entirely analogous to that of development treated at length in Art. 6 and may be solved by in sine-series the same method.
The problem
Assume
for
1
1
f(x)
1.
= A P (x) + A P {x) + A P (x) +

x
(1)
<x <
1.
Multiply (1) by
Pm (x)dx and
1
integrate from
to
We
1
get
_
^ P ff{x)Pm(x)dx "s\A. f m (x)P {x)dx\

n
(2)
Art.
16.]
formui as for development.

shall
209
We
show
i
in the
next
article that
j
-i
i
Pm (x)Pn (x)dx = o,
unless
m=n
and that
f[PJx)ydx -1
^.
1
Hence
It is
A m = ^-t- ff(x)Pm {x)dx.

in Art. 6, that
(3)
important to notice here, as
the method
we have used
mining
Am
obtaining so that the equation

x
in
Am
amounts
essentially to deter-
Ax)
and
==
A P {x) + A P {x) + A fix) +

x
+ A P {x)
n
shall hold
I,
good for n -\- I equidistant values and taking its limiting value as n
of
is
x between
indefinitely in-
creased.
Art.
16.
Formulas for Development.

in
We
have seen
Art. 4 that z
= Pm (x)
-f-
is
a solution of
Legendre's Equation
-j-\ (1
x*)
m(m
+ 1)2 =
o.
(1)
Hence
and
^[(l
(l
- x*)
^?]
(3)
+ m(m + i)Pm {x) =
o,
(2)
i[ -^-2^]+^ +I ^ W =a
Multiply
(2)
(3 >
by
PW
W and
by
Pm (x), subtract, transpose,

1
and
integrate.
We
have
\m{m + I) - n(n +
i)]fpm (x)Pn (x)dx

-1
210
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP. V,
=[^K.-)"-f
-1
-^)<.-^'i
];,
-1
by integration by
parts,
o.
i
Hence
unless
fPm (x)P (x)dx =

n
-i
O,
(6)
m=
n.
If in (4)
we
integrate from
to
instead of from
to
\r
we
get an important formula.
Pm (x)P* (x)dX= n
"* v
'
/(;
r-=i)
I.
~,
n(n-\-
(7)
i)
and as a special
case, since P^-*-)
unless
m=
get
o.
i
To
f[Pm {x)Jdx
is
not particularly
difficult.
By
(2),
-1
Art. 14,
*
~i
flP4*)7d*^ttf
v
'
dx~
dx-
dx
9>
-1
By
successive integrations
a
by
parts, noting that
dx__(^
i)
m contains (x*
1)*
as a factor
if
k < m, and
Art.
16.J
formulas for development.

K
211
that
dx* m
= (2m)l
we
get
i
-1
*'
-1
f{x*
-i
i)
m dx
f(x
-i
m
i)
(x
+
i)
i)
m dx
=
m-\i
fix J
v
' i)
\ {x+ -r
m+1dx
{2tn)\
+U
2
(
+l
(m
\y
!'
I}
(2m
1)
Hence
-i
/W)]W* = -^rj.
'
<i I)
Prob. 20.
Show
m-\
that /
Pm (x)dx = o
x
-
if tn is
even and
is
not zero
(- i)"^
m\m-\-
3-5-7---M
\)
if
is
odd
.4.6
..
.(m
i)
Prob. 21.
Show
that^ [AC*)]V*
x.
2m \
'
Note that
[^(tf)]*
is
an even function of
Prob. 22.
,/(.*)
==
Show that if f(x) from x = o to x = x,
o from
to
= o,
and
Prob. 23.
Show
that i?(0)
= ^ Bm Pm (cos
0)
where
i?w
fF(d)Pm (cos
6) sin
dd.
212
Prob. 24.
esc 6
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
Chap
V-
Show
that (cos
y [1 +
Show
a
!
(j)V,
(?)
+ 9(^5) A(cos
0)
"+
.].
See
(1), Art. 14.
Prob. 25.
that
(2 "
**
=
1.3.5
.(a
+I )[
l}/>
<
+ (in - 7
1
+ (" - 3) 3 " + '* ~ '>

( *>
2JL
~^-
(x)
/>._,(*)
+ ...].
Note that
t/
fx Pm (x)dx
n
1
2 "V//
/
.-1
fx* ^
1
x
dx m
\'~
^"-dx,
and use the
_i
method
of integration by parts freely.
Prob. 26.
at
Show
and
if
that
if
V is
the value of the Potential Function
any point
in a field of force, not
imbedded
ling matter;
'
/{&) when r
in attracting or repel-
a,
V=2A m P M (cos6)if r<a

and
2jJ^Pm{a
V) if
r>
a,
where
Am =
Show
-^J-ff{0)P
2
if
;
nt
{cos 6) sin Odd.
Prob. 27.
that
V= c
when r
=a
F=
if
<#
and
F=
r
if
>
dr.
Art.
17.
Formulas
in
Zonal Harmonics.
The
tion
following formulas which we give without demonstramay be found useful for reference
:
^^= (2n-i)P..,(x)+(2n-s)PU')+(2n1
9)PU'}+----(i)
fp{x)dx =
_L_[ P,_ (*) - />+,(*)].

J 1
(3)
Art.
19.]
spherical harmonics.
213
Art.
18.
Spherical Harmonics.
In problems in Potential where the value of Fis given on the surface of a sphere, but is not independent of the angle 0, we have to solve Laplace's Equation in the form (5), Art. I, and
by
a treatment analogous to that given in Art. 4
it
can be
proved that
V = rm cos n<b
where
ju
sin
M
,
and
V=
rm sin nd> sin M 6
r^~^>
= cos
6,
are particular solutions of
(5),
Art.
1.
The
factors multiplied
by
r m in these values are

<p
known
as
Tesseral Harmonics.
They
are functions of
and
6,
and they
play nearly the same part in.unsymmetrical problems that the Zonal Harmonics play in those independent of 0.
YJji, 0)
is
= A.Pm(p) +
m=i
l (A
cos
+B
sin
0)sin
^*
(IfA.
P jM
known
as a Surface Spherical
Harmonic
of the #zth degree,
and
V=r~Ym
(fii,<p)
and
V = -^1
1.
(,
<p)
satisfy Laplace's Equation, (5), Art.
The
Tesseral and the Zonal Harmonics are special cases of
the Spherical Harmonic, as is also a form m (cos y) known as a Laplace's Coefficient or a Laplacian y standing for the angle between r and the radius vector r, of some fixed point.
;
refer
For the properties and uses of Spherical Harmonics we the student to more extended treatises, namely, to
Ferrer's Spherical Harmonics, to Heine's Kugelfunctionen, or
to Byerly's Fourier's Series and Spherical Harmonics.
Art.
19.*
Bessel's Functions.
in Art. 5 that
i
Properties.
We
have seen
= J {x) where
/.w = i-J + i^ - ir ? J^
* The student should review Art.
5
+ --.
(1)
before reading this article.
214
is
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP.
a solution of the equation
^+^ + *=
.
d*z
dz
0:
(2 >
and we have called J&x) a Bessel's Function or Cylindrical
Harmonic
of the zero order.
JA) ~
is
dx
2L
2.
4^2. 4
2
.
2. 4
order,
.6\8^
Kl)
called a Bessel's
Function of the
first
and
is
a solution of the equation
dx*
+ x dx ^+(>-^=>
f
(4>
which
is
the result of differentiating (2) with respect to x.
table giving values of (x) and /,(^) will be found at the end of this chapter. If we write J&x) for z in equation (2), then multiply through by xdx and integrate from zero to x, simplifying the
resulting equation
by integration by
parts,
we
o,
get
xdj%(x)
or, since
J (x)
x
dx AT (J
-
+ fxj,{x)dx =
dx
fxj,(x)dx
= xJSx).
(2),
(5)
If
we
write J^x) for z in equation
then multiply through
by
xi
j--i
an d integrate from zero to x, simplifying by inte-
gration
by
parts,
we
get
or
fx(/l*)ydx
f [(/.(*)) + (/,(*))"].
'
(6>
-Art 20.]
If
applications of bessel's functions.

replace
215
we
x by fix dz
2
in (2)
1
it
becomes
dz
(See
(8),
Art.
5).
Hence z
= J^x)
(j)J
Q
t
is
a solution of
(/* L x)
(7).
If
we
substitute in turn in
^ x) and /
K
for
z,
mult
tiply the first
equation by
x/ (^ x),
first,
the second by
x/ (/uK x)
subtract the second from the

parts,
simplify by integration
by
and reduce, we get
JxJl^xK x)J^x)dx
-^KaJljA,a)f^ K a)~}x aJl^ K a)J^}x,d)\
K
(8)
Hence
/,(/**)
if /i K
and
// t
= o,
are different roots of /(/*#)
= o,
or of
or of
im/Aim)
a
\J (iia)
= o,
o.
J xJ^Kx)JX^x)dx =
:
(9)
We give without demonstration the following formulas, which are sometimes useful
ir
J (x) =
x
- fcos(x
n
cos
cp)d(p.
(:o)
J (x) = -
I sin
cos (x cos
<p)d<p.
(11)
They can be confirmed by developing

grating, and comparing with
(1)
cos (x cos 0), inte-
and
(3).
Art.
(a)
20.
Applications of Bessel's Functions.

of Art.
5 is
:
a special case of the following The convex surface and one base of a cylinder of radius a and length b are kept at the constant temperature zero, the
The problem
temperature at each point of the other base is a given function of the distance of the point from the center of the base re;
216
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[CHAP. V.
quired the temperature of any point of the cylinder after the
permanent temperatures have been established.
Here we have
to solve Laplace's
Equation
in
the form
or
(see Art.
5),
r dr
oz
subject to the conditions
=o u = o
when
"
u=f(r)"
u
= o, r ~ a, z = b.
(1),
Starting with the particular solution of
sinh (/Az)J (Mr),

5,
(2)
.
and proceeding
of
as in Art.
we
get,
if
/*,,/*,,//,,..
are roots
(3)
/.(/**)
= o,
%
z
and
f(r)
= AJ
Ml r)
sinhfos) ^\sinh (/^)
+ AJ.{ r) + AJ^ + sinhOi^) ^ + "%inh (///) / '^ +

r)
,
(4)
r;
r)
'
'
(5
'
instead of keeping the convex surface of the cylinder at temperature zero we surround it by a jacket impervious to when r heat the equation of condition, 21 a, will be re-
()
If
placed by
= O when r = a,
oV
.
or
if
=
r
sinh (îz)/
a,
(îr)
by
=o
when
dr
that
is,
by
/xjâ)
/:(/"*)
o
(6)
.
or
If
= o.
are roots of
now
If
in (4)
and
(5) /Jt
/*,,/*,,..
(6), (5) will
be the solution of our new problem.

instead of keeping the convex surface of the cylinder at the temperature zero we allow it to cool in air which is at
(c)
the temperature zero, the condition u

replaced by
= o when
= a will
be
or
\-hu
O when r
= a, h
being the coefficient
of surface conductivity.
Art.
21.]
development
in
terms of bessel's functions.
217
If
sinh (?z)J9 (f*r) this condition
becomes
r
P/Af**)
+ hj^jxr) = o
ahj^d)
,
when
o.
.
=a
or
If
H*/i(j<"*)
(7)
(7), (5) will
now
in (4)
and
(5)
yw,
//,
yw 3
are roots of
be the solution of our present problem. It can be shown that
- o, = /iW
/.(*)
>
(8)
(9)
and
have each an
xJ (x)
x
\Jlx)
=o
(10)
infinite
number
of real positive roots.*
The
earlier roots of these equations can

difficulty
be obtained without serious
from the table for Jix) and /,(#) at the end of this
chapter.
Art.
21.
Development
now
in
Terms of Bessel's Functions.
We
article.
shall
obtain the developments called for in the last
Let
Ar)
fjtt
,
= Ajfar) + A /&S) + AJ (Mt r) + ...

t
9
(1)
o,
^ ^
,
etc.,
being roots of
of
MaSXM<*)
= o, or Vo(^) = o.
(/*tf)
of /,(//#)
or
To determine any coefficient A k multiply (1) by rj (jii k r)dr and integrate from zero to a. The first member will become
a
frf{r)/.{n t r)dr.
Every term
19,
of the second
member
will vanish
by
(9),
Art.
except the term
At
fr\J,(fi,r)Ydr.
JrUAwWr = jjf4./J&J*t=
by
(6),
j([/.(w*)]"+[y.(w*)]')
Art. 19.
* See Riemann's Partielle Differentialgleichungen,
97.
218
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
a
[Chai\ V.
Hence
A =
k
The development
Arts. 6 and 15).
If J* t
,
(i)
holds good from r
= o to r = a
(2)
(see
Mt
M%> etc -> are roots

'
o{/ (jua)
o
= o,
reduces to
Ak
7uh&%J'rJW*Jvyir
oi/ (jia)
t
'
(3)
If Mi, M*y M*> e tc, are roots
o, (2)
reduces to
If /i,,
(2)
ju 3
M%y
etc -> are
roots of
âj {â)
x
\J%{j*a)
o,
reduces to
^ =
4
^+jJÛA^)r / rArV 0v)dr

'
(5)
For the important case where /(r)

a
a
%
fi k
=
a
frf{r)Jl^k r)dr=
f rjJjA#)dr=l- fxJ (x)dx = ^-J ^ d) (6)

Q
x
by
(5),
Art. 19; and (3) reduces to

2
(4)
reduces to
Art. 21.]
development
ix
terms of bessel's functions.
219
Prob. 29. An iron cylinder one meter long and 20 centimeters diameter has its convex surface covered with a so-called non-conducting cement one centimeter thick. One end and the convex
in
surface of the cylinder thus coated are kept at the temperature zero, Given that the conthe other end at the temperature of 100 degrees.
ductivity of iron is 0.185 and of cement 0.000162 in C. G. S. units. Find to the nearest tenth of a degree the temperature of the middle point of the axis, and of the points of the axis 20 centimeters from each end after the temperatures have ceased to change.
Find also the temperature of a point on the surface midway between the ends, and of points of the surface 20 centimeters from each end. Find the temperatures of the three points of the axis, supposing the coating a perfect non-conductor, and again, supposNeglect the curvature of the coating. Ans. ing the coating absent.
O
Or>
;
15 .4
40
.85
72 .8
Oo-O 15
;
.3
40
.7
72 .5
o .0
.0
.3.
Prob. 30. If the temperature at any point in an infinitely long cylinder of radius c is initially a function of the distance of the
point from the axis, the temperature at any time must satisfy the
equation
du ~-
3 a (d*u (- 3
1
-\
du\
I
(see Art.
1),
since
* it is
clearly in-
dependent of z and
<p.
Show
that
+ Af-"*j far) +
%
.,
where,
the surface of the cylinder is kept at the temperature o and Ak is the value zero, //, // 9 , M 3 , . are roots of J^pc) if the surface of the given in (3) with c written in place of a cylino and A k is obare roots of JJju) der is adiabatic /* //,, jtf 3
if
, .
.
tained from (4); and if heat escapes at the surface into air at the tem> ^JX^ C ) perature zero /*,, ju a j/t , ...are roots of pcjjj**)
,
and
Ak
is
obtained from
(5).
Prob. 31. If the cylinder described in problem 29 is very and is initially at the temperature ioo throughout, and the
long con-
is kept at the temperature o, find the temperature of a point 5 centimeters from the axis 15 minutes after cooling has begun ; first when the cylinder is coated, and second, when the coating is Ans. 97.2 o.oi. absent. Prob. 32. A circular drumhead of radius a is initially slightly
;
vex surface
distorted into a given form which is a surface of revolution about the axis of the drum, and is then allowed to vibrate, and z is the
ordinate of any point of the
membrane
at
any time. Assuming that
220
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
satisfy the equation
[CHAP. V.
must
^3
+
/
~j,
subject to the con-
ditions z
/
when
a,
o when
/^<tf
)
o,
and
= /(r)
/i 9 tf
when
o,
show
that 2
= A^J^y)
. .
.
cos
+ AjXl*/) cos
an(*
where
/*,, fi %% f*% ,
are roots of
jXâ
^* nas
tne value
that if a drumhead be initially distorted as in not in general give a musical note that it may be problem 32 that in this case the initially distorted so as to give a musical note that the periods of the various vibration will be a steady vibration musical notes that can be given are proportional to the roots of o, and that the possible nodal lines for such vibrations (x)
given in (3). Prob. 33.
Show
will
it
are concentric circles whose radii are proportional to the roots of
/.(*)
o.
Art.
If in a
22.
Problems in Bessel's Functions.
o when
problem on the stationary temperatures of a cylinder z = o, u = o when z = b and u = f{z) when r = a,

y
the problem
is
easily solved.
If in (2),
Art. 20, and in the corfit,
responding solution z
can readily obtain
= cosh (Mz)/ (Mr) we replace M by we z = sin (/xz)J (/uri) and z = cos (Mz)f (M r i)
(1),
as particular solutions of
Art. 20; and
and
is real.
^T
fc=i
knz
where
A k =-r
9.
knz
I
f(z) sin
7-
dz
>
(2)
by
Art.
knri\
b
7
I
Hence
= "^
k7TZ^\
sin
r-
(3)
is
the required solution.
Art.
24.]
lame's functions.
221
table giving the values of
J (xi)
will
be found at the end
of this chapter.
Prob. 34. A cylinder two feet long and two feet in diameter has bases kept at the temperature zero and its convex surface at 100 degrees Centigrade until the internal temperatures have ceased
its
Find the temperature of a point on the axis half way between the bases, and of a point six inches from the axis, half way between the bases. Ans. 72. i; 8o.i.
to change.
Art.
23.
Bessel's Functions of
Higher Order.
If we are dealing with Laplace's Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates and the problem is not symmetrical about an axis, functions of the form
**
very much
**
'
2r(*+l)L
2'(+l)
2\2\{?l+
1)0+2)
the same part as that played by (x) in the play are known as Bessel's Functions of preceding articles. They the nth. order. In problems concerning hollow cylinders much
more complicated functions

of the second kind.
enter,
known
as Bessel's Functions
For a very
brief discussion of these functions the reader
is
;
and Spherical Harmonics for a much more complete treatment to Gray and Matthews' admirable treatise on Bessel's Functions.
referred to Byerly's Fourier's Series
Art.
24.
Lame's Functions.
Complicated problems in Potential and in allied subjects are usually handled by the aid of various forms of curvilinear coordinates, and each form has its appropriate Harmonic Functions,
which are usually extremely complicated. For instance, Lame's Functions or Ellipsoidal Harmonics are used when
solutions of Laplace's Equation in Ellipsoidal coordinates are Toroidal Harmonics when solutions of Laplace's required
;
Equation
in
Toroidal coordinates are needed.
For a
brief introduction to the theory of these functions
see Byerly's Fourier's Series
and Spherical Harmonics.
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
[Chap. V.
TABLES.
223
224
HARMONIC FUNCTIONS.
Table
II.
[Chap. V.
Bessel's Functions.
TABLES.
225
Table
n
III.
Roots of Bessel's Functions.
226
[CHAP, VI.
Chapter VI.

By Thomas
S.
Fiske,
in
Adjunct Professor of Mathematics
Columbia University.
Art.
If
1.
Definition of Function.
of them,
two or more quantities are such that no one
when any
values whatsoever are assigned to the others, suffers any restriction in regard to the values which it can assume the quantities are said to be " independent."
If
one quantity
is
so related to another quantity or
to
several independent quantities, that whenever particular values are assigned to the latter, the former is required to take one or
another of a system of completely determined values, the former is said to be a " function " of the latter. The quantity or
quantities upon the values of which the value of the function " " of the independent variables depends, are said to be the
function.
function
is
" one-valued "
when
to every set of values as-
signed to the independent variables there corresponds but one " value of the function. It is said to be " ^-valued when to
every set of values of the independent variables n values of the function correspond.
The "Theory
of Functions
"
has
among
its
objects the
study of the properties of functions, their classification according to their properties, the derivation of formulas which exhibit the relations of functions to one another or to their independ-
ent variables, and the determination whether or not functions

exist satisfying assigned conditions.
Art.
2.]
REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX VARIABLE.

2.
227
Art.
Representation of Complex Variable.

quantity
is
A variable
real
and imaginary
values.
capable, in general, of assuming both In fact, unless it be otherwise
specified, every quantity " " form
w
V
by
is
is
I,
to be regarded as having the
complex
u-\-v
u and v being
real.
It is cus-
tomary to denote
tity thus
:
V
If
i,
and to write the preceding quan-
iv.
zero,
is
real
if
is
zero,
is
pure imaginary."
A quantity z = x
i
-\-
iy
is
" said to vary " continuously

x x
when
x
between every pair of values which it takes, c = a -f- ib and c * = a *~\~ M% tne value of z varies in such a manner that x and y pass through all real values intermediate to a and #a b and b respectively.
x ,
x give to a variable quantity z iy a graphical representation by drawing in a plane a pair of rectangular axes and constructing a point whose abscissa and ordinate are
It is usual to
= +
To every value of z will correrespectively equal to x and y. a point and, conversely, to every point will correspond spond
;
point and value, then, may be interchanged without confusion. When z varies continuously the
a value of
z.
The terms
"
"
graphical representation of its varia" tion, or its path," will be a continuous
This graphical representation is line. of the highest importance. By means of it some of the most complicated
propositions
sion.
given an exceedingly condensed and concrete expres-
may be
r cos putting x quantity, the point
By
0,
r sin
where r
is
a positive real
z
is
= r(cos 6
-f- i
sin 6)
referred to polar coordinates. " absolute value or " modulus of
The quantity
z.
is
called the
(^J,
It will often
z.
be written
and
" 6 will be called the argument" of
223
[CHAP. VI.
function is sometimes considered for only such values of each independent variable as are represented graphically by the In the study of functions points of a certain continuous line.
of real variables, for example, the path of each variable
resented by a straight or y o.
line,
is repthe axis of real quantities,, namely,
Art.
3.
Absolute Convergence.
means
of infinite series
The
is
representation of functions by
one of the most important branches of the theory of funcIn

it is
tions.
that
problems, in fact, it is only by means of series possible to determine functions satisfying the condi-
many
tions assigned
and to obtain the required numerical

will
If
results..
Frequent use
be made
of the following theorem.
Theorem.
the moduli of the terms of a series form a
convergent series, the given series is convergent. wQ -\- w Let the given series be r (cos 0, i sin # ), w, r (cos 6 a in which w
W=
r
=
x
-f-
wn -\-
By
hypothesis the series

Its
R=
+r +
+ +r +
n
i sin #,)
is
terms being all positive, the sum of its first m convergent. terms constantly increases with m, but in such a manner as to approach a limit. The same will be true necessarily of any
series
formed by selecting terms from R. The sum of the is composed of two parts, terms of the series
first
W
x
r cos 6o
z{r sin 6
+ r cos 6 + r sin 6 +
X
x
+ rm + rm
_, _x
cos 9m .
sin #,_,),
and each of these in turn may be divided into parts which have all their terms of the same sign. Every one of the four parts
thus obtained approaches a limit as m is increased for the terms of each part have the same sign, and cannot exceed, in absolute value, the corresponding terms of R. Hence, as m is
;
increased, the
limit
;
sum
of the
first
tn
terms of
approaches a
which was to be proved.

series,
the moduli of whose terms form a convergent
series, is said to
be " absolutely convergent."
Art.
4. J
elementary functions.
i.
229
*
. .
Prob.
Show
'
that the series

if
|
I
I.
-+
+V +
+ zn +
is
absolutely convergent,
<
Art.
4.
Elementary Functions.
In elementary mathematics the functions are usually considered for only real values of the independent variables. In the case of the algebraic functions, however, there is no difficulty in assuming that the independent variables are complex.
The theory
fore,
is
of elimination
shows that every algebraic equation
can be freed from
radicals. Every algebraic function, theredefined by an equation which may be put in a form wherein the second member is zero and the first member is
rational
and entire
in
the function and
its
independent variables.
Besides the algebraic functions, the functions most often occurring in elementary mathematics are the trigonometric and
exponential functions and the functions inverse to them. The definitions, by which these functions are generally first intro-
duced, have
familiar series,
e*
pendent variables
no significance in the case where the indeare complex. However, the following
z* = expz= i+z+ z* + z* +-+..., z 4 j

.
C0S2=
z __+_+....,
z*
a
3
I
.9
'
z
J
1
.
7i
which have been established for the case where the variables are real, furnish most convenient general definitions for exp z,
cos
z,
and
finite
sin
every the equation
z these series being absolutely convergent for value of z. Defining the logarithmic function by
%
e\o%
it
ex p (Jog g}
follows that
a*
= ezl s
sa
exp(z log
a).
230
[CHAP. VL.
The
following equations also are to be regarded as equations,

:
of definition
tan z
sin 2
Art.
5.]
continuity of functions.
231
variables
quantities of moduli less than some determinate positive quantity 3, the value of the function is altered by a
by
quantity of modulus less than any previously chosen arbitrarily small positive quantity e.
function of one independent variable
is
said to be con-
tinuous in a given region of the plane upon which its independent variable is represented, if it is contiuuous at every point
in that region.
From the
principles of limits,
it
follows that
are continuous at a given point, their
uct are continuous at that point. quence, every rational entire function of z
two functions sum, difference, and prodAs an immediate conseif
is
continuous at
finite point every such function can be constructed from z and constant quantities by a finite number of additions, subtractions, and multiplications.
every
for
Let a function of a single independent variable be continuous at c, and let it take at that point the value /, different
from
zero.
Suppose
also that at
/ -\-
any other point c-\-Ac\X\z
function takes the value

I
At.
Then
At
At
At
|
t{t+ At)
/
|
If it
be assumed that
<
|,
the modulus of the preceding
difference cannot exceed
\t\(\t\-\At\y
and
will,
therefore, be less than e
if
\jt\<
up
l+e\t
Hence
at a point
if
c,
a function
its
if
is
continuous and different from zero
at
once that
is
It follows reciprocal is also continuous at c. two functions are both continuous at c, their
c,
ratio
continuous at
unless the denominator reduces to zero
232
at that point.
[CHAP. VI.
But every
rational function of z
It is
may
its
be expressed
as the ratio of
two
entire functions.
therefore continuous
for all values of z except
those for which
denominator
vanishes.
Consider the function expz,

pZ-\-b.Z
gZ
Hence
if
\Az\<\,
\A Z \'
but the limit of the third

proaches zero.
of
z.
member
is
is
zero
when
all
Hence exp z
that cos z
continuous for
finite
\Az\ apvalues
Prob.
5.
z.
Show Show
and
sin z are
continuous for
all
finite
values of
Prob.
6.
that tan z
is
about the origin as a center with a radius
continuous in any circle described less than \n. o^ 2~-
Art.
It
6.
Graphical Representation of Functions. ? -Functions

in Art. 2 that a
was shown
plane suffices for the complete
graphical representation of the values of an

able.
In the same way
it is
independent variconvenient to use a second plane
to represent graphically the values of
any one-valued
function.
For example,
if
w =jf[z)
be such a function, to each point
x
u
-f-f-
iy of the
iv of the function.
of the point
independent variable will correspond a point " This point u -f- iv is called the u image If w is a continuous function of z, then -f- iy.
in
every continuous curve in the ^-plane will have an image the w-plane, and this image will be also a continuous curve.
Consider the expression u
-f-
iv
x" -f-
-f-
2ixy.
Here
Art.
7.J
DERIVATIVES.
-f-
233
x*
y and v =
2xy.
Since to every value of z correy
spond determinate values of x and y and consequently determinate values of u and v, this expression falls under the general definition of a function oiz.
It is
evidently continuous.
Every
of
it
straight line
is
=
1
parallel to
the axis of
converted by means y into a parabola v \f{u f).
Prob.
7.
Find the family of curves
into which the straight lines parallel to
the axis of y are converted by means of
the function u
x*
~~
^"
+ 2txy.
Show
that
no two curves
of this family intersect.
Art.
Let
tt>
7.
Derivatives.
*.
= f(z)
is,
be a given function of
If
//
is
an "
infiniif
tesimal," that
a variable having zero as
its limit,
and
the
expression
h
has a
finite
determinate
limit,
remaining the same under
all
possible suppositions as to the way in which //approaches zero, " derivative" of the function^) at this limit is said to be the
the point
at
z.
z.
In this case
is
f{z)
is
said to be " dvu

-7-.
"
monogenic
is
The
derivative
written f'{z) or
A function
said
to be monogenic in a region of the plane of the independent variable if it is monogenic at every point of that region.
Consider
now
the circumstances under which a function
iv
may
have a derivative at the point z

is
;
-\- iy.
If z be given a real increment, x Ax y is unaltered, so that Az
changed and
into
-f-
Ax, while
A iv
~Az~
Au
Av
'
Ax
Ax'
234
If,

is
[CHAP, VI.
on the other hand, z ment, Az iAy, and
given a purely imaginary incre-
Azv
'
_"
Au
iAy
Az
If
Av Ay
'
the second
members
of these equations approach deterzero,
minate limits as
are equal,
Ax and Ay approach
and
if
these limits.
du, l-9^___ z du
dv dy
dx^ dx~
dy
Hence, equating
real
and imaginary
parts,
du
dv
dv _
du
dx~dy'
which are necessary conditions
It
dx~~~dy'
for the existence of a derivative.
can be shown that these conditions are also sufficient.
the increment of the independent variable be entirely arbitrary, no supposition being made as to the relative magni-
For
let
tudes of
its real
and imaginary
is,
parts.
Then
the differential of
the function, that
that part of the increment of the function
which remains after subtracting the terms of order higher than

the
first, is
W
Hence
(
dx'
\dy
dy
'
I
du
+ _ dx + idy
du
idv
\Yx
.dv\
t
^x)
dv\dy + (du + %)^ V \dJ

.
,1\
l
lt dx I+ ;i
is
3f
i"*f *t
which, by virtue of the conditions written above, either member of the equation
equal ta
du
.dv_
'
_ -du
dv dy
dx
dx
is
dy
The
value thus obtained
independent of
-i
dx
or,
what
z.
is
the
same
thing, of the direction of approach to the point
The
Art.
7.]
derivatives.
235
existence cf a derivative of the function zv depends, therefoie,
only on the existence of partial derivatives r J
-*-.
dx
^, dx
-r-,
;r
ay
dy
satisfying the specified equations of condition.
The same equations
of condition
express the fact that
w=
x and
some
supposed to be an analytical expression involving and having partial derivatives with respect to each, y, involves z as a whole, that is, may be constructed from z by
u
-\- iv,
series of operations, not introducing
or
y except
in
the
combination x
y may
In other words, they indicate that x and -\- iy. both be eliminated from <p(x, y) by means of the
w=
x -\- ty. This property, however, is not sufficient equation z to define a function as monogenic, for not every function which possesses it has a derivative with respect to z.*
monogenic function is necessarily continuous that the existence of a derivative involves continuity. For, if
;
is,
limit "^
^-^ =/(*)>
it
follows that
where
rj
approaches zero with
//.
Hence
f(z)
is
the limit of
f(z-\-h) when h approaches

point
z.
zero, or f(z)
is
continuous at the
following pages relate almost exclusively to functions which are monogenic except for special isolated values of z. Functions which are discontinuous for every value of the independent variable, and functions which are continuous but admit
The
no derivatives, have been

real variables.-)*
little
studied except in the case of
* For an interesting illustration of a non-monogenic function constructed from z by a series of arithmetical operations, see the expression given at the bottom of page 298. fin this connection see G. Darboux, Sur les fonctions discontinues, Annates de l'cole Normale, Series 2, Vol. 4 (1875), PP- 51-112. For a systematic
treatment of functions of a real variable, see the
treatise
German
translation of Dini's.
by Luroth and Schepp, Leipzig, 1892.
236
[CHAP. VI.
Art.
Let z
8.
Conformal Representation.
start from the point z% and trace two different paths a given angle at the point z and let z and z% be arbiforming
> x
trary points on the
first
and second paths respectively.

-fi'sin
t
Then
z
x
= r,(cos 0,
r e i6 \
x
where r denotes the length
of the straight line joining z
and
and
0,
denotes the inclination of this line to the axis of
reals.
In the
same way,
z
a.
for the point #a

2
there
is
an equation
z%
If
r3 (cos
sin
9)
9 rj* :
now
is
region
of the ^-plane considered, to the points z
one-valued monogenic function of z, in the z gt corre,
x >
spond points
the equations
w w w
,
and
for these points
can be formed
w
From
once
that,
w = p/*
w,
w = p/f*.
the supposition that w is monogenic, it follows at when z and z % are assumed to approach zQy
x
limit
v^Zî = H m it ^zJHs. z
z,
zx
If
the
members
in the
of this equation are not equal to zero,
it
may
be put
form
limit
limit
*!*.
Art.
8.]
CONFORMAL REPRESENTATION.
231
or
limit
&**A.
limit
*V**-H ^
a
Hence
limit
(0,-
2)
limit
(0,-
f)
and the images in the w-plane of the two paths traced by z form at w an angle equal to that at z% in the ,2-plane. Accordingly, if z be supposed to trace any configuration whatever
in a portion of the ,2-plane in
which
dz
is
determinate and not
equal to zero, every angle in the image traced by w will be equal to the corresponding angle in the -s'-plane. If, for exambe divided into infinitesimal ple, such a portion of the w-plane
triangles, the
corresponding portion of the -plane will be divided in the same manner, and the corresponding triangles
will
be mutually equiangular.
Such a copy upon a plane, or

is
upon any surface, of a configuration in another surface a " conformal representation."
called
The modulus
"
of the derivative
dw
~dz
Aw
limit
Az
is
the
Its value, which, in general, changes from magnification." point to point, may be obtained from the relations
dw
dz
-+'-'+'
"
dx dy
dy dx
representation has interesting ap-
The theory of conformal plications to map drawing.*

p. 500,
* For the literature of the subject, see Forsyth, Theory or Functions, and Holzmiiller, Einfuhring in die Theorieder isogonalen Verwandschaften und der conformen Abbildungen, verbunden mit Anwendungen auf matheniatische Physik.
Qrlfl
23S
Ajprf/
nnfyrôCAU ftwtLAsUn**>
[CHAP. VI.

9.
Art.
Case
Examples of Conformal Representation.

Let
I.
w=z s+c.
This function
is
formed from the

Putting
independent variable
for w, z,
by the addition of a constant.

-f-
and
c,
respectively, u
ivt
x -\-
iy
and a -f-
tb,
one ob-
tains
=x
-f- a,
=y
-J- b.
Any
configuration in the ^-plane appears, therefore, in the seaplane unaltered in magnitude, and is situated with respect to
the axes as
if
it
had been moved
parallel to the axis of reals
through the distance a and parallel to the axis of imaginaries through the distance b. The following diagrams represent the transformation of a network of squares by means of the relation
w=
-\- c.
Case
c
II.
Let
cz.
Writing
w
:
pe**,
re ie
and
rx ^\ the following equations result
p=
The
rt r,
0=0, +
*.
origin transforms into the origin, all distances measured from the origin are multiplied by a constant quantity, and all straight lines passing through the origin are turned through a constant angle. See the following diagrams.
Art.
9.]
examples of conformal representation.
239
Case III
Let
zv
zv
=
e*e
e*.
Writing z
^(cosjy
=x
-f-
iy,
the function
becomes
iy
=
/,
i sin y).
\ t
Every straight formed into a
line
circle
= p =
parallel to the axis of

J* described
is
trans-
about the origin as a
center, the axis of
y becoming the unit circle. Points to the of the axis of y fall without the unit circle, while points right / to the left of this axis fall within. Every straight line jc
tan /9 parallel to the axis of x becomes a straight line v/u The accompanying diagrams* the origin. passing through
exhibit in a simple
manner the
(z -f
periodicity expressed
by the
equation
exp
where n
is
2nni)
exp
(z),
any positive or negative

in
integer.
the w-plane, excluding the origin, correevery point number of points in the ^r-plane. These spond an infinite points are all situated on a straight line parallel to the axis of
To
*The
treatise.
figures of this
and the following example are taken from Holzmilller's
240
y,

it
[Chap.
If
VL
and divide
into segments, each of length 27t.
z be one
is
of these points, the general value of the inverse function
log VD == if
-}" 2/ZZ7T,
where n
If
is
any positive or negative

line
integer.
beginning at the origin be drawn in the w-plane, there will correspond in the ,2-plane an infinite number
any straight
27T-
37T 2
of straight lines parallel to the axis of x, dividing that plane To any curve in the w-plane into strips of equal width.
which does not meet the

the .s-plane an infinite
line just
number
of curves, of
drawn, will correspond in which there will be
one
in
each
strip.
Case IV.
sin {iy)
Let
w=
cos 8.
Writing
w=
and employing
as equations
of definition
= x iy> cos {iy) = cosh^,

-j-
tv,
-\-
i sinhjj/,
the given function takes the form
-\-
tv
cos^r coshjj/
coshjj, v
i sin
s'mhy.
Hence
= cos x
sin^r sinh/.
ART.
9.]
EXAMPLES OF CONFORMAL REPRESENTATION.

straight line,
241
is
Any
t v parallel
to the axis of y,
trans-
formed into one branch of a hyperbola,
=
cos
/,
sin t x
I,
having
its foci
at the points
+
+
'
and
is
i.
Any
straight line,
ellipse,
y=
t%
parallel to the axis of x<
transformed into an
=
sinh
/,
I.
cosh"/,
having
its
foci at the
line equal in taken once.

is
same points, any segment of the straight length to 2n corresponding to the entire curve By means of these confocal conies, the w-plane
divided into curvilinear rectangles, the conformal representation breaking down only at the foci, where the condition
that
dz
-^
should be different from zero

of the function, expressed
is
not
fulfilled.
The
periodicity
by the equation
242
[Chap. VI.
tf-plane serving to
determine
its
image
in
the w-plane as an
intersection of orthogonal curves.
Case V.
the relations
Let
u
w= =x
a
3
.
Writing
w=
$xy
x,
+
y
zv,
+ iy
3*/,
follow at once.
If
one of the variables
be eliminated from
these two equations by means of the equation Ix my n o, a straight line in the s-plane, equations are ob-^ representing tained representing a unicursal cubic in the w-plane.
'
kvulIP"
By
putting
p(cos
the
relations
=
ra
+
=
sin 0), s
r(cos 6
-\-
i sin #),
r\
3#,
are
obtained.
Hence the
1/frwtVr*
circle
2ar cos 6
#a
= =
c*
gives the curve

pi
2#p* cos
a*
c*,
center.
which enwraps three times the point corresponding to the The accompanying figure represents this transformation, the straight line feg giving the curve feg.
To
each point in the w-plane, excluding the origin, at which
dw
dz
o and the conformal representation
is
not maintained,
Art.
9.]
EXAMPLES OF CONFORMAL REPRESENTATION.
243
there correspond three points in the #-plane, having for their
arguments
00
3
-|-
2n
0+4^
:
respectively.
Any straight line

from
drawn from the

images
origin in the w-plane will have, therefore, three
in the ^-plane, viz., three straight lines diverging
the origin, Any continuous curve
and dividing the plane into three equal regions.
in the w-plane not meeting the line just drawn will be represented in the ,2-plane by three curves, of which one will be situated within each of these regions. In the
figure here given are exhibited the three conformal represen-
tations of a square
tv
If
t lt u the w-plane by lines u / 2 parallel to the axes. tlt v the relation between and z be reversed, and z be
formed
in
taken as a function of w, z will be a three-valued function, its values giving rise to three branches which will remain distinct
and continuous except when
becomes equal to
zero.
Prob. a
8.
If
w=
w=
-\
show
that circles in the 2-plane having
common
Prob.
center at the origin transform into confocal ellipses.

z
i
9.
If
+*
-,
show that the
axis of reals in the 2"-plane half of the s-plane
transforms into the circle
\w\
1,
and the upper
into the interior of this circle.
244

10.
[CllAP.
VL
Art.
Conformal Representation of a Sphere.

its
Let OPO' be a sphere having
diameter 00' equal

length to unity.
in
Conin
^ O and
the
struct tangent planes at

O'.
Draw
plane rectangular axes
tangent
at
Ox
the
as
and
other
Oy
and
in
plane draw axes O'u, parallel to
Ox
the
0'ir
and
measured
direction,
in
same
ured
and
parallel to
in
Oy
but measdi-
a contrary
O'
by a straight line, and let <9Pand produce it to meet the plane uO'v in w. From the similar triangles O Oz and 00' w
'
rection. Join any point z in the plane xOy to Draw 0' z meet the sphere in P.
00' Oz -_ = _-,
OO
Ow
|
or
n nl = 757Pt Oz.Ow 00
I.
|
that
is,
.
|
w = rp =
an observer standing on the sphere at O rotation about 00' from O'u toward O'v is positive, while to an observer standing on the sphere at O such a rotation is negative.
To
Hence
/_xOz=
The
/_uO'w,
:
or
0.
following equation results

'
wz = p?v *+
z(
fl)
I.
^-planes are therefore conformal representations of one another. Any configuration in one plane can be formed from its image in the other by an inversion with respect
The w- and
ART.
11.]
CONJUGATE FUNCTIONS.
245
to the origin as a center, combined with a reflection in the axis of reals. Such a transformation was termed by Cayley a " quasiinversion."
points at a great distance from the origin in one plane are brought near together in the immediate neighborhood of the origin in the other plane.
By
it
Since the line O'Pz makes the same angle with the plane as with the plane xOy, any spherical tangent to the sphere at
angle having
z.
its
vertex
is
it
The sphere
projected into an equal angle at thus seen to be related conformally to the

also so related to the plane uO'v.
P at P is
plane xOy, and

\.
must be
jjl
\jlmA
representation of the sphere upon a tangent plane in uthe manner described above is termed a " stereographic proWhen to this representation is applied a logarithmic jection."
The
JU
transformation, that
is,
one inverse to
the
transformation
.
V ./.
the preceding article, the so-called described in Case " Mercator's *Jyi 'Am****.projection" is obtained, ./.
III of
Art.
11.
Conjugate Functions.
The
real
ivy
w=
and imaginary parts of a monogenic function, have been shown to satisfy the partial differential
9
equations
_ dv ~
dy
dv__
_du
dy
partial
d*
d*~
At any
point, therefore,
where u and v admit second
derivatives, one obtains
dx^~df-'
that
is,
9? + cy-
tion for
this
the functions u and v are solutions of Laplace's equatwo dimensions. Any two real solutions / and q of
equation, such that p-\-iq is a monogenic function of x -f ty, are called " conjugate functions." * Thus the examples of Art. 9 furnish the following pairs of conjugate functions
:
Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, 1873,
vol. 1, p. 227.
246
[CHAP.
VL
;
-\- a,
y -\- b
cos
x cosh y,
is
rx r cos (0 l -jsin x sinh y

in
6),
;
r x r sin (dx
3
0)
cosj,
t*
wny
^r
3^y,
3^rjA
y.
The second
pair
expressed
to cartesian coordinates
polar coordinates, but may be transformed by means of the relations
= Vx*+y\
cos 6
= -
sin 6
one of two conjugate functions be given, the other is thereby determined except for an additive constant. Let u y Then for example, be given.
If
dv
=
dx
dx -4dy
dy
=
and therefore the value
of v
is
du, du, dx -\ ay. J% dx dy
c lt v c^> obtained by assigning conequations u stant values to two conjugate functions, represent in the It w-plane straight lines parallel to the coordinate axes.
The
follows that the curves which these equations define in the

,2-plane
intersect at right angles.

x
the quantities c and obtained and c and

;
c
a
two orthogonal systems
Consequently, by varying of curves are
be taken as orthogonal curvilinear coordinates for the determination of position in the ^-plane.
x
may
Prob. io. Show that if p and q are conjugate functions of u and where u and v are conjugate functions of x andy,fi and q will be conjugate functions of x and y. Prob. ii. Show that if u and v are conjugate functions of X and y\ x andjy are conjugate functions of u and v.
v,
Art.
12.
Application to Fluid Motion.
Consider an incompressible fluid, in which it is assumed that every element can move only parallel to the ^-plane, and has a velocity of which the components parallel to the coordi-
Art.
12.]
application to fluid motion.
247
nate axes are functions of

of the fluid
is
x and y
alone.
The whole motion

in
known
as soon as the
motion
the .s-plane
is
ascertained.
any curve in the ,2-plane is given, by the "flux across the curve"* will be meant the volume of fluid
in unit
When
which
time crosses the right cylindrical surface having
the curve as base and included between the ^-plane and a parallel plane at a unit distance.
is
The flux across any two curves joining the points z and z the same, provided the curves enclose a region covered with the moving fluid. For, corresponding to the enclosed region,
Let z be there must be neither a gain nor a loss of matter. fixed, and z be variable. Let ip denote the flux across any curve
z
z,
reckoned from
left to right
for an observer stationed at z
and looking along the curve toward z. If /, m be the direction cosines of the normal (drawn to the right) at any point of the curve, and /, q be the components, parallel to the axes of the velocity of any moving element, the value of tp will be
tp
/ tA
{lp -f-
mq)ds,
where the path of integration
The
is the curve joining z and z. a one-valued function of z in any region tp within which every two curves joining z to z enclose a region covered with the moving fluid.
function
is
If
z moves in such a manner that the value of

it
tp
does not
it, i.e.,
liMi
*
vary, " stream-line."

ip is
will trace a
curve such that no fluid crosses

tp
The curves
const, are
all
stream-lines, and
If p and q are continuous, z be given infinitesimal increments parallel to x and y respectively, one obtains
called the
" stream-function."
and
if
4^y
If
now
the motion of the fluid be characterized, as

* Lamb's Hydrodynamics (1895),
p. 69.
is
the
248
[Chap. VI.
case in the so-called " irrotational" motion,*

of a velocity-potential 0, so that
j
by the existence .V '^
\
a
30
:
90
pis
the following equations result
_ a^
a*
Hence
is
"ay a*~
90
a^'
monogenic function of ^r -j- iy. The curves -(- *^ which are orthogonal to the stream-lines, are const.,
a
called the "equipotential curves."
Consider, as an example, the motion corresponding to the The equipotential curves are given by the z*. functionf
w=
equations
<b= u = x
the
Y''
^xy=z const.,
stream-lines
by
the equations - v
'v|n
= 3*y y
const.
In the following figure the stream-lines

are the heavy lines,
while
tential
the
equipocurves are
dotted.
The
in
fluid
moves
origin,
toward the
which
is
called
"
cross-point," from three directions, and
At the cross-point flows out again in three other directions. the fluid is at a standstill, since at that point the velocity, for
which the general expression
is
* In irrotational motion each element

strain, but not to rotation.
V+'
is
subject to translation
and pure
by-
f F.
Klein
Riemann's Theory of
p. 3.
Algebraic
Functions
translated
Frances Hardcastle (1893),
Art.
is
12.]
APPLICATION TO FLUID MOTION.
249
equal to zero.
The
stream-lines in the figure represent the
motion of the
each of six different angles, as if the fluid were confined between walls perpendicular to the ^-plane.
fluid in
It is of
importance to note that

i,
if
the function considered
be multiplied by
-f
i<p.
are interchanged, since the function

tp
the equipotential curves and stream-lines <p-\-itp then becomes
An
example
of particular interest
is
w=
Let z
a
u log a
>
14
2.
c*w*<**?r
dc
1^-
= r/*, z =
/i
-j-
r9 ^>; then
log
-i,
tf
n{6
a ).
The
tems
lines,
curves u
= const., v = const,
which
of circles, either of
may
form two orthogonal sysbe regarded as the stream-
the other constituting the equipotential curves.
The
finite
velocities are everywhere, except at the points

If
a,
and determinate.
the circles
rjr%
a is as the stream-lines, each of the points const, be taken as the stream-lines, one If the circles 0, a
const, be taken a " vortex-point."
-0 =
250
of the points

a
is
[CHAP.
VL
a "source," the other a "sink."
In the
latter case, besides the
simple electrical
hydrodynamical interpretation, a very illustration is afforded by attaching the poles
of a battery to a conducting plate of indefinite extent at fixed points of the plate.
two
As another example may be As
taken the relation
w =.
cos z~
has been shown, the curves x const, form a system of confocal hyperbolas, while the curves y const, form an
as stream-lines.
orthogonal system of ellipses. Either system may be regarded In one case the motion of the fluid would be
such as would occur
a thin wall were constructed along the axis of reals, except between the foci, and the fluid should be impelled through the aperture thus formed. In the other case
if
the fluid would circulate around a barrier placed on the axis of reals and included between the foci.
Besides their application to fluid-motion, conjugate functions have important applications in the theory of electricity
and magnetism * and
in elasticity/)-
Art.
13.
Critical Points.
of z.
It
Let w be any rational function the form
can be written in
where f(z) and

This function
<p (z)
are entire and without
common
number
root.
factors. of suc-
is finite
and admits an
infinite
z,
cessive derivatives for every finite value of

of the equation
(z)
except the roots
= o.
Let a be such a
Then the
reciprocal of the given function is finite and admits an infinite number of successive derivatives at the point a. Such a point
*
J.
J.
Thomson, Recent Researches

Theory of
in Electricity
and Magnetism
(1893),
p. 208.
+ Love,
Elasticity (1892), vol.
1,
p. 331.
Art.
is
13.]
critical points.
251
called a "pole."
Any
rational function having a pole at
can be put by the method of partial fractions in the form
where
and
lt
.,
Ak
are constants,
at the
a.
point the "order" of the pole, and the function is said to have for its value at a infinity of the k\\\ order. In accordance with
the definition of a derivative,
a.
ip(z) is finite
The
being different from zero, integer k is said to be
does not admit a derivative at
From
become
the character of the derivative in the immediate

a,
neighborhood of
to
however, the derivative
is
sometimes said
infinite at a.
has a pole of the first trigonometric function cot order at every point z nnt, being zero or any integer posi-
The
tive or negative.
log (z a) has for every finite value of z an infinite number of values. If z a is writz, except a, i& ten in the form Re ,
The
function
w=
w=
where log
integer.
log
R -\- z(Q -f- 2m7t)j

is
R is
If
real,
and
zero or any positive or negative
remain
line, beginning at a, S will but will vary. The images in the w-plane will fixed, therefore be straight lines parallel to the axis of reals, dividing
z describes a straight
the plane into horizontal strips of width 2n. If now the ^-plane is supposed to be divided along the straight line just drawn,
and z
varies along
it
any continuous path, subject only

cannot cross this
to the
restriction that
line of division, there will

in
be a continuous curve as the image of the path of z

strip of the w-plane.
each
Each
of these images
is
said to corre-
spond to a "branch" of the function, or, expressed otherwise, the function is said to have a branch situated in each strip.
The
line of division in the ^-plane,

is
which serves to separate
the branches from one another
" called a cut."
252
[Chap. VI.
the point z a no definite value is attached to the As z approaches that point the modulus of the real function. part of the function increases without limit, while the imagi-
At
nary part
is
entirely indeterminate.
a,
Let z be an arbitrary point, distinct from

log
and
let
-j-
t@
-\-
2mni
be any one of the corresponding values of the function. Suppose that z starts from z and describes a closed path around
the point a, the values of the function being taken so as to give a continuous variation. Upon returning to the point z
the value of the function will be
log
or
+ z& + 2(m + log R + t@ + 2{m

is
\)ni,
i)7ti,
described in a positive or negative direction. By repeating the curve a sufficient number of times it is evidently possible to pass from any value of the function
at z
according as the curve
to
any
it
other.
When
in this
it
a point
is
such that a
-s'-path
en-
closing to another value,
may lead
manner from one value
of a function
is
called a " branch-point."
In the case
of the function here considered, the point z a "logarithmic branch-point," or a point of

discontinuity."
is
called
"logarithmic
The
function
w=
log
~-\ where
y
f{z)
and
(p(z)
are entire,
(p{z)
has a point of logarithmic discontinuity
at
every point where
either/^) or
<p(z) is
equal to zero.
t
For, writing
.
f(z)
<j)(z)
= A(z - a Yi* - mfr = B{z btf^z brf*

be written
log {z
the value of
w may
$
log
- + 2p m
m
- am
2qn n
log
(z
b n ).
Art
13
critical points.
253
Take now the function

proach
minate.
w=
e*.
It
for every value of z except z
o.
has a single finite value If z is supposed to apis
zero, the limit of the value of the function
indeter-
For
let
+ iq be perfectly arbitrary, and write

-f-
If
now a
ib is
the reciprocal of p
h
-\- iq,
so that
~~
.
"?
the preceding equation
may be
.
written
_i_
x%
r.
But whatever the value of the integer m, q 2mit may be substituted for q without altering the value of c -f- id, and hence
both a and
may be made
less
than any assignable quantity.
given function e* therefore takes the value c -f- id at points a 4- ib indefinitely near to the origin. point such that, when z approaches it, a function elsewhere one-valued tends toward
The
an indeterminate limiting value

gularity."
is
called
an " essential
sin-
Prob. 12.
singularity.
Show
that for the function e^-* z
is
an essential
i_
variable
considered as a function of a real continuous for every finite value of z, and the same is true of each of its successive derivatives. Show that when it is o is an essential regarded as a function of a complex variable, z
Prob.
13.
The
function e
z*
is
singularity.
In order to illustrate
still
another class of special points
take the function

IV
V(z
- aX*
a^)...{z
an ).
254

This function has at every
finite point,
[CHAP. VI.
a^,
. . .
except a iy
a tli
two
it
distinct values differing in sign.
al9 at
takes but a single value, zero. let a straight line of indefinite extent be drawn in , . . . , au
At these points, however, From each of the points
such a manner that no one of them intersects any other, and suppose the ^-plane to be divided, or cut, along each of these
lines. Along any continuous path in the -S'-plane thus divided the values of the function form two distinct branches.
For, writing
=re
x
iQ
i,
a2
i6
rê
*,
an
rn e' en ,
the function takes the form
w=
No
Vr
r2
rn
ei
closed path in the divided plane will enclose any of the 3 n after points a lt a9 , . . . , an and the quantities continuous variation along such a path, must resume at the
,
l
,
point their original values. No such path, therefore, can lead from one value of the function at any point to a new value of the function at the
initial
same
cuts
traces
If, however, the point. are disregarded and z
in
a positive
direction,
a closed curve including an odd number of the points a <? 2

x
a, and
not intersecting
itself,
X ,
, . . . ,
then an odd number of
the quantities 6n are each increased by 27r; and a the value of the function is altered by a factor ^BHU*^ and In the same way any closed path deso changed in sign.
scribed about one of these points, and enwrapping it an odd number of times, leads from one value of the function to
the other.
On the other hand, a simple closed path enclosing an even number of these points, or a closed path which encloses but one of the points, enwrapping it an even number of
times, leads back to the initial value of the function.
It
fol-
Art.
13.]
CRITICAL POINTS.
255
.
lows that each of the points a
a branch-point. Any point in the ^-plane, closed paths about which lead from one to another of a set of different values of a function, the
x
,
#a
aH
is
number
of values in the set being finite,
is
called an
"
algebraic
branch-point."
As
a further illustration, consider the function
w=z
which
is
-f- {z
a)^,
a root of the equation of the sixth degree,

2(z
a)zu*
w*
t>ziv"
+ 3<s^
z(z
a)w
+ (*
=
of
=o.
function has at every point, except z o and z a, Six branches are thereby formed which six distinct values.
The
can be completely separated from one another by making cuts from the points z = o and z = a to infinity. Putting w for the cube root of unity, these six branches can be written
V \V w z -\(z a)' f ^ -f- a? {z -\- go{z Hf, ss s ay, w a) V \V W = ^- V + G? W = Z + V* ^) The branches w, and w w and zt\, w and w are interchanged
1/2
si/ 8 '
-j-
(z
a)
1/2
1/3
3
'
1!
9 2/
3,
&
by
a small closed circuit described about z
=o,
.
while a small
circuit described
w w w
tf
%%
a permutes cyclically the branches w A w6 and also the branches
about z
All of the special points examined above, poles, points of
logarithmic discontinuity, essential singularities, and branchpoints, are called critical points.
In
fact,
a function, or a
"
branch of a function, is said to have a " critical point at each point where it fails to have a continuous derivative,* or about
impossible to describe a circle of determinate radius within which the function, or branch, is oneit is
which as a center
valued.
Any
*
point not a critical point
is
called an " ordinary point."
Continuity and, therefore, finiteness of the function are implied in the existence of a derivative.
256
[CHAP.
is
VL
An
ordinary point at which a function reduces to zero a "zero" of the function.

If in
called
a certain region of the ^-plane there are no critical for a given function, the function is said to be " syneo points " " tic" or holomorphic in that region. If in a certain region
^hfa ( the only

"
critical
points are poles, the function

in that region.
is
is
said to
be
"
meromorphic
Under
similar conditions a
branch of a function
also
described as holomorphic ot
meromorphic.
Prob. 14.
(z
When w and
that
if
z are connected
by the relation
g=
z describes a circle about h as a center, describes a circle about g as a center, an angle in the 2-plane hav-
Kf show
ing its vertex at h is transformed into an angle in the w-plane f times as great and having its vertex at g and that z h is a branchexcept when t is an integer. point of
t
Art.
14.
Point at Infinity.
Ou-i
modulus
it
In determining the limiting value of a function when the of the independent variable z is increased indefinitely,, is usual to introduce a new independent variable z' by the
is
relation z
This
o. i/z\ and consider the function at the point z' equivalent to passing from the .s'-plane to another plane,,
the ^'-plane, related to the former by the geometrical construction described in Art. 10. It is often very convenient, however,, to go further and to substitute for the -plane the surface of the
sphere of unit diameter touching the ^-plane at the origin. Nodifficulty is thus introduced since, as explained in the article
just cited,
any configuration in the ^-plane obtains a conformal representation upon the sphere; and the advantage is gained that the entire surface upon which the variation of the indeis studied is of finite extent. The point of the sphere diametrically opposite to its point of contact with o. the -plane coincides with the point written above as z'
pendent variable
It is
called the point at infinity, z
sphere approaches it at the same ^-plane recedes indefinitely from the origin.
since a point on the time that its image in the

00
,
.Art. 15.]
integral of a function.
point at infinity
257
The
point.
point,
may be
f
either an ordinary or a critical

*'-
For the function e* for example, it is an ordinary For a rational entire function of the th since e* = f'.
it
degree
is
a pole of order n.
Consider
in
it
for the function
the preceding article. \/(z (z )(z Let a circle of great radius be described in the ^-plane inclosing a n Its con formal representaa7 . all the branch-points a
.
. . x
a9)
a H ), discussed
tion
on the sphere
oo point z branch-point or not, according as the function changes value or( not when the curve surrounding it is described, that is accord.
be a small closed curve surrounding the This point must, therefore, be regarded as a
will
ing as
n,
the
number
of finite branch-points,
is
is
odd or even.
When
total
the point at infinity
taken into account, then, the
number
of branch-points of this function
The
point
character of the
point z = oo
always even. for this function can be deis
termined directly, by changing z into

z'
i/z'
and considering the

(p(z) -77-7 >
= o.
Show
that z
Prob. 15.
<p(z)
00 is
an ordinary point for

if
where
and
rp(z)
are rational
ip(z).
and entire
the degree of <p(z) does
not exceed that of
Art.
Let
z,
15.
Integral of a Function.
w =/(z) be a continuous function of a complex variand suppose z to describe a continuous path L from the point z to the point Z. Let a series of points z z ... ,zn be taken on L, and let /,/,,..., / be points arbitrarily chosen on the arcs z z lf z z zn Z respectively. Form the sum
able
t
S * .'fc - *.)A*.) + (*. - *VW +

If
+ (*- z
n )f{tn ).
now
nitely in
*
It is
number of points z lt ., zn be increased indefisuch a manner that the length* of each of the arcs
the
. .
assumed
the
in
may be
or,
associated with the portion of

is
regard to every path of integration that the idea of length it included between any two of its points,
is
what
same
if
thing, that the path
rectifiable.
This condition
is
evi-
dently satisfied
the current coordinates
and^j/
can be expressed in terms of
258

1
,
[Chap. VI,
z z 1 ,z za ...,zn
approaches zero as a
proaches a
limit,
the
sum 5
is
finite limit
which
apinde-
pendent
z
of the choice of the points z lt

/
,
..., zn and
/,,..., tn
For take any other sum
(*.'-*,W)+...
formed
for
in a similar
manner.
Suppose
the sake of greater definiteness that the points #,,... and */, . follow one another on the line L in the order
.
.
and form a third sum
in
which both
series of points occur.
It
may
be shown that as
. . .
the
number
of points in each of the series *
and
*/, ...
is
increased, the differences

zero,
S"
S and S"
both approach
from which
it
follows that the difference
S
S"
S' has a
limit equal to zero.
For example, the
difference
has
the value
<?L $H*>
If
- *.)[/(r.) -At.)l+W - *,>I/W -Atil + W - <)[/(r,) - Ml +

of the quantities
. .
M denotes the upper extreme

l/W -M)\,
\A*,)
^.,- 2'JDi
fc* -2-*)f
-m\.
be
less
1
\M) -M)\
than
the modulus of
7l/[!^
S"
1
S will
-^| + |<-5r H-|<-Vi+...].

dx
and
dy
are
any parameter
/
2
so that
continuous.
For then the integral
4/akr
-f-
dy
is finite.
See, in this connection, Jordan, Cours d'Analyse, 2d
Edition, Vol.
I., p.
100.
ART.
15.]
INTEGRAL OF A FUNCTION.
z
is
\
equal to the chord of the arc z^z^ and must therefore be less than or equal to this arc, and a similar result holds for each of the quantities *,' z *t Hence *,'
But
\z x
'
\S"-S\<M/
where
the
/
number
/(n)
denotes the length of the path of integration. When of points of division on the line L is increased, the
differences
- AU\
since
/0.)
f(z)
- /(',).
is
/W - A*,),
approach
zero.
zero,
continuous,
accordingly
decreases indefinitely and the difference S"
approaches
The
strated,
limit,
is
the existence of which has just been demoncalled the integral of f{z) along the path L. It is
written
I f(z)dz.
The
definition here given
is
similar to that
given for the integral of a function of a real variable. It is unnecessary to specify the path of integration when the indeit
pendent variable is restricted to real values, since in that case must be the portion of the axis of reals included between
the limits of integration.
The following well-known principles, applicable to the case of a real independent variable, may be readily extended to the
general case
:
1. The modulus of the integral cannot exceed the length of the path of integration multiplied by the upper extreme of the modulus of the function along that path.
2.
The independent
variable
may
be altered by any equait is
tion of transformation, but L', the path of integration in the
transformed integral, must be such that
described by the
new
variable while z describes L.

If
3.
F(z)
is
any one-valued function having everywhere
f(z) for its derivative, the equation
fjWz = F(Z)-F(z^
must be
true.
260
[CHAP. VI.
To
form
prove the third principle, write F{Z)
F(z
in
the
F[Z)-F{Zl,)+F{zu)-F(Zn _,) +
+ F(s,)-F(z;)+F(z,)-F(z
a ).
Since the derivative of F(z) \sf(z),
F(*m+ l )
F{z m )
[/(*)
tj
m ](zm+1
is
- zm
),
where
zm
.
t]
m has zero for
its limit
when zm+1
made
to approach
Hence
F(z
)
F(Z)
or, since
= limit
2f(z m )(zm+1
zm ) -f limit 2r}m (z
l+1
zm)
the second term of the right-hand
member
is
equal
to zero,
F{Z)-F{z,)
If
= ff{z)dz.
L
no function F{z) fulfilling the preceding conditions is known, the value of the integral requires further investigation.
Consider as an example the integral
taken from the
I to the point z I, the path of integration being point z half of the circumference of a unit circle described the upper
about the origin as a center.
Writing z
exp
(iff),
z will
describe the required path while 6 varies from
n to
o.
The
dz
z
equations -,
e~ 2iB
dz
ieiedd,
= ie-dd = i cos
Hence
+1 J
dd
+ sin
dd
id (sin
6)
- d (cos
6),
follow at once.
for the
path specified
C
_1
= i Cd (sin 6)
IT
Cd (cos
V
d)
2.
application of the direct and more familiar the same result gives
:
The
method
~~
z*
"~"
z J, =I
zj s= _i~
ART.
16.]
REDUCTION OF COMPLEX INTEGRALS TO REAL.

of reals
261
limits of
For a path along the axis

integration this result
is
between the
unintelligible.
The
discontinuity of
dz
the differential, -3, at the point z z
tion of such a path
;
= o,
prevents the considera-
and that the

is
result should
be negative
when the
differential
at every point of the path positive
has no significance.
introduction of the complex variable furnishes a perfectly satisfactory explanation of the result.
Prob. 16.
The
Show
dz
that the integral of
along any semi-circumis
ference described about the origin as a center
equal to ni.
Art.
16.
Reduction of Complex Integrals to Real.
The
integral
may
be written
in
the form
I {u-\- iv){dx
or,
+ ufy),
separating the real and imaginary terms,

/ (udx
vdy)
-f- i
I (vdx
-f-
udy).
calculation of the integral may be reduced to the calculation of two real curvilinear integrals.
Hence the
The equations
du
_ dv
du
__
dv
'dx~dy'
dy~
dx
iv should
which express the condition that u-\express also that
be monogenic,
udx
vdy,
vdx
-\-
udy
are the exact differentials of

x, y.
two
real functions of the variables
Consider the case where these functions are one-valued.
262
[CHAP. VI.
Denoting them by P(x, y) and Q(x, y) respectively, the

gral
inte-
may be
written
\I\X, Y)
(x ,y
)
- J\xyM + iWX,
initial
Y)
Q{x.,y.%
re-
and (X, Y) being the
and terminal points
spectively of the path of integration.
Art.
17.
Cauchy's Theorem.
Cauchy's Theorem furnishes the necessary and sufficient conditions that a one-valued function f(z), having continuous
partial derivatives with respect to
x and
y, should yield within
a region bounded by a continuous closed curve a one-valued integral, that is, an integral the value of which, when the lower
limit
is
fixed,
depends simply on the upper

It will
limit,
and not on the
be more convenient, before considerpath to demonstrate the following lemma: ing Cauchy's Theorem,
of integration.
Lemma. Let A be a portion of the .s-plane, having a boundary 5 which Consists of a closed curve not intersecting itself, or of several closed curves not intersecting themselves or one
every point of the region A, including its boundary 5, a function Wot the real variables x and y is onevalued and continuous and has continuous partial derivatives
another.
If
at
f,f, the
relations
^
^*J?*)
(2)
fw*--f*jfc*
exist,
the integrals in the first members being taken along the boundary in the positive direction, and those in the second members being taken over the enclosed area.
normal
*
Denote by A the inclination to the axis of x of the exterior at any point of the boundary,* that is, the normal drawn
It is
assumed
that the
boundary has a determinate tangent
at every point.
Art.
17.]
cauchy's theorem.
,03
ft
Xtvwl
to the right as the boundary
line
is
OAL*-
K~hu4
described in a positive direction. If any straight parallel to the axis of x be traced in the direction of increasing values of x, at each point where
it passes into the area A, cos A. is negative, and therefore in the first member of
At each
negative. point where this straight line passes out of the area A, cos A, and there(i)
dy = cos \ds
is
fore
dy
in the first
(i),
is
member
positive.
of equation
Hence
of
entials
in
the
first
member
differ-
equation
(i)
the
Wdy
y
corresponding
to a given value of y, and taken in the order of increasing values of x have signs which, compared with the signs of the
corresponding values of W, first differ, then agree, and so on alternately. In order now to compare the integral in the first member of equation (i) with the integral in the second
member,
it
The sum
form
necessary to take dy as essentially positive. of the differentials in the first member, correspondis
ing to a fixed value of
y must
%
therefore
be written
in the
dy{where
W,+ W.-W,+
.
1V -...), t
are the corresponding values of taken in the order of increasing values of x. But performing now in
lf
W^
the second
to x, the
member
of equation (i) an integration with respect

is
same result equation (i) become
obtained, so that the two
members
verified.
of
identical,
and the equation
is is
obtain equation (2) the same necessary in this case to observe that
To
method
if
used.
It is
a line parallel to the axis of y is traced in the direction of increasing values of y, at each point where it enters A, dx in the integral of the first
If the
J<3
boundary
of a given region
is
not of this sort, the theorem holds for any

is
interior curve of
which
this
assumption
true.
264
[CHAP. VI.
member must be
negative.
this line passes out of
taken as positive; and at each point where A, dx in that integral must be taken as
By means
easily proved.
of the preceding
lemma, Cauchy's Theorem

be stated as follows
:
is
This theorem
If,
may
Theorem.
on the boundary of and within a given region
A, a one-valued function
ative f\z)
is
=/(#)
is
monogenic, and
its
deriv-
continuous,* the integral
j f(z)dz
taken along
the boundary
is
equal to zero.
integral in the
For writing the

/
form
wdz
= j (iidx
gives
vdy)
f\udy -j- vdx),
the preceding
lemma
but since at every point of
the given integral reduces to zero.
Art.
18.
Application of Cauchy's Theorem.

it
From Cauchy's Theorem
follows that,
if
two
different
paths Z, and Z 2 lead from the point z Q to the point Z, and if along these paths and in the region inclosed between them a given function f(z) has no critical points, the integrals of the
function taken along these two paths are equal. For two such taken together, one described directly, the other repaths
versed, constitute a closed curve, and the integral taken along
* Otherwise
expressed, the one-valued function /(s) has no critical points on
is
the boundary of or within A, or f(z)
holomorphic
in
A.
ART.
it is
18.]
APPLICATION OF CAUCHY'S THEOREM.
265
equal to zero.
of integration
path
is
But, since reversing the direction of the equivalent to changing the sign of the
integral, the equation
is
obtained.
The
theorem
result just established

:
may be
stated in the following
Theorem I. If a function is holomorphic in any simply connected region bounded by a continuous closed curve, the integral of the function, from a fixed lower limit in that region to any point contained therein, is independent of the path of
integration, and
is
a one-valued function of
its
upper
limit.
region whose boundary is composed of disconnected is not necessarily characterized by the property stated in the theorem. Take, for example, the function
curves
w
and suppose
\/{z
a
|
)(z
<*,)...(*
|
a n ),
that o . . . am \. With the ori\at ]at as a center, construct a system of concentric circles Clf gin C..., C, C{ passing through axi C3 through a and so on.
<
<
<
<
Denote by S the region inclosed within the first circle Clt by that inclosed between C and C and so on, the portion
Q
t
t
.
of the plane exterior to the last circle Cn being denoted by Sn At an initial point z interior to one of these regions, assign to
w one
of the
two values
possible,
and consider the branch of
w resulting from a continuous variation.

. .
Then however z may
will be a monovary within any such region, this branch of and its derivative will be continuous. Having genic function,
it is evident that in ., a n regard to the branch-points a lt a t the regions Sof S9 ... it will be one-valued, and in the regions Thus in the regions 5a St it will be two-valued. Slt Ss
, ,
,
the branch
not.
fulfils
does
The
the required conditions, but the boundary It may be theorem is applicable only to 5
.
every other region two paths may be drawn the same two points such that the branch is not onejoining valued in the enclosed portion of the ,s-plane.
observed that
in
266
[Chap. VI.
Tl/
>
Theorem II. lif(d) is holomorphic in any simply connected region S bounded by a continuous closed curve, the integral
$>
> /
I f(z)dz,
taken from a fixed lower limit z in that region to any

contained therein,
is
point
a holomorphic
function of
its.
upper
limit.
Let
at the point
-\-
dZ
be any path from z to Z. When the upper limit is to> dZ, L followed by a straight line from can be taken as the path of integration. Hence
Z+
nz+dz
nz
nz+dz
fo-P,
\A*)-AZ)Y>
The modulus
is
S*Z+dZ
pZ+dZ
z d,+J
Z =AZ)J
The
term
is
first
term
is
equal to f(Z)dZ.
of second
equal to or less than

of \f(z)
is
M\
dZ\, where
treme
f{Z)\ along the line

zero.
But since f{z)

approaches
continuous, the limit of
M the upper exdZ^ joining Z to Z M when Z dZ

-\-\-
is
Hence
"*A*y* - f*A*V*
where
r/
\AZ)
+ nZ,
approaches zero with dZ. The integral therefore has /(Z)fora derivative, and is holomorphic in 5.
In the case of a region bounded by several disconnected closed curves, of which one is exterior to all the others,.
Cauchy's Theorem
may be
stated in the following form
Theorem
region curves
A C
Let a function j\z) be holomorphic in a bounded by a closed curve C and one or more closed
III.
C%*
*
x%
interior to C.
The
integral of f(z) taken
along
will
integrals
u*
be equal to the sum of its taken in the same direction
^\
the curves
(7,,
along the curves Clt Ct > p or t h e integral of f(z) taken
in
positive direction completely around the
is equal to zero. But boundary of are then described in the direction oppo-
ART.
19.]
THEOREMS ON CURVILINEAR INTEGRALS.

which
26?
the curves
site to that in
is
described.
Hence
if
all
are described in the
same
direction, the result
may
be written
c c fjw* =f/w* +f
If
dz
there
is
included between two curves
but one interior curve, so that the region A is C and Clf the integral taken along
x
every closed curve containing C but interior to C has the same value, viz., the common value corresponding to the paths
C and
C\.
Art.
19.
I.
Theorems on Curvilinear Integrals.

If f{z)
Theorem
be continuous
in
a given region except
at the point a, the integral I f{z)dz, taken

,
around a small
circle
having its center at a, will approach zero as a limit simultaneously with the radius r of the circle c, provided only
lim (z
d)f{z)
=o
when
= a.
a)f{z)
c,
For
let
the upper extreme of the modulus of (z
on
the circle c be denoted by

a
M.
Then
at
every point of
\-
M
2tzM.
and consequently
mod^ f(z)dz
Theorem
closed curve
II.
J ds
v
-,
The
integral / fa
r-, ny
taken around any J
(z
a)
when n
.
I.
C containing the point a, is equal to zero, except When n = I, this integral is equal to 2ni.
of
For the value
the integral will be the same
if
any
circle described
integration.
varies from
about a as a center be taken as the path of Let then z a reiB where r is a constant and
=
e
o to
2rc.
#
The
r-
integral
becomes
/2ir
(n-l)iO
rn-i
/ J
dd
%G8

I.
[CHAP. VI.
which reduces to zero except when n ==

is 27rz,
If
I, its
value
whence
SA
z
dz
:
27tl.
a function holomorphic in a given closed curve the interior of which is wholly region S, C within S, and a a point situated within C, then
III.
a.
Theorem
If f{z) is
^c
&-dz
a
= 27tif{a).
v J
r,
For describing about a as a center a small circle c of radius the equation
^c z
is
*Jc
za
c,
t]
obtained.
But
at every point of
where, by choosing r sufficiently small, the modulus of be made less than any fixed positive quantity. Hence
may
^cza
zero.
vc z
^cz
but by the preceding theorems the first term of the right-hand member is equal to 27tif(a), and the second term is equal to
the equation of the theorem just established be differentiated with respect to a, the following important formulas, expressing the successive derivatives of a holomorphic function
If
at a given point, are obtained
Art.
20.]
Taylor's series.
integrals in the
first
269
The
finite
members
of these equations are all
and determinate for every position of a within the curve Therefore any function holomorphic in a given region admits an infinite number of successive derivatives at every
C.
interior point. Each of these derivatives being monogenic must be continuous. Hence the following:
Theorem IV.
there exists an
f(z) which are
y
If f(z) is
holomorphic within a given region,

of successive
infinite
number
derivatives of
all holomorphic within the same region. Denote by r the shortest distance from the point a to the
curve Cm
Then
M be the upper
length of C.
at every point of this curve \z
a\
> r.
and
/
Let
the
extreme
of the
modulus f(z) on
Then
mod
/c (z
-a)
n+l
dz
(n)
270
[CHAP. VI.
From
the preceding
article,
denoting a variable point on
2nt
Jc
-f
= jl
27iiJ c
fm^v 1+ __ Z-a\_ ^Z-a^

,
1 +^l_+ T (C-a)^(C-)'*(C--^J
= A") + */'(<*) + 7^r/"<) +

I
.
7-
+ T-fzf'W + R
1
2i
. .
'
71
where
r - _L f
" +1
+ 2niJc (Z-aY \Z-a-t)
AQ
r _
By taking n sufficiently great the modulus of made less than any given positive quantity. Let
R may
be the upper extreme of the modulus of f(z) on the circle C, p the a or radius of C. Then modulus of t, and r the modulus of Q
be
27t
Jc
r n +\r-p)
its
< r-p\rj
when n
which, since p
<
r,
has zero for

f
limit
= oo
Writing now z for a-\-t Taylor's Series becomes
is convergent and the equality is maintained for z included within a circle described about a as a every point center with a radius less than the distance from a to the nearest
The
series
critical
point of f(z).
When
is
equal to zero, Taylor's Series takes the form
M=
/(o)
+ *f(d) + ^/"(o) +
in
+ _!_/<-)(o) +...-,
This form
is
expressing/^)
terms of powers of
z.
known
as Maclaurin's Series.
Art.
21.]
Laurent's
series.
271
Art.
Theorem.
region be the
21.
Laurent's Series.
bounded by two
Let
S, a portion of the ^-plane

1
concentric circles
and
72
be situated
in
the interior of the
which a given function f(z) is holomorphic. If a common center of the two circles, and a -j- t a point interior to S, f(a-\- 1) can be expressed in a
}
in
convergent double
f{a
series of the
tn
form
+ = =2AJ". m
/)
oo
oo
With a
^
as a center construct a circle
sufficiently small to be contained within the region 5. If then C be the greater of

x
the two given
circles, it follows
from Article 18 that
2ni*'c ^
i
a
Article
2ni^c%
2ni
J'
But from
icj^.'Ufc
^
=f{a
i_r
whence
yv
/(ck
t)>
2ni Jc
^-
-t
27tiJc*Z- a
i
written
:
The two
integrals of the right-hand
member may be
^Cv
where
AQdZ =2 / 2V^ m^(Z-ay+\Z -a-t)' p - _L AC *Y ACW "> ~

tf 1
+l
t n+1
27ziJc>t
n+ l
But
|/|
<|C
*|
at every
(Q-a-t)' point of C and

l%
|/|>|C
.*)
at
every point of
so that R, and i? 3 both have zero for a limit
272
[CHAP.
VH
when n
in the
oo
The
value of f(a
t)
can therefore be expressed
form
f(a
+ t)=A + A + AS + Af + ...
1
m+1 the function f(z)/(z a) phic for both positive and negative values of written
Since in the region
is
holomor-
m A m may
f
be
a * m - -L C 2t7zJ
c
f^ dr - a)"* a^ &
1
where
is
any
circle concentric
with C, and
and included
between them.
The series thus obtained is convergent at every point a 4- 1 contained within the region S. It is important to notice, however, that when the positive and negative powers of t are considered separately, the two resulting series have different
regions of convergence.
powers of
containing the positive converges over the whole interior of the circle C ;
series
x
The
while the series of negative powers of / converges at everyThe region 5 can be regarded, point exterior to the circle 7a therefore, as resulting from an overlapping of two other
.
regions in which different parts of Laurent's Series converge.
Writing z for a
f(z)
-f- /,
Laurent's Series takes the form
= A + Az - *)+
Alz
1
+ A _,
z-
a)
- a y+... + A_ (z - a)- +
2
2
Consider as a special numerical example the fraction

Z
{Z If \z\
I) (Z
2) (Z
all
3)
2(2
I)
+ 2~ 2(Z
3)
<
1,
three
terms of the second member, when
developed
powers of z, give only positive powers. If 1 < < 2, the first term of the second member gives a series\z\ of negative descending powers, but the others give the same
in
series as before.
If 2
<
\z\
<
3,
the
first
3,
and second terms

three terms give
both give negative powers.
If \z\
>
all
Art.
22.]
Fourier's series.
273
negative powers, and the development of the given fraction can contain no positive powers. Thus a system of concentric annular regions is obtained in each of which the given fraction
is
expressed by a convergent power-series.

results for every function
Laurent's
is
Series gives analogous morphic except at isolated points of the ^-plane.
which
holo-
Art.
Let
22.
Fourier's Series.
in a region
go,
w = f(z)
is
be holomorphic
and
let it
be
periodic, having a period equal to
so
that/^
+ #<) =/(^)
; .
any positive or negative integer. Denote by Sn the obtained from 5 by the addition of nco to z and supregion S 5 Sn ... S_ n 5_ pose that the regions
where n
X ,
such a manner as to form a continuous strip in which, of course, the function w will be holomorphic. S, Draw two parallel straight lines, inclined to the axis of reals at
meet or overlap
in
an angle equal to the argument of cw, and contained within the The band T included between these parallels will be strip 5. interior to S. 1 4 o wholly
2iriz
By means of the transformation z' = e w the band T in the ,2-plane becomes in the '-plane a ring T' bounded by two
z
concentric circles described about the origin as a center, z and Since is holomorphic -f- hod falling at the same point z\ in a region including T, and
dw
dz'
dw
dz
gd
2iriz
'
dw
dz'
dz dz'
2ni
will
regarded as a function of z' Hence, by Laurent's Theorem,
be holomorphic in
T\
w= w 2
the quantity a
in this
m=
<x>
= -<
A mz h\
being the preceding equation becomes
in the general formula of the preceding article case equal to zero. Substituting for z' its value,
w = 2 A me
274
[CHAP. VI.
where
rwdz' A = îJc^ = vJ/

i i
2
z+w _ 2m " e
wd*'
In the latter integral the path is rectilinear. Denoting its independent variable by C for the purpose of avoiding confusion, the value of
w becomes
M = -^C
m=-oo
I
e~
/{Z)dZ
2 w=co
/+ w
r^sr*
/+ w
imn
i/
/^c+^cs + -^
.
ic
2//Z7T.S
^
2M71Z
/^ w cos 2mnQ
2ni7lC
sin
-/(eye
co
sin
/+w
/
b
V(CKC
=1
G
Art.
Let the
term
of
series
is
23.
Uniform Convergence.
-\-
W= w
5.
u\
+ w^
-\-
ze/ n
each
which
a function of
of a given region
z, be convergent at every point Denote by n the sum of the first n
terms of W.
tive quantity
If it is possible,
e,
whatever the value of the
posi-
to determine an integer v, such that
whenever
> v
\W- Wn \<e
at every point of S, the series
is
said to be uniformly con-
vergent
in
in the region 5.
Uniformly convergent
exactly the same
of terms.
series can in
many respects be treated

finite
manner
as
sums containing a
series,
itself
number
uniformly convergent which are continuous functions of z, is

I.
Theorem
the terms of
a continuous
function of
z. z,
For
at
any point
W may be written
in
the form
Art.
23.]
uniform convergence.
n
275
r
,
JV=
W + R;
and
at a
neighboring point z
W= W
'
+ R'.
Hence
W-W'=W -W '+Rn n
R',
and
|
IV-
W'\ =|
- W:\ + \R\ + \R!\.

and
\R'\
.
But by choosing n
be made
less
sufficiently great, \R\
may both
Having
than any given positive quantity
chosen n thus, n becomes the sum of a finite number of It is then continuous, and, by making functions. continuous
\z'
z\ less
than a suitable quantity

.
d,
\W
n '\
ma y
De W<n
made
less
than -
But, under these suppositions,
\Wis,
W'\<e.
z.
therefore, continuous at the point

II.
Theorem
series
If all
the terms of a uniformly convergent
W = W + w, +
o
+w
-f
are continuous, the integral of the series, for any path L situated in the region of uniform convergence, is the sum of the
integrals of
its
terms
Sl
Wdz
=
e
Sl
w ^z +X Widz +
n
it is
Wnd*
For, writing
W= W + R,
may
be, \R\
however small
so chosen,
<
possible to choose n so that, 6 at every point of Z. If n be
fWd^fwjz + fRdz..
But,
by
Article 15, denoting
by
the length of the path L,

e/,
mod / Rdz <

which, when n
00
has zero for

lim
its limit.
Hence
f Wdz =
fwjz.
276
[CHAP. VI
.
.
Theorem
is
III.
If
the series
series
'
JV= w
-\-
w -\x
+w
n -\-
..
convergent, and the

,
dw __ dw, "" dv>i ~ '"'r n t '" dz ds"r ~dk"
is
of
uniformly convergent in a region S, and if further the terms are continuous in S, will be the derivative of W.
For, integrating
in S,
W from a
w,{a)
to z along a path
contained
J W'dz
of
w (z)
+w
n {z)
wn {a) +
is
^W{z)-W{a\
But the derivative
of the first
member
W,
which must
also be the derivative of the second
member, and therefore

is
W.
An
immediate consequence of the preceding theorems

:
the following
Theorem IV.
If
the terms of the convergent series
+ w, -f
dw
\
+w +
n
are holomorphic in a given region of convergence, and if the series

ytrr
"
contained in the region
dw
dz
"*"
dz
"t"
T
i
dw
dz
T
i
'
"
"
is
uniformly convergent, ^Fwill be holomorphic for its derivative. S, and will have
in
the region
To
is
illustrate
by an example that uniformity
of
convergence
essential to the preceding theorems, take the series
W=
At
the point z
is
-iI
*"(i-
*)
each term is continuous, and the series the value 1/2. The series is, however, convergent, having i< discontinuous at z For, writing it in the form
w=-
L_\+(<~i
L.\
Art.
23.]
uniform convergence.
first
277
the sum of the
n terms
"
is
seen to be
+z
But
is
the limit of
when n
\z\
= oo
I,
and
is
therefore
at every
unity at
point for
If
every point z for which
<
and zero
which
\z\
>
I.
now
this series
upon a
circle
be considered for the points within and described about the origin as a center with an
z
n
assigned radius less than unity, the remainder after n terms,

or
I
W=
n
I
-f z
can,
by a J
suitable choice of n be
y
made
absolute value than any given quantity. In such a region, then, the series converges uniformly, and, by Theorem similar result holds I, can have no point of discontinuity.
less in
for the region exterior to any circle described about the origin as a center with an assigned radius greater than unity.
By means
of
Theorem
is
II given
above
it
can be shown that
For, assuming the notation used unique. in the determination of the series, the series is uniformly con-
Laurent's Series
vergent in the region included between any two given circles concentric with C and Ca both being interior to C and exx
terior to
Cr
:
Suppose, now, that two such series are possible

m
f(a
,
t)=m
= -
2 A mr
oo
oo
=
,tt
= _oo
2 A m 'r.
Divide by /n + 1 and integrate along any circle described about rtasa center and included in the region of uniform converg.
ence.
The
integral I
- n
dt for such a path
is
zero, except
when
m=
n;
the integral I t~ l dt
2* Jr.
Hence
for such a path,
278

it
[CHAP.
VL
from which
identical.
follows that
An = An
',
and the two
series are
Art.
24.
One-valued Functions with Critical Points.
function holomorphic in a region 5 and Theorem I. not equal to a constant, can take the same value only at isolated points of
vS.
For
in
the neighborhood of any point a interior to S,
by
Taylor's theorem,
/(*)
-A") =
(*
**'(<*)
+ ^=^-"/"() +
.
constant over the entire circle of convergence of this series, the derivatives /'(a), f'\ci), cannot all be
Unless/^)
is
equal to zero.
zero.
J
Let f {n \a) be the
first
which
is
not equal to
Then
v
'
[_i
'
v
. . .
(n
-\- i)
If
\z
a\
modulus
of the
be given a finite value sufficiently small, the first term of the series within the brackets will
all
exceed the sum of the moduli of
same result For values

finite
will
hold for every

is
still
the other terms, and the smaller value of \za\ +
of
z,
then, distant from a

f(a)
different
amount, /(^)
by less than a certain from zero.
If, on the other hand, the function is constant over the entire circle, described about a as a center, within which Taylor's series converges, it will be possible, by giving in succession
new
positions to the point a, to show that the value of the function is constant over the whole region 5.
Theorem
in a
II.
given region
Two functions which are both holomorphic 5 and are equal to each other for a system of
points which are not isolated from one another, are equal to each other at every point of 5.
For let/(^) and
<p(z)
be two such functions.

<p(z)
By
the pre-
ceding theorem, the difference/^) zero at every point of S.
must be equal to
Art.
24.]
one-valued functions.
III.
279
in
Theorem
function which
is
is
holomorphic
every
part of the -s-plane, even at infinity,
constant.
g,
For, a being any given point, whatever the value of
As)
= /(a) + (* - ay '(a) + ... + ^'^ ,/
*(<*)
But by Article 19, r being the radius of any arbitrary circle being the upper extreme of the having its center at a, and modulus of f{z) on the circumference of this circle, (9'^(p*\
M
N
mod,
f \d)
, lM)/ n
nM
.
<
But
is
always
finite,
Hence f {n \d)
for all values of n,
and r may be made indefinitely and

f{z)=f(a).
great.
function/^), holomorphic in a region 5, is equal to zero at the point a situated within S, the function can be expressed in the form
If a
Theorem IV.
f{z)
= (z- ay<f>(s),
<p(z) is
a positive integer, and different from zero at a.
where
is
holomorphic
in
5 and
For
in the
neighborhood of the point a, by Taylor's Theorem,
A>)=A*) + (
Let/
is
(w)
-}/+
J 7
(a)
be the
first
of the successive derivatives at
a which
not equal to zero.
Then
f(z) v
(z
m
a)
\
.2.
^m
. .
-L
t
'
1.2
(w+
is
-(z
1)
a) J
I,
which
is
the required form.
The
point a
a zero of f(z) and

f
is its
order.
If
the point a is a critical point of a given function /(s), but is interior to a region 5, in which the reciprocal of j\z) is holomorphic, the function can be expressed in
Theorem V.
the form
where
is
a positive integer, and x{z)

of a.
is
holomorphic
in
the
neighborhood
280
[Chap. VI.
For by the preceding theorem
jA
where
<p{z)
is
= (* -
w
tf)
0<,
at z
holomorphic and not equal to zero

f(z\ J \9
a.
Hence
in
l
'
^_ a yn
-f
0(^
^ _ ay
*&
Further, since
a region
of finite extent including the
point a
X(*)
f(z) JK J
=A
(z
.
.
-) + ...,
. '
=
(z
dl L - q) m ^
n h ^z -a ^ +(g\
A-dauzi _L
a being an ordinary point
for tp(z).
The
ing no
point a
is
a pole of f(z)
and
is its
order.
Theorem VI.
finite
function, not constant in value, and hav-
points except poles, must take values near to every assignable value. arbitrarily
critical
For suppose that f(z) is such a function, but that it takes no value for which the modulus of f(z) A is less than a given
positive quantity
e.
Then
the function
i
/(*)
will
-A
is
be holomorphic
III, is
in
every part of the ^-plane, which, by

a constant.
Theorem
impossible unless f(z)
function f(z), having no critical point except a pole at infinity, is a rational entire function of z.
Theorem VII.
For the only
critical
point of
is
a pole at the origin.
Hence
/- #+...+4 +0W
where
<fiz) is
holomorphic over the entire plane, including the
is consequently equal to a constant (f)(z) point at infinity. The given function therefore can be written in the form
f(z)
= A m + ...+A z + A
z>
1
.Art. 24.]
ONE-VALUED FUNCTIONS.
281
Theorem VIII.
are poles
is
A function f{) whose

z.
only
critical
points
a rational function of
The
other
;
poles must be at determinate distances from one anotherwise the reciprocal of f{z) would be equal to zero
for points not isolated from one another. The number of poles cannot increase indefinitely as \z\ is increased; for then the
reciprocal of
would have an
infinite
number of zeros
indefi-
nitely near to the origin.
The
.
total
number
fore
finite.
Let
a, b,
denote them.
in
of poles is thereIn the neighborhood
of a the function can be expressed

m
(z
4X
'
the form
'
a)
a
In the neighborhood of
b>
being an ordinary point for cf>(z). in the form <p(z) can be expressed
u
*
'
'
'
'
(z
b)
b
*p(z).
a and
this
b being both ordinary points for
Proceeding
in
way the given function will be expressed as the sum of a finite number of rational fractions and a term which can have
no
critical
point except a pole at infinity.
This term
is
rational entire function.
the function f{z) has no zeros and no critical points for finite values of z it can be expressed in the e^ z \ where g(z) is holomorphic in every finite reform f{z)
If
t
Theorem IX.
gion of the
-s'-plane.
For
f(z) -~~
can have no
critical points
except at
infinity, since
in every finite region of the ^r-plane f(z) and f'{z) are holomorHence, choosing an arbiphic and f{z) is different from zero.
trary lower limit z
the integral
/
is holomorphic in every finite region. sequently must take the form
The
function /[z) con-
^82
[CHAP. VI.
where
g(z)
If
= k(z) + log f(z
).
Theorem X.
if
two functions/^) and
<p(z)
have no
criti-
cal points in the finite portion of the ,2-plane
these poles are identical in position and in functions, and their zeros are also identical in position order, there must exist a relation of the form
f{z)
except poles, and order for the two
and
<p(z)^\
finite
where g(z)
is
holomorphic
ratio of the
in
every
region of the ^-plane^

no>
For the
critical
two functions has no zeros and
points in the finite portion of the .s-plane.
Art.
If a
is
25.
Residues.
critical
one-valued function has an isolated
point
a, it
by Laurent's series in the region comprised between any two concentric circles described about a with radii
expressible
less
than the distance from a to the nearest

in
critical
point*
Hence
the neighborhood of a
/(s)
= A. + A (s-a) + A (*-ay + ...

l
+ B (z-a)- + B&-a)-> + ...

i 1
The
If
coefficient
of (2
a)'
in
a.
this
expansion
is
called
the
"residue" oi f(z) at the point
any closed curve
C including
the point a be drawn in the
region of convergence of this series, and f{z) be integrated along C in a positive direction, the result will be
J (fz)dz = 2niB
The
theorem
following
:
may be
regarded as an extension of Cauchy's
Theorem
I.
If in
one-valued function
a region 5 the only critical points of the f ... the /(.s) are the interior points a, a
,
Art.
25.]
residues.
283
integral
j f(z)dz
is
taken around
its
boundary
in a positive
direction
equal to
fA*)d* = 2*i(B + +
>
...),
are the residues of f(z) at the critical points. where B, B\ For the integral taken along C is equal to the sum of the integrals whose paths are mutually exterior small circles de.
scribed about the points a, a!
>
The
following theorems are immediate consequences of the

:
preceding
only
Theorem
critical
II.
If in
a region having a given boundary
C the
points of the one-valued function f(z) are poles
interior to C, an equation
-dz
exists,
M
in
cA J}. z) denoting the number

order. |p^^l
2iit(MN)
of zeros
and
N the number of
number
of times
poles within C, each such point being taken a
equal to
its
For
the neighborhood of the point a
/( Z )
(*
)-0(*)j|j^yiv
a,
if
where
<p(z) is finite
if
and different from zero at

is
and
a
is
is
positive integer
a zero, a negative integer
a pole.
Hence
/'{*)
= m
z
,,
0Xf)
<P(zY
f(z)
a**
fj^
\
2L-*
integrand, therefore, has a pole at every zero and pole of f(z), and its residue is the order, taken positively for a zero, and negatively for a pole.
The
Theorem
roots.
III.
Every algebraic equation
of degree n has
For
zn
let f{z)
~
l
a zH
x
represent the first member of the equation an o. Since f(z) has no poles in the
.
+ =
284
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE,

the
[CHAP. VI.
finite part of the ,2-plane,
number
of roots contained within
any closed curve
C will
be given by the integral
'
ni
**?* /(*) Jc A
is
But taking
for
a circle described about the origin as a
center with a very great radius, this integral
j_
27Z
k-' + (-y- + * + a i? +* Vc
e has zero for a limit
|sr|
...
dg
= J_
oo
.
Cndz
Hence the
2nl Jc z
limit
vj
where
when
is
\z\
of the preceding integral, as

Prob. 17.
increased,
is u.
is, if
00 is an Show that if z ordinary point of f(z), that /(s) is expressible for very great value of z by a series containing only negative powers of z, the integral o(/(z) around an infinitely
is
great circle cient

is
equal to 2iti into the coefficient of
This
coeffi-
called the residue for z
00
Prob. 18.
Show
that the
sum
of all the residues of f{z), of the

is
preceding problem, including the residue at infinity,

zero,
equal
to
f^l
io.
Prob.
is
If
tt\
is
a rational function of which the numerator
of
,
4,
degree lower by 2 than the denominator, and if the zeros ,...,# of the denominator are of the first order, show that
=
A
>
o.
*-
Art.
It
26.
Integral of a One-valued Function.

in Article 18 that,
if
was shown
a function/^)
is
holo-
integral taken from a fixed morphic in a given region lower limit contained in 5 to a variable upper limit z is a oneS, its
valued function of z within 5.
If F{z)
is
a function which
z and is one-valued takes a determinate value F(z ) at z while z remains within S, having at every point f(z) for its
derivative,
the
).
integral
If
of f(z)
from z
F(z)
F(z
F (z)
x
is
another function
equal to these confulfilling

to
is
Art.
26.]
integral of a one-valued function.

can be written also
in
285
ditions, so that the integral of f(z)
the
form (z) F^z^), the functions F(z) and a constant term for 3,$) - ^< ô) - *\
x
l
F (z)
x
differ
only
by
Suppose now that f(z)

has isolated
critical points
is
still
one-valued in S, but that

interior to 5.
it
#,,#,,... paths from z to z, which inclose between them a region con., will give integrals identitaining none of the points a lf a 2
,
. .
Any two
Let the two paths L lf L include between them and consider the integrals along a single critical point aK these two paths. The integral along L will be equal to the
cal in value.
;
integral along the composite path

i
L^L^L, where the exponent

is
indicates that the corresponding path
reversed
for the
integral curve, or" loop," including the critical point a K , and, assuming that it is described in a positive direction about a KJ the intex
along L'
is
equal to zero.
But
L~
is
a closed
gral along
at a K
.
it is
equal to 27tiBKi where
K is
the residue of f(z)
Hence
ff{z)dz
= 2niB
L
,
K -\-
ff{z)dz.
If
now
,
the two paths Z,,
from z to z include between

y
them
utive
several critical points a K a ky a^ ., draw intermediate Z3 Lmy so that the region between any two consec., paths
.
.
The integral paths contains only one critical point. L will be equal to the integral along the composite path along L L~ L^ Lm ~*L m L~ L, since the integrals corresponding to
x
X
Z _1 Z,, L L '\
a i t
.,
.,
L m L m L~ L are all equal to zero. But L L~\ L m L~ are all closed paths or loops, each including
X
,
~1
a single critical point, so that, assuming that each is described in a positive direction and that denote the resiK Ky B^,
B B
,
dues of f{z) at the
critical points,
f^Mds =
It
27ti(BK
+ B, + B. +
.)
+ f A*YL
has been assumed in the preceding that neither of the paths L lt L intersects itself. In the case where a path, for
286
[Chap. VI.
.
example
lt
intersects itself in several points c%% c%t
.,
it
is
possible to consider Z, as
made up
of a path
Z/
not intersect-
ing itself, together with a series of loops attached to Z/ at Each of these loops encloses a single the points clt c v critical point a K and, if described in a positive direction, adds
.
Each such loop described in a to the integral a term 27tiB K 2niBK It is evinegative direction adds a term of the form
.
dent that the form of each loop and the point at which it is attached to Z,' may be altered arbitrarily without altering the
value of the integral, provided no critical point be introduced In fact all the loops may be into or removed from the loop. as attached to L* at z regarded
.
It
eral path that can
can be proved by similar reasoning that the most genbe drawn from z% to z will be equivalent, so
far as the value of the integral
is concerned, to any given path preceded by a series of loops, each of which includes a sin-
gle critical point

tive direction.
and
is
The
value of the integral
described in either a positive or negais therefore of the
form
f
where
L f{z)dz
. .
.
+ zni{m B + m^ + ...),
x
x
m m^
lt
are
any integers positive or negative.

.
As an example
critical
consider the integral /
The onlv
is
point
is
= a. Any path
whatsoever from z to z
equivalent to a determinate path, for example, a rectilinear path, preceded by a loop containing a and described a certain
number
of times in a positive or negative direction. If w denote the integral for a selected path, the general value of the If now a straight line be drawn integral will be w -f- 2nni.
joining zQ to a, and if along its prolongation from a to infinity the .sr-plane be cut or divided, the integral in the #-plane thus
divided
stricted,
is
one-valued.
But, with the variation of z thus re-
any branch of the function log (z a) is one-valued. Select that branch, for example, which reduces to zero when z and its 2=za-\- I. It takes a determinate value for z
Art.
27.]
weierstrass's theorem.
28
derivative for every value of z
is
Hence, denoting
it
ct>
by Log
.
(z
a),
J j^T = Log iz-d)- Log a

For a path not
restricted in
(z
- a) =
Log ^-~^.
of the inte-
any way, the value
/
-ator is of
dz
z
a a
Log z
is
2nni
log
Prob. 20. If -S-v

tp(z)
a rational function of 2 of which the numer-
a lt
<z
.,
degree lower by 2 than the denominator, and if the zeros # of the denominator be of the first order, show that
ft8*=2-P&
fc. where
2<p{a v )/tp\a v )
log
= o.
(See Prob. 18, Art. 25.)
Art.
27.
Weierstrass's Theorem.
z,
Any
rational entire function of

.
points a lf a
.,
a my can be put
*,)"
,
in the
having form
its
zeros at the
A{z- a^(z where
...(#
.
.
a m y>,
., n m are positive integers. function which has no critical point in the generally, any finite portion of the ^-plane and has the points a lt ., a m as
is
a constant and
More
its zeros, is of the
form
where g{z)
is
holomorphic
in
every
finite region.
The
without
extension of this result to the case where a function

finite critical
points has an infinite

It is effected
<Jue to Weierstrass.
number of zeros is by means of the following

of isolated points
theorem
Theorem.
Given an
infinite
number
a lf
288
[CHAP. VI.
aa , ...,<?,..., a function can be constructed holomorphic except at infinity and equal to zero at each of the given points
only.*
For the given points can be taken so that
a n increasing indefinitely with

|
n.
Consider the
f
infinite
product
4w = $(i
where
fjt
<f,
Pn {z)
denotes the rational entire function
Any
factor
may
be written
in
the form
(i
- L)*
dz an
z
-*s(
-i)
+F
But since
g
(l
z \-
~"aj~
r ~*A
. .
* " " ~
~an
"
z*
r
*/>
z * dz
no}
a*(a n -zf
the path of integration being arbitrary except that it avoids as the points a lt a ., the product may be expressed
ZZ**
W
,
in
which
ij) n (z)
zn dz
a nn (a n
it
- z)'
will
In any given finite region of the ^-plane

to
be possible
indefinitely
assume that
n.
z\
< am
since
\a\ increases
with
Divide the product into two parts,
The second
part
is
equal to
tn
.
e * The following proof

Vol. II.
is
taken from Jordan, Cours d'Analyse, 2d edition,
Art.
27. j
weierstrass's theorem.
00
289
00
Consider the series 2ip n (z) and 2ip(z), each term of the secm tn ond being the derivative of the corresponding term of the first.
In the given region
;
p
CX
v*
*.'(*)
< ij Ki-i-py
,
00
Each term
of ^tp n (z)
is
accordingly less in absolute value than
the corresponding term of a convergent geometrical progres00
sion independent of
g.
The
oo
series 24>'(*)i therefore,
converges
uniformly.
The
series ^tp n (z) also converges, since
\U*)\= mod
where
/
fj'W*< W^Z\-p)>
jo,
denotes the length of the path of integration.
ink
a,
By Theorem
IV, of Article 23, the series 2ip(z) represents

tn
in the given region a
holomorphic function.
tn
The
exponential
also
must be holomorphic.
27 (1
The
other part of the product
- lW>
of factors
is
containing only a
finite
number
morphic, vanishing at all of the points

situated within the given finite region.
a lf But
everywhere holoav ., which are

.
this region
fulfils
may
be extended
arbitrarily.
The product
it
therefore
the re-
quired conditions. In the preceding demonstration
none
of the given points
ati a
was tacitly assumed that was situated at the origin.

necessary merely to mul-
To
introduce a zero at the origin tiply the result by a power of z.
it is
The most
general function without finite critical points
290

.
[CHAP. VI.
.,
having its only zeros at the given points a lf a%} be expressed in the form
an
. .
.,
can
yw = <*un[i - -\ f[z) aJ
i
fj.*)
where g(z) is holomorphic except at infinity; for the ratio of any two functions satisfying the required conditions is neither
nor zero at any finite point. means of Weierstrass's theorem it is possible to express By any function, F(z), whose only finite critical points are poles as the ratio of two functions holomorphic except at infinity. For,
infinite
construct a function
.
tp(z)
The product F(z) tp(z) The given function can,
having the poles of F{z) as its zeros. no finite critical point. <p(z) will have
therefore, be written
Ft A
#*)
which
is
the required form.
it
In applying Weierstrass's theorem to particular examples, will rarely be found necessary to include in the polynomials
as
PJz) so many terms

given above.
were employed
in
the demonstration
It is quite sufficient, of course, to
choose these
the product converge polynomials in any way which will Factors of the for finite values of z to a holomorphic function.
make
form
aj
such a manner, are called " primary
where
Pn(z)
is
chosen
in
factors."
application of Weierstrass's Theorem take the resoThe zeros of sin z are o, lution of sin z into primary factors.
As an
7t,
27t,
.,
n7r,
....
I
\
Consider factors of the form

z
nit'
,
so that PJz) contains only one term
and
W) =
-I
nninn
z)
ART.
27.J
00
WEIERSTRASS'S THEOREM.
291
The
series
2$M'(g) m
will
converge uniformly in any region at
every point of which
=
\z\
p <
mn
for, since
nn{n7t
s)
\
\nn\l
mnl
each term term
is
less in
absolute value than the corresponding
of the series
war/
series J2tp n '{z).
A
series
similar result holds for the

m
-m
The two
$4,4*),
are also convergent; for
\tp n {z)\
21>4s)
cannot exceed the upper ex/,
treme of
\tpn(z)\
multiplied by
the length of the path of

z.
integration from the origin to the point
These
series
accordingly represent holomorphic functions in the region for
which
=
\z\
p.
Hence the expression required

sin g
is
= se*'>n( 1
-00 \
nnj
)e
the value n
= o being excluded
next article that
gd 1
from the product.
It will
be
shown
in the
e^
I.
Prob. 21. If
the doubly
is
and
gd 3
be two quantities not having a real
ratio,
rr
infinite series of
if
which the general term

2.
is 7
absolutely convergent
p>
Hence show
Z
-Itil
that the product
-=*4-3
where
go
= moo
-\-
nco 7
defines a holomorphic function in any finite
region of the s-plane. This function is Weierstrass's sigma function, and is the basis of his lystem of elliptic functions.
292
[CHAP. VI.
Art.
28.
Mittag-Leffler's Theorem.
Any one-valued function f{z) with isolated critical points *?,,#,,... can be represented in the neighborhood of one of these points by Laurent's series viz.
; :
+ M =A. +
is
A,(z,{g
O + A,(g -.) + ... )-'
+ Biz
1
a.)"
Hence
where 0(#)
/(*)
= <&*) + G.( ~in a region
),
holomorphic
J
containing the point a n
and
GH \
.
is
holomorphic over the whole plane excluding

is
the point a n
If
an
;
a pole oif{z),
it
Gn
l
J
contains a finite
infinite
series.
If
number
of terms
otherwise
is
an
the
number
of critical points
at
is finite,
and the function
Gn
each such point, by subtracting the sum of these is functions from/^) a remainder will be obtained which has no
formed
critical
point in the finite part of the plane.

series of
This remainder
ascending powers G{z) convergThe function f(z) can thereing for every finite value of z. fore be written in the form 1* >*]
can be expressed as a
analogous to the expression of a rational function by means of

partial fractions.
The
extension of this result to the case where the

is
number
Let a xi
of critical points
infinite is
due to Mittag-Lefrler.
of the one-valued func,,..., ani ... be the critical points tion /(#), and suppose that
kl
\an
\
<l*il
<
A*\ <
is
>
increasing without limit
when n
increased indefinitely.
Let, further,
GM (
.
be the series of negative powers of
.4
?
A
>ju
*^
<*>i
"
TAk
Art.
38.]
MITTAG-LEFFLER'S THEOREM,
in
293
a n contained
the expansion oif(z) according to Laurent's

.
Series in the neighborhood of an
The
,
function
GJ
\ having no
critical
point except at
a n may be developed by Maclaurin's
series in the
form h-^YO
series will converge uniformly within a circle described about the origin as a center with any determinate radius Within the same circle Maclaurin's series, applied fin < \an \.
and the
to
Gn
'\
\2
aj
],
the derivative with respect to z of
GJ
\2
a nj
A,
converges uniformly.
Hence,
for
any point within the
circle
Fn (z)
GJ
\2
representing the
first
terms of the development of
aj
by Maclaurin's theorem,
Fn \z)
its
derivative,
and
less in
R! remainders which by a suitable choice of v absolute value than any given quantity.
may be made
so that
Choose the positive quantities

the series
Elf E
.
.
>
. . .
EU9
.
. . .
+E
-\-
+ En +
is
convergent.
also in connection with each of the points
alf att
. ,
Choose aMI .,
.
an integer v such that
ft
\
z
\
<A <
|*h
anc*>
m
]
general,
1x10(1
t^-ty
" fjw <e*>
mod
[^t^y
" a,w <Em ]
'
294

Consider now the series
[CHAP.
VI*
finite region of the plane, the points ax% a 3 . ant . . . excluded. Since \a M increases indefinitely with n, it is being possible, in any finite region of the #-plane, to assume that
in
any
|*|
<P<
m
sum.
be
am\*
Separate from each of these two series
its
first
terms.
These terms
will
have
in
each case a
finite
The remaining terms
of either series taken in order
absolute value than mt B m + h respectively, than each of the quantities p my pm + Ac\z\ w*>*Oiw~ ft* k*. a-Vma each of the series "/'"^s^^ cordingly,
will
less in less
.
being
lf
is
a ny
absolutely convergent for every value of z except a lt a 2 ,. r It is evident, further, that in any given finite region,
.
from which the points a lt a
an
are excluded, the
two
of
series
converge uniformly.
is
In such a region any term of
either series
holomorphic
first
Article 23, the
and, therefore, by Theorem IV of these series defines a holomorphic

;
function.
The
point a n
is
an ordinary point for the difference
&> since in
[>by its
'*#>]
=
[a*)
sfcdbeG
may be
.
. .
m
an
is
.
neighborhood
this difference
developed as
a convergent series containing only positive powers of z In the same way each of the points a lt a aHi ... ordinary point for the function
,
an
This function, therefore, can have no
critical
point except at
infinity, and must be expressible as a series G{z) containing only positive powers of z and converging uniformly in any
finite
region of the ,2-plane.
Hence
the function f(z)
may be
put
in the
form
Art.
28.]
mittag-leffler's theorem.
295
M=
in
G{z)
+2
[_G{izrj)
/)],
is
which
the character of each critical point
exhibited.
z.
As an
application of Mittag-Leffler's theorem consider cot
Its critical points are z
= o,
is
zr,
27r,
....
;
In the neighin the neigh-
borhood of
borhood
cot z
z
= o, of z =
is
cot z
holomorphic
and
tztt,
being any positive or negative integer,
rnt
holomorphic.
The
j
series
^
in
+ 00
nn'
which
for finite
an arbitrary positive integer, is not convergent values of z, even when \z\ < m. The series
is
.^r
is,
!+-] = -^
=^=
\
nnl
however, absolutely convergent at every point for which For the modulus of any term is equal to \z\ <m.
_
V
1*1
v(i-W). ^7T>
7Z7Z7
and, therefore, less than the corresponding term in the series

z\ *\
\
win)
A similar result holds
for the series
\_z -f- rnt
nnA
easy to see now that the reasoning employed in the demonstration of Mittag-Leffler's theorem may be applied to
It is
show
that the series
296
[CHAP. VI.
^
oo
\_z
nn
'
nnS
where the summation does not include n

tion holomorphic
O,
7t>
= o,
defines a func-
in
any
finite
region of the ^-plane, the points
2?r,
being excluded.
The
difference
cot
~ ,_i_^r_!_ + _LV^ J nn nn J z
x
\_z
can have no
point except at infinity. It must, therefore, be expressible as a series G(z) of positive powers of z>
critical
having an
infinite circle of
I
convergence.
Hence
cot *
=
is
(*)
+ - + j>
oo
p
1
h-
"1
The next
that,
if
step
is
to determine
its
(*).
It is to
be observed
zero, since
G(z)
a constant,
z.
value
must be
not a constant, differentiation z) ( of the preceding expression for cot z gives

cot
cot
If G{z) is
i
,,
sin z
It follows,
z
into z
TZ
-\-
{z
nny
by changing z
n, that
G\z +
Hence G\z)
n)
G'(z).
if
;
is periodic, having a period equal to n and as the z traces a line parallel to the axis of reals, G'{z) passes point again and again through the same range of values. But G\z),
being the derivative of G(z\

value of
*.
is
holomorphic for every

infinite,
if
finite
It can, therefore,
become
at
all,
only
)
when
the imaginary part of z is infinite. If z be written in the form x -f- ty, the value of G'{z) may be expressed as
^ '
_ ~
j_4r-
(x
-\- iy)*
2 ^y ( cosx
sm x V
lyi
(x-\-ty
first
nnf
and
\(cos 2x-\-i sin

last
2x)e
When
member
}-->-
jy
the
erms
it
of the
second
vanish.
f
In regard to the series

2
i
can be proved that,

^C*g -\
<f t
-^
iU
Art.
for
28.]
mittag-leffler's theorem.
I4v is
297
which y is finite and different from any given region an integer r can be found such that the sum of the moduli zero, of those terms for which ||> v is less in absolute value than
any previously assigned quantity e. As \y\ is increased the modulus of each of these terms is diminished. The modulus 00. of their sum, therefore, cannot exceed e when y = But the sum of any finite number of terms of the series when^= Hence the limit of the whole series is zero. G'(z), is zero. Hence, by Theorem III, therefore, never becomes infinite. It follows that Article 24, it is constant, and is equal to zero.
&(z)
is
equal to zero.
expression for cot z
is
The
accordingly
J+SfcJ nn
The
strass's
nnj
logarithmic derivative of the product expression for sin st given in the preceding article as an example of Weier-
theorem,
cot *
is
= #'(*) + ?-+'*[ ^- \-2

v
00
nn h nn J
T
Making z
Hence g{z)
its
in that
expression
is
a constant.
= o,
value
is
seen to be unity.
Prob. 22.
From
the expression for cot z deduce the equation
+
cosec z
8
ec
= 3> *Z
where the summation does not

Prob. 23.
- nnf exclude n = o.
7
;*>
(z
Show
that the doubly infinite series
jb,
vj^
where
00
mao -f
points are z
noo^
defines a function
is
whose only
finite critical
go.
This function
Weierstrass's ^-function.
(Com-
pare Problem 21.)

JM =~
J
^
s
log
<r(*).
*.M,
^ %u
[i$l-M} -i^CP
298

{CHAP.
VL
'(z)
2^7
r- , 3
where the summa-
tion does not exclude go
o.
Art.
29.
Critical Lines and Regions.
The
functions whose properties have been considered in the
preceding articles have been assumed to have only isolated That an infinite number of critical points may critical points.
be grouped together in the neighborhood of a single finite point is evident, however, from the consideration of such ex-
amples as
^H/^y) "fr* w = cot ,
#7/ y -/
f'-Vu^
osec
/'
^r3
=^
jr^.-
In the former an infinite
number
neighborhood of the
origin.
of poles are grouped in the In the latter an infinite num-
ber of essential singularities are situated in the vicinity of the a. point z
easy to illustrate by an example the occurrence of lines and regions of discontinuity. Take the series *
It is
The sum
of
its first
n terms
* z'
is
1
.1
>
which converges to unity
if
\z\<
I,
and to zero
if
\z\>
I.
Hence the
series.
circle
|*|=I
is
a line of discontinuity for this
Consider
now any two
regions
5 and S
t
the former situated
within, the latter without, the unit circle.
Let
<p(z)
and
ip(z)
be two arbitrary functions both completely defined in these

regions.
The
expression
<P(z)V(z)
+ tp(z)[i-0(z)-]
See Weierstrass, Abhandlungen aus der
* This series
is
due to
J.
Tannery.
Functionenlehre (1886),
p. 102.
Art.
will
29.]
critical lines and regions.

<p(z) in
29D
In regions comthe same
be equal to
expression
S and
1
ip(z)
in
pletely separated from one another by a

literal
critical line,
may
thus represent entirely independent
functions.
For a single continuous region, however, in the interior of which exist only isolated critical points, the character of the
function in one part determines its character in every other Let 5 be such a region, and assume that its boundary is a part.
critical line.
a critical
series, viz.
In the neighborhood of any interior point a, not point, the given function is expressible as a power
:
f{z)
= /(a) -f (* - a)/' (a) + ... + JfLZi2L/W(,) +
will converge uniformly over a circle described a as a center with any determinate radius less than the about
It serves for the distance from a to the nearest critical point. all its successive derivatives at any point
This series
calculation of f(z) and
b interior to this circle.
From
the preceding power series, ac-
cordingly, can be obtained another
M=
center.
Ab)
+ t'~ *)/'(*) + ... + }'~ 2

I
. .
6y,
ft
J^m +
representing the f(z) within a circle described about b as a In general, the point b can be so chosen that a portion of this new circle will lie without the circle of convergence of
the former power series. At any new point c within the circle whose center is b, the value of the function and all its successive derivatives can be calculated
series
;
and
so, as before,
power
can be obtained convergent in a circle described about c as a center and, in general, including points not contained in
either of the preceding circles.
continuing in this manner it will be possible, starting from a given point a with the expression of f(z) in ascending powers, to obtain an expression of
By
the same character at any other point k which can be connected with a by a. continuous line everywhere at a finite distance
from the nearest
critical point.
It follows
that the character of
300
[CHAP. VI.
the function everywhere within
S can be
determined completely
from
its
hood
expression in ascending power series in the neighborof a single interior point.
It will
be impossible by the process just explained to derive

in
any information
S.
regard to the function at points exterior to given above, furthermore, shows that a complete definition of f(z) within 5 may carry with it the definition of an entirely independent function without 5.
The example
As an example
of a function
having a
series
-f-
critical region con.
sider the function defined

I
by the
.,
+ 22 + 2Z* + 2Z*
;
X. ?i
+%^
is
01+-'
which represents a function without critical points in the For points on or without this interior of the circle \z\ = I.
circle the series
is
divergent
and, further,
it
impossible to
obtain from
it
an expression converging when
=
\z\
i.
The
function thus defined, consequently, exists only in the region interior to the unit circle. By changing z into \/z a series
is obtained, representing a function which has no existence in Functions in connection with the interior of the unity circle. which such regions arise are called " lacunary functions." *
Art.
30.
Functions Having n Values.
Let the function

gion
a value
at z
,
beginning remain in the
take at the point z of a given re/ Suppose that along any continuous path, and subject only to the conditions that it shall
0)
.
w =/(z)
interior of
S and
.
shall
isolated points
t ,
a%t
w is
not pass through certain continuous and has a contin-
uous derivative.
ferent from
*
{Q
impossible, when z traces such a path, difto return to the point z so as to obtain there a value of
If
it is
w \ w is
one-valued in the region S.
On
the other
Morley, Theory of Functions (1893),
PoincarS, American Journal of Mathematics, Vol. p. 119
XIV; Harkness and
Art.
30.]
FUNCTIONS HAVING n VALUES.
301
hand, certain paths
may
lead back to z with
new values
x ,
, .
of
w.
w has Suppose that at each point of 5, except a <z a n different values, and that starting from such a point 89 and a i9 f tracing any continuous curve not passing through a
. .
the several values of
each of which
the
is
give rise to n branches % x characterized by a continuous derivative.

,
w w
wnT
In
a k any one of the points a x , a% , . . . neighborhood these branches are said to be distinct or not, according a? small closed curves described about this point lead from each value of
of
back to the same value again, or cause some of the branches In the latter case the point is a branch to interchange values.
point.
About any branch point a k

cle
;
as a center describe a small cir-
and suppose
that, starting
from any point of
it
with the
value
corresponding to a certain branch, the values ... are obtained by successive revolutions about ak , Wp^Wy the original value being reproduced after p revolutions. Introduce
wa
now
new independent
z'
variable
k )'K
z'
such that
= (z - a
It
can be shown that when z makes one revolution about

f
ak
z'
gin
makes only one /th part of a revolution about the oriof the ^-plane, and that to a complete revolution of z
.
about the origin of the ^-plane correspond / revolutions of z about a k Considering then the branch wa as a function of z' r
the origin cannot be a branch point, for whenever z' describes is reproduced. a small circle about it, the value The a branch 7va must accordingly be expressible by Laurent's
series in the
form
+ 00
hn
y
or,
substituting for z'
its
value,
1
2
.
.
Wa = A + A,(z - a + A,(z - atf + + A_ (z - a y*+A_ (z - a j"*+

k)
.
1
This expression makes plain the relation between the different
302

in the
[CHAP. VI.
branches of a function
neighborhood of a branch point.
When
of
its
the development of a branch in the neighborhood of one branch points gives rise to only a finite number of terms
is
containing negative powers, the branch point
called a
"
polar
branch point." Consider the functions
P =z Wy + W + + Wu P = w w + w,w + + wn _ wn
x
. .
Pm =
Each
of these functions
WSiVa
is
.
w.
in
unchanged
.
value
when several or all

is
of the quantities n are interchanged, and %i xt sequently a one-valued function of z within S. Hence
.
,
w w
con-
w must
satisfy an equation of the
th degree,
%
+ Pjf-* + p
of-'
+P =
n
o,
the coefficients of which are one-valued functions of z having only isolated critical points within 5. When the entire ^-plane can be taken as the region 5, and those branch at which
points polar branch points, the only other critical points being poles for one or more branches, the functions u H tt ..,,P are rational functions of z. In this case is an algebraic function of z.
the branches do not
all
remain
finite are
P P
Art.
1.],
EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER AND DEGREE.
303
Chapter VII,
By W. Woolsey Johnson,
Professor of Mathematics in the U. S. Naval Academy.
Art.
1.
Equations of First Order and Degree.
In the Integral Calculus, supposing y to denote an unknown function of the independent variable x, the derivative of y with
respect to
is
required to find the value of y as a function of x. words, given an equation of the form
given in the form of a function of x, and it is In other
%=A*\
of which the general solution
dy
= Ax)dx,
(i)
is
written in the form

(2)
= /A*)**,
such reduction
it is the object of the Integral Calculus to reduce the expression in the second member of equation (2) to the form of a
known
function of x.
When
is
not possible,
the equation serves to define a new function of x.

In the extension of the processes of integration of which
the following pages give a sketch the given expression for the derivative may involve not only x, but the unknown function
or, to
it
write the equation in a form analogous to equation
(1),
may be
Mdx
+ Ndy =
o,
(3)
in which
M and N
;
are functions of
x and y.
This equation
is
in fact the general
form of the
differential equation of the first
order and degree either variable being taken as the independent variable, it gives the first derivative of the other variable
304
in
[CHAP. VII.
terms of
x and y.
So
also the solution
is
not necessarily an
is.
expression of either variable as a function of the other, but

generally a relation between x and implicit function of the other.
y which makes either
an.
When we recognize the left member of equation (3) as an " exact differential," that is, the differential of some function o
x and y
tion
s
the solution
is
obvious. For example, given the equa-
xdy -\-ydx
the solution
= o,
is is
(4)
(5)
xy =
C,
where
is
C is
an arbitrary constant,
obtained by
" direct inte-
gration."
attributed to C, the result " x' 1 is a particular integral thus jj/ a " particular integral of equation (4), while the more general relation expressed by" complete integral." equation (5) is known as the
;
When
a particular value
In general, the given expression

act differential,
Mdx -\- Ndy
is
not an exless
and
it
is
necessary to find
some
direct
method
of the
of solution.
of solving a differential equation, order and degree is, when practicable, to " separate the variables," so that the coefficient of dx shall contain x
first
The most obvious method
only,
and that of
dy,
(1
only.
For example, given the equation

(6)
(1 -\-
- y)dx + (1 + x)dy = o,
x)(i
the variables are separated by dividing by
y).
T Thus
,
dx
:
'
h
1
dy =l_
o,
-\-x
y
and hence
y)
log
(1
Each term
is
now
directly integrable,
(1
log
+x)
c.
solution here presents itself in a transcendental form,, but it is readily reduced to an algebraic form. For, taking the exponential of each member, we find
'
The
=e =
C,
whence
1 -L-
= C(i
y),
(7>
where
C is
put for the constant ^.
ART.
2.]
GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION.
verify the result in this form
305
To
tion
we
notice that differentia-
gives dx =
Cdy, and substituting in equation (6)
we
find
which
is
C{i
-y)+i+x = o,
(7).
true
1.
by equation
Prob.
Solve the equation dy -\-y tan
x dx
= o.
b
Prob.
2.
Solve
$dx
+ py = a\ J
= ^}-. x +1
~ C- r dr
y=C cos x.) Ans> l+A _ âx\

(Ans.
by
( Ans. \
Prob.
Prob.
3.
Solve
fdx
y y
=
1
ex
^)
j
4. Helmholtz's equation for the strength of an electric current C at the time / is
L are given constants. Find the value of C, dethe constant of integration by the condition that its initial termining value shall be zero.
where
,
R, and
Art.
2.
Geometrical Representation.
of a differential equation
The meaning
illustrated by supposing simultaneous the rectangular coordinates of a variable point. ient to put/ for the value of the ratio dy dx.
:
may be graphically values of x and y to be

It is
conven-
Then
P being
its
the moving point (x, y) and <p denoting the inclination of path to the axis of x, we have
p *
The
between p, x and
y
= dy = tan -fdx
0.
given differential equation of the first order is a relation y, and, being of the first degree with respect determines in general a single value of p for any assumed to/, values of x and y. Suppose in the first place that, in addition
to the differential equation, we were given one pair of simultaneous values of x and y that is, one position of the point P.
y
Now
let
P start
from
this fixed initial point
in either direction along the straight line
and begin to move whose inclination
306
is
[Chap. VII.
initial
determined by the value of p corresponding to the
thus have a moving point satisfying values of x andjj/. moves the the given differential equation. As the point values of x and y vary, and we must suppose the direction of
We
its
motion to vary
in
such a way that the simultaneous values
In of x, y, and p continue to satisfy the differential equation. is said to that case, the path of the moving point satisfy the
differential equation.
The point may return to its initial thus describing a closed curve, or it may pass to infinposition, ity in each direction from the initial point describing an infinite
branch of a curve.*
The ordinary
cartesian equation of the
path
If
of
Pis
a particular integral of the differential equation.
no pair of associated values of x and y be known, Pmay be assumed to start from any initial point, so that there is an
unlimited
number
of curves representing particular integrals
of the equation.
These form a "system

is
of curves,"
"
and the
complete integral form of a relation between

This parameter
is
the equation of the system in the usual

x, y>
and an arbitrary
parameter."
It is
of course the constant of integration.
constant for any one curve of the system, and different values of it determine different members of the system of curves, or
different particular integrals.
As an
illustration, let us
may
take equation (4) of Art. be written
1,
which
dy ~
y
x'
dx
the axis of
Denoting by 6 the inclination to
of the line joining
P
is
with the origin, the equation

equivalent to tan
tan
0,
and
therefore expresses that moves in a direction inclined equally with
OP to either axis, but

*
on the other
is
When
why
the form of the functions
M and AT
is
unrestricted, there
no
reason
either of these cases should exist, but they
commonly occur among
such differential equations as admit of solution.
ART.
3.]
PRIMITIVE OF A DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION.
307
side. Starting from any position in the plane, the point thus moving must describe a branch of an hyperbola having the two axes as its asymptotes accordingly, the complete
;
integral
xy
=C
is
the equation of the system consisting of
these hyperbolas.
Prob.
5.
in a direction always perpendicular to OP, equation of the system of curves described.
to move Write the differential equation which requires and thence derive the
Prob.
6.
?
What
If
is
the system described
when
(Ans.
is
ment
of 6
Prob.
7.
x*/=Q
(x*
the comple-
26,
show geometrically that the system described

find the differential equation.
consists of circles,
and
(Ans. 2xydx
y*)dy.)
Art.
3.
Primitive of a Differential Equation.
Let us now suppose an ordinary relation between x and y, which may be represented by a curve, to be given. By differentiation we may obtain an equation of which the given equation
is
of course a solution or particular integral.

this with the given equation
But by
combining
be found.
ential equations of
any number of differwhich the given equation is a solution may For example, from
we
of
y = m(x
obtain directly
a)
t
(1)
2ydy
= mdx
dx
(2)
(2)
which equation we have
(1)
is
an integral; again, dividing
by
(1)
2dy
=
is
y
and
of this equation also (1)
If in
it is
JZT^
(3)
an integral.
be regarded as an arbitrary parameter, equation (1) the equation of a system of parabolas having a common
axis and vertex.
The
differential equation (3),
which does not
contain m,
is
satisfied
by every member
of this system of curves.
308
(i)
[CHAP.
VIL
Hence equation
equation (3), the variables are already separated.
the complete integral of as will be found by solving the equation in which
thus regarded
is
Now
it
equation
of
(3) is
obviously the only differential equation

(1)
independent
is
which could be derived from
and
(2),
since
" differIt is therefore the the result of eliminating m. " and in this point of view the ential equation of the system
;
integral equation (1)
is
said to be
(1)
its
"primitive."
Again,
stant,
it is
if
in
equation
a be regarded as the arbitrary con-
a
is
common
the equation of a system of equal parabolas having Now equation (2) which does not contain a axis.
it
is
satisfied by every member of this system of curves; hence the differential equation of the system, and its primitive equation (1) with a regarded as the arbitrary constant.
is
Thus, a primitive is an equation containing as well as x and an arbitrary constant, which we may denote by C, and the
is
corresponding differential equation
a relation
between
x,
yr
and p, which is found by differentiation, and elimination of C if necessary. This is therefore also a method of verifying the comFor example, in plete integral of a given differential equation.
verifying the complete integral (7) in Art. I we obtain by differIf we use this to eliminate C from equaentiation 1 Cp. is equation (6); whereas the process before tion (7) the result
employed was equivalent to eliminating p from equation

thereby reproducing equation
Prob.
Art.
2, 8.
(6),
(7).
7,
and
Write the equation of the system of circles in Prob. derive the differential equation from it as a primitive.
Prob. 9. Write the equation of the system of circles passing b), and derive from it the differthrough the points (o, b) and (o,
ential equation of the system.
Art.
In Art.
I
4.
Exact Differential Equations.

is
the case
mentioned
is,
in
which
Mdx
-f-
Ndy
is
an
" exact differential," that
the differential of a function of
andjy.
Let u denote this function; then
du
Mdx -\-.Ndy,
(1)
ART.
4.]
EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

the notation of partial derivatives
309
and
in
d M= d* A
N^P. dy
dydx
dxdy
y
J
Then, since by a theorem of
partial derivatives
'
dy
d*
fulfilled
This condition must therefore be
by
M and N
in
order that equation (i) may be possible. When it is fulfilled Mdx -\- Ndy = o is said to be an " exact differential equation,"
and
its
complete integral
is
= C.
/)dy
(3)
For example, given the equation x(x

-\-
2y)dx
+ (**
y\
= o,
and
x{x
-\-
2y),
N = x*
2#,
= 2x
To
the
condition
function
(2) is fulfilled,
and the equation
is
exact.
find the
u,
we may integrate Mdx,
treating^/ as a constant; thus,
in
which the constant of integration

result of differentiating this
is
Y may
be a function of y.
The
x*dx
+ zxy dx +
written
-|-
x*dy
dY,
;
which should be identical with the given equation therefore, dY y^dy, whence Y = \y % C, and substituting, the complete integral
may be
is
The
result
more
readily obtained
if
we
notice that
all
terms containing x and dx only, or y and dy only, are exact hence it is only necessary to examine the terms differentials both x and y. In the present case, these are containing
;
2xy dx -f- x*dy, which obviously form the differential of x*y whence, integrating and multiplying by 3, we obtain the result
;
above.
The complete
integral of
any equation,
in
whatever way
it
310
in
[CHAP. VII.
was found, can be put
the form u
C,
by solving
for C.
can be obtained, Hence an exact differential equation du which must be equivalent to the given equation
=o
Mdx + Ndy =
here supposed not to be exact. must therefore be of the form
o,
(4)
The
exact equation du
=o
(5)
ju(Mdx
+ Ndy) =
o,
where and y.
}x is
Such a
a factor containing at least one of the variables x " factor is called an integrating factor" of the
given equation.
For example, the

I,
result of differentiating
equation
(7),
Art.
when put
(1
in the
form u
C, is
(1
-y)dx-\-{\
+ x)dy _
3
'
-J)
so that
is
is an integrating factor of equation (6). It to be noticed that the factor by which we separated the
(1
y)~
variables, namely,
factor.
(1
y)~\i
x)~\
is
also
an integrating
an integrating factor can be discovered, the given differential equation can at once be solved.* Such a factor is sometimes suggested by the form of the equation.
It follows
that
if
Thus, given
the terms ydx
act,
(y
x)dy-\-ydx
= o,
xdy, which contain both x and y, are not exbut become so when divided by either x* or y*; and be-
cause the remaining term contains y only, y~* is an integrating The resulting integral is factor of the whole expression.
ôgy
Prob. 10.
x~*
is
+^ =
x
C.
Show from the integral equation in Prob. 9, Art. an integrating factor of the differential equation.
1
3,
that
Prob. ii. Solve the equation x(x
+ $y*)dx -\-yiy + 3^)dy = (Ans. x* + 6xY +/ =

c.)
o.
* Since
we have
fl
juM and #iVin the exact equation (5) must satisfy the condition (2) r a partial differential equation for ju; but as a general method of finding
this
simply comes back to the solution of the original equation.
Art.
5.]
homogeneous equation.
5.
1
311
Prob. 12. Solve the equation ydy-\-xdx-\
(Am.
Prob. 13. If u
^t^ + tan"
2
^*.) x
is a form of the complete integral and /* the corresponding integrating factor, show that m/( u ) is tne general
=c
expression for the integrating factors.

Prob. 14. Show that the expression x a yP(mydx nxdy) has the km ~ ~ a kn ~ ~P; and by means of such a factor integrating factor x y
1
1
solve the equation
y(y
-f-
2x )dx
+ *(**
2y)</y
o.
(Ans. 2x*y
y*
Prob. 15. Solve (x*
-\-
y'*)dx
2xydy = o.
(Ans. x*
= ^.) = ex.) y*
Art.
5.
Homogeneous Equation.
The
differential equation
and homogeneous when x and j of the same degree
N are
or,
Mdx + iVi/y =
is
said to
be
homogeneous what is the same
functions of
thing,
when
dy t-
is
expressible as a function of -.
If in
such an equation
v,
the variables are changed from
x and y
and
to
x and
where
vdx,
=y
whence
= xv
dy
= xdv
-\-
the variables
x and v
(x
will
be separable.
-|-
For example, the
equation
2y)dx
ydy
=o
indicated
homogeneous dividing by x,
is
making the substitutions

2v)dx
-f-
and
(1
v(xdv
7
-f-
vdx)
o.
= o,
whence
dx h x
s
vdv
-~
{v
\f
1)
Integrating,
log
x+
log (v
^
C.
= C;
and
restoring^/,
& Ky log (y
x) '
Afa^/
The equation Mdx
-f-
= o can
always be solved when
312
the
first
[CHAP. VII.
is,
M and N are functions of

of the form
degree, that
when
it
is
(ax
For, assuming
+ by + c)dx
x
-\- (a!
x
r
+ b'y + c')dy =
-\- k,
it
o.
=x
-\-
h, y = y
becomes
f
(ax'+ b'y'+ ah
+ bk+c)dx'+{a'x'+ b'y'+a h+b' k+c')dy' =o

k,
which, by properly determining h and

{ax'
becomes
+ by')dx' + (a'x' +
b
b'y')dy',
homogeneous equation. This method fails when a:
a'
b',
that
is,
when the
equation takes the form
{ax
-{-
by
)*&"
+ [w(^^ + ^) +
</]d^/
=o
but in this case if we put z = ax -f- ^, and eliminate be found that the variables x and z can be separated.
jj>,
it
will
Prob. 16. Show that a homogeneous differential equation represents a system of similar and similarly situated curves, the origin being the center of similitude, and hence that the complete integral may be written in a form homogeneous in x, y, and c.
Prob. 17. Solve
xdy
y dx
>jx -f-
^(x* -f y*)dx
o.
(Ans. x*
=c
2
2cy.)
Prob. 18. Solve ($y
i)dx -j- (jy * (Ans. (7
Prob. 19. Solve (x Prob. 20. Solve (1

the
-\-
y*)dx
- + 2xy dy = o.
3^ -f- 3)^ =; o. * - i) 5 i)\y
+ xy)ydx + (1
(Ans. .r o by introducing xy)xdy
= = ex.) y*
f.)
new
variable 2
= xy.
-j-=ax + by+c.
6.
(Ans.
a;
Cye*y.)
bx
.)
Prob. 21. Solve
(Ans. abx+&y-\-a-\-bc=Ce
Art.
The Linear Equation.

is
when (one of the variables, say x, being regarded as independent,) it is of the first degree with respect to y, and its derivatives. The
linear equation of the first order
A differential equation
" said to be " linear
may
therefore be written in
the form
Art.
6.]
THE LINEAR EQUATION.
313
where
and
is
are functions of
only.
Since the second
a function of x, an integrating factor of the first be an integrating factor of the equation provided To find such a factor, we solve the equation it contains x only.
will
member member
+/>which
is
done by separating the variables
dy
;
thus,
Pdx
whence log^
=c
Pdx
or
y
Putting equation exact equation is
Pd
Ce-f**.
(3)
this
in the
form u
c,
the corresponding
e* *(dy
+ Pydx) =
Pdx
o,
whence r
is the integrating factor required. the general solution of equation (i) is factor,
Using
this
ef
pdx
=f/
Qdx
+ C.
(4)
In a given example the integrating factor should of course
be
simplified in form
(i
if
possible.
Thus
+ x*)dy = {m-\- xy)dx

y
;
Is
a linear equation for
reduced to the form
(i), it is
dy
dx
from which
i+x^
n x dx
\y
m
i+x*'
i
,
/
The
integrating factor
is,
therefore,
efPdx
=
is
whence the exact equation

dy
v(i
xy dx
(i
mdx
'
+ **)
+ o'~(i+*')
314
Integrating, there
is
[Chap. VII.
found
y
or
*
,
= mx + CV(l + x*).
linear,
An
for
equation
is
sometimes obviously
dy
-y- -f-
not forj, but
some function
of y.
For example, the equation

tan
= x sec ^
y
;
when
multiplied by cos
is e*,
takes a form linear for sin
the
integrating factor
and the complete integral
sin
=x
dy
-j- -f-
-\-
ce
~x
.
In particular, the equation
Py
n Qy which
,
is
known
as
" the extension of the linear equation,"

linear for
is
readily put in a
form
I_n
.
Prob. 22. Solve
x a dy +
(i
2x)y
= x\
sin
(Ans.
= x*(i + ***).)
Prob. 23. Solve cos
x~-
-\-y
1 -|-
x
^
= o.
(Ans. jy(sec
+ tan x) = x +
= sin x = x* +
2
-\-
.)
Prob. 24. Solve
cos
</#
-f-
y sin
1.
(Ans.
c cos #.)
1
Prob. 25. Solve

Prob. 26. Solve
= x*y*
dx
xy.
(Ans.
-5
+^*.)
i ^ = xy + y
,-,.
(Ans.
-=
x
- * + ce~h>\\ v '
f
Art.
If
7.
First
Order and Second Degree.

first
the given differential equation of the
order, or re-
a quadratic for p, the first step x, y, in the solution is usually to solve for p. The resulting value of / will generally involve an irrational function of x and y;
lation
is
between
and p,
so that an equation expressing such a value of p, like
some
of
those solved
in
the preceding pages,
is
not properly to be re-
Art.
7.]
FIRST
ORDER and second degree.

first
315
garded as an equation of the

case
when the expression whose
In the exceptional degree. root is to be extracted is a
perfect square, the equation is decomposable into two equations properly of the first degree. For example, the equation
when
solved
= 2A*'+f) x y for p gives 2p = -, or 2p = -;

*y(i+4/)
x
it
may
therefore
be written
in the
form
(
2px
- y)(2py - x) = o,
either
and
is
satisfied
by putting
dy
y
2x
l
dy
x
2y
dx
dx
x*
The
integrals of these equations are
y*
= ex
and
2y
C,
and these form two entirely

equation.
distinct solutions of
the given
As an
illustration of the general case, let us take the
equation
(I)
*/'=/,
or
%=
'
Separating the variables and integrating,
\/xVy=V~c,
and
this equation rationalized
(2)
becomes
{*
- yf -
2c(x
+ y) + =
c*
o.
(3)
thus a single complete integral containing one arbiconstant and representing a single system of curves; trary namely, in this case, a system of parabolas touching each axis
is
There
at the
same distance
from the
origin.
The
separate equa-
tions given in the form (2) are merely branches of the
same
parabola.
Recurring
tion of the
now
ential equation, as given in Art. 2,

first
to the geometrical interpretation of a differit was stated that an equa-
degree determines, in general, for assumed values of y, that is, at a selected point in the plane, a The equation was, of course, then supposed single value of p.
x and
316
rational in
[CHAP. VII.
x and y* The only exceptions occur at points for which the value of p takes the indeterminate form that is, the equation being Mdx -\- Ndy = o, at points (if any exist) = o and = o. It follows that, except at such for which no two curves of the system representing the complete points,
;
integral intersect, while through such points an unlimited
num-
ber of the curves
may
pass,
forming a
"
pencil of curves." f
the other hand, in the case of an equation of the second degree, there will in general be two values of p for any given
point.
{4,
1), p
On
Thus from equation
J-;
(i) above we find for the point there are therefore two directions in which a
point starting from the position (4, 1) may move while satisThe curves thus described fying the differential equation. If the same values represent two of the particular integrals.
of x and
sult
is
be substituted
c,
a quadratic for
complete integral (3), the reI, and these giving c = 9 and c
in the
determine the two particular integral curves,
Vx -j- Vy
3,
and Vx
Vy =
1.
In like manner the general equation which may be written in the form
of the second degree,
Lp
where L, M, and
point for
+ Mp + N =
two
o,
N are one-valued functions of x and y, repreintersect in

real values.
is
sents a system of curves of which
which
found to have two
any given For these
points, therefore, the complete integral should generally give
two
real values of
its
c.
Accordingly we
may
assume, as the
standard form of
-equation,
P<*
* In
fact
x
+ Qc + R =
o,
p was supposed
not in this
P -=s\vr
degree.
x would
a one- valued function of x and y\ thus, connection be regarded as an equation of the first
to be
f In Prob. 6, Art. 3, the integral equation represents the pencil of circles pass-
ing through the points (o, b) and (o, tion is indeterminate at these points.
b)\
accordingly/
in the differential
equais
In
merely a node of one particular integral. J> is indeterminate at the origin, and this point o, which passes through it. integral, xy
some cases, however, such a point Thus in the illustration given in Art.
is
2,
a node of the only particular
ART.
8.]
SINGULAR SOLUTIONS.
317
y. the differential
where P> Q, and

If
are also one-valued functions of
x and
there are points which
equation, they will also
make p imaginary make c imaginary in
in
the integral.
Prob. 27. Solve the equation p* gral to the standard form.

(Ans. (y
2
+y =
and reduce the inte-
-j-
cos x)c*
2c sin
-f-
cos
o.)
Prob. 28. Solve yp o, and show that the intersect2xp y ing curves at any given point cut at right angles. Prob. 29. Solve (x*
+
8.
i)p*
i.
(Ans. <rV
%cx0
i.)
Art.
Singular Solutions.
sometimes
is
A differential
admits of what
is
equation not of the first degree " " called a singular solution that
;
to say,
solution which is not included in the complete integral. For that the system of curves representing the complete suppose
Every point A of this envelope with a particular curve of the complete inis a point of contact therefore a point moving in the envelope when tegral system
integral has an envelope.
;
has the same values of x, y, and / as if it were moving through A in the particular integral curve. Hence such a point satisfies the differential equation and will continue to satisfy it as long as it moves in the envelope. The equation
passing through
of the envelope
is
therefore a solution of the equation.
As an
illustration, let us take the

is
system of straight lines
whose equation
y
where
= cx +
",
(l>
differential equation-
c is the arbitrary parameter. derived from this primitive is
The
*=/*+-, P
of
(2>
which therefore
(i) is
the complete integral.

(i),
the lines represented by equation values of c% are the tangents to the parabola
Now
for different
/ = 4**.
(S)
318
[Chap. VII.
A point
moving
in this
parabola has the same value of/ as if it were moving in one of the tangents,
(3) will
and accordingly equation be found to satisfy the

be noticed that for
differential equation (2).

It
will
any point on the convex side of the parabola there are two real
values of p for a point on the other side the values of p are
;
imaginary, and for a point on the curve they are equal. Thus
its
equation
(3)
expresses the
y which must exist in order that (2) as a quadratic for p may have equal roots, as will be regarded seen on solving that equation.
relation
between x and
In general, writing the differential equation in the form
Lf + Mp + N = o,
the condition of equal roots
1
(4)
is
M -\LN =
o.
(5)
which is the " discrimi" of equation (4), frequently admits of separation into nant factors rational in x and y. Hence, if there be a singular solution, its equation will be found by putting the discriminant of
The
first
member
of this equation,
the differential equation, or one of

It
its factors,
equal to zero.
does not follow that every such equation represents a soluIt can only be inferred that tion of the differential equation.
a locus of points for which the two values of / become Now suppose that two distinct particular integral equal. curves touch each other. At the point of contact, the two
it
is
values of/, usually distinct, become equal. The locus of such " Its equation plainly satisfies the points is called a tac-locus." but does not satisfy the differential equation. An discriminant,
illustration
is
afforded by the equation
ART.
8.]
SINGULAR SOLUTIONS.
is
319
of which the complete integral

discriminant, see equation
(5), is
y*
t
-f-
(x
cf
)
= a*,
and the
y*(y
a,
s= o.
= o, the first two of which satisfy the differential equation, while y = o does not.
This
is
satisfied
by y = a, y =
and y
The complete integral represents

a with center on the axis of
x.
in this case all circles of radius
Two of
these circles touch at
every point of the axis of x, which is thus a tac-locus, while a constitute the envelope. y a and y
The
discriminant
is
the quantity which appears under the
radical sign
therefore
values of
when the general equation (4) is solved for/, and it changes sign as we cross the But the envelope. / remain real as we cross the tac-locus, so that the
1
discriminant cannot change sign. Accordingly the factor which indicates a tac-locus appears with an even exponent (as y in
the example above), whereas the factor indicating the singular solution appears as a simple factor, or with an odd exponent.
A simple
factor of the discriminant, or one with an
odd ex-
ponent, gives in fact always the boundary between a region of the plane in which/ is real and one in which/ is imaginary For the two nevertheless it may not give a singular solution.
;
arcs of particular integral curves which intersect in a point on the real side of the boundary may, as the point is brought up
to the boundary, become tangent to each other, but not to the In that case, since they cannot cross the boundary curve.
boundary, they become branches of the same particular

gral forming a cusp. " called a " cusp-locus
is of
inteis
boundary curve of this character the value of p for a point moving in
it
course different from the equal values of/ at the cusp, and therefore its equation does not satisfy the differential equation.*
Prob. 30.
To what
?
curve
is
the line
= mx
-f*
|/(i
w
3
always tangent
Prob. 31.
* Since there
(Ans. jp
x*
=a
.)
Show
is
that the discriminant of a decomposable differ-
no reason why the values of/ referred
we
o has not in general a singular conclude that the equation Lp* -f- Mp -fsolution, its discriminant representing a cusp-locus except when a certain condition
is fulfilled.
N=
to should be identical,
320
[CHAP. VII.
it
ential equation cannot be negative. Interpret the result of equating to zero in the illustrative example at the beginning of Art. 7.
Prob. 32. Show that the singular solutions of a homogeneous differential equation represent straight lines passing through the origin..
Prob. 33. Solve the equation xp*

(Ans.
x2
2cy-\- ac*
=o
2yp
;
+ ax
o.
singular solution y*
= ax"*,}
Prob. 34.
Show
that the equation/*
+ 2Xp y=o
has no sin-
gular solution, but has a cusp-locus, and that the tangent at every cusp passes through the origin.
Art.
9.
Singular Solution from Complete Integral.
the complete integral of a differential equation of the second degree has been found in the standard form
When
PS+Qc + R = o
R
(!)
(see the end of Art. 7), the substitution of special values of x and y in the functions P, Q, and gives a quadratic for c whose roots determine the two particular curves of the system which
pass through a given point. If there is a singular solution,, that is, if the system of curves has an envelope, the two curves which usually intersect become identical when the given
moved up to the envelope. Every point on the entherefore satisfies the condition of equal roots for equavelope
point
is
tion (1),
which
is
ff- 4 P =
o;
(2>
and, reasoning exactly as in Art. 8, we infer that the equation of the singular solution will be found by equating to zero the
discriminant of the equation in c or one of its factors. Thus " the discriminant of equation (1), Art. 8, or ^-discriminant," is the same as the "/-discriminant," namely, y 4 ax which
1
y
equated to zero
straight lines.
is
the equation of the envelope of the system of
But, as in the case of the /-discriminant,
it
inferred that every factor gives a singular solution.
must not be For ex-
ample, suppose a squared factor appears in the ^-discriminant. The locus on which this factor vanishes is not a curve in crossing which c and
/ become
imaginary.
At any
point of
it
there
Art.
will
9.]
singular solution from complete integral.
32f
be two distinct values of p, corresponding to arcs of par-
ticular integral curves passing
through that point
but, since-
there
is
but one value of
c,
ticular integral,
hence the point
these arcs belong to the same paris a double point or node.
The
locus
it
is
therefore called a " node-locus."
The
factor repre-
does not appear in the /-discriminant, just as that representing a tac-locus does not appear in the ^-discriminant.
senting
Again, at any point of a cusp-locus, as shown at the end of Art. 8, the two branches of particular integrals become arcs of
the same particular integral the values of c become equal, that a cusp-locus also makes the ^-discriminant vanish.
;
so*
conclusions established above obviously apply also ta equations of a degree higher than the second. In the case of
The
the ^-equation the general method of obtaining the condition for equal roots, which is to eliminate c between the original and
is the same as the process of finding the " of a system. or " locus of the ultimate intersections envelope of curves in which c is the arbitrary parameter.
the derived equation,
suppose the system of curves to have for all values of c* a double point, it is obvious that among the intersections
of
Now
two neighboring curves there are two
in
the neighborhood-
of the nodes, and that ultimately they coincide with the node,, which accounts for the node-locus appearing twice in the dis-
criminant or locus of ultimate intersections.

*
In like manner,,
It is noticed in the second foot-note to Art. 7 that for an equation of the degree p takes the indeterminate form, not only at a point through which all curves of the system pass (where the value of c would also be found indeterSo also when the equation is of minate), but at a node of a particular integral. the th degree, if there is a node for a particular value of c, the n values of c at.
first
the point (which
mine
-f- 1
is not on a node-locus where two values of c are equal) deterarcs of particular integrals passing through the point; and there*--
fore there are
-j- 1
distinct values of
at the point,
is
which can only happen

all
when p
takes the indeterminate form, that

is
to say,
when
the coefficients
of
the /-equation Cwhich
of the nth degreed vanish.
See Cayley on Singular Sot-neory of Singular Solu-
lutions in the "Messenger of Mathematics.
New
Series, Vol. II, p; 10. (Collected-
Mathematical Works, Vol. VIII,
p. 529).
The present
its
tions was established by Cayley in this paper and
continuation, Vol. VI, p. 33^
Sec also a paper by Dr. Glaisher, Vol. XII,
p. 1.
322
if
is
TChap. VII*
a cusp for all values of c, there are three intersections of neighboring curves (all of which may be real) which ultithere
mately coincide with the cusp; therefore a cusp-locus 'will appear as a cubed factor in the discriminant.*
Prob. 35.
Show
equation must be straight

Prob. 36. Solve
is
that the singular solutions of a homogeneous lines passing through the origin.
3/V
-j-
2xjp
+ 4/
y
x"
= o, and show that there

is
a singular solution and a tac-focus.
Prob. 37. Solve yp*
2Xp
o,
and show that there

(Ans.
2
2
an
imaginary singular solution.
2cx
-f-
.)
x )p' 1 Prob. 38. Show that the equation (1 a system of conies touching the four sides of a square.
represents
discriminants.
o examine and interpret both Prob. 39. Solve yp* \xp -\-y 3 2 8* ) $x y* -\-y* (Ans. f -f- 2cx{$y* o.)
;
Art.
10.
Solution by Differentiation.
an equation of the second order, that
The
the
first
result of differentiating a given differential equation of
order
is
is,
it
contains the derivative
d %y
-*-?
;
but,
if
it
does not contain
ex-
plicitly, it may be regarded as an equation of the first order for the variables x and/. If the integral of such an equation can be obtained it will be a relation between x, p, and a constant
of integration
c,
by means
of
which
can be eliminated from

f
the original equation, thus giving the relation between x, y and c which constitutes the complete integral. For example, the equation
j|+ **=*+/;
* The discriminant of Pc*
(1)
+ Qc
-f-
R=o
represents in general an envelope,
no
further condition requiring to be fulfilled as in the case of the discriminant

-f-
of Lp*1
there
Mp
-f-
N=
o.
Compare
the foot-note to Art.
8.
Therefore where
an integral of this form there is generally a singular solution, although Ip* -j- Mp -J- ^V = o has not in general a singular solution. We conclude, thereare one- valued functions of x fore, that this equation (in which Z, M, and
is
and y) has not

.Series, Vol.
an integral of the above form in which P, Q, and R are one-valued functions of x and y. Cayley, Messenger of Mathematics, New
in general
VI,
p. 23.
Art.
10.]
SOLUTION BY DIFFERENTIATION.
323
when
solved forjy, becomes
y
whence by
= x + ltf;
I
(2)
differentiation
+^-Iand
-
(3)
its inte-
The
gral
variables can be separated in this equation,

is
vp- C - e"
Substituting in equation
(2),
we
.
find
y
which
is
x ~\
6+> _ w
q
e
(1).
the complete integral of equation
This method sometimes succeeds with equations of a higher degree when the solution with respect to p is impossible or
differential leads to a form which cannot be integrated. equation between p and one of the two variables will be ob-
tained by direct integration when only one of the variables is explicitly present in the equation, and also when the equation In the latter is of the first degree with respect to x and y.
case after dividing by the coefficient of y, the result of differentiation will be a linear equation for x as a function of p, so
that an expression for x in terms of p can be found, and then by substitution in the given equation an expression for y in
Hence, in this case, any number of simultaneous values of x and y can be found, although the elimination of p
terms of
p.
may be
impracticable.
In particular, a homogeneous equation which cannot be solved for p may be soluble for the ratio y x, so as to assume
:
the form y
= x<p(p).
The
result of differentiation
is
p=<t>{p)+x<p\pf>
in
which the variables x and p can be separated.
Another
special case
is
of the
form
(1)
y = P*+AP),
324
is
[Chaf- VII.
which
known
is
as Clairaut's equation.
The
result of differ-
entiation
which implies either
* +f'(p) =o,
or
dp
-=0.
The
first
elimination of / from equation (i) by means of the of these equations * gives a solution containing no arbiis,
trary constant, that

differential
a singular solution.
for
The second
is
is
a.
equation
(i)
equation gives the complete integral

;
its
integral
c,
which
in
y = c*+A<)-
(2)
This complete integral represents a system of straight lines, the singular solution representing the curve to which they are An example has already been given in Art. 8. .all tangent.
is
sometimes reducible to Clairaut's

less
form by means
variables.
It
of a
more or
obvious transformation of the

that an equation of
may
be noticed
in particular
the form
y
is
=
;
nxp
+ 00, /)
sometimes so reducible by transformation to the independent n and an equation of the form variable z, where x = z
y
double transformation
= nxp+<t>{y>P)y
= yn
.
by transformation to the new dependent variable v

of
the form indicated
when
the last term
is
a function of both
7>V
may x and jj/as well
succeed
as of p.
Prob. 40. Solve the equation

solution and a cusp-locus.
*P
+
-j-
3/
c
find
a singular
-(x-\-c)*,)
(Ans. (x-\-y
= i)*
Prob. 41. Solve 2V

(Ans.
= xp
a
-\
,
and
find a cusp-locus.
3
\2acxy -f 8ry
\2x1y l
i6ax*
= o.)
* The equation is in fact the same that arises in the general method for the See Art. 9. condition of equal roots.
AKT.
11.]
GEOMETRIC APPLICATIONS
a*)/? 2xyp 1 circle x
TRAJECTORIES.
y*
a*
325
Prob. 42. Solve (x*

(Ans.
The
+/ =
#y
-\-
o.
its
a
,
and
tangents.)
Prob. 43. Solve ,y
=
(Ans.
s
xp
<:
+ x*p*
-J-
= o,
and
+ ^x*y =
o.)
Prob. 44.
Solve / 8y* = o. 4#>p = c(x c)*; 2jy = 4X* andjy = o are singulai (Ans. 7 also a particular integral.) solutions; y = o
-f-
is
Prob. 45. Solve
x\y
px)
=yp\
(Ans.
ex 1
+ c\)
Art.
11.
Geometric Applications
of a curve
Trajectories.
Every property
its
which involves the direction of
tangents admits of statement in the form of a differential equation. The solution of such an equation therefore determines the curve having the given property. Thus, let it be required to determine the curve in which the angle between
the radius vector and the tangent is n times* the vectorial Using the expression for the trigonometric tangent of angle.
that angle, the expression of the property in polar coordinates is
= tan nd.
dr
Separating
integral
is
the variables and

rn
in
integrating,
the complete
= cn sin nd.
is
The mode
which the constant of integration enters here

shared by
all
shows that the property in question bers of a system of similar curves.
the
mem-
The
eral
solution of a question of this nature will thus in gen-
be a system of curves, the complete integral of a differential equation, but it may be a singular solution. Thus, if we express the property that the sum of the intercepts on the axes made by the tangent to a curve is equal to the constant a, the
straight lines
making such
intercepts will themselves consti-
tute the complete integral system, and the curve required is the singular solution, which, in accordance with Art. 8, is the
326
lines.
[CHAP. VII.
envelope of these
to be the parabola
The
result in this case will
be found
Vx + Vy
Va.
application is the determination of the "orthogonal trajectories" of a given system of curves, that is to say, the curves which cut at right angles everyvcurve of the
An
important
given system. The differential equation of the trajectory is for at every readily derived from that of the gfven system of the trajectory the value of pis the negative reciprocal point
;
of
have therevalue in the given differential equation. fore only to substitute p~ for / to obtain the differential
its
l
We
equation of the trajectory. For example, let it be required to determine the orthogonal trajectories of the system of parabolas
having a
common
axis
and vertex.
The
is
of the system found
by eliminating a
2
xdy = y dx.
Putting
in place of -~, the differential equation of
dy
the system of trajectories
is
dx
2xdx -\-ydy
whence, integrating,
= o,
= c\
system of similar
ellipses
2x*+y*
The
trajectories are therefore a
with axes coinciding with the coordinate axes.

Prob. 46.
is
Show
that
when the
its
;
system
of the second degree, but will be identical

it
differential equation of a system discriminant and that of its trajectory

if it
represents a singular solution in
one system,
will constitute a
cusp locus of the other.
Prob. 47. Determine the curve whose subtangent is constant and (Ans. ce*=y.) equal to a.
Prob. 48.
r
M
Show
that the orthogonal trajectories of the curves
=c
sinnB are the same system turned through the angle
about
the pole.
Examine
the cases n
1,
2,
and n
-J.
Prob. 49.
Show
that the orthogonal trajectories of a system of
Art.
12.]
simultaneous differential equations.

through two given points
radical axis.
is
3*2?
circles passing
another system of
circles.
having a
common
Prob. 50. Determine the curve such that the area inclosed by any two ordinates, the curve and the axis of x, is equal to the product of the arc and the constant line a. Interpret the
singular solution.
-
-e
a
).)
(Ans. Prob. 51.

onal.
The catenary^
c= \a{e a
is
Show
that a system of confocal conies
self-orthog-
Art.
12.
Simultaneous Differential Equations.

of n equations
A system
between n
-f- 1
variables
and
their
differentials is a "determinate" differential system, because it serves to determine the'/z ratios of the differentials; so that,
taking any one of the variables as independent, the others vary in a determinate manner, and may be regarded as functions of
the single independent variable. Denoting the variables by x, y> z> etc., the system may be written in the symmetrical form
dx
where X, F, If any one
tials
X~Y~~Z~
Z
.
_dy
dz _
'
may
be any functions of the variables.
of the several equations involving two differencontains only the two corresponding variables, it is an and its integral, giving a reordinary differential equation
;
lation
between these two

until n
variables,
may
enable us by elimina-
tion to obtain another equation containing
and so on
integral
two variables only, equations have been obtained.

_ ~~
Given, for example, the system
dx
x
The
"
_dy
'
dz
'
>'*
relation between dy and dz above contains the variaand z only, and its integral is bles^/ z = a. y* (2)
1
dx and dy
Employing this to eliminate z from the it becomes dx _ dy
relation
between
328
integral
is
[CHAP. VII.
ot which the
y-Y V .(/
The
+ a) = bx.
and
(3)
(3), integral equations (2) of integration, constitute the complete solution. It is in like manner obvious that the complete solution of a system of n equations should contain n arbitrary constants.
involving two constants
Confining ourselves
-extension of
now
to the case of three variables, an
the geometrical interpretation given in Art. 2 presents itself. Let x, y, and z be rectangular coordinates of starts from any given Preferred to three planes. Then, if
position A, the given system of equations, determining the ratios dx: dy\ dz, determines the direction in space in which moves. As moves, the ratios of the differentials (as deter-
mined by the given equations)

to
move
in
such a
way
will vary, and if we suppose as to continue to satisfy the differential
equations, it will describe in general a curve of double curvature which will represent a particular solution. The complete solution is represented by the system of lines which may be
thus obtained by varying the position of the initial point A. This system is a " doubly infinite " one for the two relations
;
between x, y, and z which define it analytically must contain two arbitrary parameters, by properly determining which we can make the line pass through any assumed initial point.*
Each
.-surfaces
of the relations
between
x,
y and
z,
or integral equa-
tions, represents
by
itself
a surface, the intersection of the
two
being a particular line of the doubly infinite system. equation like (2) in the example above, which contains only one of the constants of integration, is called an integral of the
An
^differential
system,
in contradistinction to
an " integral equa-
*lt
S)l x.,y,
is
assumed
z.
in the explanation that

is
X, V, and Zare one-valued functions
and
There
then but one direction in which
can
move when
^passing a given point, and the system is a non-intersecting system of lines. But [if this "is not the case, as for example when one of the equations giving the ratio
of the differentials
is
of higher degree, the lines
may form an
intersecting sys-
tem, and there would be a theory of singular solutions, into which we do not
Jiere enter.
ART.
tion
12.]
SIMULTANEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
329
integral
"
like (3),
which contains both constants.
An
represents a surface which contains a singly infinite system of lines representing particular solutions selected from the doubly
Thus equation (2) above gives a surface on those lines for which a has a given value, while b -which may have any value whatever in other words, a surface which
infinite system.
lie all
;
passes through an
lines.
infinite
number
of the particular solution
integral of the system which corresponds to the conb might be found by eliminating a between equations (2) stant and (3). It might also be derived directly from equation (1)
;
The
thus we
may
write
dx
x
tion between
its integral,
_dy ~~ _ _dz
'
'
dy
'
'
+ dz +z y
z
is
_du
u
9
in which a new variable u
=y
-\-
introduced.
The
rela-
dx and du now contains but two
variables,
and
(4)
y+z
= bx,
;
and this, together with is the required integral of the system the integral (2), presents the solution of equations (1) in its The form of the two integrals shows that in standard form.
this case the doubly infinite system of lines consists of hyperbolas, namely, the sections of the system of hyperbolic cylinders represented by (2) made by the system of planes represented
by
(4).
A system
tain
of equations of
symmetry may
Since
which the members possess a cersometimes be solved in the following
manner.
dx _ dy _dz _ \dx -f- jxdy vdz_ 3T~~ Y~~~Z~~ XX+pY+vZ'

if
we
take multipliers
A,
//,
v such that
we
shall
have
XX+ M Y+vZ = o, hdx + pdy + vdz = o.

first
If the expression in the
member
is
an exact
differential,
330
[CHAP. VII.
direct integration gives an integral of the given system.
For
example,
let
the given equations be
dx
dy
dz
Iz
mz
/,
ny
nx
ly
mx
'
and n form such a and z. Hence we have

Idx
set of multipliers,
and so
also
do
x,
and
also
+ mdy + ndz = o, xdx + y dy z dz =

-f-
o.
Each
of these
is ar\
sxact equation, and their integrals

Ix -f-
my -\-
nz
and
*+/+**=
namely, the line passing through the origin and whose
/,
The doubly infinite system constitute the complete solution. this case of circles which have a common of lines consists in
axis,
direction cosines are proportional to

Prob. 52. Solve the equations -5
~
,
m
,
and
,
n.
dx
dy
dz
2xy
2xz
i
and
interpret the result geometrically.
(Ans.
y=az,
.
x*-\-y* -\-z'
=bz.)
Prob. 53. Solve
dx -
+z
dx
=
z
dy
-\-
f x
tf(x
dz
-\-y
(Ans.
+y + z)=--=
dy
r
-A-.)
Prob. 54. Solve D^
r
,
dz
7
rr
.
c)yz (Ans. x'
(b
\c
+/ + z* = A, ax* -f bf + cz* =
a)zx
(a
b)xy
.)
Art.
13.
Equations of the Second Order.
A relation
tives of
between two variables and the successive deriva-
one of them with respect to the other as independent
variable
is called a differential equation of the order indicated For example, the highest derivative that occurs. by
is
an equation of the second order, in which
is
the independent
ART.
13.]
EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND ORDER.

first
331
variable.
Denoting as heretofore the equation may be written

,)
derivative
by/,
this
(I+ * i; + */+w* =
and
this, in
'
(I>
connection with
which defines /, forms a pair of equations of the first order, connecting the variables x, y, and /. Thus any equation of the
second order
is
equivalent to a pair of simultaneous equations
of the first order.
When,
tain
as in this example, the given equation does not con-
explicitly, the first of the pair of equations involves
only
the two variables
x and/
and
it is
further to be noticed that,

first
when
the derivatives occur only in the
degree,
it is
a linear
equation for/.
Integrating equation (i) as such,
we
find
p = ->*
and then using
this value
v{1
in
\^
(2), its
(3>
of/
x
equation
integral
is
y = c,-mx + c
in
log [x
+ y(i + x')l
is
(4)
which, as in every case of two simultaneous equations of the first order, we have introduced two constants of integration.
An
equation of the
first
order
readily obtained also

in
when the independent variable is not explicitly contained the equation. The general equation of rectilinear motion
dynamics affords an
illustration.
in
This equation
d*s
is
=/(j),
where
force
denotes the distance measured from a fixed center of

line of motion.
It
upon the
may be
written
dv
at
= f[s), in
Eliminat-
connection with
dt
= v,
which defines the
velocity.
ing dt from these equations,

integral
is
we have vdv=f(s)ds, whose

the "equation of energy" for
-JV
/ f(s)ds
-f- c,
the unit mass.
The
substitution of the value found for v in the
332
t is
[CHAP. VII.
second equation gives an equation from which terms of s by direct integration.
found
in
The
order
is called
;
integration, such as equation (3) above, a "first integral" of the given equation of the second it contains one constant of integration, and its complete
result of the
first
integral,
which contains a second constant,

"
is
also the "
com-
plete integral
of the given equation.

is
all its
is
when, terms being transposed to the first member, that member the derivative with respect to x of an expression of the first
is,
A differential equation of the second order

a function of x,
"
exact
"
order, that
y and p.
It is
obvious that the
terms containing the second derivative, in such an exact differential, arise solely from the differentiation of the terms containing/
in the function of x,
y and/.
For example,
let it
be
required to ascertain whether
<>- 4+'=
The terms
in
is
an exact equation.
arise
question are
(1
x*)
ax
2
which can
only from
the differentiation
of (1
x )p.
Now
subtract from the given expression the complete derivax*)p,
tive of (1
which
is
'
2 (i-x*)^--2x dy (I X)
dx>
*dx>
the remainder
that of xy.
ential,
ax -\- y, Hence the given expression
is
x-f-
which
is
an exact derivative, namely,

is
an exact
differ-
and
{i-*^ + *y = c
is
(6)
the
first
integral of the given equation.
Solving this linear
equation for y, we find the complete integral
y
Prob.55.
Cl
+ C^(l
-X^).
(7)
= Solve(i-^)g-^| 2. -1 x)* (Ans. y = (sin
-f-
c x sin"
-f-
cv )
Art.
14.]
THE TWO FIRST INTEGRALS.
333
Prob. 56. Solve Prob. 57. Solve
g=&
-~
(aus.
a
+^
.)
=a
*
2
j.
at
(Ans.
Py
=A
sin
bx
-{2
B cos Ar.)
Prob. 58. Solve
y? + (g)" =1.
(Ans.
/ = * + ** + <V>
Art.
14.
The Two First
Integrals.
We
tween
tion
have seen
integral of
x,
in the preceding article that the complete an equation of the second order is a relation beand two constants c and c % Conversely, any relax
between
x,
y and two
arbitrary constants
may
as a primitive,
from which a
differential equation free
be regarded from both
The process consists in arbitrary constants can be obtained. first obtaining, as in Art. 3, a differential equation of the first
order independent of one of the constants, say c^ that is, a relation between x, y,p and c and then in like manner eliminating
,
x
from the derivative of
this equation.
The
result
f
is
the equa-
tion of the second order or relation
between x
y,
p and
q {q
denoting the second derivative), of which the original equation is the complete primitive, the equation of the first order being
the
is
first
integral in
which
ct
is
obvious that
we
can, in like
x, y,
the constant of integration. It obtain from the primimanner,

cq
,
tive a relation
between
p and
which
will also
be a
first
integral of the differential equation.
Thus, to a given form of

first
the primitive or complete integral there corresponds two

integrals.
infinite
Geometrically the complete integral represents a doubly system of curves, obtained by varying the values of c
t
and of
independently.
arbitrary,
we
regard cx as fixed and <r3 as select from that system a certain singly infinite
If
we
system
the
first
integral containing c
is
the differential equa-
tion of this system, which, as explained in Art. 2, is a relation between the coordinates of a moving point and the direction
of its
motion
common
to
all
the curves of the system.
But
334
[Chap. VII.
the equation of the second order expresses a property involving curvature as well as direction of path, and this property
being independent of
cx is
common
to
all
is,
the systems corre-
sponding
infinite
to different values of cv that
to the entire
this
doubly
system.
moving
point, satisfying
equation,
may
in any direction, provided its has the proper curvature as determined by the value of q path derived from the equation, when the selected values of x> y
have any position and move
and/ have been
substituted therein.*
(7)
For example, equation

sents an ellipse having
its
of the preceding article repre-
the lines
1,
center at the origin and touching as in the diagram c x is the ordinate of the
;
1, and c 2 that of the point in point of contact with x If we regard c as fixed the ellipse cuts the axis of y.
y
which
and
<r
as arbitrary, the equation represents
the system
of
ellipses
(6) is
touching the two lines at fixed points, and equation

like
the
In
of this system.
manner,
if c^ is
fixed
and
arbitrary,
equation (7) represents a
system of ellipses
fixed
1.
cutting the axis of y in and touching the lines
points
x=
The
corresponding differential equation will be found to be
(y- Xp)V{l-X*)=C,.
Finally, the equation of the second order, independent
of c
and
the equation of the 2 doubly infinite system of conies f with center at the origin, 1. and touching the fixed lines x
[(5) of the preceding article]
is
If
the equation
is
is
of the second or higher degree in q, the condition for
equal roots
a relation between x,
y and/, which may be found
to satisfy the
given equation. If it does, it represents a system of singular solutions; each of the curves of this system, at each of its points, not only touches but osculates It is to be remembered that a singular soluwith a particular integral curve.
tion of a
tion; for
first
it
integral is not generally a solution of the given differential equarepresents a curve which simply touches but does not osculate a set
of curves belonging to the doubly infinite system.

f Including hyperbolas corresponding to imaginary values of
c%.
Art.
14.]
THE TWO FIRST INTEGRALS.
335
we
But, starting from the differential equation of second order, may find other first integrals than those above which correto c 1
spond
and
c^.
For instance,
if
equation
(5)
be multiplied
by/,
it
becomes
which
is
also an exact equation, giving the first integral

(1
-*v +/ =
integrals
',*.
in
which
c s is a
new constant
first
of integration.
Whenever two
have thus been found inde-
pendently, the elimination of p between them gives the complete integral without further integration.* Thus the result of eliminating
/ between
cx
this last
(6),
equation and the

is
first
inte-
gral containing
[equation
2c
x
Art. 13]
/
which
is
is
xy
+ f,V = c?
c*
obvious from the
therefore another form of the complete integral. It first integral above that c 2 is the maximum
it is
value of y, so that of ellipse inscribed
the differential equation of the system in the rectangle drawn in the diagram.
comparison
a
of the
two forms
of the
complete integral shows

is
that the relation between the constants

If
first
ct
= c*
-\- c*.
the form
is, put in the constant will disappear on differentiation, and the result will be the given equation of second order multiplied, in general, by an integrating factor. can
integral be solved for the constant, that

y, p)
<J>(x,
c,
We
thus
find
any number
of integrating factors of an equation
already solved, and these
may
suggest the integrating factors
of more general equations, as
illustrated in Prob. 59 below.

in Art. 10 to the
* The principle of this method has already been applied

solution of certain equations of the
first
order; the process consisted of forming the equation of the second order of which the given equation is a first integral
{but with a particular value of the constant), then finding another and deriving the complete integral by elimination of p.
first
integral
336
ji
[CHAP. VII..
Prob. 59. Solve the equation
+ <?y = o in the form

B sin ax;
also inte-
=A
cos ax
-f-
and show that the corresponding integrating factors are

grating factors of the equation
where
is
any function of x; and thence derive the
integral of this
equation.
(Ans. ay
sin
ax
I cos
ax
Xdx
cos ax I sin ax
Xdx).
Prob. 60. Find the rectangular and also the polar differential equation of all circles passing through the origin.
(An,(^
+/ )g=
Art.
[
15.
+ (|y](,|-4
an d
-)
Linear Equations.
of
any order is an equation of first degree with respect to the dependent variable y and each of its derivatives, that is, an equation of the form
the
A linear differential equation
where the
coefficients
Pn and
the second
member
X are
functions of the independent variable only.
The
in the
form
solution of a linear equation is always supposed to be y z=.f(x) and if y is a function which satisfies the
;
equation, it is customary to speak of the function yl% rather than of the equation y y as an "integral" of the linear equaK ,
tion.
general solution of the linear equation of the first order has been given in Art. 6. For orders higher than the
first
The
the general expression for the integrals cannot be effected

integral
by means of the ordinary functional symbols and the sign, as was done for the first order in Art. 6.
The
solution of equation (1) depends
upon that of
dnv
dn ~^v
Art.
15.]
linear equations.
337
integral of this equation will contain n arbiconstants, and the mode in which these enter the exprestrary sion for y is readily inferred from the form of the equation.
The complete
For
let
be an integral, and
cx
an arbitrary constant
(2) is c x
the
re-
y = y that is, it is zero therefore c y is an integral. So too, if y is an integral, j/ is an integral and obviously also c y + j/ is an integral. Thus, if n distinct integrals y n can be found, y%i ,y + + cn y n y=cy + (3)
putting
x \
;
sult of putting
= cj
in
equation
times the result of

l
1
x ,
will satisfy the equation, and, containing, as
it
does, the proper
number
of constants, will be the complete integral.
Consider
it,
now equation
(1);
let
Fbe
o.
a particular integral of
of equation
(3),
and denote by u the second member

the complete integral
which
is
when
X=
If
y=Y+u
be substituted
in
(4)
equation
(1),
the result will be the

of putting
sum
the
of the
first
results of putting
y=
Fand
y=u
of
these results will be X, because Fis an integral of equation (1), and the second will be zero because u is an integral of equation
(2).
it
since
is
Hence equation (4) expresses an integral of (1); and contains the n arbitrary constants of equation (3), it
this equation
the complete integral of equation (1). With reference to Y is called " the particular integral," and u is The particular integral called "the complementary function."
contains no arbitrary constant, and any two particular integrals may differ by any multiple of a term belonging to the comple-
mentary function. If one term of the complementary function of a linear equation of the second order be known, the complete solution can be found. For let y be the known term then, if y = y v
x
;
be substituted in the first member, the coefficient of v in the result will be the same as if v were a constant it will therefore be zero, and v being absent, the result will be a linear equa:
tion of the
first
order for
v',
the
first
derivative
c*f v.
Under
338
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS,
[CHAP. VII.
the same circumstances the order of any linear equation can

in like
manner be reduced by
unity.
very simple relation exists between the coefficients of an exact linear equation. Taking, for example, the equation of the second order, and indicating derivatives by accents, if
P.S + PJ+P y = x
t
term of the integral will be P y' Subtracting the derivative of this from the first member, the remainder is P ')y' Pt y. The second term of the integral must (P
is
exact, the
first
therefore be
{P
P ')y
is
subtracting the derivative of this ex-
pression, the remainder,
(Pt
P/
-\-
P ")y, must vanish.

9
Hence
P -f- P" = o
'
the criterion for the exactness of the

result obviously
given equation.
A similar
x
d^y
(3
extends to equa-
tions of higher orders.

x
Prob. 61. Solve
dy + x)-j-
-f-
3V
=
2
7
o,
z
noticing that e*
$x* -f 6x
2y
3
is
an integral.
Prob. 62. Solve (*
5
(Ans.
72 a
cj?
+ c (x
-f-
-f-
-\- 6.)
x)-jr$
+ 2(2*
i)~-
-f-
= o.
-f-
(Ans. (x
i)
= c,(x*
6x* -f 2X
2 sin
$
B-^
4X log x)
cjc*.)
Prob. 63. Solve-^3

( Ans.
+ cos
fe
sin
2 #-^-
y
~
cos
sin9
= Sm
sin 26.
= e~
sin 6
\cfi
c% )d0
c% e
\\
Art.
16.
Linear Equations with Constant

Coefficients.
The linear equation with member zero may be written

x
constant coefficients and second

in the
. .
form
.
AJPy + AJXr y +
in
+A y =
n
o,
(1)
which
n
D stands for
=
,
the operator
is
-3-,
D*
for -r%, etc., so that
indicates that the operator 2 mx e memx since Demx
to be applied n times. Then, wV", etc., it is evident that if
ART.
16.]
LINEAR EQUATIONS, CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS.

in
339
be substituted the factor emx will be

e
mx
equation
1
(i),
the result after rejecting
A
(1)
w"
+ A.m"- +
equation
.
.
+A =
n
is
o.
(2)
Hence, and
;
if
m
if
satisfies
(2),
mx e
an integral of equation
(2),
w
y
mn
are n distinct roots of equation
the complete integral of equation (1) will be

3= c x
W+
cj**
cn e
mn
*.
(3)
For example,
if
the given equation
is
(Py
dy
the equation to determine
m
x
is
m?
of
which the roots are

is
m m =
3JC
2
2,
= o, m =
9 a *-*.
therefore the in-
tegral
y
The
tion.
= c^
f
-J-
general equation (1)

in
form f(D) .y = o,
equation
is
which
may be written in the symbolic denotes a rational integral funcf{m)
Then equation
(m
(2) is
= o,
{m
and, just as this last
equivalent to
m^(m
t)
m n = o,
)
(4)
so the symbolic equation
f{D) .y = o
m,)
may
be written
(5)
(D
m )(D
t
...(>-
m n )y = o.
This form of the equation shows that it is satisfied by each of the quantities which satisfy the separate equations
(D
that
is
m^)y
= 0,
(B
m^)y
=o
(D
m )y = o
n
(6)
to say,
by the separate terms
of the
complete integral.
If
two
of the roots of equation (2) are equal, say to
of the equations (6)
number
of integrals
become we must
mlt two and to obtain the full identical, find two terms corresponding to
x
;
the equation
(D
in other
- m Yy = o
integral.
(7)
words, the complete integral of this equation of which

is
:= em x
i
known, to be one
For
this
purpose
we
340
[CHAP. VII.
v. t put, as explained in the preceding article, y Dem xv e m x {m x v -f- Dv) therefore tiation, Dy
=y
By
differen-
(D
In like manner
tn x )e**v
= e m *Dv.
(8)
we
find
{D
m m^fe ^v
= e m xD v.
l
^
(9)
Thus equation
(7)
is
is
transformed to
2
;
D'v = o,
of
which the
is
complete integral
= c,x -\-c hence y = e^x {c x-\- c

x
that of equation (7)
%).
(10)
These are therefore the two terms corresponding to the squared

factor
(D
mY
x
1
in
f(D)y
= o.
evident that, in a similar manner, the three terms corresponding to a case of three equal roots can be shown to
It is
be
^(c^x + cjc -j- c ) and so on. The pair of terms corresponding to a pair of imaginaryroots, say **, = a-\- ifi, mt ~ a ifi, take the imaginary form
s
f
Ci gi*+iP)x _j_ c
^-mx
t**(c/t*
+ c e-#*).
t
and imaginary parts of e# x and Separating changing the constants, the expression becomes
the real
e ax (A
*-**,
and
cos fix-\-B sin fix),
(11)
For a multiple pair of imaginary roots the constants A and must be replaced by polynomials as above shown in the case
of real roots.
When
be made
the
first
coefficients
member of the equation with constant a function of X, the particular integral can also to depend upon the solution of linear equations of
the second
is
In accordance with the symbolic notation introduced above, the solution of the equation
order.
dy
-j^
is
ay
X,
or
(D
- a)y = X
(12)
denoted by
(D
a)~*X, so that, solving equation (12),
we have
^X=e'fe-**Xdx
as the value of the inverse symbol whose meaning
is
(13)
"that
ART.
16.]
LINEAR EQUATIONS, CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS.
341
is converted to by the direct operation a" Taking the most convenient the symbol expressed by special value of the indefinite integral in equation (13), it gives
function of
x which
the particular integral of equation

ticular integral of
f{D)y = X is
(12). In like manner, the pardenoted by the inverse symbol
TfpfX.
fraction
Now, with the notation employed above, the symbolic
may
be decomposed into partial fractions with constant

:
numerators thus
in
f(D) which each term

regarded
TTF^X = D n
'
n m X+ D
'
N X + m^
a
'
N + -ft^X* (14) ^' D m

'
is
to be evaluated
by equation
(13),
and
may be
ary
(by virtue of the constant involved in the
indefinite integral) as containing
function.
one term of the complementFor example, the complete solution of the
equation
3---*
y
is
thus found to be
= \#*fe-**Xdx - \e~*fXdx.
a
When
is
power
of
the particular integral
may be
found as follows, more expeditiously than by the evaluation of
For example, if x* the integrals in the general solution. the particular integral in this example may be evaluated by development of the inverse symbol, thus
:
_ _ ~ y ~ D*-D-2 X a__I 2
I
i+KZJ-JT)
* The validity of this equation depends upon the fact that the operations in the second member of expressed
f{D)
= (D -
mi )(D
-m,)
+ ...+(D-m M
is
)
if
are commutative, hence the process of verification
the
same as
the equation
were an algebraic identity. This general solution was published by Boole in It had, however, the Cambridge Math. Journal, First Series, vol. II, p. 114. been previously published by Lobatto, Theorie des Characteristiques, Amster-
dam,
1837.
342
[CHAP. VII.
that, in this case, it is only necessary to carry the development as far as the term contain-
The form
of the
operand shows
ing
D\
For other symbolic methods applicable to special forms of we must refer to the standard treatises on this subject.
Prob.64. Solve
dy
dy
4^3
-3^+J=o.
(Ans.
= e*x (Ax + JB) + ce~x
.)
Prob. 65. D
Show
that
7nê AD)
ax
-^-\** /(a)
and that
Prob. 66. Solve
2
(Z>
+ )y = e* + sin
1 -f-
y^
sin (ax
+ ft) = jA^. sin (ax +

2x
-f-
ft).
sin
x.
(Compare
Prob. 59, Art. 14.) sin (Ans. y
=A
17.
+ B cos x
i<^
sin
2.3;
\x cos
#.)
Art.
Homogeneous Linear Equations.
The
linear differential equation
AX
-
"S- +
etc.,
^"& +---+^y =
is
o,
(1)
in
which
A A x%
,
are constants,
called the
"homogene.
m ous linear equation." It bears the same relation to x that mx the equation with constant coefficients does to e Thus, if m will divide m be substituted in this equation, the factor x y=zx
out from the result, giving an equation for determining ;;/, and the n roots of this equation will in general determine the For example, if in the n terms of the complete integral.
equation
u d*y x*--4
ax
dy + 2X-fdx
.
2y
=o
1) -f-
we put y
(m
= xm
the
result
is
m(m
2m
and
= =
0,
or
The Hence
is
i)(m -f- 2) roots of
= o.
this
equation
y = cx+
x
are
m =
x a
/# 3
2.
Equation
(1)
might
in fact
have been reduced to the form
with constant coefficients by changing the independent vari-
Art.
17.]
homogeneous linear equations.

0,
343
able to
where x
=e
e
,
or 6
= log
x.
in
We may
therefore at
the preceding article that the terms corresponding to a pair of equal roots are of the
once infer from the results established
form
(cx
c%
log x)x
m
y
(2)
and
also that the
terms corresponding to a pair of imaginary

cos
roots,
i/3,
are
(J3
xa [A
log x)
-\-
B sin
[ft
log x)\
(3)
the two classes of linear equations considered in this and the preceding article is more clearly
The analogy between

when a
.
xD is used for the operation of single symbol the derivative and then multiplying by x, so that taking xm mx m It is to be noticed that the operation x*D 2 is not a the same as # or xDxD, because the operations of taking the
seen
derivative
and multiplying by a variable are not

is,
"
commu-
tative," that
7
their order
is
;
not indifferent.
We
have, on the
contrary,
x D*
= $(#
2
1)
then the equation given above,

2)7
which
is
(x
D*-\-2x>2]/
o
= 0,
($
becomes
[${&
1)
+ 2#
= o,
or
i)(S
+ 2)y =
m.
o,
the function of
$ produced being
the same as the function of
which
is
equated to
in finding the values of
linear equation of which the first member is homogeneous and the second member a function of x may be reduced
to the form
A*)-y
The
=&
(4)
particular integral may, as in the preceding article (see eq. (14)), be separated into parts each of which depends upon the solution of a linear equation of the first order. Thus,
solving the equation
xdy dx
ay
= X,
or
($
- a)y = X,
iXdx
'
(5)
we
find
W^~'
X = xafx
~a~
6>
The more
expeditious method which
may be employed
344
[CHAP. VII.
:
when A* is a power of x is illustrated in the following example d v dv Given x* -4 The first member becomes homo2-7- = ^ dx dx geneous when multiplied by x, and the reduced equation is
2
.
($
3^ = *.
roots of f{&)
r
The
=0 are
r
,
and the double root

%
x
zero,
hence
8
is c x -f- c^ -f- c Since in log *:, we infer that in operating upon ^ we general J\$)x =f(r)x may put # = 3. This gives for the particular integral
the complementary function
S
but
fails
fall
-3^
.3
9 #
'
3*
now
with respect to the factor # 3.* back upon equation (6), which gives
We
therefore
=z
x jx-'dx
3
=x
log x.
The complete
integral therefore
3
is
y = ti* + + c
c,
lo g
+ ix
y
lo g
Prob. 67. Solve 2^ ^~4
d"*y
+ Zx
dy
~j
3J
(Ans.
?-
cx x
+ ^" + +*'.)
8
2
Prob. 68. Solve (* Z>
+ 3 *Z> + JD)y = -. (Ans. ^ = c + * log x + (log

2
3
<r
.x)
+ J(log *)
.)
Art.
18.
in
Solutions in Infinite Series.

this article to illustrate the
We
proceed
method by
series
which the integrals
of a linear equation
whose
coefficients are
in
algebraic functions of x terms are powers of x.
may
For
be developed
this
whose
purpose
let
us take the
equation
is a term of the complementary function having an indeterminate coefficient; accordingly the new term is of the same form as the second term necessary when 3 is a double root, but of course with a determinate coefficient.
* The
A failure occurs because x'
^RT.
18.]
SOLUTIONS IN INFINITE SERIES.
345
which
is
known
the
first
as " Bessel's Equation,"
and serves to define
the "Besselian Functions."

of this equation m the result is the single term Ax m ri Ax m+\ A{n? )x
If in
member
we
substitute for_^
(2)
the first term coming from the homogeneous terms of the equation and the second from the term x*y which is of higher If this last term did not exist the equation would be degree.
satisfied
by the assumed value of/,

first
if
w were
determined so as
make the Bx~ n Now

to
.
term vanish, that is, in this case, by Ax n or these are the first terms of two series each of
if
the equation. For, a term containing x m+2 thus y A

satisfies
,
which
xm
we add to mJr2 -\- A x

x
the value of
,
the
new term
will give rise, in the result of substitution, to terms containing ^m+2 ancj x m+4 respectively, and it will be possible so to take that the entire coefficient of xm+2 shall vanish. In like
manner the proper determination coefficient of x M+4 in the result of

on.
of a third
term makes the
substitution vanish,
and so
We therefore at once assume m m y = 2 A,x m+ar = A x + A xm+2 + A,x +

x
(3)
in
which r has
all
integral values from
o to
00
Substituting
in equation (1)
2[{ (in
+ 2r)
}A rx
m+2r
+ A xm+2
r
I)
= o.
,
(4)
The
coefficient of each
;
power
of
in this
arately vanish
hence, taking the coefficient of
equation must sepxm+2r we have

o.
[(m + 2ry-n*]A + A _ =
r
r
t
(5)
When
= o,
Ar
this reduces to
m*
n2
= o,
it
which determines
gives
'x
'
the values of m, and for other values of r
=~
(m
+ 2r + n){m + 2r - n) Ar
l
the relation between any two successive coefficients.
For the
first
value of m, namely
n, this relation
becomes
346
in
[CHAP. VII,
whence, determining the successive coefficients

the
first
equation
(3),.
integral of the equation
is
Ay,
= =
AX[i
j^pj
~,
+
(
+l)(w
is
+ 3)
^5771
-...}
(7)
In like manner, the other integral
found to be
Bj,
Bs-\i
+ ^-^ + {n _
is
,)(_
l
2)
^, + -],
(8)
and the complete integral
=Ay
t
-f-
Bjv *
For example,
n
This example illustrates a special case which may arise in If n is a positive integer, the second this form of solution.
series will contain infinite coefficients.
if
2,,
the third coefficient, or
is infinite,
unless
we take
B = o,
in
which case
solution
is
indeterminate and
will
This
we have a repetition of the always occur when the same powers of

the case in which
x occur
in the
two
series, including, of course,
new integral has equal roots. For the in such cases the complete treatises must be referred to.f
of obtaining a
It will
mode
be noticed that the simplicity of the relation between
consecutive coefficients in this example is due to the fact that equation (1) contained but two groups of terms producing of when Axm is substituted for as in exdifferent
powers
x,
pression
(2).
The group containing
the second derivative
necessarily gives rise to a coefficient of the second degree in m, and from it we obtained two values of m. Moreover, be-
cause the other group was of a degree higher by two units, the
assumed of x\
*
series
was an ascending one, proceeding by powers

function of the nth order usually denoted by n is the value n if n is a positive integer, or generally by i T{n-\1).
of these functions see
The Besselian
of y\ above, divided by i n n\
For a complete discussion

Bessel'schen
fA
Functionen, Leipzig, 1868; Todhunter's

1875, etc.
Lommel's Studien iiber die Treatise on Laplace's,
Lame's and Bessel's Functions, London,

regular solution and log x, and
solution of the kind referred to contains as one term the product of the
is sometimes called a "logarithmic solution." See also American Journal of Mathematics, Vol. XI, p. 37. In the case of Bessel's equation, the logarithmic solution is the "Besselian Function of the
oecond kind."
Art.
18.]
solutions in infinite series.
347
In the following example,
d*y
dy
there are also two such groups of terms, and their difference of degree shows that the series must ascend by simple powers.
We
The
assume therefore
at
once
y=
result of substitution
is
2A
m+r- 2
xm ^.
(io)
%[{(m+r)(m+r-i)-2}A rx
Equating
+ a(m+r)A xm+
r
r-I
~\= o.
(u>
to zero the coefficient of
m+r~ 2
,
{m-\-r-\- i)(m
which,
+
(m
2)A r
+ a{m + r
i)A r _ 1
= o,
(12)
when
= o,
o,
gives
+ \){m - 2)A = o,
m-\-r
1
(13)
and when r
>
Ar
The
roots of
\m+r+i){m+r- 2) Ar'T equation (13) are m = 2 and m =
-"
(I4)
1;
taking
m = 2,
the relation (14) becomes
whence the
first
integral
is
A,yt
= As[i -
\ax
Taking the second value
^V - ~ m=
i
f
6 '*'+--
(V|)
equation (14) gives
whence
gral
is
B =
x
-2?
and
i?3
o *; therefore the second
inte-
the finite expression
^,=^-[i-^>4i-f].
*B
3
(16)
would take the indeterminate form, and

is
if
value, the rest of the series
equivalent to
yi,
we suppose it to have a finite reproducing the first integral.
348
[CHAP. VII.
When
the coefficient of the term of highest degree in the

it
result of substitution, such as equation (u), contains m,
is
possible to obtain a solution in descending

this case,
powers
of x.
In
occurring only in the

;
solution can be found
it
degree, but one such would be identical with the finite

first
In the general case there will be two such soluintegral (16). tions, and they will be convergent for values of x greater than unity, while the ascending series will converge for values less
than unity.*
When
the second
member
of the equation
in
is
power
of x,
the particular integral can be determined

in a similar
the form of a series
For example, suppose the second member of equation (9) to have been x*. Then, making the substitution as before, we have the same relation between consecumanner.
tive coefficients; but
when
o,
instead of equation (13)

-2
we
have
{m
+ i){m
m 2)A x
= x*
This gives
(14),
to determine the initial term of the series.
m=
2\
and
% hence, putting the particular integral f

;
A =
m=f
in
equation
we
find for
= J\ _
7
lllax 9.3
2''* 7 + 9-H-3.5 <*V - 1

.
.
-I
A linear equation
of transformations
;
remains linear for two important classes first, when the independent variable is
x, and second, when for y we put ax e~ v be substituted an example of the latter, let y vf{x). After rejecting the factor e~ ax the in equation (9) above.
changed
to
any function of
As
>
result
is
(Pv
dv
2V
= 0.
Since this differs from the given equation only in the sign
*When there are two groups of terms, the integrals are expressible of Gauss's " Hypergeometric Series."
f If the
in
terms
second
member
if it
is
a term of the complementary function (for ex-
any integral power of x), the particular integral will ample, take the logarithmic form referred to in the foot-note on p. 346.
in this case,
is
ART.
of a,
19.]
SYSTEMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.

infer
.
349
we
-|
from equation (16) that
it
has the
finite integral
Hence the complete

in
integral of equation (9)
can
be written
the form
xy
*= c x {2
ax)
+ c e~
7
. .
ax
(2 -f- ax).
Prob. 69. Integrate in series the equation
d*y -~
-j-
xy
= o.
.
(Ans.
J= ^(x- 3
y+^_
>
)+Il{x-ff +'~j*x>t
.).)
Prob. 70. Integrate in series
x*.
+ x -~
l
-f-
(x
2)y
o.
Prob.
= e" x {x~ + 1 + ix),

l
71.
Derive for the equation of Prob. 70 the integral and find its relation to those found above.
Art.
It is
19.
Systems of Differential Equations.

in Art. 12 that a
shown
its
ential equations of the first
determinate system of n differorder connecting n 1 variables
complete solution as many integral equations conthe variables and also involving n constants of intenecting 1 variables would be a The result of eliminating n gration.
single relation
in general the
has for
between the remaining two variables containing* n constants. But the elimination may also be
effected in the differential system, the result being in general an equation of the /zth order of which the equation just men-
tioned
is
two equations
For example, if there were the complete integral. of the first order connecting the variables x and
with the independent variable /, by differentiating each we should nave four equations from which to eliminate one variable, sayjj/, and its two derivatives* with respect to /, leaving
a single equation of the second order between
x and
t.
It is easy to see that the same conclusions hold if some of the given equations are of higher order, except that the order of the result will be correspondingly higher, its index being in
2 * In r general, there would be equations from which to eliminate n * n derivatives of each, that is, ( 1 quantities -f- 1) i)(
variables and
leaving a single equation of the
th order.
350
general the
tions.
[Chap. VII.
tions
sum of the indices of the orders of The method is particularly applicable with constant coefficients, since we have a
the given equato linear equa-
of solution for the final result.
general method the symbolic notation, Using
the differentiations are performed simply by multiplying by the symbol D, and therefore the whole elimination is of exactly
the same form as
if
the equations were algebraic.
For
ex-
ample, the system
dy
when
dx
2t,
is
dx
dy
dt
~df"~~dt
written symbolically,
*dt^
2J9y
3*
= o,
(2D'
4)y
2
Dx =
x
y
2/,
+ (4Z>-3)* = o;
2t
whence, eliminating
2D -4 2D
which reduces to
-D
4^-3
(D-i)\2D-\-3)y =
Integrating,
V-
the particular integral being found as explained at the end of Art. 16.
by symbolic development,
The value
of
x found in like manner is x = (A' + B'ty + C'e~* - f

function, depending solely upon the determembers,* is necessarily of the same form
The complementary
minant of the
first
as that for y, but involves a
new
is
set of constants.
The
re-
lations betv/een the constants
found by substituting the
values of
x and y
in
one of the given equations, and equating
to zero in the resulting identity the coefficients of the several
terms of the complementary function. In the present example we should thus find the value of x, in terms of A, B> and C to be
y
x
the final equation
;
= (6B - 2A in
2Bty
this
\Ce-*
is
-J.
* The index of the degree

it is
D of
determinant
that of the order of
not necessarily the
sum
of the indices of the orders cf
the given equations, but cannot exceed this sum.
ART.
19.]
SYSTEMS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS.
351
In general, the solution of a system of differential equations depends upon our ability to combine them in such a way as to form exact equations.
For example, from the dynamical
system
W~ X
where X,
Y,
'
dt*-
'
dt'-^'
and
z,
w
/,
,
Z
.
are functions
of x, y,
but not of
we form
the equation
dx ,dx
,
dy dr + -4-d dt + dtd,dz dt dt dt dt
.
Az-
dz
'
'
-., VJ Xdx + Ydy 4- Zdz. '

. '
The
that
first
member
is
is
an exact
differential,
a conservative
is,
field of force
the second
and we know that for member is also exact,
it
the differential of a function
of x, y,
and
z.
The
integral
;[()"
is
+"+>*+*
which
is
M
as the
that
first
integral of the system (1)
known
equation of energy for the unit mass.

Just as in Art. 13 an equation of the second order was regarded as equivalent to two equations of the first order, so the
system (i)in connection with the equation defining the resolved velocities forms a system of six equations of the first order, of " which system equation (2) is an " integral in the sense explained in Art.
12.
Prob. 72. Solve the equations

ear in
/.
Prob.
= dy = at as a system iinmx (Ans. x = A cos mt+B sin mt, y = A s'mmtB cosmt.) n y = e * JL z = 73. Solve the system
r,
,
.
dx
my
1-
_j_
(Ans.
nx y = Ae + Be'"*
+n -, z = - nAenx + nBe
" nx
f
_|
.) '
Prob. 74. Find for the system
-^
= x<p(x,y),
/a dy
-^~
= y<P(x,y)
first
integral independent of the function 0.
dx
352
Prob. 75.
[CHAP; VIE.
The approximate
when
dy
,
of a pendulum, d?x
equations for the horizontal motion, the earth's rotation is taken into account, are
gx
are of the
x
d*y
dx
gy
show
that both
x andy
-\-
form
%
A
Art.
cos n x t
B sin n t + C cos n t + D sin nj.
20.
First Order and Degree with Three Variables.
variables x,
The equation of the first order and degree between three y and z may be written Pdx + Qdy + Rdz = o, (1)
where P,
equation
Q
is
and
are functions of x,
y and
z.
When
in Art. 4,
this
exact, P,
u, of x,
and
R
z
;
are the partial derivatives of
some function
y and
and we derive, as
d
dP = dQ
dy
d*'
sGâtf ~
dz
dy'
= &P
dz
dx
M ^
for the conditions of exactness.
In the case of two variables,
the equation is not exact integrating factors always exist;, but in this case, there is not always a factor u such that piPy
when
juQ and /jR (put in place of P, Q, and R) will satisfy all three It is easily shown that for this of the conditions (2). purpose
the relation
p (dQ
must
dR\, n (dR
8A,
(dP
dQ\
(3)'
exist between the given values of P, Q, and R. This " of equation (1).* therefore the " condition of integrability
is>
When
grated by
this condition
is
fulfilled
equation
(1)
may be
inte-
first supposing one variable, say 2, to be constant. o, and supposing the constant Thus, integrating Pdx -j- Qdy of integration C to be a function of z, we obtain the integral, so
*When
there are
more than
three variables such a condition of integra-
bility exists for
independent.
ditions.
each group of three variables, but these conditions are not all Thus with four variables there are but three independent con-
Art.
20.]
first
order and degree, three variables.

Finally,
353
far as
it
depends upon x and y.
by comparing the
total differential of this result with the given equation
we
de-
termine
dC in
terms of z and
ds,
and thence by integration the

exact
value of C.
It
may
be noticed that when certain terms of an
equation forms an exact differential, the remaining terms must It follows that if one of the variables, say z also be exact.
can be completely separated from the other two (so that in equation (i) R becomes a function of z only and Pand Q functions of x and y, but not of z) the terms Pdx -f- Qdy must be
thus rendered exact
if
the equation
is
integrable.*
For example,
zydx
is
zxdy
y*dz
= o.
we
an integrable equation. Accordingly, dividing by y*z, which notice separates the variable z from x and y, puts it in the exact form dz ydx xdy
y
of which the integral
is
o,
=y log cz.
Regarding x, y and z as coordinates of a moving point, an integrable equation restricts the point to motion upon one
of the surfaces belonging to the system of surfaces represented
by the
other words, the point (x, y, z) moves in an Let us now consider arbitrary curve drawn on such a surface. in what way equation (i) restricts the motion of a point when
integral
;
in
it is
not integrable.
The
direction cosines of a
y
moving point
are proportional to dx, dy and dz\ hence, denoting them by and n, the direction of motion of the point satisfying /,
equation
(i)
must
satisfy the condition
P/+ Qm + Rn = o.
It is
(4)
connection an auxiliary of lines represented, as explained in Art. 12, by the system simultaneous equations
convenient to consider
in this
dx
_dy _dz ~p~~Q~~R'

* In fact for this case the condition presses the exactness of Pdx -}- Qdy.
(3)
(5)
its
reduces to
last
term, which ex-
354
[Chap. VII.
The
-of
this
direction cosines of a point moving in one of the lines Hence, desystem are proportional to P, Q and R.
A,
ju,
noting them by
v,
equation
-)- p-in -f-
(4)
gives
XI
for the relation
vn
=o
(6)
between the directions of two moving points, whose paths intersect, subject respectively to equation (1) and
question therefore intersect at right angles; therefore equation (1) simply restricts a point to move in a path which cuts orthogonally the lines of the auxilito equations
(5).
The paths
in
ary system.
Now,
if
there be a system of surfaces which cut the auxiliary
lines orthogonally, the restriction just
mentioned
is
completely
expressed by the requirement that the line shall lie on one of these surfaces, the line being otherwise entirely arbitrary.
This
is
the case in which equation (1)
is
integrable.*
restriction can only
when the equation is not integrable, the be expressed by two equations involving an arbitrary function. Thus if we assume in advance one such relation, we know from Art. 12 that the given equation (1)
the other hand,
On
together with the first derivative of the assumed relation forms a system admitting of solution in the form of two integrals*
Both
of these integrals will involve the
assumed function.
For
any particular value of that function we have a system of lines satisfying equation (1), and the arbitrary character of the function
makes the
solution sufficiently general to include
all lines
which
satisfy the equation/)-
Prob. 76.
Show
that the equation
is
(nx (mz ny)dx lz)dy (ly mx)dz = o and infer from the integral the character of the auxilintegrable,
*It follows
(5),
that,
equation
(3) is the
with respect to the system of lines represented by equations condition that the system shall admit of surfaces cutting
them orthogonally.
The
lines of force in
any
field
of conservative forces form
such a system, the orthogonal surfaces being the equipotential surfaces. f So too there is an arbitrary element about the path of a point when the
single equation to which it is subject is integrable, but this enters only into one of the two equations necessary to define the path.
Art
21.]
PARTIAL EQUATIONS, FIRST ORDER*

(Compare the
illustrative
355
iary lines.
example (Ans. nx
at the
Iz
end of Art.
C(ny
2.)
mz).)
x
x e (i-\-cz).) e dz o. Prob. 77. Solve yz*dx z*dy (Ans. yz Find the equation which in connection with^ - f(x) Prob. 78. forms the solution of dz aydx -J- bdy.
Prob. 79.
Show
that a general solution of
ydx
is
(x
z)(dy
dz)
given by the equations
y
(This
is
<?K*),
jy
(*
*)0'(*).
an example of
"
Monge's Solution.")
Art.
21.
Partial Differential Equations of First Order and Degree.
variables
Let x denote an unknown function of the two independent x and y, and let dz dz
partial derivatives
denote
its
a relation between one or both

is
of these derivatives "

ferential equation
and the variables

of the
first
" called a partial dif-
order!
A Value
of z in terms of
x and y which with its derivatives satisfies the equation, or a relation between x, y and z which makes z implicitly such a " function, is a particular integral." The most general equation
of this kind
If
is
called the " general integral."
only one of the derivatives, say/, occurs, the equation

differential equation. For \i y is becomes the ordinary derivative of a constant, p
;
may
be solved as an ordinary
considered as
z with respect to x therefore, if in the complete integral of the equation thus regarded we replace the constant of integration
by an
arbitrary function
all
of y,
we
shall
have a relation
which includes
particular integrals
It will
sible generality.
be found that, in
and has the greatest poslike manner, when

arbi-
both p and q are present, the general integral involves an

trary function.
We
proceed to give Lagrange's solution of the equation of
356
first
[Chap.
VIL
order and degree, or " linear equation," which written in the form
the
may be
(I)
Pp+Qq = R,
y and
z,
P,
and
R
is
denoting functions of x,
y and
and
a,
z.
Let u
= a,
to
in
which u
a function of x,
a constant, be an
integral of equation (i).
and
respectively,
Taking derivatives with respect we have

.
+ du = ^
du
'
&+&t =
,
3*
du
'
and substitution
of the values of
/ and
in
equation
(i)
gives
the symmetrical relation
Consider
now
the system of simultaneous ordinary differ-
ential equations
dx __dy
Let u
tem.
~P~Q~~R
=a
be one of the integrals (see Art. 12) of
its
_dz
(3)
this sys-
Taking
total differential,
-du
dx 4'
a
dy
-dy J
~ du dz = o
:
-\-
-dx
dz
and since by equations (3) dx, dy and dz are proportional to P, Q and R, we obtain by substitution
di P+ dy
which
is
Q + d^ R
(2).
-'
It
identical with equation
follows that every
system (3) satisfies equation (1), and conversely, so that the general expression for the integrals of (3) will be
integral of the
the general integral of equation
(1). (3),
Now
v
is
let
= b be
another integral of equations

satisfies
(2).
so that
also a function
in Art. 12,
equation each of the equations u a, v
which
As
is
explained the equation
of a surface passing through a singly infinite system of lines
belonging to the doubly

tions
(3).
infinite
is
What we
require
system represented by equathe general expression for any
Art.
21.]
PARTIAL EQUATIONS, FIRST ORDER.
357
none
surface passing through lines of the system (and intersecting C is such of them). It is evident that f(u, v) =f(a, b)
an equation,* and accordingly/^, v), where / function, will be found to satisfy equation (2).
solve equation (1), we v b of the auxiliary system
is
an arbitrary
Therefore, to find two independent integrals u a,
(3),
(sometimes called Lagrange's

(4)
equations,) and then put
<p(v),
an equation which
Conversely,
(4),
it
is
evidently equally general with/(z^, v)
= o.
may
be shown that any equation of the form

rise
regarded as a primitive, gives

of
to a definite partial
Lagrange's linear form.
For, taking
partial derivatives with
respect to the independent variables
x and y, we have
-+r
>
(. )
[-- +
-/
J,
and eliminating cf) (v) from these equations, the term containing/^ vanishes, giving the result
du 9
(5)
which
is
of the
form Pp
is
-f-
Qq
= R.jwhose
* Each line of the system
characterized by special values of a and b which
we may
call its
coordinates, and the surface passes through those lines
coordinates are connected by the perfectly arbitrary relation J\a, b) C. These values of P, Q and R are known as the " Jacobians " of the pair f of functions u, v with respect to the pairs of variables y, z\ z, x and x, y re;
spectively.
Owing
to their
analogy to the derivatives of a single function they

:
are sometimes denoted thus
358
[CHAP. VII.
As an
tion be
for
illustration, let the
given partial differential equa-
(mz lz)q ny)p -\- (fix which Lagrange's Equations are dx dy

,
= ly
dz
mx,
(6)
nx Iz mx' ly ny These equations were solved at the end of Art. integrals there found being
Ix
-f-
mz
(j\ w
J
12,
the two
my
+ nz = a
and
system
x*
-\-
y*
-\- z*
fr.
(8)
Hence
sists of
in this case the
of "
Lagrangean lines" con-
the entire system of circles having the straight line
-==for axis.
(q)
The
Ix
general integral of equation (6) is then 2 0(V -\- y* -f- ), -\- my -f- nz
(io)
which represents any surface passing through the circles just mentioned, that is, any surface of revolution of which (9) is the
axis.*
Lagrange's solution extends to the linear equation containing n independent variables. Thus the equation being
P^Lmp^L+
the auxiliary equations are
4-p*L-r
_ dxn
dz
dx
dx^
= o is
the condition that <p (a function of x, v
and
z)
is
expressible
d(x, y,
Z)
identically as a function of
u and
v, that is to say, that <p
=o
shall
be an
in-
tegral of
Pp -f- Qq R. When the equation Pdx -f- Qdy
-f-
Rdz
is
integrable (as
it
is
in
the
above example; see Prob.
may be put in the form C, represents a singly infinite system of surfaces which the Lagrangean lines cut orthogonally therefore, in this case, the general integral may be de76, Art. 20), its integral,
which
V=
fined as the general equation of the surfaces which cut orthogonally the
system
Conversely, starting with a given system V'= C, u =f(v) is the general equation of the orthogonal surfaces, if u a and v b are integrals of
C.
V=
dx I /
dx
= dy
'I hv
dz
I dz
Art.
22.]
complete and general integrals.

t
359
and
if
c 1}
?/
=c
/(
u n s= cn are independent integrals,
the most general solution
is
uu )
= o,
(Ans. xy
-\-
where /is an arbitrary function.

Prob. 80. Solve xzProb. 81. Solve (y Prob. 82. Solve (x
-f|-
yZ
-f-
=
(z
Xy
z*
= /(-].]
+ y)(p - q) =
(Ans.
z)p -\-y(z
z)p
+ x)q = x
5.
y.
(^+j)
(Ans.
log^
z(x
-j-
Prob. 83. Solve ^(^
x)q =
x=f(x+y).)
y).
y -\-
= f(xyz).)
Art.
22.
Complete and General Integrals.

in
the preceding article that an equation between three variables containing an arbitrary function gives rise to a partial differential equation of the linear form. It
follows that,
We
have seen
when
the equation
is
not linear in/ and
q,
the
general integral cannot be expressed by a single equation of the form 0(?/, 7/) o; it will, however, still be found to depend
upon a single arbitrary function. It therefore becomes necessary to consider an integral having as much generality as can be given by the presence of arbiSuch an equation is called a " complete intrary constants. " it contains two arbitrary constants {n arbitrary contegral stants in the general case of n independent variables), because
;
this
is
the
number which can be eliminated from such an equaand

its
tion, considered as a primitive,
two derived equations.

z*
For example,
a and
if
(x- ay
+ (y-dy + = k\
O,
b being regarded as arbitrary, be taken as the primitive, the derived equations are
+ zp =
of
y
1)
-j-
zq
= O,
and the elimination
a and b gives the
,
*V + f +
of which therefore the given equation
is
a complete integral.
360
[Chap. VII.
Geometrically, the complete integral represents a doubly inin this case they are spherical surfinite system of surfaces
;
the plane of xy. In general, a partial differential equation of the first order with two independent variables is of the form
faces having a given radius
in
and centers
F(x,y, z,p
q)
= o,
=
o.
(i)
and a complete integral
is
of the
form
(2)
f(x, y,
z, a, b)
In equation (1) suppose x, y and z to have special values, the equation namely, the coordinates of a special point becomes a relation between p and q. Now consider any sur-
face passing through

(1), or, as
of
which the equation
is
an integral of
we may call it, a given " integral surface " passing through A. The tangent plane to this surface at A determines values of p and q which must satisfy the relation just menConsider also those of the complete integral surfaces [equation (2)] which pass through A. They form a singly in-
tioned.
system whose tangent planes at A have values of p and q which also satisfy the relation. There is obviously among them one which has the same value of p, and therefore also
finite
the same value of
q,
as the given integral.
Thus there
at
is
one
of the complete integral surfaces
which touches
the given
follows that every integral surface (not included in the complete integral) must at every one of its points
integral surface.
It
touch a surface included

It
is
in
the complete integral.*
velope of a singly infinite

integral system.
hence evident that every integral surface is the ensystem selected from the complete
Thus,
in
the example at the beginning of this article, a right cylinder whose radius is k and whose axis lies in the plane of xy is an integral, because it is the envelope
* Values of x, y, and
z,
determining a point, together with values of p and
q,
determining the direction of a surface at that point, are said to constitute an
"element
"
plete
of surface."
The theorem shows

all
in the
sense of including
complete integral is the surface elements which satisfy the
that the
'
com-
differ-
ential equation.
The method
is
of
grouping the "consecutive" elements to form
an integral surface
to a certain extent arbitrary.
Art.
22.]
complete and general integrals.
361
of those
tegral
among the spheres represented by the complete inwhose centers are on the axis of the cylinder. If we
center of the sphere describe an arbitrary curve in we shall have the general integral in this ex-
make the
the plane of xy
ample. In general,
if
in
a and
b,
such as b
equation (2) an arbitrary relation between <p(a), be established, the envelope of the
singly infinite system of surfaces thus defined will represent the general integral. By the usual process, the equation of
the envelope
is
the result of eliminating a between the two
equations
f(x, y,
*, a, <p(a) )
= o,
a ^r
Ax
>
y>
*>
a <Ka)
>
= o.
(3)
*'
These two equations together determine a line, namely, the ultimate intersection of two consecutive surfaces." Such
"
lines are called the

tion.
characteristics
"
of the differential equaof
They
are independent of
complete integral, being integral In the surfaces which pass through them touch one another. illustrative example above they are equal circles with centers
in the plane of
"
in fact lines
any particular form along which all
the
xy and planes perpendicular
to it.*
The example
lution
also furnishes an instance of a " singular so-
analogous to those of ordinary differential equations.

"
*The characteristics are to be regarded not merely as lines, but as linear elements of surface," since they determine at each of their points the direction of the surfaces passing through them, Thus, in the illustration, they are circles regarded as great-circle elements of a sphere, or as
elements of a right
be likened to narrow hoops. They constitute in all cases a The surfaces of a complete integral system contain them triply infinite system. all, but they are differently grouped in different integral surfaces.
cylinder, and
may
If
its
is,
we
arbitrarily select a curve in space there will
in
general be at each of
points but one characteristic through which the selected curve passes; that whose tangent plane contains the tangent to the selected curve. These char-
acteristics (for all points of the curve)
the selected curve

itself
and
it is
the only one
form an integral surface passing through which passes through it unless it be
a characteristic.
is
Integral surfaces of a special kind result
when
the se-
reduced to a point. In the illustration these are the results of rotating the circle about a line parallel to the axis of z.
lected curve
362
[CHAP. VII.
For the planes z = k envelop the whole system of spheres the complete integral, and indeed all the surrepresented by
tion exists
When a singular solufaces included in the general integral. it is included in the result of eliminating a and b from equation (2) and its derivatives with respect to a and b,
that
is,
from
/='
df
df
d^=>
Zb=
(4>
but, as in the case of ordinary equations, this result clude relations which are not solutions.
may
in-
Ix
-f-
Prob. 84. Derive a differential equation from the primitive a, where /, m, n are connected by the relation my -f- nz
m*
= =
1.
Prob. 85. Show that the singular solution of the equation found in Prob. 84 represents a sphere, that the characteristics consist
of
all
general integral therefore represents touch the sphere.
the straight lines which touch this sphere, and that the all developable surfaces which
Prob. 86. Find
cos general integral above I -\-m relation between the parameters.
the integral which results from taking in the 2 2 2 6 (a constant) for the arbitrary
Art,
23.
Complete Integral for Special Forms.

integral of the partial differential equation
A complete
F(x,y, z,p,
contains two constants, a and
b as an arbitrary parameter, finite system of surfaces, of
it b.
q)
If
=o
(1)
a be regarded as fixed and
is
the equation of a singly in-
which one can be found passing
through any given point. The ordinary differential equation of this system, which will be independent of b, may be put in the form dz pdx qdy, (2)
in
which the coefficients/ and q are functions of the variables and the constant a. Now the form of equation (2) shows that these quantities are the partial derivatives of z, in an integral
of equation (1)
;
therefore they are values of
p and
q which
ART.
23.]
COMPLETE INTEGRAL FOR SPECIAL FORMS.

Conversely,
if
363
in
satisfy equation (i).
values
of/ and q
terms
of the variables and a constant a which
satisfy equation (i) are
such as to
make equation
tem
of surfaces,
if
words,
we
of a sys(2) the differential equation In other these surfaces will be integrals. can find values of p and q containing a constant a
(1)
which
satisfy equation
and
make dz
= pdx
-f-
qdy
inte-
grate, we can obtain by

gral,
direct integration a
complete
inte-
the integration introducing a second constant.
There are certain forms of equations for which such values p and q are easily found. In particular there are forms in which p and q admit of constant values, and these obviously
of
make equation
(2) integrable.
Thus,
if
the equation contains
/ and q only, being of the form

F(P,
q)
= O,
(3)
we may put/
Equation
= a and
b,
provided
b)
F(a,
(2)
= o.
-f-
(4)
thus becomes
dz
= adx
bdy,
whence we have the complete z = ax

in
integral
+ by +
c,
(5)
(4) so that
a,
which a and b are connected by the relation and c are equivalent 'to two arbitrary constants.
In the next place,
if
the equation
is
of the form
(6)
10,
*=P* + qy+f(p,q),
which
of
is
analogous to Clairaut's form, Art.

q are again admissible
z
if
constant values
p and
this
they satisfy
9
= az + by+f(a
c,
b\
(7)
this equation is
and
is itself
For
of the
form z
= ax + by +
tions between the three constants.
and expresses in itself the relaProblem 84 of the preced-
ing article
is
an example of
this form.
In the third place, suppose the equation to be of the form

F(z,p,q)
= o,
(8)
364
in which neither
~qz= ap,
appears explicitly. If be a function of z determined from
F(z, p, ap)
[CHAP. VII,
x nor y
we assume
will
= o,
say
<p(z).
-f-
(9)
Then dz
pdx -|-
qdy = o becomes dz = <p(z)(dx
#^), which
is
integrable, giving the complete integral
that in which, while z does not explicitly occur, it is possible to separate x and p from y and ^, thus putting the equation in the form
'+*=/&+*
fourth case
is
(I0)
/,(*,/) =/.(?,
If
9)-
(")
to a con-
we assume each member of this equation equal stant a, we may determine/ and q in the forms
and dz
/ = (pix, a), q = {y, a). = />^r + ^y takes an integrable form giving 8 = f^** a dx + f^y* a dy + b
(p t
^
^
-
(12)
(*3)
frequently possible to reduce a given equation by transformation of the variables to one of the four forms considered
It is
in this article.*
For example, the equation
x^p*
-\-
y* q
= z*
may
be written
\* -dx)
\z
dy'
general method, due to Charpit, of finding a proper value oip consists of establishing, by means of the condition of integrability, a linear partial differential equation for/, of
*The
which we need only a particular
integral.
This
may
be any value of / taken from the auxiliary equations employed in Lagrange's process. See Boole, Differential Equations (London 1865), p. 336 also Forsyth, Differential Equations (London 1885), p. 316, in which the auxiliary equa;
tions are deduced in a
more general and symmetrical form, involving both p
and
as
q.
These equations are

z,
in the
in fact the equations of the characteristics regarded concluding note to the preceding article. Denoting the partial deriva-
tives of F(x, y,
p, q)
by X, Y,
dy
Z,
P, Q, they are
dx
~P
dz
~Q
Pp+Qq
dp
dq
~XTZp
Any
-~~YTz~q
;
See Jordan's Cours ^'Analyse

ential Equations
(Paris, 1887), vol. in, p. 318
(New York,
q,
1889), p. 300.
relation involving
Johnson's Differone or both

j>
he quantities p and
combined with
F= o,
will furnish
proper values of
ART.
24.]
PARTIAL EQUATIONS, SECOND ORDER.
365
}
whence, putting x' i, which p' -\-q'*

%
=
is
log x, y' =s log y, z' log z it becomes. of the form F(p\ q') o, equation (3).
Hence the
it
may
integral is given therefore be written

z'
by equation
or
(5)
when
c,
a* -f- b*
= I?
;r'
cos
+y sin a-\a
i/Sin a^
and restoring
;r,
j,
and
z,
that of the given equation

^-j^cos
is
2 Prob. 87. Find a complete integral for/
(Ans. s
Prob. 88. Find the singular
0* = = # sec a + solution of z = px
1.
jy
tan
or -{-
.)
-\-
qy + pq.
(Ans. z
Prob. 89. Solve by transformation ^
.#y.)
2^'. (Ans. ^
## 4-
y+
)i
b.y
Prob. 90. Solve z(p' Prob. 91.
(Ans. *l
= (* +
y.
)l
that the solution given for the form F(z,p, q) a. o is a singular represents cylindrical surfaces, and that F(z, o, o) solution.
Show
+ (^ + a + ^.) =
=
Prob. 92.
complete integrals of pq
(Ans. 2*
Deduce by the method quoted = px + qy.
in the foot-note
two
=(
+ ^) +A and 5 = a? +j> ^(* +

5
<*)
+ &)
Art.
24.
Partial Equations of Second Order.

in
We
have seen
solution of a partial differential equation of the

;
the preceding articles that the general first order de-
pends upon an arbitrary function although it is only when the equation is linear in / and q that it is expressible by a But in the case of higher orders no general single equation. account can be given of the nature of a solution. Moreover,
consider the equations derivable from a primitive conarbitrary functions, there is no correspondence between taining their number and the order of the equation. For example, if
and
q.
when we
Sometimes several such
relations are readily found
for example,
for
the equation
zpq we thus obtain the two complete integrals z = (y + a)(x + and 4* =fe+ ay + /?Y.
d)
36*6
[CHAP. VII.
the primitive with two independent variables contains two arbitrary functions, it is not generally possible to eliminate them
and
their derivatives
first
equations of the
let us
from the primitive and its two derived and three of the second order.
Instead of a primitive containing

take an equation of the
first
two arbitrary
functions,
arbitrary function.
This
may
order containing a single be put in the form u (p{v)
u and v now denoting known functions of x, y, z, p, and q. eliminated from the two derived equations <p'(v) may now be
as in Art. 21.
Denoting the second derivatives of z by

r
~s*
a^
'
_ _av_
a*f
~d*d/
ay
V,
z,
the result
is
found to be of the form
Rr + Ss+ Tt+U(rt-s*)=
in
(i)
which R,
S, T> U,
and
are functions
of x, y,
p,
and
q.
reference to the differential equation of the second order " the equation ti intermediate equation of (p(v) is called an
With
=
:
the
first
order
"
it is
analogous to the
It
first
integral of an ordi-
nary equation of the second order.
follows that an inter-
mediate equation cannot exist unless the equation is of the form (i); moreover, there are two other conditions which must exist between the functions R, 5, T, and U.
In tained
some simple cases an intermediate equation can be obby direct integration. Thus, if the equation contains
derivatives with respect to one only of the variables, it may be treated as an ordinary differential equation of the second order,
the constants being replaced by arbitrary functions of the other variable. Given, for example, the equation xr p xy,
which
may
be written
xdp
pdx
= xy dx.
x when
divided by x*,
This becomes exact with reference to
and gives the intermediate equation
p=yx\ogx + x<p(y).
A second
integration (and change in the form of the arbitrary
function) gives the general integral
= \yx* log x + x*<p(y) + ip(y).
Art.
24.]
partial equations, second order,
367
Again, the equation p -\- r -\- s gives the intermediate equation

'
is
already exact, and
*+/+? = * + 0C?)
The
auxiliary equations* are
,
which
is
of Lagrange's form.
dx
of which the
first
= dy = =
,,
second,
its
a, and eliminating y gives x the form integral is of
x from
the
a-\- <p(y) -\-i~*b.

integral
Hence, putting b
= tpia), we have for the final z = x + 0O) + e ''i>(x - y),

is
in
which a further change
made
in the
form of the arbitrary
function 0.
Prob, 93. Solve
t
= e* + ey
= y\
(Ans. z
=y(e y
- e x + (p(x) + e y tp(x).)
)
Prob. 94. Solve r
+/
(Ans. z
= \og[e xy ip(y)
e'
xy
]-\- tp(y).)
Prob. 95. Solve y\s t) (Ans. z

Prob. 96. Solve ps
= x. = (x +y) logy + <p(x) + ij>(x +y).) (Ans. ^ = (p(y) + ^(2).) qr = o. =
Prob. 97. Show that Monge's equations (see foot-note) give for Prob. 96 the intermediate integral p <p{z) and hence derive the
solution.
* In Monge's method (for which the reader must be referred to the complete treatises) of finding an intermediate integral of
Rr+ Ss+
when one
exists, the auxiliary
Tt
= V =
Vdx dy
equations
Rdy*
are established.
Sdy dx
Tdx*
= o, = pdx
Rdp dy + Tdq dx
-f-
These, in connection with

dz
qdy,
form an incomplete system of ordinary differential equations, between the five But if it is possible to obtain two integrals of the variables x, y, z, p, and q-. in the form u = a, v = />, u = <p(v) will be the intermediate integral. system
The
first
of the auxiliary equations

If
is
a quadratic giving two values for the ratio

will
dy.dx.
these are distinct, and an intermediate integral can be found, for
ach, the values of
jntegrable,
p and q determined from them and give the general integral at once.
make dz =p>dx-{-qdy
368
[CHAP.
VIL
the intermediate integral/
Prob. 98. Derive by Monge's method for fr o 2pqs -\- p*t q <p(z), and thence the general integral.. (Ans. y x(p(z) ip(z).)
Art.
25.
Linear Partial Differential Equations.
variable and
Equations which are linear with respect to the dependent its partial derivatives may be treated by a method
in the case of
analogous to that employed

equations. ent variables
ordinary differential
We
shall consider only the case of
two independ-
x and
y,
and put
d*
dy
DD
% so that the higher derivatives are denoted by the symbols , s % D' etc. ', Supposing further that the coefficients are
,
constants, the equation
may
be written
in
the form
(1)
f{D,D')z
in
= F(x,y),
denotes an algebraic function, or polynomial, of which the degree corresponds to the order of the differential
which
Understanding by an "integral" of this equation an explicit value of z in terms of x and y, it is obvious, as inArt. 15, that the sum of a particular integral and the general
equation.
integral of
/(>, D')z
will constitute
is,
=o
(1).
(2)
an equally general solution of equation
It
however, only when f{D, D') is a homogeneous function of and D' that we can obtain a solution of equation (2) containing " 11 complearbitrary functions,* which solution is also the
mentary function
"
for equation (1).
Suppose then the equation to be of the form
A
and
*
let
It is
B +A
us assume
assumed
+ --- +A "B=' z = <p(y + mx),
(3)
(4}
that such a solution constitutes the general integral of an
equation of the th order; for a primitive containing more than n independent of the arbitrary functions cannot give rise by their elimination to an equation
nib. order.
Art.
25.]
linear partial equations.

a.
369
where mis
constant to be determined.
-\-
From
equation
(4),
'
= mcp\y mx) and D'z = <p\ y mx), so that Dz = mD z, IPz = m*D'*z, DD'z = mD'^y, etc. Substituting in equation (3)
Dz
-\-
and rejecting the factor D' nz or
{n
\y
.
-\-
mx),
we have
o
(5)
Ajn -f A m
n
A
n~ l
-f A n =
i}
.
for the determination of m.
If
m m
xi
mn are distinct roots
of this equation,
^
is
0i( y
+
=
,*)
+0 (7 + ^r^) +
a
+ 0O + ***)
-
(6)
the general integral of equation
(3).
_a
For example, the general integral of

found to be z
cp(y
-\-
=o
is
thus
x)
~\-
ip(y
x).
Any expression
;
of the
form
it
Axy + Bx -f- Cy -f- Z> is

expressible as the
a particular integral
accordingly
is
sum
of certain functions of
x + y and
y respectively. The homogeneous equation

form
x .
(3)
may now be
{D
written sym-
bolically in the
(D
in
m D'\D - mJT)
m nD')z = o,
(7)
which the several factors correspond to the several terms of the general integral. If two of the roots of equation (5) are equal, say, to m lt the corresponding terms in equation (6) are
equivalent to a single arbitrary function.
integral
To form
the general
we need an
integral of
{D
in addition to 4>{y
- m DJz = o
x
(8)
+ m^x).
x
This
will in fact
be the solution of
(9)
(D-m D')z=
for,
if
we operate with
rty + ms); D' upon both members

Writing equation
of this
equation,
we
obtain equation
(8).
(9) in
the
form
m q=
x
<p(y
+ mx\
dz
-\-
Lagrange's equations are
dy _
m
giving the integrals^ z
0( y
m^x)'
-j- b.
mx =
x
a, z = x(p(a)
Hence the
(10)
integral of equation (9)
is
x
x
= x<p(y + m x) + tp(y + m x),
370
<fi
[CHAP. VII.
and regarding
If
also as arbitrary, these are the
two independ-
ent terms corresponding to the pair of equal roots.

has a pair of imaginary roots the corresponding terms of the integral take the form
equation
(5)
m = /z
iv*
<p(y -\-pix -\-ivx)
-j-
ip{y
-\-
^.x
ivx),
which when
terms.
If
and
tp
we
restrict
functions contain imaginary ourselves to real integrals we cannot

are real
now
say that there are two radically distinct classes of intebut if any real function of y -j- jax -f- ivx be put in the grals
;
form X-\-iY, either of the

integral of the equation.
2
real functions
X or
Fwill be an
Given, for
example, the equation
a^
3 a *
of
which the general integral

*
is
0( y
+ ix + *P(y - ix
)
to obtain a real integral take either the real or the coefficient

of the imaginary part of any real form of cp{y -\- ix). Thus, if # we find ey cos^r and ey sin^r, each of which is an (j){t)
integral (see Chap. VI, p. 245).
corresponding case of ordinary equations, the particular integral of equation (1) may be made to depend upon the solution of linear equations of the first order. The
in the
As
inverse symbol j:
jyF(*> y)
m the equation
p
corresponding
to equation (14), Art. 16, denotes the value of z in
(D
For
mD')z
F(x, y)
or
mq
= F[x, y).
b
x
(11)
this equation
Lagrange's auxiliary equations give

z
+ wix =
a,
j F{x, a
is
mx)dx -\-
= F (x, a) -f- &,

(12)
and the general

z
integral
x
= F {x,y + mx) + (p(y -f mx).

is
The
first
term, which
the particular integral,
may
thereinte-
fore be found
by subtracting
mx
from
in
F(x,
y),
Art.
25.]
linear partial equations.
371
grating with respect to

result.*
x and
f
then adding
mx
to
in
the
For
certain forms of
F(x
y) there exist
more expeditious
methods, of which we shall here only notice that which applies to the form F{ax -\- by). Since DF{ax -f- by) aF\ax -f- by)
and D'F(ax
-f-
by) ==
is
wheny~(Z>, D')
t =
bF\ax -f- by), it is readily inferred that, homogeneous function of the nth degree,
f{D, D')F{ax
That
is,
+ by) =f(a, b)F*\ax +

the operation of f(D,
by).
r
(13)
if
ax
-f- by,
equivalent to multiplication by rivative, the final result being
f(a
b)
D ) on F(t) is and taking the nth. det.
still
a function of
It follows
that, conversely, the operation of the inverse symbol upon a function of / is equivalent to dividing by /(a, b) and integrating
n times.
Thus,
/ah) F{ax + by) =xh)ffWhen ax -f- by

equation
(5),
is
/**
is
(I4)
a multiple of y
fails
-f-
mx
t
where w,
a root of
this
method
is
ing symbolic of which the solution
factor, giving rise to
with respect to the correspondan equation of the form (9),

equation
(10).
given
d*z
in
Given, for ex-
ample, the equation d*z d*z

.
or
(D
a^+a^Jy- ay^ - D') (D + 2D')z = sin

function
is
Sm{x
-^ +Sm ^+^ - y) + (x + (x
.
sin
y).
<p(y -\- x) -\- tp(y part of the particular integral arising from sin (x
The complementary
2x).
y), in
The
which
aris-
i~b
1, is
/
this
/sin tdf
theorem
y)
is
=
-
- sin (>
y).
That
* The symbolic form of
D -m>' F(x
-
'
= emxD
'f
mxD
'^(x, y)dx
ev*xD'
corresponding to equation (13), Art. 16.

addition of
The symbol
here indicates the
mx
to
in
the operand.
Accordingly, using the expanded form
of the symbol,
***D>FKy)
(i+mx^
^~
-f
. .
.)
F(y)
= F(y + mx),
the symbolic expression of Taylor's
Theorem.
372
is
[Chap. VII.
ing from sin \x -\-y) which
of the form of a
term
^
in the
com-
plementary function
tion (10)
is
is
n_ n
COS
+^' w licl1 b y equaintegral of
\x
cos ix-\-y).
is
)
Hence the general

{*
the given equation
<P(y
+ *) + $(y - 2x +i sin
=
is still
y)
i * cos
t
(*
+ fi-
o the symbol f(D, D') though the equation f{D, D')z and >', can be separated with respect to not homogeneous
ll in
into factors, the integral
the
to the several symbolic factors.
sum The
of those corresponding
integral of a factor of
;
the
first
degree
is
found by Lagrange's process mD a)z o {D

,
thus that of
(15)
is
z = e ax (p(y
-j-
mx).
(16)
But in the general case it is not possible to express the Let us, howsolution in a form involving arbitrary functions.
ever,
assume
z=cehx+ky
y
(17)
where c, h, and k are constants. and D'ehx ^ ky =kehx lrky substitution xJrky = o. Hence we have a solution of the form cf(h, k)^
= h^x + Since Z)e in f(D, D')z = o gives

hx
+ ky
ky
(17)
whenever
//
and k
satisfy the relation
AK
c
k)
= o,
obvious that
(18)
being altogether arbitrary. write the more general solution
It is
we may
also
z=
where k
F{Ji) is
2ce,lx + F^y
(19)
(18),
derived from equation
and
and h admit
of an infinite variety of arbitrary values.
fhx
+ FWy
Again, since the difference of any two terms of the form w t h different values of h is included in expression
j
(19),
we
is
infer that the derivative of this expression with respect
to
//
also an
integral,
and
in like
manner the second and
higher derivatives are integrals.
For example,
if
the equation is d*z dz
l?~d~y^'
Art.
25.]
LINEAR PARTIAL equations.

is
373
classes of in-
for which equation (18)

tegrals of the forms
I?
o,
we have
** + h \(x
+ 2hyf + 2y)\
//
f* +
*"'[(*
+ 2/^) + 6>(^r + 2hy)\

3
In particular, putting
cxx c,(x
t
= owe obtain the algebraic integrals
2y), c 3 (x
+ 6xy), etc.
The
variable coefficients
solution of a linear partial differential equation with may sometimes be effected by a change of
the independent variables as illustrated in some of the examples below.

Prob. 99. Show that if m terms of the integral are x*<p(y
1
is
a triple root the

x
corresponding
+ m x) ~V *^(jH- ^)+ X(y+î x)'

tfz
tfz
2
2
Prob. 100. Solve
ci Prob. 101. Solve
Prob.
+2 + =? = 0(*) + ip(x + j) + #(* +jf) log*.) (Ans. z n 102. Solve (Z> + 5_>Z>' + 6D )z = {y - 2x)"\ = <p(y 2x) + tp(y 3*) + x log 2*).) (Ans. z
1
2^^ dx 9^
d*z
^
2 2
3^-^ dxdy
d'*
= o.
I
.
dy
JM
(jy
d*z
Prob. 103. Solve
d'z
dz
-f-
dx
5-^dxdy
2=0.
dy
Prob. 104. Show that for an equation of the form (15) the solution given by equation (19) is equivalent to equation (16). Prob. 105. e Solve
,
-.
d*z
1
3
dz
d*z
3
.
r~i * 3^ a
^ r 9#
-5^3
/ dy
dz :r- by transposiy* dy
1
.
tion to the independent variables x* andjv
Prob. 10 6. Solve
^g +
^+/g- =
o.
374
GRASSxMANN's space analysis.
[Chap. VIII*
Chapter VIII.
GRASSMANN'S SPACE ANALYSIS.

By Edward W. Hyde,
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cincinnati.
Art.
1.
Explanations and Definitions.
algebra with which the student is already familiar deals directly with only one quality of the various geometric and mechanical entities, such as lines, forces, etc., namely, with
their magnitude.
The
Such questions as How much? How far? long by an algebraic operation or series of operations. Questions of direction and position are dealt with indirectly by means of systems of coordinates of various kinds.
How
are answered
In this chapter an algebra* will be developed which deals directly with the three qualities of geometric and mechanical
quantities, viz., magnitude, position,
ric
and direction.
A geomet-
quantity may possess one, two, or all three of these properties simultaneously; thus a straight line of given length has
three, while a point has only one.
all
The geometric quantities with which we are to be concerned are the point, the straight line, the plane, the vector, and the
plane-vector.
When
will
" the word " line
is
used by
itself,
" a " straight line
definite length will

* The algebra of
be always intended. portion of a given straight line of " be called a " sect though when the length
;
this
chapter
is
a particular case of the very general and
comprehensive theory developed by Hermann Grassmann, and published by him in 1844 under the title " Die lineale Ausdehnungslehre, ein neuer Zweig der Mathematik." He published also a second treatise on the subject in 1862.
Art.
2.]
explanations and definitions.

is
375
line will fre-
of the sect
a matter of indifference, the
word
quently be used instead. Similarly, a definite area of a given " plane will be called a plane-sect."
a point recede to infinity, it has no longer any significance as regards position, but still indicates a direction, since all lines
If
finite points, and also through this point at are parallel. Similarly, a line wholly at infinity fixes infinity, a plane direction, that is, all planes passing through finite
passing through
points,
and
also
through this line at
infinity, are parallel.
Thus
a point and line at infinity are respectively equivalent to a line direction and a plane direction.
quantity possessing magnitude only will be termed a " scalar " quantity. Such are the ordinary subjects of algebraic
analysis, a, x, sin
0,
logz,
etc.,
and they
may
evidently be
in-
trinsically either positive or negative.
The
letter
will
T prefixed
to a letter denoting
its
some geometric
be used to designate quantity magnitude, always positive. Thus, if sect, then TL is the length of Z, and
portion of a geometric quantity be called its " unit," and will
letter
absolute or numerical
be a
TP is
and Pa. planethe area of P. That

sect,
whose magnitude is unity will be indicated by prefixing the
thus
UL =
.
unit of
= sect
one unit long on
line Z-.*
Hence we have TL
Art.
2.
UL
=s L.
Sum and Difference of Two

we
Points.
In geometric addition and subtraction

,
shall use the or-
=, but with modified significance, as will dinary symbols -{-, in the development of the subject. appear
Every mathematical, or other, theory rests on certain fundamental assumptions, the justification for these assumptions
* The word "scalar" and the use of the
introduced by Hamilton in his Quaternions.
letters T and U, as above, were T stands for tensor, i.e., stretcher,
and
TL
is
the factor that stretches

is
UL
into L.
|
The notation
for absolute
magnitude
not used, because the sign
has been appropriated by Grassmann
to another use.
376
lying in
grassmann's space analysis.

the
its
[Chap. VIII.
harmony and reasonableness
of
the resulting
theory, and
accordance with the ascertained facts of nature.
Our
first
commutative laws hold

tion, that
is,
assumption, then, will be that the associative and for geometric addition and subtrac-
whatever A, B,
)
C may
represent,
we have
+ B + C= (A + + C^zA +(B + C) = A + C+B = (A + C) + B.

We
shall also
assume that we always have A A = o, and that the same quantity may be added to or subtracted from both sides of an equation without affecting the equality.
Now
let/,
,/> 2
be two points, and consider the equation
A +A -A =A + (A -A) = AIn this form
(0
in
we have an
identity.
Write
it,
however,
>
the
form
A -A +A = (A -A) +A = A
appears that/,
it.
(2)
and
it
/,
is
an operator that changes/, into

this
^> 2 by being added to
Conceive
change oi p into/ 2 to
Y x
;
take place along the straight line through p and /> 2 then the operation is that of moving a point through a definite length
or distance in a definite direction, namely, from/, to/> 2 This has been called by Hamilton " a vector," * that is, a operator
.
carrier,
because
it
carries/, rectilinearly to p^.
to
it
the
name
Strecke, and
some
writers
now
Grassmann gives use the word
" stroke " in the
same
x
sense.
Again, p^
is
difference that can exist
the difference of two points, and the only between them is that of position, i.e.
a certain distance in a certain direction.
as
Hence we may regard / -/, as a the operator which moves p over

2
x
directed length, and also

this length in this direc-
tion.
Writing^
/,
e,
equation
(2)
becomes
(3)
A + e=A* See the

first
of Hamilton's
discussion of equation (2) will be found.
Lectures on Quaternions, where a very Also Grassmann (1862), Art. 227.
full
ART.
2.]
SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF TWO POINTS.

of a point
377
Thus the sum

the
first
by the length
of
and a vector is a point distant from the vector and in its direction.
~~'
Since
A A
is
>
~"
(A
A)>
**
of a vector
direction.
If
a vector of the
same length
appears that the negative in the opposite
A A
is
or
A = A> A must
coincide with
because
there
now no
difference
between the two points.
The
A -A
question arises as to what, if any, effect the operator should have on any other point A> that is, what is the
value of the expression
A A+A?
it
We will
assume that
is
some point A> so that we have

(4)
A-A+A=A,
^
A-A=A-Aamount and
This implies that the transference from direction as that from
A to A
1S
the
same
in
to
A>
that
is,
that
A> A> A> A
are the
order.
four corners of a parallelogram taken in Thus equal vectors have the same
length and direction, and, conversely, vectors having the same length and direction are equal.
Note that
parallel vectors of equal length are not neces-
sarily equal, for their directions
may
be opposite.
Equation
(4)
may
also be written
A+A=A+A,
so that, whatever meaning
points,
if
(5)
may be assigned to the sum of two we are to be consistent with assumptions already
of either pair of opposite cornerof a parallelogram equal to the sum of the other pair. points The sum cannot therefore depend on the actual distances
made, we must have the sum
apart of the points forming the pairs, for the ratio of these two distances may be made as large or as small as we please.
If
is
bea scalar quantity, ne will denote that the operation to be performed n times on a point to which ne is added,
is,
that
the point will be
moved n times
the length of e
hence
378

is
[Chap.
VIIL
ne
a vector n times as long as
e,
and having the same or the

n.
opposite direction according to the sign of In the figure above, let
A-A =
.Then
e,
2
e i>
A A=e
/,
A-A =
-p =
%
e 3>
A A=e
+ e = A -A + A -A =A -A +A ~A = A~ A =
by Eq.
if
*.
(5)
since,
4,
A = A T Ae,
Also,
ea
=/,
e4
(6)
two vectors are drawn outwards from a point, and Hence, the parallelogram of which these are two adjacent sides is completed, then the two diagonals of this parallelogram will represent respectively the sum and difference of the two vectors, the sum being that diagonal which passes through the origin of the two vectors, and the difference that which passes through
their extremities.*
Again, hence the
A -p
sum
if
+/,
-p +A
t
-/,
zero.
;/
=o=
e,
+ + (- e
e,
t) ;
of three vectors represented

is
by the
sides of a
triangle taken around in order
Similarly,
p p9f
it
,p n be any
points whatever taken as
corners of a closed polygon,

that
we
shall
have
;
(A- A)+(A- A)+(A- A)+

is,
+(A - A-,)+(A-A)= o
By
is is
the
sum
of vectors represented
is
order about the polygon
zero.
by the sides taken in "taken in order" is not

must be observed
meant that any

in
particular order of the points
forming the polygon, which simply that, when the polygon
evidently unnecessary, but formed, the vectors will be
the operators that will move a point from the starting position along the successive sides back to this position again, so that
the final distance from the starting-point will be nothing.
Art.
3.
Sum of Two Weighted

**,A+ wtA>
15.
Points.!
scalars,
Consider the sum

that
is,
in
which m and m^ are

x
numbers, positive or negative, and

* Grassmann (1844),
f
p p
it
are points.
Grassmann
(1844),
95,
and
(1862), Art. 227.
Art.
3.]
sum of two weighted points.
379
The
scalars
and
will
i
be regarded as values or weights

2
.
assigned to the points
p and/
When any
weight
is
of unit
value the figure I will be omitted, so that p means I/, and is called a unit point. Occasionally, however, a letter may be
used to denote a point whose weight
is
not unity.
consider the weights
To
assist his thinking,
the reader
may
initially as like or unlike parallel forces acting at the points.
we
shall
In order to arrive at a meaning for the above expression make two reasonable assumptions, which will prove to
viz., first,
be consistent with those already made,

a point, and second, that
of the
its
that the
sum
is
weight
is
the
this
sum
of the weights
two given
points.
Denoting
sum-point by/,
we
(7>
write
*i
A+
m (p
l l
.A
Transposing, we have
= m + **t)A / p) = m (p
(
i
a ),
or
,
a -/ _/-a
Both members of
(8) are vectors,
8V
and, being equal, they must r
by Art.
4,
be
parallel.
2
.
This requires that/ shall be collinear
with /, and
Also, since /,
/ and /
are vectors
whose
to
lengths are respectively the distances from/, to p and from/ . / 2 it follows that these distances are in the ratio of m^ to
,
Hence, / is a point on the line /,/ 2 whose distances from/, and / 2 are inversely proportional to the weights of these points.
We shall call If m and m^

x
/ the mean point

but
if
of the
are both positive, (8)

;
two weighted shows that/ must

negative, let
points.
lie
be-
tween /, and/ 3
one, say m^,
is
=m^
(9>
Thus
*i(A
7)
**/(A
/).
and / is on the same side of each point, that is, its direction from each point is the same. Also, since its distances from the
two points are inversely as their weights, / must be the point whose weight is greatest.
nearest,
380
Case when
[Chap. VIII.
-|-
dition equations (7)
m^ = o, or m % = and (8) become

f
m
A)
*
x
With
this
con-
0*iA+*,A = * i(/i
and
/A =//
= o-A
(10)
(")
Thus/
the same direction from each point, that is, not between them, and yet is equidistant from them. This reis
in
which evidently
p iy quires either that the two points shall coincide, that is, p % satisfies (10) and (11); or else, p and/a being
i
Thus different points, that/> shall be at an infinite distance. the sum is in this case a point of zero weight at infinity/)Eq.
(10)
shows that a zero point

Art. 2 that
let
at infinity
is
equivalent to a
1.
vector, or directed quantity, as stated in Art.
It
has been
shown
in
;
coincide
general,
/, us consider the equality of weighted points in Hence, by (7), there is found i p^. p say
*
x
A =A
tne condition that
p and
=m
l
m iPi m
l
~~
;
since
nence since / cannot be zero, m *P% = m ~ m ^)P = o, or m = m and therefore m (p p = o, or, Therefore, any /, =p r mô, p p = 0, that
(
i
>
u)
is,
if
two points are equal,
their weights
is,
positions identical, that
they are the
must be the same and same point.

difference of the
their
Exercise
1.
To
3/,
find
the
:
sum and
two
weighted points
and pt
3A
2
p"
1
+ A = 4A
3 _
~~*j
3A
- A = 2/,
as
and the mean points are

*f
B Pi
shown
in
T
ip
the figure.
The
reciprocals of the
2p>
viz.,
-J,
,
from p 9 distances of p, p v and are in arithmetical progression, hence the points |,

,
p,
form a harmonic range.

Exercise
*Grassmann
I
2.
Given a circular disk with a circular disk of
(1862), Art. 222.
Compare
the case of the resultant
of
unlike parallel forces of equal
magnitude.
'
Art.
4.]
sum of two weighted points.

;
381
half
its
radius removed, as in the figure
to find the centroid
of the remaining portion.
Take/,
then
at
of small circle,
A = |(A
I
:
at center center of large circle, at the point of contact and The areas of the two cir-f- A)-
t$
cles are as
if
call
them
and
4.
Then
it is
as
1
P = [4A - i(A + A)] + 3 = (7A - A) + 6.

Prob.
1.
there were a weight 4 at
A> and a weight
at
hence
Show
that
A> A>
m iP\ + w aA>
anc
^,A
~~
w aA
are
four points forming a harmonic range.
Prob.
disk
;
2.
An
inscribed right-angled triangle
is
cut from a circular

is
show that the centroid of the remainder of the disk

(37T
2 sin
at the
point
2a)
A sin 2a
of the triangle,
$(7t
if
sin 20L)
is
the center of the circle,

its
p % the opposite vertex
and a one of
angles.
Art.
4.
Sum of any Number of
Points.
As
points
in
the last article

is
whose weight
;
equal to the
n
we assume the sum to be a point sum of the weights of the given

n
(
1
thus,
2mp = p2m.
n
2)
Let
be some fixed point, and subtract

;
e2m
1
from both
sides of (12)
thus
we have
e)
2m(p
1
= (/
n
e)2m, 1
(13)
an equation which gives a simple construction for

If
2m = o,
then
m =
1
2m, and
2mp =
m,p,
+ 2mp = m\
A-~
2mp
2m
J>
(i4>
382
[Chap. VIII.
so that the sum becomes the difference of two unit points, or a vector whose direction is parallel to the line joining p with
x
the mean of
length
is
the other points of the system, and whose times the distance between these points. Since
all
designated as p if it follows that the line joining any point of the system to the mean of
any point
of the system
may be
all
the others
is
parallel to
any other such
line.
If
2mp =
i
o,
equation (14) shows that/j is the mean of all the other points of the system, and, since any one of the points may be
taken as
others.
plt any
point of the system
is
the
mean
of all the
Let n
3 in (12)
and
(13);
then
2
+ W *A + m%P% = Oi + ^ + (15) *i(A - ')+ mlP~ + *(P -')=(**i+* +in )(p--e), (16) and/ on the line joining the point m p + m p with/,, and therefore inside the triangle AAA ^ tne ms are a ^ positive.
**iA
f*]}p,
e)
is
If
be negative and numerically
less
than
-\-
then/
have passed across the line p^p 2 to the outside of the triIf m and m^ are negative and their sum numerically angle.
will
x
less
than
%
m
,
s,
then
will
have passed outside the triangle

z
have crossed p^p s and p p v through p e must evidently always be in the plane p p^p v
i.e., it
will
The
point
As
a numerical example
let
m = 3,
x
;/z
= 4, m =
3
5,
so
that (16) becomes
p-e = f (p -e)+ 2(A - e) - |(A s
')>
Now, p p
since e
3
= |(A
in the figure.
may be any point whatever, put e=p then p ) -f- 2(p p ), and the construction is shown p -p = |(p /,), and J p = 2{p% /,).
a
;
As another example take/ = 4/,

(13),
-f"
5A ~ 2A
Â>
or,
by
making
e=p P -A = 4(A -A) + 5(A -A) - 2(A - A) = A - A+A A +/ - A-
Art.
4.]
sum of any number of points.
383
When any number of geometric quantities can be connected with each other by an equation of the form 2m/> = o, in which the m's are finite and different from zero, then they arc said to
be mutually dependent, that is, any one can be expressed in terms of the others. If no such relation can exist between the
/ /
*
quantities, they are independent.
We
obtain from what has
preceded the following conditions:
That two points
shall concide,
**iA
+
be
.A
= 0= o.
o.
(17)
That three points
shall
collinear,
*./.
A+ A+
That four points
f*xPx
It
(18)
shall
be coplanar,
+ **%Px +
+ tn p =
K h
(19)
follows that three non-collinear points cannot be connected by an equation like (18) unless each coefficient is
separately zero. Similarly four non-coplanar points cannot be connected by an equation like (19) unless each coefficient is
separately zero.
The
trated.
significance of these statements will be presently illus-
The
vectors
:
following are corresponding equations of condition for

shall
That two vectors
be
parallel,
9 a
*ii
+*e =
o.
(20)
384
GRASSMANN
SPACE ANALYSIS.
[Chap.
Vim
That three vectors
shall
be parallel to one plane,

n,e,
*ii
+ne =
3 z
o. 2,
(2i>
or
These conditions follow from the results of Art. equations (17) and (18) by regarding the e's as points If in addition to (21) we have
n
t
from
at infinity..
+ +n =
n,
3
.
o,
if
(22) radiating from a point,.
the extremities of the three vectors,

will ex
be collinear
e9 =3
e,
,
for, let e
e3
e%
*,(',
e%
=e
'.)
e%
*.('.
e%
=
'.)
be four points so taken that then (21) becomes ,

;
+
x
+ "Ae* 3
'.)
= O,
or
by
(22)
ex
+ n^ + n = o,
es
which by
It
(18) requires el9 e^, ez to
be
collinear.
may be shown
similarly that
i
=o
(23)
are the conditions that four vectors radiating from a point shall have their extremities coplanar.
Exercise
3.
Given a triangle
eê x e^
and a point p plane; pe cuts e e%

x
x
in
its
pe cuts
e% e9 in
in qot q >pe% cuts

x
Vi
^ft&cutsîn/.,.
,
cuts ^ a <? in /, and q q cuts * *, in p a to show that

x
:
p ,p and/,
x ,
are collinear.
Let/^v.+V.+V,;
^3 coincide respectively with n e -f- ^/2 ,
,
then ^
lies
^,
/,
n
,
and
+ n,e
if
with q
etc.
Hence,
p x oJ x ,yof y
x
because
x
on the
line joining t%
are scalars,
x
A = *<A + *', = yi,n e +

x
x
hence
(*,
-y
^'s
)e
+ [x
+y {n e + - >,*,>, - n,{y +y )e = o.
,*,)
% %
x
,*.)
Now
the
are not collinear,
and yet are connected by a
ART.
4.]
SUM OF ANY NUMBER OF POINTS.
385
of the form of equation (18); hence, as was there shown, each coefficient must be zero accordingly
relation
;
whence we
hence
fa
= *xyj*x = y> + ?x = find x x =n nv = n e n e and similarly (n - Vu (*. .)a = vrVf *)/. = /.

* -ysh
>
:
,)/,
Adding, we have
(*,
,)A
+ (, = 2ne
,
.}?,
+ (. 2
,)A
=o
therefore,
by
(18),
p of p lt /
2
are collinear.
Exercise
4.
Let /
eê x e%
:
-i-
^w
be any point
in
the plane
of the triangle
points of the sides

to e p, e p, and ej>
y
*-/
show that eu e^ and

,
lines
through the middle
e e x of the triangle parallel
meet
in a point
/=
By the
to p'
is
[(,
*,)*.
+ (*. +
.y,
+ (. +
;
,yj
+ 2^.
x
conditions the vector from the middle point of e
e^
a multiple of the vector e
p hence
/ = #', +
or,
%)
'.)
+ *('. ~P) = i(e + O + j(^

Q
-/),
substituting value of/,

a
/ = 4(', + e + x{e - 2ne+2n) = i(e + e )+jie -2ne+2n). hence i)2n 4- n (y [{x x)]e + n (y x)e - Sfi* + n& - *)> = O + [(*
x
therefore, as in the previous exercise, each coefficient

zero,
It
must be
of
and substituting we find p' as above. follows also that the distances of p' from the middle points the sides are the halves of the distances of p from the oppo-J,
whence x
=y =
site vertices.
Prob.
3.
Show
that e
= $2$ is
collinear with
p and p' of Exer-
386
cise 4.
GRASSMANN
SPACE ANALYSIS.
[Chap.
V I1I.
linear with the
Also that, by properly choosing/, it follows that e is colcommon point of the perpendiculars from the vertices
sides,
on the opposite
and the common point
of the perpendiculars
to the sides at their middle points.
Prob.
4.
Given two
and an ellipse, as in the figure, with p% and px Radii of circles 4 and 1, axes of ellipse 2 and 4, small circle and ellipse touching large circle at e 9 and e respectively, e e e 2 an equilateral triangle: show that the cencircles
centers at *
troid of the remainder of the large circle, after the small areas are removed, will be at
= tV(iK ~ A Prob.
5.
2/1 )=-BV(S9^
4*i
3'.).-
If I of a sheet of tin in the
shape
of an isosceles triangle be folded over as in the figure, show that its centroid is given by
3^ = *[35('t
Prob.
6.
+ *,)+
-J
"'Je ne e i e 3
1
If
a tetrahedron
of
its
,
have a
off
tetrahedron of
plane parallel to e a e t e 2
volume cut and one of
by a
of
x
its
,
show
by a plane parallel to e e % e % that the centroid of the remaining solid is at

off
volume cut
/= dn>(227*o +
Art.
5.
175*3
+ 239(^1 +
',) )
Reference Systems.
e
e xt e^
Let p be any unit point,
three fixed unit points,
and w, x,y
scalars
then, writing
p
we must have
also,
= we, + xe + ye
x
(24)
because/
is
a unit point,
(25)
w + x+y-i,
and
for
p
it
is
the
mean
of the weighted points
we
e %i
xext yex
The
x
;
point/ may occupy any

is
position whatever in the plane e Q e e 9
on the
line joining we,
xe with
x
and by varying
y and
w + x,
w
x remaining
constant,
p may
be moved along
Art.
5.]
REFERENCE SYSTEMS.
from
x
387
this line
oo
to
-f- oo
while by varying the ratio
the
oo to along e e lf point we -j- xe may be moved from and thus the first line will be rotated through 1 80 degrees, and / may thus be given any position whatever in the plane.
points to which the positions of other points may be referred is called a reference system, and the For reasons that will aptriangle e e^ 2 is a reference triangle.
of unit
A system
pear
the double area of this triangle will be taken as the unit of measurement of area for a point system in two-dimenlater,
sional space.
Similarly, in solid space, taking a fourth point e a
,
we
write
(26)
p
which
implies also
we,
xe
+ye
ze
w-\-x-\-y-\-z~\\
as
(27)
and p may be shown
above to be capable of occupying any
position whatever in space by properly assigning the values of w, x,y,z\ so that <?,... et form a reference system for points
in three-dimensional space.
The tetrahedron eête
is
called
the reference tetrahedron, and six times its volume will be taken as the unit of volume for a point system in three-dimensional space.
Eliminating
between
(24)
and
(25),
we have
(28)
P=?
from which
it
+ *(', - O +jK<. ~ O,
e
may
also be easily seen that
in the plane e% ex ev
Writing/
p = xe
t
= p,
2
,
-e =
p may
be any point
e,
e l}
e2
<28) becomes
+ ye
we
t
(29)
and
e,, e 2
form a plane reference system for vectors.
Similarly, from (26)
and
(27)
find
,
9
and 6
three.
If, in
= **x +?e + *,
system
(30)
ea
e 3 are a reference
for vectors in solid space,

in
any vector whatever being

equations (29) and
expressible
terms of
these
(30),
the reference vectors are of
388
unit length
[Chap. VIII.
and mutually perpendicular, we have unit, normal reference systems, and in this case z., z 2 z will generally be used
,
instead of
e,,
e9
5.
e,.
Exercise
To change from one

e
,
reference system to an-
other, say from
e lt e^ to e
',
et
'
%
et \
The new
reference points must be connected with the old
ones by equations such as

e
/.'.'
+ J/' + lf{%
ei
.'.'
+ *// + *V'.
t
Then any point/ = x e -{- x e -f- x e will be expressed terms of the new reference points by substituting the values
x x
in
of
etc., as
given.
x ,
If
points, e9 , e
ex
'
e^
may
are given in terms of the old be found by elimination. Thus, if e 2le y

e \ e
x
et
'
'
2me,
e^
=
K
2ne, we have at once
/o
390
[Chap. VIII..
Art.
6.
Nature of Geometric Multiplication*
idea of geometric multiplication is, that a product of two or more factors is that which is determined by those factors.
The fundamental
Thus, two points determine a line passing through them, and also a length, viz., the shortest distance between them
hence /,/,
=L
is
the sectf drawn from

rectilinearly
p to/
x
or generated
by a point moving
from
to p^.
The student should note

p^p^ and/> 2 the sect p^p t
carefully the difference
between
they have the same length and direction, but confined to the line through these two points, while the vector/, p is not. The sect has position in addi-
is
tion to the direction
and length possessed by the vector.
Again, in plane space, two sects determine a point, the intersection of the lines in which they lie, and also an area, as
general In solid space, however, two lines do not, in but two sects, in general, meet, and hence cannot fix a point this case, determine a tetrahedron of which they are opposite
a unit point.
;
will
appear
later, so
that Z,Z, 3 == p, in which
is
not
in
edges.
It
appears, therefore, that
product
in
may have
different
interpretations in spaces
will consider separately
of different dimensions.
Hence we
products, and those in
plane space, or planimetric solid space, or stereometric products.
products
Products of the kind here considered are termed " combinatory," because two or
combine to form a one of them. This is the any fundamental difference between this algebra and the linear
factors
more
new quantity
different from
associative
special case.
algebras of
Peirce,
of
which quaternions are a
the various products that may arise, we will give a table which will serve as a sort of bird's-eye view of the subject.
in detail
* Grassmann (1844), Chap. 2 f See Art. I.
;
Before discussing
(1862),
Chap.
2.
Art.
6.]
NATURE OF GEOMETRIC MULTIPLICATION.
391
In this table and generally throughout the chapter
we
shall
use/,
A>A>
etc., for
points;
?/, Tj lf
e,
e3
etc.,
for vectors; L,
;
x ,
etc., for sects, or lines; etc., for
etc,, for
plane-sects, or planes.
Also/,/,,
lf plane-vectors etc., as used in this
and P,
table will not generally be unit points.
The products are arranged in two columns, so as to bring out the geometric principle of duality.
Planimetric Products.
AA = L.
392
[Chap. VIII.
Laws
of
products are
Combinatory Multiplication. assumed to be subject to the
All
combinatory
distributive law ex-
pressed by the equation
A(B+C)=AB + AC.
The planimetric product of three points or of three lines, and the stereometric product of three points or planes, or of four points or planes, are subject to the associative law. That is,
In Plane Space
:
AAA =AA -A = A AA
AAA = A A A = A A A
L L%L = L,L .L = L L,L

x
In Solid Space
;
ftV. = P.
;
tt = Pf,
ft
AAAA = A AAA =AA -A/*

The commutative law
hold.
PPPPP PPPPP
may
pp
of scalar algebra does not, in general,
Instead of
this, in the products just given as being asso-
ciative, a
law prevails which
be expressed by the equation
AB=
from which
it
- BA,
two
single
follows that the interchange of any
factors of those products changes the sign of the product.*
Since vectors are equivalent to points at law holds for eê^ and rjjjjjf
oo
the associative
Art.
Product of
Art.
6,
7.
Planimetric Products.
Points.f
Two
This has been

its
fully defined in
and
it is
evident from
nature as there given that

(32)
A A = -A AIf
x ,
this
becomes p p
x
o,
which must evidently be
true, since the sect
is
now
of
no length.
(33)
Also,
* Grassmann
A(A -A) =AA -AA = AA(1862),
Chap.
3.
Grassmann
(1862), Arts. 245, 246, 247.
ART.
7.]
PLANIMETRIC PRODUCTS.
2
393
But/
is
a vector, say, e
e
hence
\
A = AA
vector by a point fixes the point.
its
(34)
or the product of a point and a vector rection and magnitude of the vector
;
a sect having the dior, again, multiplying a

is
it
position
by making
pass through
To
find
under what conditions pp'

3
Take any other

and write /
will be equal to /,/ 2 the plane space under consideration, point / xj> % +xj> p' =-y,p y,p, x,p yj> with
.
in
the conditions for unit points
2x = 2y = o.
x x
n
Then
If this
jf 3 jj/ 3
pp'
is
y
l
y,
AA +
xy
x
y* y
PJ*
AAy* y>
to reduce to
x
s a y* x*y unless the coefficient of /,/,
/,/, we must have the third condition = o, which requires that x = y = o,

a %
is
to vanish also.
If,
.
Thus //' must

in
be
x
in
the same straight line with/,/,.

x
moreover,
addition
x y^
to p'
is
AA
is equal 1, x^y /,/2 when, and only when, the four points are collinear, and distant from/ by the same amount and in the same direc-
we
shall
have pp'
Hence pp'
tion that/,
is
from/,.
Art. 6 the product is what In solid space they would is determined by the three points. fix a plane, but, as we are now confined to plane space, this is
Product of Three Points.
By
not the case.
points evidently fix either a triangle or a will be parallelogram of twice its area, and the product taken as the area of this, or an equivalent, parallelogram.
The
AAA
This area
it
is
is
taken rather than that of the triangle, because

it
what
is
generated by/,/, as
till it
is
3
.
moved
parallel to its
initial
position
passes through
x
We have pjtj> ./ / -/, .p p, = -AAA. so that we go around the triangle in the opposite sense the sign is changed. As this product possesses only the properties of magt a 3 3
=p
if
nitude and sign
it is
scalar.
Write /
2xp, p'
^yp p"
y
*2zp
then
394
[Chap. VIIL
x x x
\ x
PP'P"
y, y*P,P.P*\
(35)
Art.
7.]
PLANIMETRIC PRODUCTS.
395
determined by
and Z 2
//,/,.
is
then the same that
we have
given as the value of
We
is
write therefore
4A = AA -AA = AAA
The
third
A-
(38)
member
of (38)
not to be regarded as derived
from the second by ordinary transposition and reassociation of the points, for the associative law does not hold for the four
points taken together, since //,/ -A simply results from the definition of L
as a
=
X
Tne
It
tnird
member
be taken
L^
may
model form which

to
will
be found to apply to several other
cases, for instance
(38)
when
points and lines are intert
changed throughout. Thus, if/, = L L and /, = Z Z we have (39) AA = L L Z Z = L L L Z For take //and //so that/,// = Z, and/ //= L p p is
2
. l
evidently
some multiple
of
say
nL
hence
AA = *. = ^( A A -A A') (AA
=-
AA')
by
(38),
= ÂA'-A)-(AAA'-A)>
2
-AAA'- AAA' -AA> because /,/,// and
AAA' are
scalar,
~-
(AA AA' -AAO

2
.
4,,
by
(38),
= Z Z,Z Z
cated, but
Product of Three Sects.
The method has

:
just
been indi-
we may
,
Z,,
Z
,
and
l
let
Let the lines be proceed thus be their common points. Take /,/,,/-,
also
scalars n Q
n% so that
,*>*, ./,/,
=
}
n9 p
etc.,
then
Z Z,Z =
2
AA AA =
.p ip
n * n Jh
A A A A -AA
2
-
= - n n^ .p,p p
uct of this kind, the
= ^^(AAA)
(40)
" " " * Grassmann to a prodregressiv applies the terms "eingevvandt and first term being used in the Ausdehnungslehre of 1844,
in that of 1862.
and the second
See Chapter 3 of the
first,
and Chapter
3^
Art. 94, of the second.
396
[Chap. VIII.
Product of a Point and

let Z,
Two
then
Sects.
Let/ be any point and

(40
and
be as
in (38)
pL,L
It
= p.p p, -Pop, = A AAA A = AAA ./ApL

.
has been here assumed that
uct
is
not associative, for

x ,
pL L Z is
x
p L
.
L^.
The prod2
the line
times the
a different meaning from that assigned in (41). As a rule, to avoid ambiguity, the grouping of such products will
scalar pL
be indicated by dots. Product of
Two
Parallel Sects.
Let them
beê and
.
np 3 e;
then, as in (38),
A*
that
is,
np % e
= n .p e .p e =
x
n.ep
ep t
n
00
ep
e,
(42)
a scalar times the
common
point, and
point at
Addition and Subtraction of Sects.

sects,
Let Z, and
be two
that
A = AA A = PoP, then A + A =AA +AA = A(A +A) = zp p,

;
their
common
and
so taken
(43)
being the mean of/,
and/
2;
hence the sum
is
that diagonal
of the parallelogram which passes through
Also
(44)
A-A=A(A-A),
by
Z, and Z 2 If the two sects are parallel let
.
so that the difference of the two passes also through p and is parallel to the other diagonal of the parallelogram determined
them be n p
x
and # 2/ 2 e;
(45)
then
*iAe
+ n,P^ =
is
(Mi
+ M.) = (, +
,)/
so that the sum
a sect parallel to each of them, having a length equal to the sum of their lengths, and at distances from
inversely proportional to their lengths.
them
If
n the two sects are oppositely directed and of equal length, and the sum is w2
x
(A ->.e)
Avhich, being the product of
,(A
-A).
is
(46)
two
vectors,
a scalar area.
Art/7.]
planimetric products.
j
397
,
Consider next n sects p e ,p 3 e 2 arbitrarily chosen point; then

1
pn en and
let e
be some
= e 2e + !(/ - *,)e. (47) |/e The second term of the third member of this equation, being a sum of double vector products, that is, a sum of areas, is itself
i/ =
e.Se
- e 2e +
equal to the product of any two non-parallel vectors of suitable lengths. Therefore, a and /3 being such vecis
an area, and
tors, write
2e
= a/3. 2pe = e a + aft = (e a and 2(p

e )e
Hence
fl)
(47)
become
(48)
Let q be some point on the

%
line
2pe
then
q2pe =0 = qe a + qa/3 = qe a + a/3, by (37) hence qe a = a/3 = /3a.

Q
The
figure presents the geometrical
mean-
ing of the equation, and hence it appears that qa{ 2pe) is at a perpendicular distance from
e
of
afl
Ta
_ ~
2{p
e )e
'
T2e
(49)
It is easily seen that a sect possesses the
exact geometrical
properties of a force, namely, magnitude, direction,
and position, and the discussion of the summation of sects which has just
been given corresponds completely to the discussion of the
sultant of a system of forces in a plane.
re-
In this algebra, then,
the resultant of any system of forces is simply their sum, and this will be found hereafter to be equally true in three-dimensional space.
The
expression
e )e of
in (46)
corresponds to a couple,
this equation proves
is
,
as does also the
2(p
(47);
and
the proposition that any system of forces in a plane
equiva-
lent to a single force acting at an arbitrary point, e
and a
couple.
Equation (49) gives the distance of the resultant from
this arbitrary point.
Exercise
7.
To
find x, y, z
from the scalar equations
398
[Chap. VIII.
Multiply the equations by add hence

;
pvi p%%
3
and
respectively,
and
xâp
i
-f-
y~2bp
i
+ z~2cp = 2dp.
:
ii3
. .
Now
2ap, ^bp
etc., are points
multiply the equation just
written by
2ap.2bp; thus
z2ap ^bp^cp
.
2ap 2bp 2dp,
because
z
2ap 2ap
.
= o,
etc.;
therefore
= 2ap.2bp.2dp+2ap. 2bpcp = [>,,
<K|>
<rj,
x and y
points.
a very simple proof of the determinant solution. Of course will be found by multiplying by the other pairs of
e2
f
Exercise
8.
Forces are represented

of the sides of a par-
by given multiples
;
allelogram Let the parallelogram be double the triangle e e ev and the forces
tt
determine their resultant.
k,e n e,
+ke
x
(e%
+
=
k,e,(e
e)
(k Q
ex x )e
+ k = 2pe + (k + k + (k + k )e e
a
e2 e
)e e t
x
t 9.
Multiply by e then
e x to find
where the resultant cuts
this line
or */, cuts the resultant at the point

[X^
+
x
A,),,
_(*,
+ *,>,]
t
-5-
(6,-i,).
triangle at [(,
at
9 x
+ kfc - {k + k )e (, + - k k and - {k + *,>,] - (k - k [(k + k )e then each of the three points Suppose k = k = ^ =
x]
Similarly the resultant cuts the other sides of the reference

-43
x
a ).
,;
;
just found recedes to
infinity
but
in this
**)>
case
2pe reduces
s y stem
to
is
2^(y,'+^+ V.)equivalent to a couple.
2 &fa'*X'*
and the
= 2, k.~ 3, & = 4; when ^ = 3,^ = ^=2,^=

k
1
Prob. ii. Construct the resultant of Exercise 8 2, k 2 1, k 3, k a a
when k
i,
and when k
= k^ =
1,
ka
4;
when
2.
ART.
8.]
THE COMPLEMENT.
.
.
399
Prob. 12. There are given n points /, .p n to find a point e such that forces represented by the sects ep ep^ etc., shall be in
\ x ,
equilibrium.
(The
equation of equilibrium
is
2ep = e2zp =
ep
o.
e coincides with the mean point of the/'s.) Prob. 13. If a harmonic range *,,/, e^ p' be given, together with some point e not collinear with these points, show that
Hence
<V,
(Let p
Art. 3.)
=me
x
-f-
mê^
<V/ = - *o P*% '.Am e as and p' = w/,

% %
,
in
Exercise
2 of
Prob. 14.
Show
that the relation of Prob. 13 holds for any four

e e tf
points whatever taken respectively on the four lines e e lt e p, If the four points are all at the same distance from e Q Q p'.
,
show
that the areas e e p, etc.,

x
become proportional
to the sines of the
angles between
e ex
and
p, etc.
Art.
8.
The Complement*
Taking point reference systems, or unit normal vector reference systems, as in Art. 5, the product of the reference units taken in order being in any case unity, the complement of any
reference unit
is
the product of
all
the others so taken that
the unit times
its
complement
is
unity.
To
find the
complements
of quantities other than reference

:
units the following properties are assumed (a) The complement of a product is equal to the product of the complements of its factors.
(b)
The complement
of a
sum
is
equal to the
is
sum
of the
complements of the terms added together. (c) The complement of a scalar quantity
the scalar
itself.
Considering now the point system in plane space ew e lt e% with the constant condition e eA e^= 1, the sides of the refer-
ence triangle taken in order are the complements of the opposite vertices, and vice versa.
The complement
line, as
\p,
of a quantity
is
indicated
by a
vertical
read,
complement
of p.
* See Ausdehnungslehre of 1862, Art. 89.
400

lA
[Chap. VIII*
Thus
= '/t k = <Vo>
k.= v,i
li
kA=l(W=s î k.^=kk) =
'i*
ko^
= l(k =
a)
^;
For
I
^ |^
= W, =
I
which agrees with the definition
'A = k
e%
?%'%
V, =
V
=
o
Vi = - VA
(
eo
*o>
by
(a)
and
I
W=
(38)
ko
ki
(*:)
;
k = *A
eQ [e t
'A Vi = V/J' =
= VA
which
agrees with
e e2 e
e \ea
= eê^
have, by
(b),
Next take any point/,
^7^, and
we
\A=2t\?=W>+W.+^=W,(l
Thus
j")g
J)
= A-
(50)
the complement of a point is a line,* which may be easily constructed by the fourth member of (50), which expresses this line as the product of the points in which it cuts
the sides
this
e e1
and
e e^
of the reference triangle.

4, it
Comparing
\/> 1
equation with Ex. 3 in Art.
appears that
above
is
related to the point
e
-.
as the line/
of Ex. 3
is
to the point
2ne.
Hence
\p
1
may
e
>
be found by constructing this line corin
responding to
as
shown
the figure of Ex.
3,
Art. 4.
Again, the line \p may be shown to be the anti-polar of p with respect to an ellipse of such dimensions, and so placed upon e e e 9 that, with reference to it, each side of the reference
x
x
triangle
it
the anti-polar of the opposite vertex.* From this appears that complementary relations are polar reciprocal
is
relations.
Take any
point
p = 2me, and we have

2
= 2/m =
*See Hyde's Directional
2me.2l\e=zpt \pit
Calculus, Arts. 41-43 and 121-123.
(51)
Art.
8.]
THE COMPLEMENT.
is
401
so that this product

sign,
commutative about the complement
true of all such products when the on each side of the complement sign are of the same quantities
and
scalar.
This
is
order in the reference units.
Take
for instance
is
the product
AAlAAhave/,/),
This
is scalar
is
because \p ap A
a point, so that the

;
whole quantity
equivalent to a triple-point product

I
and we
|aa
= IAA AA = AA lAA)
(
|
==
AA AA> by (a) and

i
such a quantity be taken as/^, \p 9 it is neither (c). If, however, scalar nor commutative about the sign for, \p % being a line, the product is that of two lines, that is, a point, and
.
;
AA A = - A AA = .
I
(A
AA).
(52)
Such products as we have just been considering are called Grassmann " inner products," * and he regards the sign by as a multiplication sign for this sort of product. Inasmuch, as these products do not differ in nature from those however, heretofore considered, it appears to the author to conduce to
|
simplicity not to introduce a nomenclature which implies a new For instance, p\q will be treated as. species of multiplication.
the combinatory product of / into the complement of not as a different kind of product of p into q.
q,
and
The term co-product may be
applied to such expressions,,
regarded as an abbreviation merely, after the analogy of cosine for complement of the sine.
Consider next a unit normal vector system, tion we have
By the
defini-
k==
..
1*.=
i
J
1(10= -*i*
because
\i 1
z,t 3
I,
Also,
2,
z
1
Mi==
i
z3
z
l
i-
Next
iet
t
i l
+ mî,
and
e2
i
1
-f n t i 2
* Grassmann (1862), Chapter
4.
402
then,
[Chap. VIII.
by
(b)
and
I
(c),
ex
=m
it is
ix
+ m, = m - m
z
|
t,
ttx.
(53)
By
the figure
x
evident that
|
e, is
a vector of the
same
length as e
and perpendicular to
.
it,
or, in
other words, taking

it
the complement of a vector in plane space rotates
positively
through 90
The
of
e
1
co-product
sides are
,
e,
e2
is
I
whose
is
e,
and
the area of the parallelogram, two e 2 drawn outwards from a point if

;
parallel to |ea
this area vanishes, or e |e 9

x ,
= o;
but, since
|e2 is
to e 2
perpendicular to e 3 hence the equation
e,
must
in this case
be perpendicular
(54)
e1
is
\e,
=
e,
the condition that two vectors
and
e 2 shall
be perpendicu-
lar to
each other.
e,
|
The co-product
called
e,
which
,
will usually
be written
e,-,
and
the co-square of e, is the area of a square each of whose sides has the length Te hence
x ;
r6l
x
=^K=7^
x
(55)
e
x
z,
Let a and a a be the angles between i and and e 2 respectively, as in the figure. Then
e
x
and between
e,
= mn x
m.i n
Te 7e2
x
sin
(or,
-a
x ),
(56)
the third
member
being the ordinary expression for the area of

.
the parallelogram e,e 2

6,
|.6,
x
Also
i
%
= {m + m i^(n - n = m n + mjt = Te
ix %
x
x)
7e2 cos
(a,
x ),
(57)
the last
sin (90
member being found as a) cos ( a ). -f or,

x a
before,
remembering that
^ ^
(57)
we
let e2
e,,
whence n
tnx
and nt
=m
we
have
Te
If
2
7^ =
ar 2
,
7e
1,
= sin
= V5 = *; + <. then w, = cos a tn = sin a

x ,
(58)
x
,n
= cos ^
2,
and equations
(56)
and
x
nometrical formulas sinfo
- a) =
(57) give the ordinary trigosin a2 cos ax cos a, sin ^,
Art.
8.]
THE COMPLEMENT.
{a,
<x t
403
sin
.
and cos
== cos
cos
or,
+ sin a
2 )'
or,
Squaring and
2
.
adding (56) and (57), there results
Te
Attention
is
.T*e
e;ie*
= (e,e + fe
e2 )
(59)
which the student may have = AC, in which already noticed, that such an equation as AB AB and AC are combinatory products, does not, in general,
called to the fact,
imply that B = C, for the reason that the equation can usually be satisfied without either factor being itself zero. Thus pL = pL 2 means simply that the two quantities which
x
A(BC)0
are equated have the
to have an infinity
same magnitude and sign, which permits of lengths and positions, when p and L
x x
are given.
The equation p
p,
=p
% ,
or
A (A
~~
A)
/, being unit points, implies, however, at 00 that is, a vector.

,
that/ 2
=A
un ^ ess
A A
anc*
ls
Exercise
9.
triangle
its
whose
sides are of constant length
moves
Let
so that two of
vertices remain
on two fixed
lines
find the locus of the other vertex.

e e
x
and
e Q e,
be the two fixed
lines,
Let pe be pertriangle. e = xe and pendicular to p'p", p' - = ye, - xe - e9 je2 then /' /"
and pp'p" the
7( je 2
ditions.
constant, by the con.are, ) constant = Also, Tp'e
=c=
say,
e
and Tep
constant
U{e
e
= nc,
mc
9
say.
Hence
~~~
-p'
Tp'e
- p') =
VG
.
Xe
^^
xe
x
__
m{ye,
#,),
and
similarly
= n\(ye
l
).
Therefore
x
p-e = p = xe + m(ye, - xe + n
)
(ye,
an equation which, with the condition T( ye,
- xe xe =
x
),
c,
or
e2 -
2xye
e2
+x
e x
= c\
determines the locus to be a second-degree curve, which must in fact be an ellipse, since it can have no points at infinity.
Let us rearrange the equation
in
p thus
i
p = #[(1
m)e
n\
ej
+y[me
+ n\ ej = xe + ye\ say,
404
so that e
GRASSMANN
SPACE ANALYSIS.
e'
[Chap. VIII.
(i
m)e
n e and
\
me
+n
ea
then multiye'e and the equa-
ply successively into

pe'
and
e'\
therefore
pe
=
in
xee\
Substituting these values of
x and y
tion of condition,
2
we have
|
el (pe)
.
+ 2e,
,.
pe pe'
.
+ e^pej = c\ee')\
a scalar equation of the second degree in p.
Exercise
sides
:
10.
There
if
show that
given an irregular polygon of n forces act at the middle points of these

is
sides, proportional to
them
in
ward or
Let
else all inward, these forces will

e
magnitude, and directed all outbe in equilibrium.

, . . .
2e n be a vertex of the polygon, and let 2 v 2e 2 Then the midrepresent its sides in magnitude and direction. dle points will be e -{-e lf en -\-2ex ~\- e 2 etc., and, using the
,
complement
in
a vector system,
I
I
we have
e2 +(ô+2e
1
2/e
= OvK) *+('+*<+*)
+2e +e )
2
3
.
.
e9
+
2e+2 + 2
n
I
l
(*o
+ 2e +
x
+ 2e_
+ + OK
. . . ..
2e +
2e,
2e
+ ... + 2e _
n
\en
\ 2
2;e-f-
12 ej=
o,
Exercise
II.
A line
two
passes through a fixed point and cuts fixed lines at the points of inter;
section perpendiculars to the fixed lines
are erected
find the locus of the inter-
section of these perpendiculars.
Let the fixed
lines
be
e e
;
and
e Q e2
and the fixed point

at
e -f- e 3
the moving
line cuts the fixed lines
in p'
and p n
'.
points perpendiculars erected meeting in/.
which
are
Let/
then p
= p,p'
:=
J
= xe ,p"e = ye
1
Te,
= 7e
=i;:
xe
-{-x'\e
ê 2 -f-j/
e2
whence p\e,= x and p\e
y..
Art.
9.]
equations of condition, and formulas.

e Q -\~ e % , p' ,
405
Also, since
(. -
e *)(y e *
p"
)
are collinear points,
= *y*fy+y*A
jj/,
.
+ *w"
or, substituting values of

.
^ and
p| e 2 e 3 e 3 P|< ; p|et 6,6, an equation of the second degree in
+ p|
p,
e,
e 3 e, ss O,
and hence representing
a conic.
Prob. 15. If a,
the formula a*
2
1
=b +c
%
1
b, c
are the lengths of the sides of a triangle, prove 1 2bc cos A, by taking vectors e,, e 9 and
,
equal to the respective sides. Prob. 16. If e e and e e* are two unit lines, show that the vec# e i)(^ tor perpendicular from e on the line (e ^*) is
abe.e*
:
.
...
(be*
(be^
ae
ae.), of
which the length
.. ...
abee
7=
r-.
is
)-
T(be*
ae
From
origin
this derive the Cartesian expression for the perpendicular upon a straight line in oblique coordinates,
00
2
from the
ab sin
-f-
(a
b'
2<zb.
cos 00)^, go being angle between the axes.
me *,, me -+- ne*, me* -f- ne , be 17. taken on the sides of the reference triangle, then the sides of the ne^), etc., will be respectively paralcomplementary triangle, (me lel to the corresponding sides of the triangle formed by the assumed
Prob.
If three points,
x
|
points (me,
* 9 )>
me *
+ ne
o)>
etc
Art.
9.
Equations of Condition, and Formulas.
Several equations of condition are placed here together for convenient reference some have been already given others follow from the results of Arts. 7 and 8. When we have
:
;
AA = o iA + n *P* =
44 =
or
;
o,
>
+
3
n 2 L,
= o,
o,
o,
J
(60)
the two points coincide
the two lines coincide;
AAA = o1
or
444 =
or
;
2np
= o,
2nL =
1
(61)
the three points are collinear

e.e,
the three lines are confluent.
= O,
or
n e
l
n,e,
= O,
(62)
the two vectors are parallel (points

*i
at infinity coincide);
[.
(63)
406

;
[Chap. VIII,
the two vectors are perpendicular
Z,|Z,
either point lies on the com-
= o,
(64)
either line passes through the
plementary
line of the other.
complementary point of the

other.
If
we
write the equation
*\ e i
ei
+ x ev
*
e1 1
is
the projection of p on
parallel to e 2
.
and
;r2 e a
is
the
projection of
p on
;
e 2 parallel to e a
Multiply both sides of the
equation into e 2
therefore pe 2
ex e
or
x
x
pe a -~
e,e 2 .
Similarly, multiplying into e
we have
pe,
e e lt or 2 2
= pe,
-5-
e 2 e,,
whence
e,
.pe 2
e 2 .pe,
The two terms

the projections of
respectively.*
of the second
member
,
of (65) are therefore

e 2 parallel to e,,
pon
e,
parallel to e a
and on
Let
e,
and
e2
be unit normal vectors, say,

i.p\i
\i.
and
\i\
then (65)
(66)
becomes
p
or,
if
i
x
pi= i.p\i+ip.\i;
1
and
be used instead of
and
|
z,
P= VPK +
Again,
therefore
e,e 2
.
-Plv
(67)
in (65) let
p=
e3
clear of fractions,
and transpose
e3
e2 e 3
e,
+e
e,
e2
= o,
(68)
a symmetrical relation space.
Let 7e,
between any three directions in plane 7e 2 = 7e = 1, and multiply (68) into |e

3
3,
thus
e^ +
is
e2 e 3
e,
e,
+e
cos
e,
e2 e 3
1
= o,
a
sin
/?,
(69)
which
equivalent to
sin (a
/3)
sin
/3
cos
the upper or lower sign corresponding to the case

* Grassmann (1844), Chapter 46 and 47.
5
when
e\,
is
(1862), Art. 129.
Hyde's Directional Calcu-
lus, Arts.
Art.
9.]
EQUATIONS OF CONDITION, AND FORMULAS.

e1
407
in (69)
i
between
and
,
e2
or outside, respectively.
Writing
ea
instead of e 2
we have
eje 2
e 2 |e 3 .e 3 |e 1
+ee
3
.e 2 e 3
= 0,
(70)
These formulas being for any which gives the cos (a /?). three directions in plane space, are independent of the magnitude of the angles involved.
There
is
given below a set of formulas for points and lines,
complementary pairs, and all placed together for arranged convenient reference, the derivation of them following after.
in
/=(AAA)" [A -/A A + A -/A A + A -/AAL Z=( AAA)-'[4 LL L + L LL,L + A ZZ.ZJ /^(AAArClAA-AA + IAA-/IA + AA-A /IAU
1
(70
z^ZAATUAA-îA+IAA.ÎA+IAz; AA- A A = - A AAA + A -AAA = A A A A A AAA. 44 44 = - A 444 + 4 444

. . .
(72)
(73)
J
4-
AAA- L
.L Lt Lt
t
1
AA-
|*3=
A 4 if, A 4W Jf; AW,
^ AW
_
?i
'
AW Al AW Al
I
A ft
a I?.
Al?.
not given, but
^'s.
r,
',
The complementary formula

Derivation of Equations (71)
to (77)
is
may
be obtained by putting Z's and M's for /'s and

(77).
Equation
this
(71).
Write
p=xp
then
-\-
xp
1
-\-x% pv and multiply

or
2
equation by
pp
l
AA/ = *oAAA>
pp
-^
= /A A ^ AAAfind
-5-
Multiplying similarly by
*,
= /AA
-*-/.AA and
= /AA
and by p p v we
A A A-
The
substitu-
408
GRASSMANN
SPACE ANALYSIS.
first
[Chap. VIII.
is
tion of these values gives the

similarly obtained or p's in the first.
of (71),
and the second
may
be found by simply putting Z's or
Equation
values of
(72).
;
Write/
,
multiply into \p o
x
thus/|/ x and x% and substitute.

(73).
x
= x \p p + x p,p + x = %*P*P\Pv Find in the

x
p p and
o iy
same way
Equation
Write p p .p p
2 s
-~
x
xp
by PA* therefore pp% .p,p^.p*p, = Xpp% p or, by Eq. (38), = *PP*Pi = *P%PP or * PiPtPv MultiplyA/A we find _y =AAA> anc * on substituting obtain the ing by pp For the second put p 'p % p p A = *p s -\-ypv and first of (73).
+ ypv and multiply
AAA
x
>
=~
9
proceed
in a similar
way.
first
Equation
(74).
(75).
In the
of (73) put
p pK
%
= \q
Equation
Equation
In the fourth of (73) put

kit
AA =A A =
(76).
;
A=
|ft
Multiply (75) by/,. Equation (77). In the first of (72) put byAAA-ftft then
for/, and multiply
AAA
ftftft
= ftft AA
I
ft
IA+ ftft lAA

Alft
A'ftl
ft
|A+ ftft |AA

Alft
ft
lA
=A
by
Alft
ft-
Alft
Alft
Alft
is
+Alft-
Alft
A'ftl
+ Alft-
Alft Afft
A'ft
(76),
which
equivalent to the third order determinant of
equation (77)* Exercise 12.

2
To show
the product of two determinants as
a determinant of the same order.
Let p
then
= 2le, p = 2me, p = 2ne,q = 2\e, q=2fxe, q,=2re;

x
pp
p,
[/
x1
J, ?
()
*** etc. Sub'1*1 ft *!*, these values in (77), we have the required result. stituting solution may also be obtained directly without the use of (77).
[ft
/o A o
+ l*K> A
^==
2
[A
//
vj
also
w o*
+
2
Let the
q's
be as above, but write p
2lq,p
= 2mq,p =
2
2nq.
Then
p p p,=2fq.2mq.27tq=[/
o
x
,]?.?,?,=[/
J[A
ju
fj.
* Grassmann (1862), Art. 173.
ART.
9.]
EQUATIONS OF CONDITION, AND FORMULAS.
409
Also /,
= l^\e + l 2fie + l^ve

t
with similar values (or p
AAA
g lvQ tne resu lt.

in
product form.*
which on being substituted in Equation (77), however, exhibits the a very compact, symmetrical, and easily remembered
t
and/
Exercise
x
13.
Show
that the sides
AA
AA> P%P%
,
tne
tr *-
angle p p^p % cut the corresponding sides \p 3 \p plementary triangle in three collinear points.
x ,
\p 2 of the
com-
The
three points of intersection are, using (74),
AA-lA=-A-AlA+A-AlA.AA-lA = -A-AlA+A.AiA. AA -!A = A-AlA+A-AlA> of which the sum is zero,

showing that the points are
the same
confluent.
collinear.
It
may
be shown
in
way
that the lines joining corresponding vertices are
Exercise 14. If the sides of a triangle pass through three fixed points, and two of the vertices slide on fixed lines, find the locus of /\
the other vertex.
iy
Let the fixed points and lines be p p L iy L and /, /, /" the

s ,
%
2
"
,/ " p/
\ * \
\
7>^r >'p\
_.-""/
M
\
vertices of
the triangle, as
in
the
o; p' figure. p'p zp" cides with pp^.L^ and p" with pp^. Z 2 hence substituting o, the equation of the locus, which, being {pp L^)p z (L^. p 2 p)
;
.
Then
coin-
of the second degree in/,

Prob. 18.
is
that of a conic.
Show
(73).
that
if
are collinear, then the locus of
the three fixed points of the last exercise p breaks up into two straight lines.
Use equation
Prob. 19. If the vertices of a triangle slide on three fixed lines, and two of the sides pass through fixed points, find the envelope of
the other side.
(This statement
is,
is
reciprocally related to that of
Exercise 14, that

* These methods
lines
and points are replaced by points and
may
be applied to determinants of any order by using a
space of corresponding order.
410
lines respectively,
[Chap.
VIIK
and the resulting equation will be an equation of the second order in Z, a variable line.) Prob. 20. Show that if the three fixed lines of Problem 19 are confluent, then the envelope of L reduces to two points and the line joining them.
Art.
10.
Stereometric Products.
in solid
The product
plane space.
plane, and
of
two points
7.
space
is
the same as in
See Art.
Product of Three Points.

also, as in
Any
;
Art.
7,
an area
hence
three points determine a is a plane-sect
AAA
or a portion of the plane fixed by the three points whose area is double that of the triangle AAAIt may be shown, in
the manner used

in this plane,
in
Art. 7 for the sect, that no plane-sect, not
can be equal to AAA* and that any plane-sect in this plane having the same area and sign will be equal to AAA**' is not now scalar. Of course
AAA
of
Product
Four
Points.
5 x
Any
2^
*
y ^p\ x _\/ \
\
four non-coplanar points determine a tetrahedron, say J

'
7s^
4
\ ume S* \/
x
AAAA- anc
of
f
s*
x times the
value of
volis
this
r
tetrahedron
ta ^ en
the
the
product, because this is the volume of the parallelepiped

i.e.
generated by the product
AAA
the parallelogram A>A
when
Pi
it
moves
e,
A=
If/,
A A= A A= AAAA = AAA*" = AA*V = A<*V'. c2^, A = <27* A = 2me,p = 2ne, then m AAAA = 2&e2le2me2ne = [k v/A
333 000
it
parallel to its initial position " e then e',
from/, to p v
Let
(78)
ot
/,,
,]
(79)
any two quadruple products of points differ from each other only by a scalar factor, that is, they differ only in magnitude, or sign, or both; hence such products = o, the volume of the If are themselves scalar.f
from which
appears that
AAAA
f
tetrahedron vanishes, so that the four points are coplanar.

Grassmann
(1862), Art. 263.
ART.
10.]
STEREOMETRIC PRODUCTS.
411
Product of
area as in Art.
Two
7,
Vectors.
The two
vectors determine an
tion, so that the
but they also determine now a plane direcproduct eê., is a plane-vector, and is not scalar
Also,
as in plane space.
differs
from pe
direction, that
is,
namely, toward a certain
e^ differs from p e^ has a definite

x
<G
now
just as e
area and plane
line at infinity, while
e^ is
fixed in position
by passing through/,.
Equation
(37) there-
fore does not hold in solid space.
Product of Three Vectors.
Three vectors determine a
parallelepiped as in the figure above, and ee' e" is therefore the volume of this parallelepiped. Any other triple vector
let e l
product can differ from this only in magnitude and sign. e i be such a product, and write l
.
=x e +^ e +xe =
1 1
2xe,
33
e
f
For
= 2 ye,
*,
e"
= 2ze
then
412
[Chap. VIII.
Product of a Sect and a Plane-Sect.

P, and
let
Let them be
and
be their
common
and
point; take A,
A* A
so tnat
Z=AA
point
an<^
PPaPtPr L
is
evidently determine the
A' an d
also the parallelepiped of
which one edge
is
L
of
P, so that the product should be Hence we write these two factors.
and one face
made up
LP = AA AAA = PP J J*
PL =P.PJ,
If
A*>
-Pop!
= AAAA
is
-A
LP.
]
it
< 8 3>
is
parallel to P,
at infinity, and, replacing
by
e,
{83)
becomes
PL =
Two
LP=
eA
eAA
= eA AA
'
'
Product of
let
x
Plane-Sects.
Let them be
and
^
and
faces,
P =
and and
be their intersection, while and are such points that Lp and P, Lp2 then P and P9 determine the line L
x
also a parallelepiped of
which they are two adjacent
Pf^Lp^.Lp^Lp^.L^-Pf,
If P,
(85)
and
are parallel,
t]
;
to a plane-vector, say to
at infinity, and is equivalent hence, substituting in (84),

is
'/
PA = >ZA
;
,
?A = ?AA
= By
ând
(83) this
(86)
Product of Three Plane-Sects.
(85)
must
be the square of a volume times the common point of the three planes or, if p A> be taken in such manner that
A = AAA, ^ =AAA. ^3 = AAA P,/^, = 023 031 012 = 023 0123

2
.
A A
then
.
01
= (AAAA) -A
3
(87)
the suffixes being used instead of the corresponding points. If be at infinity, the three planes are parallel to a single line,
and may be written

above.
ep.1
etc.,
and then treated
as
Product of Four Plane-Sects.*
Let the planes be
and
etc,
let
-A
be the four
n
. .
three by three.
;
n%
common may be so
*
points of the planes taken taken that #
P = AAA>
then
PPPP =
l
nji x n % n %
9
123. 230. 301 .012

(88)
= *.,* ,(AAAA)'
ART.
10.]
413
?; 2
Product of
Two
Plane-Vectors.
;
Let
tf l
and
be two plane-
vectors or lines at infinity and e, and e2 so taken that
let
17,
= ViV*
because
7,
ee
6e 2
= =
be parallel to each of them,, ee lf ?; 3 = ee 2 then

,
,,. 6 as
^ffc,
e,
(89)
and
of
7/ a
determine a
common
direction
and a
paral-
lelepiped
e,
which three conterminous edges are equal to
e 2 , respectively.
Product of Three Plane-Vectors.

rf^VtVt
Take
e lt e 2
2 3)
1
e 3 so that
=*
. .
.
e 2 e3
636,
,,
= w(e e e
2
(90)
The
77,
.
e 3 are common to the plane-vectors e, taken two by two. ?/, Several conditions are given here together which follow
directions
from the results of
this article.
AA = o,
Two
points coincide.
o,
P,P,
= o,
AAA =
Three points
collinear.
AAAA = AA-AA = L,L = o,

2
Four points coplanar

lines intersect.
e,e 2
two
o,
Vectors
parallel.
6^6, = o, Three vectors

one plane.
parallel to
Sum
of
Two
Planes.
line,
sect in their
common
P, = Lp,\
and take p and/, so that

l
P = Lp
l
lf
then
/>+/>= Z(A
p
being the
+ A) = *M
Also
(96)
mean
of
and p 9
P,-P, =
L(
A -J>,);
(97)
whence the sum and difference are the diagonal plane through Z, and a plane through L parallel to the diagonal plane which
is
itself parallel
to L, of the parallelepiped determined
by
414
[Chap. VIII.
and
If
TP = TP P
l
9i
P, will evidently be the two
bisecting planes of the angle between them. planes may also be written
The
bisecting
-^YpIf
or
P,TP,P,TPV
let
tf
(98)
the two
planes are parallel,

is,
be a plane-vector
line at infinity,
parallel to each of them, that
their
common
and
let/,
may
write
If
P = n^ptf, P ~ n pjj, whence P* + P* = KA + A)* = (a + n S~Pv= o, this becomes -f- n^

1
and / 2 be points
2
in
2
the respective planes; then
we
(99)
^,
+ ^, =
(/>,
-/,)?>
(100)
the product of a vector into a plane-vector and therefore a

scalar,
by
(80).
Two plane-vectors may be added similarly, have a common direction, namely, that of the
to both of them.
since they will
vector parallel
If two tetrahedra e e eê s and eêêê^ are so 15. that the right lines through the pairs of corresponding situated vertices all meet in one point, then will the corresponding faces
Exercise
cut each other in four coplanar
lines.
The
given
conditions
are
**'*'
-
equivalent to e e
'
.
e e/
t
=
by
****'
V/ = V'
012
Vt'
**i
Vi'-V,'
eê x e^
=
.
e /*
'/,'
Two
*t *i e%
of the intersecting lines of faces are
eje^'cj
and
*{*%*%* an(^'
.
equivalent to the fourth condition above, since quadruple-point products in solid space are associative. Similarly all the other pairs
.
= 0123. o'Vî'
(93),
^ these intersect, we must accordingly have, 0V2' 123 1V3' = o = 012 123 o'i'2' 1V3'
.
i2i 2
/
,
the last factor of which
is
of intersections
Exercise
may be treated. 16. The twelve bisecting
angles of a tetrahedron fix eight points, the

six.
planes of the diedral centers of the
inscribed and escribed spheres, through which they pass six
by
The sum and
difference of
two
unit planes are their
two
ART.
10.]
415
Let the tetrahedron be e9 ex e% e%i and bisecting planes, by (97). Te e 2 e 3 etc.; then a let the double areas of its faces be
A =
pair of bisecting planes will be
"
-^-
or e%e x {A %e%
e % ).
The
e e A^^). pair through the opposite edge will be e 3 9 (A Q which the six internal bisecting If there be a point through
planes pass, it must be on the intersection of these two planes taken with the upper signs, and we infer by symmetry that it
3
must be the point 2Ae.

e % en (A e
l l
Another
internal bisecting plane
is
-f-
e 9 ),
which gives zero when multiplied into 2Ae,
as do also the other three.
To
obtain
that
all
signs, so
the points we have only to use the double Ae A e^ Aê^ A 3 er This they are
x
gives eight cases, namely,
+++ + + -+
The
++++ -
++ +
-+++
+
eight apparent cases that would arise by changing all the signs are included in these because the points must be essentially positive.
negative signs, hedron must be greater than the fourth face. It will be found on trial that six of the bisecting planes will pass through
Moreover, no positive point could have three because the sum of any three faces of the tetra-
2(
Ae) with any one of the above arrangements of sign.
Prob. 21. The twelve points in which the edges of a tetrahedron are cut by the bisecting planes of the opposite diedral angles fix eight planes, each of which passes through six of them.
Prob. 22. The centroid of the faces of a tetrahedron coincides with the center of the sphere inscribed within the tetrahedron whose vertices are the centroids of the respective faces of the first tetrahedron.
Prob. 23. If any plane be passed through the middle points of two opposite edges of a tetrahedron, it will divide the volume of the tetrahedron into two equal parts.
416
[Chap. VIII*
Art.
11.
The Complement
in Solid Space.
relations in a unit
According to the definitions of Art. 8 the complementary normal vector system are as follows
:
= k= k=
l*i
*.*.
Mi
f
i.
1(10= lv.= 1(10 = Im.= 1(10=

v.
*.
z
3
Let
J/z
then
6
1
= AVs + /.., + hh\ =

e is a plane-vector.
j&h
- W(4 - 4A
which
is
( I02 >
so that
|
The
*^&
hh
drawn in isometric projection, shows that the two vectors /jZ 2 lj / z,, whose prodand l i s
figure,
x
x
Û
uct
is /,
.
|
e,
are both perpen;
dicular to e
for the
first is
,
/ /,*, -|- 2 z a perpendicular which is the orthogonal pro-
to
jection of
z
3
,
eupon
e,
z z
x
ft
,and to
and therefore
is
also per-
SÂ'l
second
is
1 1
pendicular to
while the
*
h l * anc* to h> anc therefore perpendicular to / i to e. Hence e is a plane-vector perpendicular to e and, since |(|e)= e, the converse is also true, i.e. the complement of a
;
|
plane-vector
is
a line-vector normal to
it.
The figure shows that e is equal to the vector diagonal of the rectangular parallelepiped whose edges have the lengths
/,,
/3
/s ,
hence
Te
= V'lJTVTV.
l,t,
/,, 3
(103)
Multiply equation (102) by e; therefore

e\e
= (/,, + + )(/,M, + Wi + '.'.0 = /,+/, + /,= re =6,
(104)
so that the co-square of a vector is equal to the square of its The product e|e is that of a vector e into a planetensor. vector perpendicular to it, as has just been shown it is there;
ART.
11.]
THE COMPLEMENT
IN SOLID SPACE.
417
fore a
volume which is equivalent to Te T\e; hence, by (104), e]e= Te T\ e = T*e> or Te = T\e. Hence, the complement
.
of a vector in solid space
and having the same

tude.*
a plane-vector perpendicular to it tensor, or numerical measure of magniis

3
Let a second vector be

e e'
I
e'
=2mi
then
3 3
= l m + /,, + l m = e'\e.
x
(105)
|e',
is
e into the plane-vector e|e', being the product of the volume of the parallelepiped in the figw|
is,
Now
ure, that
TeTe'
f.
sin (angle
between
and
|e')
TeTe' cos
i
Hence
1
e\e'
= e'\e=f m +l m +I m =TeTe' cos f.

i
2
z 3
(106)
If
7e
Te'
I, /,
...
/t , *,.".
?/z 3
are di-
rection cosines, and (105) gives a proof of the formula for the cosine of the angle between
two
ee
lines in
terms of the direction cosines of the

case
x
lines.
We
and,
have also
in this
(/,,
ljn
z
|
-f-
(Jt
m - /m
t
a
2)
i
|
+ (/,, - l m
x
i
\
%t
taking the co-square,
{eeJ-=
If
(sin
f^= (/,,-
W+fe-W+W^-W.
e|e'=o,
e',
(107) (108)
e
is
is
parallel to the plane-vector perpendicular to perpendicular to e', as is also shown by (106).
that
is,
Let
rj
=
I
e, rf
=
|
e'
then
I7|V=
and
is
|e.e'
= e'| e =
e\e'
= TeTe
cos f
71?
7Y
cos
J, (109)
^l^ô
=
O,
the condition of perpendicularity of two plane-vectors.

e\rf
(no) Also
(
either
or
1/
e
|
= O,
II]t )
the condition that a vector shall be perpendicular to a planevector, for the first means that e is parallel to a vector which is
is
418
[Chap. VIII.
that perpendicular to 7', and the second vector which is perpendicular to e.
rf is parallel to
a plane-
stereometric vector Equations (71) (77) of Art. 9 become formulae if e lt et etc., be substituted iov p p^ etc., and i^, //,, For instance, (76) gives the vector formulas etc., for L Z.,, etc.
,
x ,
x ,
v.kk' =
For lack
ik'
*,k'
.k'
ViV*\Vx'v t
'
vAVx
V*\Vi
Vx\V%
.k'
vM
(112)
in
of space
no treatment of the complement
point system in solid space is given. To prove the formulas of spherical trigoExercise 17. cos a == cos b cos c -f- sin b sin c cos ^2, and nometry
sin
_ sin
sin
e,,
sin ^4
B
ea
,
_ sin
sin (7
'
Take three
unit vectors
e s parallel to the radii to the
vertices of the spherical triangle, then # (angle bet. e 2 and e ), A (angle bet. 6,6, and e^), etc. In eq. (112) put e,6, for e/e,';
3
hence
6,6,
efy
sin
sin c cos
^ =
<:.
e ? e2 e 8
.
1
e3
e,
e3
= cos #
.
cos b cos
Again,
T{e
or
x
e e,)
x
sin
= 2^6,6,6, e = Te e,e = r(e e e,6,)= T(e e sin B = sin # sin b sin b sin c sin ^4 = sin a sin
x
.
i
6 8 e a );
7,
whence we have the second

Exercise
in
18.
result
by dividing by
sin
a sin b
sin
c.
Show
cos
that in a spherical triangle taken as
Exercise
17,
2.
= '-r^ f-^, whence derive Ue e 3 ) 7\(/ e 9

1
the ordinary value
/sin 5 sin (5 ..
#)
<:
sin
sin
Expanding, the numerator becomes

the denominator 4/2(1
E/e.eJ
E/e.e,,
-(- C/6,6,1
#6,6,,
is
and
+ Ue^] Ue e
x
2 ).
Also there
is
obtained
-f
^'
^-.
The remainder
left
to the stu-
76,6,76,6,
dent.
Prob. 24. If 6,, e 2 , e 3 drawn outward from a point, are taken as three edges of a tetrahedron, show that the six planes perpen,
Art.
12.]
ADDITION OF SECTS IN SOLID SPACE.

all
419
dicular to the edges at their middle points
pass through the end

1
of the vector p
gestion.
~
2e
fc
i
fc
r(
s
e2 e 3
6*+
x)
1
e3 e
. 1
ej
ex
e 3 ? ).
(Sug-
We
must have (p
ie
6,
= o,
|
with two other similar
expressions.)
Prob. 25.
Show
that
pendicular vectors,
ee' and ee'. e are three mutually pere, no matter what the directions of e and e'
|
may
be.
,
e 2 e 3 be taken as in Prob. 24 let A Q be the xt area of the face of the tetrahedron formed by joining the ends of these vectors, and 2A = Te a e x etc.; also Angle between e e q and e^g, etc.: then show that we have the relation, analogous to
Prob. 26. Let
that of Prob. 15, Art.
8,
2 A 2 A, cos 2 A 3 A cos 6 t %A X % cos 6 V 6 3 are right angles, this becomes the space-analog of the proposition regarding the hypotenuse and sides of a right-angled
'=
A?+A?+A*.
6-
If 6 X
e )(e a Z(e 2 (Suggestion. 2A, e,).) Prob. 27. There are given three non-coplanar lines e i e e e^ , *r e 8 ; planes cut these lines at the sum of the squares of right angles, their distances from e being constant. Show that the locus of the
triangle.
x x ,
common
if
Te
point of these three planes
is
Te%
re
(p\ e
a
1
+(/o| e 2 ) -f (p| e 3 ) =<r
3
,
1.
Art.
12.
Addition of Sects in Solid Space.

space will not
in
general intersect, so that their sum will not be, as in eq. (43), a definite line. For let p e and/ 2 e 2 be any two sects: then
1 l
Two lines
in solid
A e + P& = p,e +/>,, + e (e + 6.) - e (e + e.) - '.(e, + + (p - e )e + (/, - * )e

i
x x x
e,)
that
and
a sect passing through an arbitrary point e a plane-vector, the sum of the two in the equation. The
is,
the
sum
is
sum cannot be
A = A + xe
hence
a single sect unless the two are coplanar for let * et* e s being a vector not parallel to e^, -\-f *
;
ex x
p % e%
= p e + (/, + xe + ye + ze )e = A (*, + e + *6, (e, -f e + *e e = (A + *0 (, + e.) + ê e

x
x
2)
and
less
this
cannot reduce to a single sect unless z
= o, that
is
is,
un-
ex
and/
e 2 are coplanar.
Since a plane-vector
a line at
420
oo
,

the
[Chap.
VIIL
sum
of
two
and a
of
lines
may
.
always be presented as the sum;
of a finite line
If
line at oo
is equal to the sum of any other two, their products will also be equal, that is, the twoFor let pairs will determine tetrahedra of equal volumes.
the
sum
any two sects
-ft
Lt =s L
+ L\
then squaring
we have L
L^
=LL
3
since
L,L
the
let
o, etc.
An
infinite
number
is
of pairs of sects can be found such that
sum
of each pair
a given pair be
+A
equal to the sum of any given pair; for and take a new pair t
-ti
+ *A)(*A + *,<0 0\A +J'*A)(*\e + v e = te, +jw}?. + (*.. +y^p,e, + (x u + y v )p e + (xji +y,z\)p,e
(*iA
%
%)
..
This
will
be equal to the given pair

x
^x+^Vi = *.* +.JW
we have =i, and x u% +y vt = xt u

if
x
+y v = o).
%
t
Since there are eight arbitrary quantities with only four equations of condition, the desired result can evidently be ac~
complished in an infinite number of ways. Let p e ,/ a e 2 p n en be n sects, and and e any point, then
.
let
be their sum,
5=
the
2j>e
1
= e,2e
- e,2e + 2pe = e,2e + 2{p - e.)e,
(u 3 >
and a plane-vector as before. e )e is parallel to 2e it may be written as the prodIf 2(p uct of some vector e into ê, that is, e'ê, when the sum becomes S = eê -f- e'Êe = (e -\- e')ê, a sect, because e -f- e is. In no other case does 5 reduce to a single sect. If a point.
of a sect
sum
ê
e
o.
ing S,
becomes a plane-vector. Of the two parts composthe sect will be unchanged in magnitude and direction if
5"
be moved to a new position, while the plane-vector will in It is proposed to show that a point q may general be altered.
be substituted for
dicular to ê.
such that the plane-vector
will
be perpen-
Writing
and, for
so that
S = q2e-(q- e )2e + 2<J> e = 2e = brevity, putting q

/>,
-e
a,
)e,
2(p
e )e
\/3 r
S = ga
pa
\fi,
(114)
Art.
12.]
addition of sects in solid space.

for perpendicularity,
( ft
|
421
-we
must have
or
XI 5) pa .\a=a.p\a p. a- = \fta. ( The second member is obtained from the first by substituting in eq. (74) p for p and a for /> 3 and q in accordance with the statement at the end of Art. II. If in (1 1 5) we make p a = o,
x
pa)
a=O=
| |
by (in), ft a pa
.
|
a,
iy
will
be the vector from
to q taken perpendicularly to a,
2
say
p
Since
found.
= \aft-^-a -=q -e
i
(116)
a and
ft
are known, the
required
(75),
point has been
Multiply (115) by a; then, using

2 2 ap a = pa a
.
=a
|
ft a
\ft.a-
a a
.
|
|
ft,
whence,
substituting in (114),
S=,
This
2 + 4g.\a = ,* + <*-** .\2<.
(lift
may be called the normal form of S* The sects of this article represent completely
hence
all
the geometric
properties of forces,
that has been
shown applies
immediately to a system of forces in solid space. We have only to substitute the words force and couple for sect and planevector.
called
The
resultant action
by
Ball in his
Theory
is
of any system of forces is 5, of Screws " a wrench." The con-
dition for equilibrium
5 = o, which
and
gives at once
;
ê = o
since otherwise
we must e )e, which is an impossibility. The line qê is the central axis of the system of forces 5. Lack of space forbids a further development of the subject,
but what has been given
adaptability of this
in this article will indicate
2(p - e )e = o have eê = ^{p
(118)
method
the perfect to the requirements of mechanics.

e
x
Exercise
19.
a)
Reduce p
(p
e,(e
+e +
x
e )e,
+ A e = 5 to normal form. For convenience + {p 2
its
e )e,.
suppose p and
to be taken at the ends of the
common
per-
*Grassmann
(1862), Art. 346.
422
[Chap.
VIIU
pendicular on/,6,
/,
<?
= =
t
and/
e2
;
and moreover
then
t
let ^
(p,
e,)
z
|
e,
r|e,
= o.
i(A
+/)
Accordingly
.
5=
e (e,
e.)
+<e,
- e,) = g(e +e,)+
fei+&gSLpS>
,^+^y
By (i5) *
-, = =
1^ = - <*
-6
(e,
J -lfc
,Dy
>
,.( e
,)|( 6i
+ ej*
5
is
^'
e,*-e, (6,+ ,)"
Hence the normal form
of
Exercise 20.
tetrahedron
e e lf e9e%
Forces are represented by the six edges of a find the S, reduce to e Q e 3 **?,, e t e lt ex e%
,
,
normal form, and consider the special case when three diedral
angles are right angles.
l
5=
t
e (e
l
+ +
ea
1
et )
= ^( +e + )+(e eXe = e M. + e + O + e e +
t t
t * 2 3
)= ^(e +e +e
3
3)
+ e e + e e + e e+ + (e -e -e
t
t
)(e 3
x
e3 e 1
e.e,
in
which
e,
=e
,.
etc.
Hence
For the rectangular tetrahedron

e3
let
e,
ai
x
e,
bi^
,,
z,
being unit normal vectors.
Then we
find
+ ^qiy
Exercise 21.
is
-l( gg
+ ^ + g 0-
A pole
50 feet high stands on the ground and
held erect by three guy-ropes symmetrically arranged about attached to its top and to pegs in the ground 50 feet from the pole. The wind blows against the pole with a pressure of
it,
50 pounds in the direction
p when
r
is
at the
bottom of
Art.
12.]
addition of sects in solid space.
423'
the pole, and

in the ratio
p
:
divides the distance between two of the pegs

find the tension
on the guys and the pressure
on the ground.
Evidently only two of the guys will be in tension let their pegs be at e and e 3 and let e% be at the top of the pole, and
; x ,
ftl
the weight of the pole.

of equilibrium
is
Then p
tl
*.
and the equation
^ 5'
(*.+')('
/)
2l\e.-p)
^
|
2 St(P ~~ e
(x+w)e IX'.-p)*' Tej

)
|
e%
ye % e,
ze,e a
%
+Tes+Te ert.)
Tes%
50,
rVl =
;
Te % e t
=
J
5 o l/i,
T(p
t{^^> -e)
if
7\
J m{e,-e,)+n{e,-e
=
U(e%
e
);
)\
50
j
Time
-\-neJ,
e =[/(e
1
it
and ea
then T(/
eQ )
Vm*
-\-
n*
mn,
because
e,-
1
c,
I,
equation of equilibrium
and e,|e = cos 120 becomes

3
\.
Hence the
v/#
+
x -\-w _
w
y
z
r2
V2
Multiply successively by et e lf e etJ and ^,, and

25
we
obtain
m
y and
-j-
w 4^2
n V2
Vm*
-f-
-\-
n*
mn
z being the tensions, and
the upward pressure.
Prob. 28. Three equal poles are set up so as to form a tripod, and are mutually perpendicular; a weight w hangs upon a rope which passes over a pulley at the top of the tripod, and thence
down under
e
. x
.
a pulley at the ground at a point
^le, in which
j
e s are at the feet of the poles,
and 2/
if
the rope
is
pulled
424
so as to raise w,
[Chai
III.
show that the pressures on the
poles, supposir-
the
pulleys frictionless, are
Prob. 29. Six equal forces act along six successive edges of a
cube which do not meet a given diagonal; show that if the edges of be the magnitude of each the cube be parallel to z,, z 2 z 3 and z z if the diagonal taken be 3 ), force, then a parallel 2F\ (i
,
to
z,
S= + +
z
2
+ +
Prob. 30. Three forces whose magnitudes are 1, 2, and 3 act along three successive non-coplanar edges of a cube; show that the
normal form of
6* is
('.+tf, ,+ 3',)+*l(',+", 3.)Prob. 31. Forces act at the centroids of the faces of a tetrahedron, perpendicular and proportional to the faces on which they act, and
all
S=
+ i,-A.)(, +
all
directed inwards, or else
outwards; show that they are
in
equilibrium.
Art.
introduction.
425
Chapter IX.
VECTOR ANALYSIS AND QUATERNIONS.

By Alexander Macfarlane,
Lecturer in Electrical Engineering in Lehigh University.
Art.
1.
Introduction.
Vector Analysis is meant a space analysis in which " the vector is the fundamental idea; by Quaternions" is meant a space-analysis in which the quaternion is the fundamental
By
"
"
one whole; and in this chapter they will be treated as such, and developed so as to harmonize with one another and with the Cartesian
idea.
They
are in truth
complementary parts
of
subject to be treated is the analysis of quantities in space, whether they are vector in nature, or quaternion in nature, or of a still different nature, or are of such a kind that
Analysis.*
The
they can be adequately represented by space quantities.
Every proposition about quantities in space ought to remain true when restricted to a plane just as propositions about quantities in a plane remain true when restricted to a
;
Hence in the following articles the ascent to the straight line. of space is made through the intermediate algebra of algebra
the plane. Arts. 2-4 treat of the more restricted analysis, while Arts. 5-10 treat of the general analysis. This space analysis is a universal Cartesian analysis, in the
same manner
as algebra
is
a universal arithmetic.
it
ing an explicit notation for directed quantities,
By providenables their
general properties
particular
drical, or polar.
to be investigated independently of
system of coordinates,
It also
has this
any whether rectangular, cylinadvantage that it can express

se
*For
a discussion of the relation of Vector Analysis to Quaternions,
Nature, 189T-1893.
4^0
[CHAP. IX.
the directed quantity by a linear function of the coordinates, instead of in a roundabout way by means of a quadratic function.
The
different views of this extension of analysis
which have
been held by independent writers are titles of their works

:
briefly indicated by the
Argand, Essai sur une maniere de representer les quantites imaginaires dans les constructions geometriques, 1806.
Warren, Treatise on the geometrical representation of the square
roots of negative quantities, 1828.
Bellavitis,
Moebius, Der barycentrische Calcul, 1827. Calcolo delle Equipollenze, 1835.

lineale
Grassmann, Die
Ausdehnungslehre, 1844.
Algebra, 1849. O'Brien, Symbolic Forms derived from the conception of the translation of a directed magnitude. Philosophical Transactions,
1851.
De Morgan, Trigonometry and Double
Hamilton, Lectures on
Quaternions, 1866.
Tait,
Quaternions,
1853,
and Elements of
Elementary Treatise on Quaternions, 1867. Hankel, Vorlesungen iiber die complexen Zahlen und ihre
Functionen, 1867.
Schlegel, System der Raumlehre, 1872.
Houel, Theorie des quantites complexes, 1874. Gibbs, Elements of Vector Analysis, 1881-4. Peano, Calcolo geometrico, 1888.
Hyde, The Directional Calculus,

Heaviside, Vector Analysis, in
"
1890.
Reprint of Electrical Papers,'"
1885-92.
Macfarlane, Principles of the Algebra of Physics, 1891.
Papers
on Space Analysis, 1891-3.
An
of his
excellent synopsis "
is given by Hagen in the second volume der hoheren Mathematik." Synopsis
Art.
2.
Addition of Coplanar Vectors.

is
By
and
a "vector"
direction.
It is
a quantity which has magnitude graphically represented by a line whose
meant
ART.
2.]
ADDITION OF COPLANAR VECTORS.
42?
length represents the magnitude on some convenient scale, and whose direction coincides with or represents the direction of
Though a vector is represented by a line, its Exphysical dimensions may be different from that of a line. are a linear velocity which is of one dimension in amples
length, a directed area which is of two dimensions in length,, an axis which is of no dimensions in length.
the vector.
A vector will
magnitude by Greek letter, as
be denoted by a capital
italic letter,
italic lejter, as
its
B*
its
a small
/3.
as
b,
and
bfi,
direction
rp.
For example,
B=
R=
by Sometimes
a small
it is necessary to introduce a dot or a mark / to separate the specification of the direction from the expression for the magnitude ;f but in such simple expressions as the above, the difference is sufficiently indicated by the difference of type.
system of three mutually rectangular axes will be indicated,, as usual, by the letters i,j, k.
The
tude and direction.
analysis of a vector here supposed is that into magniAccording to Hamilton and Tait and
other writers on Quaternions, the vector is analyzed into tensor jUldjnyfcyectfir, which means that the tensor is a mere ratio
destitute of dimensions, while the unit-vector
is
the physical
magnitude. tude and direction
But
it
will
is
be found that the analysis into magnimuch more in accord with physical ideas,,
difficult to
and explains readily many things which are
explain
by the other analysis.

its components have a and are applied simultaneously; common point of application or it may be such that its components are applied in succession, each component starting from the end of its predecessor.
vector quantity
may
be such that
An example
of the former
is
found
in
two forces applied simulin
taneously at the same point, and an example of the latter

*This notation
is
found convenient by electrical writers
in
order to harmo-
nize with the Hospitalier system of symbols and abbreviations. for this purpose in the author's Note on Plane Algebra, \ The dot was used
1883; Kennelly has since used
for the
same purpose
in his electrical
papers
428

rectilinear displacements
[CHAP. IX.
two
made
in succession to
one an-
other.
Composition of Components having a common Point of Let OA and OB represent two vectors of the Application.
same kind simultaneously applied

c parallel to
join
at the point
O.
Draw BC
OC.
OA, and AC parallel to OB, and The diagonal OC represents in mag-
nitude and direction and point of application and OB. This principle the resultant of
OA
was discovered with reference

Take the
rection of
direction of
to force, but
it
applies to
any
vector quantity coming under the above conditions.
OA
for the initial direction
the di-
any
other vector will

initial
it.
angle round which the order to coincide with

/,/0, OB by 2 //V ure it follows that
be sufficiently denoted by the direction has to be turned in
Thus
OA
may be denoted by
fig-
OC
byf/J.
From
the geometry of the

,/, COS d.
/*=/,' +/' +
and
hence
tan 6
/,
+/,
cos
;
,
OC =
//
+ / + 2/,/, cos
resultant
is
/tan
^ ^"^
12
Example.
3/60
.
Let the forces applied
at a point
be 2/0 and
1
Then the
3Q'-
^4 + 9+
J-
/tan
-,
= 4- 3 6/36
If
the
first
component
is
given as/j/0 lf then
we have
the
more symmetrical formula
OC = ^+/,< + 2/,/, cos (,-*,)

When
^XXt/Xi
the components are equal, the direction of the resultant bisects the angle formed by the vectors; and the mag-
nitude of the resultant
is
nent on the bisecting
line.
twice the projection of either compoThe above formula reduces to
OC =
2/
cos
& /?. 2/2
Art.
2.]
addition of coplanar vectors.
429=
Example. The resultant of two equal alternating electromotive forces which differ 120 in phase is equal in magnitude to either and has a phase of 6o.
Given a vector and one component, to find the other component. Let OC represent the resultant, and OA the component.
Join
AC
AC.
and draw
parallel to
The
line
OB OB
it
equal and
represents is the only
gives
the component required, for line which combined with

as resultant.
,/
A
'
OA
OC
~^
The
line
hence the rule parallelogram formed " Reverse the direction of the then compound is, component, it with the given resultant to find the required component."
;
OB is identical with the by OC and OA reversed
diagonal of the
Let
f/f) be the
vector and
is
fjo one component
then the
other component
fj, = */+/,--
2//,
e9*l -./+/ 9 CM
Given the resultant and the directions of the two compoThe resultant nents, to find the magnitude of the components. is represented by OC, and the directions by OX and OY. From C draw CA parallel to OY, and CB
parallel to
off
is
OX
the lines
OA
OB
and
OB
cut
It represent the required components. evident that and when com-
OA
pounded produce the given resultant OC,

and there
is
only one set of two components which produces

;
a given resultant hence they are the only pair of having the given directions.
l
components
directions.
Let//0 be the vector and /6 and /0 the given

9
Then
/ +/. cos (0, - e =/cos {o - e \ / cos (0, - 6 +/ =/cos (0, - 0),

x
from which
ft
it
follows that
{cos "
(0
~f
)
I
cos
- cos
(0,
a
- 6) cos -6 (0,
X
(0,
430
("CHAP. IX.
For example,
let
100/60
.
/30
1
and /90 be given
then
/.=
IOO
cos 30 4- cos 6o'
Composition of any Number of Vectors applied at a common Point. The resultant may be found by the following graphic construction Take the vectors in any order, as A, B, C. From the end of A draw B' equal and parallel to B, and from the end of B' draw
:
and }B equal
parallel to C\ the vector from the beginning of A to the end of is the
resultant of the given vectors.

~2
This follows
parallelo-
by continued application
of the
is
gram
construction.
The
resultant obtained
is
ever the order; and as the order
the same, whatarbitrary, the area enclosed
has no physical meaning. The result may be obtained analytically as follows
Given
/,/#,
+// +/Jl +
%
+f
/ln.
Now
Similarly
/,/*,
=/,cos
6,/q
+/
sin
^l\
/^,
fJJK
n
=/
cos
/o
+/
sin 6,
and
f /J> = fn cos
2\f/J\
/o
6\
+fn sin 6 /n
Hence
j^/cos
/o
{^/sin
6\
/.
= V(2f cos
In the case of a
Off
(^/sin BY tan-
-^^"
mon
of simultaneous vectors applied at a compoint, the ordinary rule about the transposition of a term in
sum
For example, if A -\-B + C 0,then + C = B, and B + C = - A< etc. This is permissible because there is no real order of succession among the given components.*
A +B=
an equation holds good. .C, and A
* This does not hold true of a

sion.
It is
sum
of vectors
having a real order of succes-
a mistake to attempt to found space-analysis upon arbitrary formal
ART.
2.]
ADDITION OF COPLANAR VECTORS.
431
of
Composition of Successive Vectors.

successive vectors partakes Let tion than of addition.
The composition
A
more
of the nature of multiplicaa.
Abe
vector start-
ing from the point O, and B a vector starting from the end of A. Draw the third side OP, and from O draw a vector equal to B, and from
its
/
{^-'''
extremity a vector equal to A.
The
were
line
so, it
OP
is
not. the
also be
-\-A
complete equivalent of
-\-
the complete equivalent of
B B
if
-f-
it
would
A.
But
-f-
B and B
determine different paths; and as they go oppositely around, the areas they determine with OP have different signs. The
diagonal OP represents A ered independent of path.
vectors, the
is
-f-
only so far as
as
is
it
is
consid-
For any number

so far
it
of
successive
sum
independent of
point
of the
is
path
first
the vector from the
initial
to the final point of the last.
This
also
true
as to
when the
successive vectors
become
so small
form a continuous curve.
the curve
OPQ
The The
is
and the vector
OQ
is
area between on the path, and depends
The
has a physical meaning.

Prob.
is
i.
resultant vector
123/45
and one component

200 /75
100/0
Prob.
find the other component.

2.
velocity of a
body
in
agiven plane
is
and
one component
Prob.
virtual
100 /25
find the other
component.
3. Three alternating magnetomotive forces are of equal find the revalue, but each pair differs in phase by 120
sultant.
u ^ w( , (Ans. Zero.) ,7 Prob. 4. Find the components of the vector 100/70 in the direc-
rV^
tions 20
and ioo.
5.
Prob.
Calculate the resultant vector of 1/10
2/20
3/30
4 /40
Prob.
6.
Compound
i2o)/i2o
the following magnetic fluxes: h sin nt
-f-
sin (nt
h sin (nt
24o)/24o.
(Ans. %h/nt.)
laws; the fundamental rules
must be made
to express universal properties of the

is made to apply formal laws to an analysis of these quantities.
thing denoted.
In this chapter no attempt
directed quantities.
What
is
attempted
is
432
Prob.
7.
[CHAP. IX.
Compound two
sin nt
'
.
alternating magnetic fluxes at a point,
a cos
?it
/o and a
8.
(Ans. a /nt.)
Prob
tive forces
Find the resultant of two simple alternating electromo100/20 and 50 /75

'
Prob. 9. Prove that a uniform circular motion is obtained by compounding two equal simple harmonic motions which have the
space-phase of their angular positions equal to the supplement of the 4*m' f**"ftime-phase of their motions.
'
Art.
3.
Products of Coplanar Vectors.
When
all
the vectors considered are confined to a
common
plane, each
may
be expressed asthe
i
sum
of
two rectangular
components.
right angles to
Let
and/ denote two

;
directions in the plane at

x
one another
then
A = a i -\- a J, B = b i + bj
x
R=xi-\-j/j.
Here
and
are not unit-vectors, but rather
signs of direction.
Product of two Vectors.
Let
A = aj>-\-aJ and B = b[-\-b%f
be any two vectors, not necessarily of the same kind physically. We assume that their product is obtained by applying the
distributive law, but
we do
not assume that the order of the
factors
is
indifferent.
l
Hence
AB = (a i + aJ)(b i-\- bj) = afiji +

x
aj>jj+ aJ)jj-\-aJ?JL
algebra, that the
If
we assume,
as suggested
by ordinary
square of a sign of direction is -j-, and further that the product of two directions at right angles to one another is the direction
normal to both, then the above reduces to
AB = a b + A + OA
tf
l
l
aj>^k.
Thus the complete product breaks up into two partial a 3 b 9 which is independent of direcproducts, namely, a b which has the axis of the plane for and (a b i tion, aj)^)k
i 1
direction.*
* A common k is that i is an operator,/an explanation which is given of ij operand, and k the result. The kind of operator which i is supposed to denote is a quadrant of turning round the axis i ; it is supposed not to be an axis, but a quadrant of rotation round an axis. This explains the result ij'= k, but
unfortunately
it
does not explain
ii
for
it
would give
ii
i.
Art.
3.]
PRODUCTS OF COPLANAR vectors.
433
Scalar Product of two Vectors. By a scalar quantity is meant a quantity which has magnitude and may be positive or
negative
but
is
destitute
of
direction.
The former
partial
product is so called because it is of such a nature. It is denoted by SAB where the symbol S, being in Roman type, denotes, not a vector, but a function of the
A and B. The geometrical meanSAB is the product of A and the orthogonal projection of B upon A. Let OP and OQ represent the vectors A and B
vectors
ing of
draw
QM
and
NL
perpendicular to OP.
o^_^._^n
Then
(OP)(OM)
= (OP)(OL) + (OP)(LM),
-H#**.3L
let A denote a Corollary I. of application the velocity of its point force and then denotes the rate of working of the force. The result is the
= a b +a b SBA = SAB. For instance,

l
l
SAB
same whether the

velocity on the
force
is
projected on the velocity or the
force.
Example I. A force of 2 pounds East -f- 3 pounds North is moved with a velocity of 4 feet East per second 5 feet North second find the rate at which work is done. per
2X4+3X5= 23 foot-pounds per second. The square of any vector A = a? + a* Corollary

2.
9
a*.
independent of direction it is an essentially positive or signless quantity for whatever the direction of A, the direction
is
;
;
of the
other^ must be the same; hence the

2.
scalar
product
cannot be negative.
Example
velocity 64
feet
down per second

energy then
s
stone of 10 pounds mass is moving with a 100 feet horizontal per
second.
Its kinetic
is
(64
+ ioo
foot-poundals,
434
[CHAP. IX.
a quantity which has no direction.

s
The
kinetic energy
due to
k
the
downward
velocity '
is
is
10
2
;
64
2
and that due to thehoriis
zontal velocity
tained, not
lOO
the whole kinetic energy

addition,
ob-
by
vector, but
by simple
when
the com-
ponents are rectangular. Vector Product of two Vectors.
The
other partial product
from
its
nature
is
called the vector product,
and
is
denoted by
VAB.
product
is
Its
of
geometrical meaning is the and the projection of B which
perpendicular to A, that is, the area of the parallelogram formed upon A and B.
1
Let OP and OQ represent the vectors A and By and draw the lines indicated by the It is then evident that the area figure.
a b%
x
of the triangle s= -HÂ ,,)
OPQ =
\a
a^
\b x b%
(#,
b )(b 2
x
#a ),
Thus
(a x b9
gram formed by which it lies.

It
ajb^k denotes the magnitude of the paralleloA and B and also the axis of the plane in
follows that
VBA =
VAB.
It
is
to be observed
that the coordinates of
whereas
and
Example.
inches, then
A and B are mere component vectors, B themselves are taken in a real order. Let A = (ioz -f- iff) inches and B = (5*+ l2 J)
(120
55)^ square inches; that is, 65 square inches in the plane which has the direction k for axis.
VAB =
ab cos .a/3, expressed as aa and B as bft, then SAB where aft denotes the angle between the directions a and /3.
If
is
Example.
The
effective electromotive force of

is
100 volts
8
per inch /90 along a conductor 8 inch /45 cos /45 /90 volts, that is, 800 cos 45 volts.
the direction
SAB =
100
Here /45
indicates
a and /90
the direction
ft,
and /45 /90 means

of
the angle between the direction of 45
and the direction
90
Also
-which
is
VAB= ab sin
normal to
aft
aft,
where
that
aft denotes the direction

is,
both a and
ft,
their pole.
ART.
3.]
PRODUCTS OF COPLANAR VECTORS.
435
is
Example.
At
.
a distance of 10 feet /30
there
a force of
IOO pounds /6o
The moment
is
NAB
.
we 10 X 100 sin =2 1000 sin
/30 /6o pound-feet 90 / /90
30 pound-feet 90 / /90
Here 90 / specifies the plane of the angle and /90 the The two together written as above specify the normal k.
Reciprocal of a Vector.
angle.
By
The
meant the vector which combined with the

duces the
product
-f1.
the reciprocal of a vector is original vector proreciprocal of
is
denoted
by A' a~ and
. l
Since
/3
I.
AB =
ab (cos #/?-[- sin
ap
a/3), b
must equal
must be
identical with
in
order that the product
may
be
It follows
that
I
<2
^
;
__
aj,-\-aJ ai #
1
The
let
cal,
reciprocal
2/3
and opposite vector

then
is its
is
A~\
and
In the figure
/? is its
OP =
and
be the given vector

(
OR =
OQ =
R
<
recipro%.
I
1
/3)
reciprocal
>
opposite.*
If
P
l
>
Example.
feet
A =
'
10 feet East
feet
feet
North,
x
A~
s=s
East
125
North
and
A~
= :^
r feet
125
125
East
125
feet North.
Product of the reciprocal of a vector and another vector.
A~
B = \AB, a
= ~A a A + *A + {*&
aA)<*J0}>
= - (cos aj3
* Writers
-f-
sin aft
aj3).
who
identify a vector with a quadrantal versor are logically led to
define the reciprocal of a vector as being opposite in direction as well as reciprocal in magnitude.
436
[CHAP. IX..
Hence SA~*B
-cos a '6 and
NA~ B =
X
-sin afi.ati. ' r a
B=
Product of three Coplanar Vectors. Let A = aj -f a*Jy bj -f- bj, C cj -f- c*j denote any three vectors in a
common
plane.
Then
(AB)C = =
{(*A
{<*
a A)
(*A
aJ>M(c i
x
+ cj)
A + <*A)ki* +
latter
cJ)
(*A - "A)(- v
c x j).
The former
partial product
means the vector
C
;
by the scalar product of

partial
A and B
multiplied while the
product means the comple-
mentary vector
of C multiplied by the magnitude of the vector product of A and B^ If these partial products (represented by OP
total product, the total product will be the resultant of OP and OQ.
.
and OQ) unite to form a

represented
by OR,
is also expressed by SAB C, where the the vectors to which the S refers; and more point separates, analytically by {abc cos aryfj/^
The former product
The
latter
product
is
also expressed
by (VAB)C, which
is
is
equivalent
to
V(VAB)C, because
NAB
at
right
angles
to C. It is also expressed by abc sin a/3, afly, where a/3y denotes the direction which is perpendicular to the perpendicular
to
a and
If
/?,and y.
is
the product
formed after the other mode
of association
we have
A(BC)
= (*,* + </>(Vi + V.) + = (Vi + + a*J) +
WW
aj is
W +(fo
aj)(b
WW
3/0
^4,
c%
bj )k
x
~~*iJ)
=zSBC.A +VA(VBC).
The
vector
x
aj
a 9 j\
the opposite of the complementary

latter partial
vector of a i
Hence the
product
differs
with the
mode
of association.
ExampleLet A =
i/o
+ 2/90
B=
+
B,
4/90
C=
5/0
+ 6/90
The
fourth proportional to
C is
\^>
ART.
3.]
PRODUCTS OF COPLANAR VECTORS.
437
(A-*E)C
= lX
3
l
X4
+;,
1
{
5/o!
+ 6/90
j
4-2X3 _ 6 ^ + "T 2
If
5 /go_o
=
Square
13.4/0^+11.2/90.
of a Binomial of Vectors.
it
-\-
denotes a
sum
entirely equivalent to the the square of any vector is a positive But resultant vector C. scalar, hence the square of A -\- B must be a positive scalar. of non-successive vectors,
is
Since
and
are in reality
components
of
one vector, the
square must be formed
after the rules for the products of rect-
angular components
(p. 432).
Hence
(A+By = (A+B)(A+B), = A* + AB + BA + B\ {T/th - - V& A= A* + B* + SAB + SBA + NAB + VBA,
= A' + B + 2SAB.
1
This
may
also be written in the
form L
^
;
+&
2a b cos <*#
is
But when A -\- B denotes a sum of successive vectors, there no third vector C which is the complete equivalent and consequently we need not expect the square to be a scalar quantity.
We
observe that there
is
a real order, not of the factors,

;
but of the terms in _the-binomial
this causes
both product
terms to be AB, giving
(A
+ B) =
2
A'
2
=A
The
side,
+ 2AB + B +B* + 2SAB + 2VAB.

7
scalar part gives the square of the length of the third
while the vector part gives four times the area included
side.
between the path and the third
Square of a Trinomial of Coplanar Vectors.
Let
-\-
B -{-
C denote a sum
;
of successive vectors.
The product terms must

of the vectors in the triC,
be formed so as to preserve the order nomial that is, A is prior to B and
and
is
prior to C.
438
[CHAP. IX.
Hence
{A
+ B + Cf = A' + B* + C + 2AB + 2AC + 2BC,

= A* + B* + C' + 2(SAB + SAC + SBC), + 2(VAB + VA C + VBC). S(A+B+Cy = (i)
<*/*
2
(1)
(2)
Hence
= c? + &* + f + 2 ^ cos + 2 ^ cos ^r + 2 b cos /^y and V(^+Z?+0 = (2) = \2ab sin a/? + 2ac sin a;/ + 2^ sin /3y\. a
ft
The
scalar part gives the square of the vector from the bec ginning of A to the end of C and is all that exists
when
'
the vectors are non-successive.
The
vector
B part
A
is
four times the area included between the
successive sides
and the resultant side of the
Note that
polygon. it is here assumed that
V(A
+ B)C = VAC +
VBC, which
is
the theorem of moments.
Also that the prod-
uct terms are not formed in cyclical order, but in accordance with the order of the vectors in the trinomial.
Example.
Let
3/0*
B=
S /30
C=
7 /4$
find the
area of the polygon.
iV(AB+ AC + BC), = i{ 15 sin [o /30 + 21 sin /o /45 + 35 = 375 + 742 + 4.53 = 157.
Prob.
10.
sin
/30 /45
},
of 1000 dynes
At a distance of 25 centimeters /20 there /8o; find the moment.
is
a force
Prob. 11. A conductor in an armature has a velocity of 240 inches per second /300 and the magnetic flux is 50,000 lines per square inch /o; find the vector product.
(Ans. 1.04
io T lines per inch per second.)
Prob. 12. Find

directions 0.8141 E.
the sine
and cosine of the angle between the 0.5807 N., and 0.5060 E. 0.8625 N.
Prob. 13.
10 feet /30
,
When
what
a force of
is
200 pounds /270
is
?
displaced
by
the
the work done (scalar product) of the negative sign in the scalar product ? meaning
What
is
Art.
4.]
coaxial quaternions.
439
Prob. 14.
feet E. per
A mass of 100 pounds is moving with a velocity of 30 second feet SE. per second; find its kinetic 5 energy,
Prob.
feet
15.
;
force of
10 pounds /45
is
acting at the end of
8-
/200
find the torque, or vector product.
Prob. 16.
The
radius of curvature of a curve
is
2/0
-J-
+ 5/90
.17/90
.)
find the curvature.
(Ans. .03/0
the
Prob.
17.
Find
fourth
8/o 3 /9o_, and 6/o_ 5 /9o_. Prob. 18. Find the area of the polygon whose successive sides are 10 /30 9/1 00 8/180 7/2 2 5
,
,
proportional
to
10/0
+ 2/90
Art.
4.
Coaxial Quaternions.
"
is meant the operator which a " quaternion changes one vector into another. It is composed of a magnitude and
By
a turning factor. The magnitude may or may not be a mere for ratio, that is, a quantity destitute of physical dimensions the two vectors may or may not be of the same physical kind.
;
The
turning
is
in a plane, that is to say,
it is
not conical.
a
For
;
the present all hence all the quaternions considered have a
the vectors considered
lie in
common plane common axis.*
Let
A
A
and
be two coinitial vectors
the direction normal
to the plane
may
be denoted by
fi.
The operator which
changes
into
consists of a scalar multiplier
and a turning round the axis /3. Let the former be denoted by r and the latter by fi e where denotes Thus R = r/3 eA and recipthe angle in radians.
,
#/
^^
par
rocally 7
A=
e -/3~ R. r
Also
9
Lr = r/3 A
and
A =
-/3~
may be expressed as the sum of two one of which has a zero angle and the component operators, other an angle of a quadrant. Thus
The
turning factor
ft
e
j3
cos B
/5
+ sin 6
p*/\
* The idea of the "quaternion" is due to Hamilton. Its importance maybe judged from the fact that it has made solid trigonometrical analysis possible.
It is the
cally
most important key to the extension of analysis to space. Etymologi"quaternion" means defined by four elements; which is true in space in plane analysis it is defined by two.
440
[CHAP. IX.
the angle is naught, the turning-factor may be but the above form shows that the equation is homogeneous, and expresses nothing but the equivalence of a
When
;
omitted
given quaternion to two component quaternions.*
Hence
and
= r cos 6 + r sin ^p + q.F* r/3A = pA -\-q/3"/A = pa a qa

rfi
.
2
.
p"'
-{-
(3
n/2 a.
The
relations
between r and
6,
and
/ and
1
q,
are given
by
r=
Let
Vp*
+ q\
tan-
^.
denote a sine alternating electromotive Example. force in magnitude and phase, and / the alternating current in
magitude and phase, then
E= (r + 2nnl. fi*/%
(3
where r
is
the resistance, / the self-induction, n the alternations
per unit of time,

sentation.
and
denotes the axis of the plane of repre'
It follows that
E rl -\- 2nnl J-'E = r-{- 2nnl

.
fi"/*I;
also that
/?*/*,
is, the operator which changes the current into the electromotive force is a quaternion. The resistance is the scalar part of the quaternion, and the inductance is the vector part.
that
Components
of
the
Reciprocal of a Quaternion.
l
Given
R=(p + q.^/*)A,
then
A=
p + q./F/*
(P
+ q.p"*)(p-q.p*) R _p q. p R
,%
p-g.p/*
* In
for |/
the
i.
method of complex numbers
(3*/z is
expressed by
i,
which stands
it
The advantages
of using the
above notation are that
is
capable
of being applied to space, and that it also serves to specify the general turning factor /3 e as well as the quadrantal turning factor ft*/*.
Art. 4
coaxial quaternions.
441
Example.
that from
portant to obtain
E=
Take the same application as above. It is im/ in terms of E. By the above we deduce
(r
n 2tt;//. /3 /*)I
w+
their resultant to the
(27tn/y
+ (27tniy-If
Addition of Coaxial Quaternions.

several vectors to a constant vector
the ratio of each of

given, the ratio of
is
is
same constant vector

Thus,
if
obtained by tak-
ing the
sum
of the ratios.
then
= (A + Qn /3"*)A, 2 R = 2p + (2?) /**/} -4,

&n
{
.
and
reciprocally
A ~
(2py
Example.
In the case of
+ (2gy *"
a
compound
"
r%
circuit
composed
of a number of simple circuits
in parallel
3
- r -innl ^_ r
x
.p*l*
i
I
- 2nnl
a
p"*
t
'
'
_|_
(2^)V
r2
+ (2)V,
'
therefore,
2;/= 2
\
[
^-=-
E
r wji'P''* r -\-(27tnyi*
i
j
=
and
2[ a \r
-\-(2 7tnyi )
~\
a
2nn2rT1
>
reciprocally
^ -
s(
i
WJ +
>r^(
/
/W*
2 r^ \
t y y + (***? \2 r> + (2xnyr) 7 + {2 rnyH
21*
Product of Coaxial Quaternions. If the quaternions which change A to R, and R to R' are given, the quaternion which
y
changes
to R'
is
obtained by taking the product of the given
quaternions.
*This theorem was discovered by Lord Rayleigh; Philosophical Magazine,
May,
886.
See also Bedell
&
Crehore's Alternating Currents,
p. 238.
442

Given
[CHAP. IX.
and
then R'
rr>'/3 e
+ q. P )A R' = r''R = (/ + p*/*)R, + A = {(// + (pq' +/q)

r/PA
(p
n/2
R =
e'
q' .
qq')
ft*) A?
Note that the product
is
formed by taking the product of
the magnitudes, and likewise the product of the turning facThe angles are summed because they are indices of the tors.
common
base
/?.*
Quotient of two Coaxial Quaternions. ternions are those which change A to R, and
If
the given quato R' then that

y
which changes
Given
to R'
is
obtained by taking the quotient of
the latter by the former.
and
then
R = r/FA = (p + g. fi"/*)A = r'fi*A = (/ + q' F'*)A R' = - p '-*R

R!
.
= (P' + t.
_ (//
Prob.
19.
+ qq') + {pq'-P'q) P* P f+
q>
;
^-%p
axei
R,
alternating electromotive force is 200 volts, the resistance of the circuit is 10 ohms, the self-induction is required the 3-J-0 henry, and there are 60 alternations per second
current.
The impressed
(Ans. 18.7 amperes /

If in the
20
42'.)
r=-
fo<
Prob. 20.
above
circuit the current
is
10 amperes, find
the impressed voltage. Prob. 21. If the electromotive force
is
no
volts
/B and the cur-
rent is 10 amperes /0 \n, find the resistance and the self-inducthere being 120 alternations per second. tion, number of coils having resistances r v rti etc., and Prob. 22.
/2 find the impressed etc., are placed in series electromotive force in terms of the current, and reciprocally.
self-inductions lx
*Many writers, such as Hayward in "Vector Algebra and Trigonometry," and Stringham in " Uniplanar Algebra," treat this product of coaxial quaternions as if it were the product of vectors. This is the fundamental error in the
Argand method.
Art.
5.]
addition of vectors in space.
44$
Art.
5.
Addition of Vectors in Space.
space can be expressed in terms of three independent components, and when these form a rectangular set the directions of resolution are expressed by i,j\ k. Any variable vector
A vector in
R may
any constant vector
be expressed as R ~ rp = xi-\-yj -\-zk, and B may be expressed as

l>/3
B=
In space the
= bj + bj-\-b,L
for the direction involves
symbol p
two
ele-
ments.
It
may
be specified as
P= s + y + ir
where the three squares are subject
to the condition that their
xi
+ yj + zk
specified
sum
is
unity.
Or
it
may be
by
this notation, <p//0,
a generalization of the notation for a plane.
The
additional
angle
0/
we
is
introduced to specify the plane
in
which the angle
from the
If
initial line lies.
are given
:
in the
form r<p//0, then we deduce the
other form thus
R = r cos 6 i -f- r sin If R is given in the form

.
6 cos <p.j-\-r sin 6 sin
k.
+ yj'+ zk, we deduce R= Vx* +/ + tan- j tan ^f +

xi
l
z*
z>
For example, aa io cos 45.
B
i
io
30//45_
cos 30 ./
-f io sin 45
+ 10 sin 45
// //
sin
30
Again, from
.*.
32
+ 4/+
$k we deduce
1
##
V9
+ 16 + 25 tan"
.
5 ~
//
bn" tan
1 ,
V41 -L-
=
To
applied at a
vectors or,
6 7.07 ,5i.4/ / 4-9
find the resultant of
any number of component vectors
common'
point, let
R R
lt
i?M
represent the
444
[CHAP. IX.
then
and
Rn = xj+yn/ + snk; 2R = {2x)i + (2y)f + (2s)k r = V(Z*y + (i" + (^)

tan0
2
,
2s = v-
and
tan n
V{2y)*
+ {2*y L
Successive Addition.
lie
When
the successive vectors do not
lie
in one plane, the several elements of the area enclosed will in different planes, but these add by vector addition into a
resultant directed area.

Prob. 23. Express
A=
C=
t^
.
4/
5/
-f-
6k and
B=
5/
-f-
6/
7k
in
the form r$]/J.
(Ans. 8.8
1307/63
and
10.5
3117/61^.5. )
Prob. 24. Express

in the
123 57 7/142
and Z>
456
657 /200
form #*
+ + zk.
jiy
Prob. 25. Express
100
n n // and //
-,
4//
^ F=
7T
1000
6 //
//?^4
//
7t
in
the form xi -\-yj
+ *&
207/30,
20
Prob. 26. Find the resultant of 10

.30
307/40, and
4o7/5^-
__
y
Prob. 27. Express in the form r(f>/6 the resultant vector of
If
+ 2/
$k 4*
5/
+ 6,
and
71
8/'
+ gk.
Art.
6.
Product of two Vectors.
7 = +, ij two vectors
2
Rules of Signs for Vectors in Space. By the rules i* +> k we obtained (p. 432) a product of k, andyV = containing two partial products^ ^ch of which has
the highest importance in mathematical and physical analysis. Accordingly, from the symmetry of space we assume that the following rules are true for the product of two vectors in space
= +,
k, k,
r = +1
Jk
&=
ki
*,
V
ji =z
=h kj =
+,
j,
j.
ik
The
square combinations give results which are indepen-
Art.
6.]
PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS.
445
dent of direction, and consequently are summed by simple addition. The area vector determined by i and j can be represented in direction by k
y
because k
which
is
tri-dimensional space the axis also complementary to i and/.

is
in
We
observe that the three rules

ki =zj are derived
lical
= k, jk =. if
i,
from one another by cyc;
permutation
&,
likewise
ik
the three rules
ji =
kj =
rules are
made
The figure shows that these j. to represent the relation of the advance to the
i,
rotation in the right-handed screw. The physical meaning of these rules is made clearer by an application to the dynamo and the electric motor. In the dynamo three principal vectors have
to be considered
the velocity of the conductor at any instant, the intensity of magnetic flux, and the vector of electromotive force. Frequently all that is demanded is, given two of these
:
directions to determine the third.

of the velocity
is
z,
Suppose that the direction

ij
and that
is
of the flux/, then the direction of

k.
the electromotive force
The formula
=k
becomes
,
velocity flux =
electromotive-force,
-w o
/
g^
from which we deduce
and
= velocity, electromotive-force velocity = flux.

flux electromotive-force
for the electric
The corresponding formula

current flux
motor
is
mechanical-force,
from which we derive by cyclical permutation

flux force
= current,
and
force current
= flux.
is
The formula
velocity flux
electromotive-force
;
muclv
handier than any thumb-and-finger rule for it compares the three directions directly with the right-handed screw.
normal to the plane of the paper, that its velocity is towards the bottom, and that the magnetic flux is towards the left corresponding to the rotation from the velocity to the flux in the right-handed screw we have advance into the paper that then is the direc-
Example.
Suppose that the conductor
is
tion of the electromotive force.
Again, suppose that
in a
motor the
direction of the current
446

is
[CHAP. IX.
up from the paper, and that the magnetic flux is to the left corresponding to current flux we have advance towards the bottom of the page, which therefore must be the direction of the mechanical force which is applied to
along the conductor
;
the conductor. Complete Product of two Vectors.
Let A
= a i-\-aJ -\-a k
x
and
B=
bx i-\-b%
j -\-
b t k be
any two
vectors, not necessarily
of the same kind physically,

rules (p. 444),
is
%
x
Their product, according to the
AB = (aj + aj+ a k){b i + bj + b k), = a b ii-\- ajb^jj a.bjzk, + ajbjk + ajbjy + a b ki + a b ik + a bjj + aj)ji = a b + a,b, + a b + (*A - <*AY+(*A - <*A)j+ (A *A)
s
x
x
-f-
= *A+"A + *A +
bn
i
Ik
Thus the product breaks up into two partial products,

namely, A"f" a #2 a 3
x
#A+Â
,
which
is
independent of direction, and
K
i
K K j k
sum
in
%
which has the direction normal to the plane of

is
and B.
In a
The former
called the scalar product,
and the
latter the vector product.
of vectors, the vectors are necessarily
homogene-
ous, but
a product the vectors
making a
= b = O,
s
we
be heterogeneous. By deduce the results already obtained
may
for a plane.
Scalar Product of two Vectors.
The
scalar product
Its
is
de-
noted as before by SAB.
geometrical
the product of ^ and the orthogonal projection of B upon A. Let OP rep-
meaning
is
resent A, and
LM, and
upon
MN be the orthogonal projections

of the coordinates bj, bj, b % k re.
OQ
represent B, and
let
OL,
OP
spectively.
Then
ON
is
the orthogonal pro-
jection of
OQ, and
Art.
6.]
product of two vectors.
447
OP X ON = OP X (OL + LM
\
+ MN),
SAB.
flux
a
1
a
aj) %
-\-
ay
aj? %
=ab
l
-\-
B= bj-\- bJ-\- b
Corollary
I.
Example.
Let
z
the
intensity
let
of
magnetic
b2 s2
be
s
;
k,
and
the area be
is
S = sj -\- s^j -{- s k

1 l
then the flux through the area
SSB
x
2
b s
-\-
-|-
bzsa
Hence SB A
x
bx a
+
of
b,a,
+ba
t
= SAB. For = a J> + a b, + a b

%
is it
and the orthogonal projection on it of A to the product of A and the orthogonal projection on equal of B. The product is positive when the vector and the pro-
The product
jection have the
same
direction,
and negative when they have

a"*.
opposite directions.
Corollary
2.
Hence A
;
= a*-\-a*-\-a* =
The square
of
must be positive for the two factors have the same direction. Vector Product of two Vectors. The vector product as before is denoted by VAB. It means the product of A and the component of B which is perpendicular to A, and is represented by the area of the parallelogram formed by A and B.
orthogonal projections of this area upon the planes of jk, ki, and ij represent the respective components of the product. For, let OP and (see second figure of Art. 3) be the or-
The
OQ
thogonal projections of A and B on the plane of i and/; then the triangle OPQ is the projection of half of the parallelogram formed by A and B. But it is there shown that the area of
Thus (a,b a ajj^)k denotes the triangle OPQ is \{a b 2 ajb^). the magnitude and direction of the parallelogram formed by
x
the projections of A and B on the plane of i and/ Similarly a s b 7)i denotes in magnitude and direction the projec(ajb t tion on the plane of j and 1% and (a z b a.b^j that on the
l
plane of k and
Corollary
1.
i.
Hence
NBA =
lines
VAB.
ik and B 6k; to find the rectangular projections of the par9^ 4/ allelogram which they define
Example.
Given two
A =
ji
10/+
448
[CHAP. IX.
VAB = (60 = 482 +

Corollary
2. If
12)1
1
+ (- 27 + 42)/+ (28 - 9o)k

62i\
57
is
expressed as
aa and
.
i? as
/?,
then*
SAB =
drawn
in
cos #/? and
Vî?
is
notes the direction which
a/?, where normal to both a and
sin a/3
aft de/3,
and
the sense given by the right-handed screw.
Example.
Given
cos
A T]
r^//B_ and
/J[_
r'07/0'.
Then
SAB = rr'
/]
0'
= rr' {cos
Product of two
6 cos
-f sin 6 sin
0'
cos (0'
<p)).
B be
let
Sums of non-successive Vectors. Let A and two component vectors, giving the resultant A -f- B, and C denote any other vector having the same point of application.
Let
-A+B
A = aj, -f- aJ -f- a k, B = b i+bj+bJ,

%
C= i+cJ+
Cl
cjz.
Since A and
B are independent of order*

,)j
+B=
(a,
+ 6 )i + (a, +
x
(a,
b,)k,
consequently by the principle already established
S(A
+ B)C =
(a,
+ ifc +
(*,
+ bfc +
(a,
+ b )e
%
= SAC + SBC. - (*, + *,K ' + etc. Similarly V(i* + B)C = (a, + *>, = (a c - ^ >* + b c b c )i +
{
I
% %
Hence
In the same
consists of
(A
+ B)C= AC+BC.
it
way
then
may be shown
that
y
if
the second factor
two components,
C and D
which are non-successive
in their nature,
(A+B)(C+D)=AC+AD + BC + BD.
Art.
7.]
product of three vectors.

-f-
449
When A
B is
sum
of
component vectors
-{-
(A
Prob. 28.
flux
BY
= A*
B*
+ AB + BA
The
is
relative velocity of a
is
N.W.; what magnetic force in the conductor ?

Prob. 29.
conductor is S.W., and the the direction of the electromotive

is
The
direction of the current
vertically
downward,
that of the magnetic flux is West; find the direction of the mechanical force on the conductor.
Prob. 30.
body
to
which a force of
2$
-\-
-f-
4k pounds
is
applied moves with a velocity of the rate at which work is done.
5/+
9/
6/-+- 7& feet per second; find
Prob. 31. A conductor 8/+ an electromotive force of 111-f-
"+ IO & inches long is subject to 12/+ 13^ volts per inch; find the
difference of potential at the ends. (Ans. 326 volts.) Prob. 32. Find the rectangular projections of the area of the 12/ 34^ and 23/* parallelogram defined by the vectors
A=
45/
56/ -f 67^.
Prob. 33.
Show
is
that the
moment
of the velocity of a
body with
equal to the sum of the moments of its component velocities with respect to the same point. Prob. 34. The arm is gt -{- 11/+ 13^ feet, and the force applied
respect to a point
at either
end
is
17*
-f-
Prob. 35.
ieei per
its
A body
25k pounds weight; find the torque. 197 of 1000 pounds mass has linear velocities of
an d 60 feet per second
50
second 3o//45
6o//22.5;
find
kinetic energy.
Prob. 36. Show that if a system of area-vectors can be represented by the faces of a polyhedron, their resultant vanishes. Prob. 37. Show that work done by the resultant velocity is equal to the sum of the works done by its components.
Art.
7.
Product of Three Vectors.

x
a Complete Product. Let us take A = a i -f a % k r = cj cJ-\- cjs. By the product and C % of A, B, and C is meant the product of the product of A and
B = b i + bj + b k,
x
+ J
B with
C, according to the rules

%
p. 444).
Hence
)
ABC = (A + aj> + ffAX'j*' + CJ+ c k +K*A - *A>"+ Wi - a A)J+ (A - a b )k}(c i+cj+ c k) = A + A + *A)(cj + cj + ^) (1)
i
l
450
[CHAP. IX.
\at
at
Art.
7.]
PRODUCT OF THREE VECTORS.

to the
first
451
components the null term b i, and by treating i-\- SCA get the other two components similarly and adding the results we
By adding
of these
.
{b l c l a l
c x a x bî
we
SBC
obtain
V{VAB)C = - SBC A
.
+ SCA
B.
The
principle here proved
is
of great use in solving equa-
tions (see p. 455).
Example.
ing example.
Take the same three vectors Then
as in the preced-
V{VAB)C= -(2& + 40+ S4)(li + 2/+$k)
+ (; + 16 + = 7$i + 6/
The determinant
also be written in the form
27X4*
66k.
5/
+ 6)
may
expression for this partial product
K K
k
+
+
bv
a% a
J
determinant expression + a% a
x
It follows that the frequently occurring
M.
means S(VAB)(VCD).
Third Partial Product.
d*d
dA
From the determinant expression for the third product, we know that S(VAB)C=S(VBC)A = S(VCA)B = - S{VBA)C = - S(VCB)A = - S(VAC)B. Hence any of the three former may be expressed by SABC SABC. and any of the three latter by
t
The
third
product
S(VAB)C
is
represented by the vol-
parallelepiped taken in that order. The line

in
ume
of the
formed by the vectors A, B,
VAB
vab
magnitude and direction represents formed by A and B, and the the area
product of
of
VAB with
it
upon volume in magnitude and sign. Hence the volume formed by the three vectors has no direction in space, but it is positive or negative according to the cyclical order of the vectors.
is
the projection the measure of the
<P/
452
[CHAP. IX.
In the expression abc sin a/3 cos a/3y it is evident that sin afi corresponds to sin 0, and cos a/3y to cos cp, in the usual for-
mula
for the
volume
of a parallelepiped.
Example.
itself
Let the velocity of a straight wire parallel to
1000/30 centimeters per second, let the intensity 6000 /90 lines per square cenof the magnetic flux be B
be
V=
timeter, and let the straight wire
15 centimeters
60 / /45
Then V VB = 6000000 sin 6o 90 / /90 lines per centimeter per Hence S{VVB)L = 15 X 6000000 sin 6o cos0 lines second.
per second where cos0
= sin 45
sin
6o.
of the Partial Vector Products. By adding the first second partial products we obtain the total vector product and of ABC, which is denoted by V(ABC). By decomposing the
Sum
second product
we
obtain
V(ABC)
By removing
the
=
= =
SAB. C - SBC A
. .
+ SCA
.
B.
common
V(a/3y)
Similarly V(fiya)
and
V(ya/3)
multiplier abc, we get cos a/3 y cos /3y a -\- cos ya cos ya /3 -f- cos a/3 cos fiy a cos ya /? cos a/3 y cos /3y
.
.
ft.
.
y
.
a.
These three vectors have the same magnitude,

square of each
cos afi
2
for
the
]
is
2
-\-
cos fiy -f cos

that
is, I
ya
2 cos a/3 cos /3y cos
ya,
ja
fi'>
-{S(a/3y)\\ They have the directions respectively of a', kV which are the corners of the triangle
sides
whose
are
bisected
V
9
by the corners
a,
/3,
of the given triangle.
Prob. 38. Find the second partial product of
2o//30,
10 30 / /40
11
45/ /45
Also the third partial
product.
/j/+/,y+
and
/4 /
Prob. 39. Find the cosine of the angle between the plane of n x k and /a /,/+ a ^ an d the plane of is i-\-m t j -\- n z k
*'
m J 4"
w 4^
the vectors ioo/-f-5o/
Prob. 40. Find the volume of the parallelepiped determined by 25>, 50/+ 10/ 8o, and 75/+ 407 80/k
Art.
8.]
composition of quantities.
453
Prob. 41. Find the volume of the tetrahedron determined by the

'
extremities of the following vectors

3/
77
31
2j
-f-
ik
4/
-f-
5/
7^,
*, 8/
4/'
3/^.
its
Prob. 42. Find the voltage at the terminals of a conductor when velocity is 1500 centimeters per second, the intensity of the magnetic flux is 7000 lines per square centimeter, and the length of the
conductor
,
20 centimeters, the angle between the first and second and that between the plane of the first two and the direcbeing 30 tion of the third 6o. (Ans. .91 volts.)
is
Prob. 43- Let
a = 2^7/10,
fi
= J07/25
= 4^7/35-
Find
Vafiy, and deduce Vfiya and Vya/3.
Art.
8.
Composition of Quantities.
quantities are simultaneously required to find how to add or
A number
of
homogeneous
;
located at different points
it is
compound them. Addition of a Located Scalar Quantity.

mass
Let
mA
denote a
situated at the extremity of the radius-
vector A.
at the
mass
m may
any
{in
be introduced
extremity of
radius-vector R, so
ni) R -\-
that
mA =
= m R + mA
m R + m(A
mA mR
A
5
).
Here A R is a simultaneous sum, and denotes the radiusvector from the extremity of R to the extremity of A. The product m(A R) is what Clerk Maxwell called a mass-vector,
with respect to the exat the tremity of R. The equation states that the mass of the vector A is equivalent to the equal mass at extremity
of
and means the directed moment
the extremity of R, together with the said mass-vector applied The equation expresses a physical or at the extremity of R.
mechanical principle.
Hence
for
any number of masses,
at the
extremity of
lt
at the extremity of
A^
etc.,
2mA = 2m R + 2{M(A-R)\,
454

latter
[CHAP
IX..
where the
term denotes the sum of the mass-vectors,
treated as simultaneous vectors applied at a
common
point.
Since
2{m(A
moment
R)}
= 2mA = 2mA
if
2mR R2m
ir^JJÂ YMrwuir
the resultant
will vanish
or R2m = 2mA R = 2m c Let R = xi + yj + zk, Corollary.

,
and
+ bj + c k
x
then the above condition

**
may
be written as
'
2m
_
2 (ma) 2m
,
(2mb) .j, 2(mc) k

.
2m
y
,
2m
'
therefore
= 2(ma) ^
5
= 2(mb) z= 2mc ^
10 feet
(yW' Example.
pounds
Given
pounds
I
at
45//30 and
at 7 feet
6o//45
find the
moment when both
masses,
are transferred to 12 feet

;^,y4,
s
75//6o.
-f-
>j
= 5o(cos 30* + sin 30 cos 45 y w i4 = $6(cos 45? sin 45 cos 6oy {m + #z )i? = i56(cos 6oz + sin 6o cos j$ j moment = w,^, mÂ^ (w, -f )i?.
5
sm
sm
sin
45^')>
-|-
-f- sin
45
6o),
.
-\- sin
6o
sin 75vfc) >
-f-
;/z
Composition
of a
Located Vector Quantity.
Let
FA
de-
note a force applied at the extremity of the radius- vector A. As a force ma\\ introduced at the ex-
tremity of
any radius-vector
7?,
we have
==T*
at the extremity of at the extremity of
+ V(A - R)F.
F
This equation asserts that a force
applied equivalent to an equal force applied together with a couple whose magnitude
is
"
AR.T. 8.]
COMPOSITION OF QUANTITIES.
455
and direction are given by the vector product of the radiusto the extremity of A and the vector from the extremity of
force.
Hence
such as
for a
at
system of forces applied at different points,

F^ at
lt
etc.,
)
we
obtain
Since
= 2(FS + 2V(A - R)F = (2F) R + 2V(A-R)F 2V(A - R)F = 2VAF - 2VRF = 2VAF- VR2F ^^kJ\C^\J^
2(FA )
:
the condition for no resultant couple
is
VR2F=
which requires
2F to be
normal
ZVAF, to 2VAF.
ut
f^ ^ H^
Vv
Example.
Given a force
feet,
li -\- 2j -\-
$k pounds weight at
41
-\- oj -^nk pounds weight 14k feet; find the torque which must be supplied when both are transferred to 2t -\- $/-jfc 3&, so that the *** effect may be the same as before.
+ 5/+6
\oi
-\-
and a force
of ji
at
I2j^
2VAF= giTorque
VA F = &-1jf+& VA F, = 6i i2j + 6k,

t
t
iSj + gk, 2F= 8z + u/ +
14/fr,
VR2F=tfi~4j- iSk, = - 28* - 147 + 27k.
VfA3< WnIJQ
By taking the vector product of the above equal vectors we obtain with the reciprocal of
2F
Vj
By
resolves into
<yR2F)
p\
V j (2VAF)^, \
and the
right
the principle previously established the
left
member
is
-\-
SR^p. 2F;
member
equivalent to the complete product on account of the two factors being normal to one another hence
;
- R + SR~ 2F =
.
2{VAF)^.;
456
[CHAP. IX.
that
is,
R = ^p2{VAF) + SK^F SR
-
(>)
(2)
The extremity
dicular
of
of
is
on a straight line whose perpenthe vector (i) and whose direction is that
lies
the resultant force.
The term
line.
(2)
means the
projection of
upon that
The
condition for the central axis

force
is
that the
and the resultant couple should have the same direction hence it is given by
resultant
;
that
is,
V 2VAF - VR2F\ ZF = o V(VR^F)2F=V(^F)2F. -V

\
;
By expanding the left member according to the same ciple as above, we obtain ^_____^
prin-
- (2F)*R + SR2F. 2F=

R=
V{2jAF)2F;
therefore
^VSJ^SAF) + ~^. 2F = v{ir)(VZAF) + SR^.ZF

2F
This
always
is
is
now imposed on
Example.
in
the same straight line as before, only no relation is and 2VAF; hence there the directions of
a central axis.
Find the central axis

Since
for the
system of forces
J
the previous example. direction of the line is
2 F= 8z-f- 11/+ 4A
the
8/+ 117+
V64
1
14^
+
is
121
+ 196'
2VAF = gi - iSj + gk, the
Since
2j?
8/4-1
1/ 4- idk
and
31
perpendicular to the line
Prob. 44.
10 //20
Find the moment
at
qo~VA7o
c
of 10
pounds
at
4 feet
and 20 pounds
at 5 feet
30 //i2o
Art.
9.]
spherical trigonometry.
457
Prob. 45. Find the torque for qi-\-y-\-2k pounds weight at

21
y -\~ik feet, and 2/

when
transferred to
1/
3*
impounds weight
-+-
at
3/
4/'+ 5^
feet
Prob. 46. Find Prob. 47. Prove that the mass-vector drawn from any origin to a mass equal to that of the whole system placed at the center of mass of the system is equal to the sum of the mass-vectors drawn from
4^ feet. 2/ the central axis in the above case.
the same origin to
all
the particles of the system.
Art.
Let
z,j\
9.
Spherical Trigonometry.
k denote three mutually perpendicular axes. In order to distinguish clearly between an axis and a quadrantal
version round
it,
let i
n/ denote ,j", k
*
quadrantal versions in the positive sense about the axes i,j k respectively. The
s
directions of positive version are indicated
-j)
by the arrows.
% By ^*C'
is
meant the product

1;
it
of
two
^-k
i
quadrantal versions round
is
equivi\
alent to a semicircular version round
hence
w/
*t*
/%
i*
Similarly
ff
,%
t%
round/,
yoAf f
m/t t^t
means the product of two quadrantal versions ,% = -. Similarly kw/ *k v/ = & = -.
=f
By
is, feo
is
meant a quadrant round

is
followed by a quad-
rant round/;
it is
equivalent to the quadrant from
/to
i,
that
i
kn/\ Butj n/ H n/i

/,
equivalent to the quadrant from
to
that
is,
to k
w/t
.
Similarly for the other two pairs of
products.
Hence we obtain the following

Rules
/,
-ir/ a
for Versors.
__
f/tf/%
k*^*k
9^*
&/%f
f%
f/t
i*f*k
1*^*
The meaning
ing application.
of these rules will be seen
from the follow
Lei
li -f-
mj
+ nk
denote
any
axis,
then
458
{it -f-
[CHAP. IX.
denotes a quadrant of angle round that axis. This quadrantal version can be decomposed into the three
mj -f- ^)
7r
/a
n/ n/ % and these components rectangular components /i *, mj *, nJF* Simare not successive versions, but the parts of one version.
;
any other quadrantal version (l'i-\-tnj-\-n'ky* can be t, resolved into /V'*, wj n/i n'J i By applying the above rules,
ilarly
'
we
(It
obtain
+ mj + nk) \n + m'j + n'k) = (/r + mfu + nk + m'f'* + rfk

K/
w/ '
/a
w/t
)(I t
r/i
9/%
)
= -
'
(II
-\-
mm'
'
-f-
nn')
l%
- m*ny - (/' - n'l)f - (/*' - l'm)kvU = (//' + mm + o _ |( w;/ _ m ny+(nl' - n'l)j+(lm' - l'm)k\ v'\
{mri
/%
'
Product of
Two
Spherical Versors.
Let
fi
denote the
axis,
and
b the ratio of the spherical versor

itself is
PA, then the versor

b
expressed by
J3
denote the axis and

spherical versor
is
Similarly let y the ratio of the

itself
AQ,
c
.
then the versor
expressed by y
Now
and
therefore
/3
= cos b + sin b = cose sine

-\ff/a
.
F'\
y
n/ *
;
py =
+ sin b /^'X*** ^ + sin r r = cos # cos + cos b sine y cos c sin ^ + sin
(
cos '
W
/3
-\-
sin
fT y
lt,
\.
But from the preceding paragraph
^r/y/.
therefore
-f\
=_
cos
cos
py _ sin py
sin # sin
/?
Jy"/*
^^ =
c
.
cos c
sin #
.
cos /?/
ir/
.
(i)
cos 3 sin c
first
y -|-
cos
sin # sin ^ sin /?;/
/3y
*.
(2)
term gives the cosine of the product versor it is to the fundamental theorem of spherical trigonomequivalent
;
The
etry,
namely,
cos a
cos b cos
+ sin b sin
cos A,
ART.
&.]
SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
45$
in-
where
denotes the external angle instead of the angle

is
cluded by the sides. The second term

square of
rection
is
the directed sine of the angle for the equal to 1 minus the square of (1), and its dinormal to the plane of the product angle.* j '?
;
(2)
is
Example.
cos fiy
Let
fi
307/45 and y
cos 30
.
= 607/30.
sin
Then
= cos 45
+ sin 45
;
30 cos 30,
and
but
fi
sin fiy
fiy
and
= cos 45 i + sin 45 = cos 30 i + sin 30 =

j
= Vfiy cos 30/+ sin 45
sin
30
k,
;
cos 6oj-\- sin 30 sin 6o k
therefore
Vfiy
sin
45 cos 30 sin 30 sin 6o

sin
45 sin 30 sin 30 cos6o

cos 45
sin
sin
Sz"
-{-
sin
45
sin
sin
30 cos 30
30 sin6ojy
+
given versor
c
cos 45
30cos6o
45 cos
30cos 30!^.
Quotient of
is
Two
Spherical Versors. The reciprocal of a derived by changing the sign of the index
;
y~
y~
h
is
the
cos c
=
c
reciprocal of 9
sin c
.
c
.
As
fi
= cos b
-f-
sin b
n/
.
fi
*,
and
*,
fi
y~
cos b cos
c sin b
,
c -f- sin b sin c

fi
cos fiy
.
+ jcos
aa
PS.
cosb
sin c
y -\-
sin b sin c sin fiy
fiy
ff/a [
Product of Three Spherical Versors. Let denote the versor PQ, fi b the versor QR,
and y c the versor
RS
then a a fib y c denotes
Now
fi
p"
c
= =
sin a o^'Xcos b (cos a cos # cos b cos

.
+
-\-f-
sin
/f )(cos
sin
/a
+ sin
n/*
fi
a
n/
>)
(1)
4- cos a cos
sin c.
w' %
cos a cos cos
cos ^ sin
a:
+ cos a sin
*
sin c
^y
(2)
w/
w/t
71
+ cos b sin sin a y a smb. a + cos

<r.
c sin
n/
n/*
*fi
(3)
Principles of Elliptic
and Hyperbolic Analysis,
p. 2.
460
[CHAP. IX.
+ sin a sin b sin c

The
tained, namely,
*fi
(4)
versors in (3) are
expanded by the
cos
rule already ob-
0*/y/s
=_
py
_ sin
is
fly
-pp*\
The
versor of the fourth term
a"/*jf/y/*
=.
(cos a/3
+ sin a/3
ay
o.
/%
.
afiT
)y
w/t
cos a/3
sin
w/
*-{-sin a/3
cos a/3y-\-sin a/3 sin ajjSy a/3y n/ *.

.
Now
sin
ar/?
sin a/3y
ar/?;/
cos
/3
cos
/?;/
a-
(p.
45
1),
hence the
a
last
term of the product, when expanded,

cos
a-/?
.
is
sin b sin c {
9/*
+ cos
*/
cos
/?>/
a U
+ cos~o~/3y
f
Hence
cos a a/3 b y c
cos # cos b cos

cos b sin
a:
cos a sin ^ sin c cos cos

sin
/ty'
sin
ay
ar/?
cos c sin a sin
cos a/3
+
Sin a a /3 b y c
sin
sin b sin
cos afiy,
and, letting Sin denote the directed sine,
=
-j-
cos a cos b sin r cos cos

<;
;/ -f-
cos # cos r sin b cos a sin

.
/?
.
sin
a a
.
sin r sin /3y
/?;/
cos b sin
tf
sin c sin ory

a-/?
a-;/
cos c sin # sin b sin
afi
sin # sin $ sin^lcosa-/?.
;/
cos
or;/
/?
cos /3y o'J.*

.
Extension of the Exponential Theorem nometry. It has been shown (p. 458) that
cos
b
to Spherical Trigo-
/3
cos b cos c
sin b sin c cos /3y
and
b
(sin /3
y)
v/'
= cos c
cos
sin b
y^
7'
+ cos
*"
,
'
sin
<:
n/l
8
sin
sin c sin /?/
/ty^
Now
&
1
2!
r -h
4!
6!
^t
&
+ etc.
.
* In the above case the three axes of the successive angles are not independent, for the third angle must begin where the second leaves
the theorem remains true
perfectlyoff.
But
when
the axes are independent
the factors are then
quaternions in the most general sense.
Art.
9.]
spherical trigonometry.
461
and
sin b
7-r
etc.
j-
Substitute these series for cos
b,
sin b, cos
c,
and
sin c in
the above equations, multiply out, and group the terms together. It will be found that
cos
b
homogeneous
/3
\b
x
+ 2bc cos fiy +

ytf;/
+ -\\b + 4^V cos

_ -L{
where the
8
+ 6V + 4bc< cos
2
/?
+ t*J
_L.
6^V
+ 15^V + 2oV cos fiy + 5^V + 6bc* cos J3y + +.

cos
1
/?;/
c<\
.,
coefficients are those of the binomial theorem, the
only difference being that cos fly occurs in all the odd terms as a factor. Similarly, by expanding the terms of the sine, we
obtain
b
c
(Sin
/3
n/2
)
=b
o
w/*
.
fi
+c
/2
y*f*
- be sin /3y
y
" /2
n/2
.
ffy
/i /2
\
-{b\F +
_|_
lb*c.
+ zbc\l? + c\y"
n/2
_L-j^
-
_l.
Fc\ sin
/2
/?;/
fy
- \b>
1
/r
+ 5^ /* + io*v /f + 10JV r + 5^ ^ + /
/2
. .
ff/2
/2
c*
/2
1
By adding
pansion for
h
these two expansions together
we
get the ex-
fi
y\ namely,
/2
py =1 jr b,^
-\-c.
n/2
-î\b*+
2bc(cos
Py + sin
fiy
J/' ) + ?
2
+ -\\b* + 4^V(cos
/?;/
+ sin /3y
2
.
Jy'
+ 6V
462
[CHAP. IX.
By
second
restoring the minus, we find that line can be thrown into the form
I
the terms on
the
2T
!
|i'.f+2&./V
i
+^x
,
i-
and
this
is
equal to
2
rld.^ + cy'^',
of a
where we have the square

3
m
sum
of successive terms.
line
In a
similar manner the terms on the third
can be restored to
<.>
t
fit +
3j
v
I
pr + ^
t*
p/y +
f
s(n/2
)f
that
*
is,
T\\-P 3!
+ C -Y
Hence
Extension of the Binomial Theorem. We have proved * /s above that e* w/*sy w/ = *** + <W* provided that the powers of the binomial are expanded as due to a successive sum, that is, the order of the terms in the binomial must be preserved.
Hence the expansion

given by
for a
power
n/2
of a successive binomial
is
j. p*
w/
*\*
=b
n
.
/3
+ a** f-^y** n~ V V./^-^/y-f etc. +.
* At page 386 of his Elements of Quaternions, Hamilton says: "In the present theory of diplanar quaternions we cannot expect to find that the sum of
the logarithms of any two proposed factors shall be generally equal to the but for the simpler and earlier case of coplanar logarithm of the product
;
quaternions, that algebraic
property may be considered to exist, with due modification for multiplicity of value." He was led to this view by not dis-
tinguishing between vectors and quadrantal quaternions and between simultaneous and successive addition. The above demonstration was first given in
my
It
paper on "The Fundamental Theorems of Analysis generalized for Space." forms the key to the higher development of space analysis.
Art.
10.]
composition of rotations.
463
Example.
(&
Let b
ff
**
.
+*
/2
- - + ^ + 2 fc cos /?;/ + 2Msin /a^)**} = - (ilo + -h + cos fiy) - ^(sin #k)-*

J
= TV and c=^ ft = W//^> V = 6o7/3<A

-io
Substitute the calculated values of cos fty and sin fty (page 459).
Prob. 48. Find the
equivalent of
a quadrantal version
round
V~i
z"-|
V2
7=j
~\
7=& followed by a quadrantal version round r2
calProb. 49. In the example on p. 459 let b 25 and c 50 culate out the cosine and the directed sine of the product angle. Prob. 50. In the above example calculate the cosine and the directed sine up to and inclusive of the fourth power of the bino;
244
mial.
Prob. 51. Calculate

*>
the
first
four
(Ans. cos -9735-) terms of the series when
= h,c = ifor,
Prob. 52.
ft
o/fa Y
= ô7/>!.
of
From
the fundamental theorem
spherical
trigo-
nometry deduce the polar theorem with respect to both the cosine and the directed sine. b c Prob. 53. Prove that if a a ft y denote the three versors of a
, ,
spherical triangle, then

sin fty sin a
sin
ya
sin aft sin c
sin b
Art.
10.
Composition of Rotations.
change of direction of a
B
line,
A version
refers to the
but a
The composirotation refers to a rigid body. of rotations is a different matter from the tion
composition of versions. Effect of a Finite Rotation on a Line.
Sup-
pose that a rigid body rotates d radians round the axis ft passing through the point O, and that R is the radius-vector from O to some particle.
In the diagram OB represents the axis ft, and and OL, the rectangular compoOP the vector R. Draw nents of R.
OK
ftR
= (cos 6 + sin
w/
.
fi
*)rp
464
r(cos 6
[Chap. IX.
+ sin 6
=o,
f? )(cos
/2
/3p
.
=
When
The
r{cos/?p./?-|-cos
cos /?p
sin ftp
+ sin /3p sin /3p./3p\. fipfi + sin

.
/3
/3p/3)
this reduces to
pR = cos 03? + sin 0V(/3R).

general result
may
.
be written
cos 0(V/3R)ft sin 0V/1. to V(V/SR)fi because S/3R/3
directions.
2
2
/?^ = S/3R /?+

o,
Note that (VflR)/3 is equal for it involves two coincident

Example.
Let
j3
It
is.
and
= + mj -\-nk, where + w i? = then Sy&tf = lx + wj/ + nz -\-yj-\- zk = V^)/J

/*
;
-f-
and
Hence
Art.
10.]
COMPOSITION OF ROTATIONS.
is
465
fi**/*ff1*pn
f**f* +*&**$&*
which
may be expanded
according to the exponential theorem, the successive powers of the trinomial being formed according to the multinomial
theorem, the order of the factors being preserved. Composition of Finite Rotations round Axes which Inter-
Let /3 and y denote the two axes in space round which sect. the successive rotations take place, and let /3 b denote the first and y c the second. Let ft b X y c denote the single rotation
equivalent to the two given rotations applied in the sign X is introduced to distinguish from the product of versors. It has been shown in the preceding paragraph that
which
is
succession
and as the
result
is
line,
the same principle applies to the
subsequent rotation.
Hence
b
(/3
p)
= y-</\fi-*/*p/*0"/*)y</ = (y-</*fi- /*)p/\/3*/*y

b
c/2
because the factors
in
a product of versors can be associated in
any manner.
Hence, reasoning backwards,

b
/3
x y =
c
{/&*y*)\
Let
denote the cosine of
/3
b ^2
y ^, namely,
sin b/2 sin c/2, 4fc>
[
cos b/2 cos c/2
and n. v their directed
sine,
namely,
.
cos b/2 sin c/2.y J \-zos c/2 sin b/2
(3
sin b/2 sin c/2 sin (3y
/3y;
then fp
XY = ^
tf
2;/z#
v.
b
expression (fi /*y /*y is not, as might be with fi b y c The former reduces to the latsupposed, identical ter only when fi and y are the same or
Observation.
The
opposite.
c
In the figure
b
c
fi
is
represented
by PQ, y by QR, j5 y by PR, fil*yl* by b ST, and (f3 /y /2 Y by SU, which is twice
ST.
The
cosine of
SU
differs
from the
It is
cosine of
by the term (sin b/2 sin c/2 sin fiyf. the figure that their axes are also different. evident from
PR
466
Corollary.
[CHAP. IX.
b
When
c
and
.
c are
infinitesimals, cos
is
/3
and Sin
/3
X y =
Xy
i,
ft -\- c
y,
which
the parallelogram rule
for the composition of infinitesimal rotations. Prob. 54. Let

calculate ff R.
fi
3^7/45, #
fr/3>
and
R = 2/- 3/+ 4^
= - /+
2/
Prob. 55.
calculate
e
Let
/?
907/90, #
tt/4 ,
i?
fi
R.
Prob. 56. Prove by multiplying out that fi" h/*pF/*fibf*

Prob. 57. Prove by means of the exponential b c c y~ fi y has an angle b, and that its axis is y*fi. Prob. 58. Prove that the cosine of (yffVy/2)
cosine of
b
9
\/3
p}
w
/';
theorem
that
differs
from the
fi
y by
(sin - sin
sin fiy)
Prob. 59.
Compare the axes
of
(yff*/y*/*)
b
and
/3
e
.
Prob. 60. Find the value of
ft
X y when
/3
="o V/ 9 o
and
y ="^7/90.
Prob. 61. Find the single rotation equivalent to *>/ Xj n/2 X >&*/*. Prob. 62. Prove that successive rotations about radii to two
corners of a spherical triangle and through angles double *of those of the triangle are equivalent to a single rotation about the radius
to the third corner,
and through an angle double of the external
angle of the triangle.
ART.
1.]
INTRODUCTION.
46'
Chapter X.
PROBABILITY AND THEORY OF ERRORS.

By Robert
S.
Woodward,
Professor of Mechanics in Columbia University.
Art.
It is a
1.
Introduction.
curious circumstance that a science so profoundly mathematical as the theory of probability should have origi-
nated
and
games of chance which occupy the thoughtless That such is the case is sufficiently attested profligate.*
in
the
by the
fact that
much
of the terminology of the science
and
drawn directly from the and the paraphernalia of the gambler and the trickvocabulary
many
ster.
of its familiar illustrations are
It is
somewhat
of
surprising, also, considering the antiquity
chance, that formal reasoning on the simpler questions probability did not begin before the time of Pascal and Fermat. Pascal was led to consider the subject during the
of
games
in
year 1654 through a problem proposed to him by the Chevalier
de Mere, a reputed gambler.f The problem in question is known as the problem of points and may be stated as follows two players need each a given number of points to win at a
:
certain stage of their game if they stop at this stage, how should the stakes be divided ? Pascal corresponded with his friend Fermat on this question and it appears that the letters which
; ;
passed between them contained the
earliest distinct formulation
of principles falling within the theory of probability.

* The historical facts referred to in
this article are
These
drawn mostly from Tod-
hunter's History of the Mathematical Theory of Probability from the time of Pascal to that of Laplace (Cambridge and London, 1865).
Un probleme relatif aux jeux de hasard, propose aun austere janseniste " par un homme du monde, a ete l'origine du calcul des probability. Poisson, Recherches surla Probability des Jugements (Paris, 1837).
f
"
468
[Chap. X.
acute thinkers, however, accomplished little more than a correct Each seemed to rest content at the time start in the science.
Pascal soon renounced with the approbation of the other. such mundane studies altogether Fermat had only the scant leisure of a life busy with affairs to devote to mathematics; and both died soon after the epoch in question, Pascal in
;
1662,
and Fermat
in 1665.
subject which had attracted the attention of such distinguished mathematicians could not fail to excite the interest
of their contemporaries
and successors.
Amongst
the former
has the honor of publishing Huygens is the first treatise* on the subject. It contains only fourteen propositions and is devoted entirely to games of chance, but it
the most noted.
He
gave the best account of the theory down to the beginning of the eighteenth century, when it was superseded by the more elaborate works of
Through
James Bernoulli, f Montmort,J and De Moivre. the labors of the latter authors the mathematical
theory of probability was greatly extended. They attacked, quite successfully in the main, the most difficult problems;
and great credit
energy and ability displayed in developing a science which seemed at the time to have no higher aim than intellectual diversion.) Their names,
is
due them
for the
undoubtedly, with one exception, that of Laplace, are the most important in the history of probability.
Since the beginning of the eighteenth century almost every mathematician of note has been a contributor to or an expositor of the theory of probability.
Nicolas, Daniel,
and John
Bernoulli, Simpson, Euler, d'Alembert, Bayes, Lagrange, Lambert, Condorcet, and Laplace are the principal names which
figure in the history of the subject during the
hundred years
*De
f
Ratiociniis in
Ludo
Alese, 1657.
Ars Conjectandi, 1713.
JEssai d'Analyse sur les Jeux de Hazards, 1708. The Doctrine of Chances, 1718.
I
work on Chances, where with

to Mathematicians."
Todhunter says of Montmort, for example, "In 1708 he published his the courage of Columbus he revealed a new world
Art.
1.]
INTRODUCTION.
469
ending with the first quarter of the present century. Of the contributions from this brilliant array of mathematical talent, the Theorie Analytique des Probabilites of Laplace is by far
the most profound and comprehensive. canique Celeste in dynamical astronomy,
rate treatise on the subject.
It
still
is,
like
his
Me-
the most elabo-
idea of the grand scale of the work in its present form* maybe gained by, the facts that the non-mathematical introductionf covers about one hundred and
An
and that, in spite of the extraordinary quarto pages brevity of mathematical language, the pure theory and its accessories and applications require about six hundred and fifty
fifty
;
pages.
From the epoch of Laplace down to the present time the extensions of the science have been most noteworthy in the fields of practical applications, as in the adjustment of observations, and in problems of insurance, statistics, etc.
Amongst
the most important of the pioneers in
these fields should
be mentioned Poisson, Gauss, Bessel, and De Morgan. Numerous authors, also, have done much to simplify one or another branch of the subject and thus bring it within the range
The fundamental principles of of elementary presentation. the theory are, indeed, now accessible in the best text-books
on algebra and there are many excellent treatises on the pure theory and its various applications.
:
is
the applications of the doctrine of probability none In astronomy, of greater utility than the theory of errors.
Of
all
geodesy, physics, and chemistry, as

tains
in
every science which
at-
precision knowledge of the theory of errors
in
measuring, weighing, and

is
computing, a
indispensable.
By
the aid
of this theory the exact sciences have
made
great progress dur-
*The form
of the third edition published in 1820, and of Vol. VII of the
complete works of
Laplace
recently
republished Hinder the auspices of the
Academie des Sciences by Gauthier-Villars. This Vol. VII bears the date 1886. " Cette Introduction," writes Laplace, "est le developpement d'une Lecon f
sur les Probabilites, que je donnai en 1795, aux Ecoles Normales, ou je fus appele comme professeur de Mathematiques avec Lagrange, par un decret de la
Convention nationale."
470
[CHAP. X.
ing the present century, not only in the actual determination of the constants of nature, but also in the fixation of clear
ideas as to the possibilities of future conquests in the
rection.
Nothing,
for
example,
is
more
satisfactory
same and
diin-
structive in the history of science than the success with
which
the unique method of least squares has been applied to the problems presented by the earth and the other members of the
great, in fact, are the practical value theoretical importance of the method of least squares, that
solar system.
So
and
it is
frequently mistaken for the whole theory of errors, and is sometimes regarded as embodying the major part of the doctrine of probability itself.
As may be
probability and
inferred from this brief sketch, the theory of
its more important applications now constitute an extensive body of mathematical principles and precepts. Obviously, therefore, it will be impossible within the limits of
a single chapter of this volume to do more than give an outline of the salient features of the subject. It is hoped, however, in accordance with the general plan of the volume, that
such outline will prove suggestive and helpful to those who may come to the science for the first time, and also to those
who, while somewhat familiar with the difficulties to be overtome, have not acquired a working knowledge of the subject. Effort has been made especially to clear up the difficulties of
the theory of errors by presenting a somewhat broader view of the elements of the subject than is found in the standard treatises, which confine attention almost exclusively to the
This chapter stops short of that method, and seeks to supply those phases of the theory which are either notably lacking or notably erroneous in works
of least squares.
method
hitherto published. It is believed, also, that the elements here presented are essential to an adequate understanding of the
well-worked domain of least squares.*

*The
author has given a brief but comprehensive statement of the method
of least squares in the
volume
of Geographical Tables published
by the Smith-
sonion Institution, 1894,
Art.
2.]
PERMUTATIONS.
471
Art.
2.
Permutations.
results of the theory of permutations combinations are often needed for the statement and soand This theory is now to be lution of problems in probabilities.
The formulas and
found
in
most works on algebra, and
it
will therefore suffice
here to state the principal formulas and illustrate their meaning by a few numerical examples.
The number
is
of permutations of
ft
things taken r in a group
expressed by the formula

(n) r
= n {n -
\){n
2)
- r+
=
i).
(i)
Thus, to illustrate, the number of ways the four letters a, b, d can be arranged in groups of two is 4 3 12, and the groups
.
are
ab
bay
ac,
ca,
ad
da
be,
cb,
bd>
db,
cd
dc
Similarly, the formula gives for ft ss 2, 3.2 (3), 3 and r " n 7.6.5 7 (7) 3 n 10 " r 6y 10.9.8.7.6. (io) 6
r=3,
= = =
=6,
=210,
5
151200.
which follow from equation (1) when n and r do not exceed 10 each are embodied in the following table
The
results
Values of Permutations.
472
[CHAP. X.
that headed with
noticed that the last two numbers in each column (excepting This accords with the fori) are the same.
in
mula, which gives for the number of permutations of n things groups of n the same value as for n things in groups of
i).
number in each column of the table is the factorial, nl, of the number n at the head of the column. For example, in the column under 7, the last number is 5040 == 1.2.3.4.5.6.7 = 7!.
(n
It will also
be remarked that the
last
The
in
total
number
of permutations of n things taken singly,

etc., is
groups of two, three,
given by
equation (1) for all values of r
found by summing the numbers from I to n. Calling
this total or
sum SPi
it
will
be given by
(2)
To
illustrate,
= 2(n) suppose n = 3, and,

S>
to fix
the ideas,
let
the
three things be the three digits 1, 2, 3. Then from the above 6 6 table it is seen that Sp or, that the number 3 15 of numbers (all different) which can be formed from those dig-
= + + =
1, 2,
its is fifteen.
These numbers are
12, 13, 21, 23,. 31,
32;
123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321.
The
values of
Sp
for n
1, 2,
corresponding columns
large the direct
of the
... 10 are given under the But when n is above table.
impracticable.
summation indicated by (2) is tedious, if not Hence a more convenient formula is desirable.
(1)
To
get
this,
observe that
may be
written
if
is
restricted to integer values
inclusive.
This suffices
between 1 and {n 1), both which appear in the to give all terms
as for r
right-hand
for r
member
1)
is
of (2), since the
= (n
the
same
number of permutations n. Hence it appears
that
^ = *! + T + 7^ + .-.^
ryr
Art.
3.]
COMBINATIONS.
!
473
But as n increases, the series by which n is here multiplied approximates rapidly towards the base of natural logarithms
that
is,
towards
^
271828184-,
log e
= 0.4342945.
(3)
Hence
for large values of n
SP
n\
e,
approximately.*
To get an idea of the degree of approximation of (3), supThen the computation runs thus (see values in 9. pose n
the above table)
9!
e
=
=
log
362880
5-5597 6 3
0.4342945
9!*
986410
5-9940575
(2).
Sp =
The
about one-millionth of
986409 by equation
is
error in this case
thus seen to be only one unit, or
Sp .\
.
.
Prob. 1. Tabulate a list of the numbers of three figures each which can be formed from the first five digits 1, How many 5. numbers can be formed from the nine digits ? Prob. 2. Is Sp always an odd number for n odd ? Observe
.
values of Sp in the table above.
Art.
3.
Combinations.
In permutations attention is given to the order of arrangement of the things considered. In combinations no regard is
Thus, the permutations of paid to the order of arrangement. the letters a, b, c, d in groups of three are
(abc)
(add)
bac
bad
dac
dbc
acb
bca
(acd)
(bed)
cab cba
cad
cbd
deb
adb bda
adc
bde
dab
dba
cda
cdb
dca
* See Art. 6 for a formula for computing n\ when n is a large number. When large numbers are to be dealt with, equations (1)' and (3) are easily f
managed by logarithms,
Such tables are given
the
especially
if
to six places in
a table of values of log (!) is available. De Morgan's treatise on Probability in

five places
in
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana, and to

I,
Shortrede's Tables
(Vol.
1849).
474

if
[CHAP. X.
the order of arrangement is ignored all of these are seen to be repetitions of the groups enclosed in parentheses, namely, (abc)> (add), (acd), (bed). Hence in this case out of
But
twenty-four permutations there are only four combinations.
formula for computing the number of combinations of n things taken in groups of r things is easily derived.
A general
For the number
of permutations of n things in groups of r
is
by
(i) of Art. 2
(n) r
n(n
\)(n
2)
...(
1
.
+
.
i)
.
and since each group

mutations, the
of (n) r
eral
of r things gives
2. 3
,_r
= r!
per-
by
r\.
is
number Denote
of combinations
this
must be the quotient

C(ii) r .
number by
Then the gen-
formula
C(n) r
= (-)(" -*) ;(-'+
(I)
This formula gives, for example, in the case of the four letters a, b, c, d taken in groups of three, as considered above,
Multiply both numerator and denominator of the right-hand
member
of (1)
by
(n
r)\
The
result
is
flW** r\(n-r)
'
which shows that the number of combinations of n things in groups of r is the same as the number of combinations of n
Thus, the number of combinathings in groups of (n r). tions of the first ten letters a, b, c ,j in groups of three or
.
.
seven
is
10!
3 .7*
f
120.
The
following table gives the values C(n) r for

1
all
values of
n and r from
to 10.
The mode of using this table is evident. For example, the number of combinations of eight things in sets of five each is
found on the
fifth line of
the column headed 8 to be 56.
Art.
3.]
COMBINATIONS.
Values of Combinations.
475
476

of
this
[CHAP. X.
The second member Hence * (i + Y

l c
equation
is
evidently equal to
S =2C(n) r
The
values of
= 2-i.
and r from
I
(3)
for values of n
to 10 are given
table.
under the corresponding columns of the above
Prob. 3. How many different squads of ten men each can be formed from a company of 100 men ? Prob. 4 How many triangles are formed by six straight lines each of which intersects the other five? Prob.
5.
Examine
this
statement
"
:
In dealing a pack of cards
the number of hands, of thirteen cards each, which can be produced But in whist four hands are simultaneously held, is 635 013 559 600.
and the number of
distinct deals
would require twenty-eight
figures to express it."*
Prob. 6. Assuming combination always possible, and disregarding the question of proportions, find how many different substances could be produced by combining the seventy-three chemical elements.
Art.
If it is
trial
4.
Direct Probabilities.
two events must occur in any can occur in a ways and the which ways are equally likely to hapfirst
known
that one of
or instance, and that the
second
in b ways, all of then the probability that the pen,
first will
happen
is
expressed
mathematically by the fraction a/(a-\-b), while the probability Such events are said that the second will happen is b/(a b).
to be mutually exclusive.
Denote
their probabilities
by p and
q respectively.
Then
there result
the last equation following from the first two and being the mathematical expression for the certainty that one of the two
events must happen.

" " Thus, to illustrate, in tossing a coin it must give head or " tail" a b I, and p q = 1/2. Again, if an urn contain
;
= =
white and b
*
=8
black
balls,
the probability of drawing

York, 1874,
p. 217.
Jevons, Principles of Science,
New
Art.
4.]
direct probabilities.
trial is
477
a white ball in one
black one q =
Similarly,
5/13 and that of drawing a
if
8/13. there are several mutually exclusive events

in a, b, c.
, .
which can occur

ities/, q, r
. .
.
ways
b
respectively, their probabil-
are given
' .
by
a a +6+c+.
q ~~
a+b+c+.
'
. .
a +b+c-\-.
'
..
(2)
For example,
and
r
<:
if
an urn contain
=6
a=4
=
white, b
black,
and red
red balls, the probabilities of drawing a white, black, ball at a single trial are ^ 4/15, ^=5/15, and
6/15, respectively.
Formulas
cases, but
it
be applied to a wide variety of must suffice here to give only a few such. As a
(1)
and
(2)
may
first illustration,
consider the probability of drawing at

list
number
of three figures from the entire

first
of
random numbers which

glance at the
can be formed from the

table of Art.
this
1
seven
digits.
case
shows that the symbols of formula (1) have in the values #=2io, and # Hence =13699.
13489, and
is
= 210/13699
that
is,
the probability in ques-
tion
about 1/65.
Secondly, what is the probability of holding in a hand of whist all the cards of one suit ? Formula (1) of Art. 3 shows
that the
number
of different
hands of thirteen cards each which

is
may
be formed from a pack of fifty-two cards

52. 51. 50... 40 !L_ 2 i ? I 2 3 ... 13
. .
_6 350I3 JD D
is,
DDy 559600,
and the probability required
is
the reciprocal of this number.

therefore, very nearly
The
probability against
this event
unity.
an urn containing 4 white,

triad of balls
Thirdly, consider the probabilities presented by the case of 5 black, and 6 red balls, from which
at a single trial three balls are to
be drawn.
all
Evidently the
all
drawn may be
all
white,
black,
red, partly
white and black, partly white and red, partly black and red, or
478
[Chap. X.
one each of the white, black, and red. There are thus seven The theory different probabilities to be taken into account.
of combinations
shows
(see equation (i), Art. 3) that the total
number
White
of
triads
4.3.2
I
.
Black triads
Red
triads
White and black
triads
White and red
triads
Black and red triads
White, black, and red triads
ART.
5.]
PROBABILITY OF CONCURRENT EVENTS.

5.
479
Art.
If
Probability of Concurrent Events.

x
the probabilities of two independent events are p and in any respectively, the probability of their concurrence
is
single instance
pfx
of
and
the
first
Thus, suppose there are two urns which contains a white and b black
x
x
balls,
and the second a % white and b t black
balls.
Then the
aj(a
2
x
probability of drawing a white ball from while that of drawing a white ball from
U U
9
is
=s
-\-
)>
is/, = ^ /(^ + &,)

a
The total number of different pairs of balls which can be formed from the entire number of balls is (a b^(a% + b ). Of these
x
in simulpairs a a % are favorable to the concurrence of white taneous or successive drawings from the two urns. Hence the
x
probability of a concurrence of
white with white

white with black
black with black
= a aj(a b \a + = {a b^-\- ajb )/{a + b )(a + ^ = b bj{a + b )(a -f

x
-f-
A,),
x
2 )>
&,),
and the sum of these

Article
4.
is
unity, as required
by equations
(2)
of
In general, if/,,
A
P
independent events, and

concurrence,
denote the probabilities of several denote the probability of theii

(1)
P = AAP*-=A =A =
suppose there is required the three aces with three dice thrown simulprobability of getting l In this case/, taneously. /& an d
illustrate this formula,
To
p=(i/6y=
Similarly,
bility
1/2
if
16.
two dice are thrown simultaneously the probathat the sum of the numbers shown will be 1 1 is 2/36;
will
is
and the probability that this sum 11 sive throws of the same pair of dice
appear
in
two succes-
4/36.36.
The
will
probability that the alternatives of a series of events

is
concur
evidently given by
(1
Q=
M& ...
- A) =
(1
- A)d - A)(i -A).
(2)
Thus, in the case of the three dice

probability that each will
mentioned above, the

is
show something other than an ace
480
q qi =zq i
is
[CHAP. X.
= 5/6, and
the probability that they will concur in
125/216. cases of interest occur for the application of (1) and Many One of the most important of these is furnished by suc(2).
cessive trials of the
this
same event.
may happen
is
in
trials of
an event
Consider, for example, what for which the probability

is q.
.
p and against which the probability

\s
The
that the event will occur every time

l
The
probability probability that
in succession and then fail is the event will occur (n 1) times n ~ But if the order of occurrence is disregarded this last p q.
combination
n
may
arrive in n different
ways
1)
so that the probfail
ability that the event will occur (n

~
1
times and
once
is
np
(
q.
2)
Similarly, the probability that the event will happen n2 times and fail twice is \n(ii That is, i)p~ q*; etc.
the probabilities of the several possible occurrences are given the corresponding terms in the development of (/ -j- q) n
.
by
By the same reasoning used to get equations (2) of Art. it may be shown that the maximum term in the expansion
n
-\-
of (p
q)
is
that in
the whole
number
of
which the exponent lying between (n-^ \)q
;;/,
say,
of
is
and
(n
-f- i)q.
In other words, the
occurrence
times.
all
When
most probable result in n trials is the the event {n m) times and its failure m n is large this means that the most probable of
is that in which the event occurs n nq times and fails nq times. Thus, if the event n(i q) np be that of throwing an ace with a single die the most probable
possible results
of the possible results in
600 throws
is
that of 100 aces and
500
failures.
Since q n is the probability that the event will fail every time in n trials, the probability that it will occur at least once in n n * trials is I q Calling this probability r
.
r=
If r in this
i-2=
of
-(1
-/)*.
1/2, the
(3)
equation be replaced by
the
corresponding
value
of
is
number
trials
essential to render the
* See Poisson's Probability des Jugements, pp. 40, 41.
Art.
5.]
probability of concurrent events.
481
chances even that the event whose probability is/ will occur at least once. Thus, in this case, the value of n is given by
log 2
log(i-'
This shows, for example, if the event be the throwing of double sixes with two dice, for which / = 1/36, that the chances are
even
1/2) that in 25 throws (n double sixes will appear at least once.
(r
= 24.614 by
the formula)
it is finite,
Equation (3) shows that however small/ may be, so long as n may be taken so large as to make r approach in;
definitely near to unity

it
that
is,
may
be so large as to render
practically certain that the event will occur at least once.
When
(1
n
i
is
large
-py = -nP
+
.
n(n K
i
1)
V
.
n(n v
i)(n
2)
lt ;\ 3
y + ..
,
= = e~
I
np
np
-\-
1.2
1.2.3'
is
approximately.
value of r
~
n
>,
Thus an approximate
r
1
= -e
\oge
= 0.4342495.
(4)
This formula gives, for example, for the probability of drawing: the ace of spades from a pack of fifty-two cards at least once in 2 e~ 0.865, while the exact formula (3) 104 trials r = 1
gives 0.867.
Similarly, the probability of the occurrence of the event at
least t times in n trials will
n Of rom P
f
of (/
bility
-f-
U P to tnat
be given by the sum of the terms m Pt^ n ~ inclusive. This probat
must be carefully distinguished from the probability that

trials,
the event will occur
t times only in the n the single term in /^n ~'. expressed by
the latter being'
Prob.
five
9.
Compare the
hands of whist with the probability cf folding
probability of holding exactly four aces in* at least four aces;
in the
same number of hands.

10.
it
Prob.
even that
What is the probability of an event if the chances are occurs at least once in a million trials? See equation (4).
482
[CHAP, X.
Art.
6.
Bernoulli's Theorem.
of
T.
Denote the exponents of/ and q in the maximum term n (p -f- q) by yu and in respectively, and denote this term by
Then
n(n r= -
i)0
2)
r
O + >y = -;n
i)
./v*-
As shown in Art. 5, M in this formula is the greatest whole number in (n -f- i)A and m the greatest whole number in an<^ ^ are sensibly equal (n -f- x )^ so tnat wnen ^ is ar g e M
l
>
to np and nq respectively.
The
is large.
is
direct calculation of
by
(1) is
impracticable
when n
To overcome
,!
this difficulty the following expression
used:*
= ,W^(i+^ +
= 0.4342495,
log 2?t
^+...).
(2)
log e
= 0.7981799.
This expression approaches n n e~ n ^2nn as a limit with the increase of n, and in this approximate form is known as Stirling's
theorem.
small values of
Although a rude approximation to n for n this theorem suffices in nearly all cases
!
wherein such probabilities as the theorem in (1) it becomes
T are
l
.
desired.
Making use
of
T^m
That
n
is
(3)
this
is
formula affords a
fair
approximation even when
small
seen from the case of a die thrown 12 times.
The
probability that any particular face will appear in one throw is 1/6, whence q 5/6; and the most probable result in 12 /
throws
fails
is
to appear ten times.

(3) is 0.309,
that in which the particular face appears twice and The probability of this result com-
puted from
while the exact formula
(1)
gives 0.296.
of times
The
probability that the event will occur a

is
number
* This expression
due
to
Laplace, Theorie Analytique des Probabilities.
See also De Morgan's Calculus, pp. 600-604.
Art.
6.]
Bernoulli's theorem.
(/*
483
is
comprised between
a) and
(ju -j-
a) in n trials
evidently-
n expressed by the sum of the terms in (p -j- q) for which the exponent of p has the specified range of values. Calling this
probability R, putting
ja
up
-f- u,
and
m=
nq
u,
is
and using
number),*
Stirling's
theorem (which implies that n
a large
^27tnpq
;
npi
nq/
very nearly and the summation is with respect to u from But expansion shows that the natural a to u a. u logarithm of the product of the two binomial factors in this
=+
equation
is
approximately
if/2npq.
'
Hence
;
R= 2
and, since n
is
p-^Mi
V27tnpq
supposed
large, this
may be
z
i
replaced by a definite
integral, putting
dz
i/Y2npq,
and
u /2npq.
l
Thus
+ a/ \/%npq
a/ Vzitpq
This equation expresses the theorem of James Bernoulli,

given
in his
Ars Conjectandi, published
in 171 3.
The
value of the right-hand

1,
member
of (4) varies, as
it
should, between o and

idly as z increases.
and approaches the
latter limit rap-
Thus, writing for brevity
?/'"
* See Bertrand, Calcul des Probability, Paris, 1889, for an extended discussion of the questions considered in this Article.
484

:
[CHAP. X.
the following table shows the march of the integral

z
Art.
7.]
INVERSE PROBABILITIES.
485
diminished so long as the ratio of white to black balls is kept Make these numbers the same for the two urns. constant.
Thus
let
the
first
8 white
and 16 black
contain 9 white and 15 black, and the second whence the above probabilities may be
;
It is now seen that there written 1/2 x 9/24 and 1/2 X 8/24. are (9 -f- 8) cases favorable to the production of a white ball,
each of which has the same antecedent probability, namely, 1/2. Since the fact that a white ball was drawn excludes consideration of the black balls, the probability that the white ball
came
from
is
9/17 and that

unity, as
it
it
came from
cT, is
8/17
and the sum
of these
is
should be.
To
generalize this result, let there be

their direct probabilities
Denote
probabilities
by r
rm
m causes, Clt Cv . . Cm by qv q^... q m their antecedent and their resultant probabilities

.
.
\
on the supposition That is,
of
separate
existence
by A>A>
A(0
A=
?i r i>
A = qs
s
.../
= qmTm-
Let
bers in
D be the common
(1),
denominator of the right-hand memand denote the corresponding numerators of the
several fractions
by
sz
sm
Then
A = sJD, A = */A
and
it
-../
all {s x
= sJD
s% -f.
.
is
seen that there are in
s m ) equally
possible cases, and that of these st are favorable to
lf
s^
to
9i
Hence,
if
P P
lt
Pm
denote the probabilities of
the several causes on the supposition of their coexistence,

P.
= *A*i + +
s>
x
*m)
= AAA +A +
A)-
Thus
in
general
P = A/Â
To
illustrate the
P>
=
it
PJ2P, ...Pm
suffices to
= pm/2p.
(2)
meaning
of these formulas
by the above
concrete case of the urns

for
for
observe that
U
U
lt
it
whence and
= 3/8 and r, = 1/2, = 1/3 and r = 1/2 4, = 3/16, p = 1/6, A + A = p P =9/i7, ^=8/17.
q
x
7/tf>
As
a second illustration, suppose
it
is
known
that a white
486
ball has
balls,
[CHAP. X.
been drawn from an urn which originally contained

of
in
is
some
them being
black,
if all
are not white.
What
the probability that the urn contained exactly n white balls? different and equally probable The facts are consistent with hypotheses (or causes), namely, that there were I white and
(tn
i)
black
balls,
1
2
.
white and
. .
{in
2)
black balls, etc.
Hence
in (1),
x
p
Thus
and
=g = \/m, p = 2/m,
q
2
=
. .
I,
.
and
pn
= n/m, .../=
).
m/m.
2p= (l/2)(#*+l), 2n / ,=A/S>= W(W+I

> it
This shows, as
probable number for this number is
to
I
evidently should, that n of white balls in the urn.
m
The
is
the most
Pm =
2/{m
1),
probability which reduces, as it ought,
for
I.
to the problem of (1) and (2) may also be applied the probability of the occurrence of an event from estimating the concurrent testimony of several witnesses, lt
Formulas
X X
Denote the
x xv
x
probabilities that the witnesses tell the truth by Then, supposing them to testify independently,
the probability that they will concur in the truth concerning while the probability that they will conthe event is x x^
.
cur in the only other alternative, falsehood,
is (1
^(1
;ra
The two
(1)
alternatives are equally possible.
Hence by equations
x,)
. .
and
(2)
/,
=xx
x
.,
p% =
xx
*
(I
- x$\ l
.,
xx
1
...
+ (i-x +
(1
)(i
-*,)'
x%)
.
M
tells
^
P
1
x x^
x
0(i
.'
being the probability for and
that against the event.

1
To
P-x
if
illustrate (3),
5
if
truth and
to
that
the chances are 3 to X^ tells the truth, x,

1
that X,
the
the chances are 15 to they agree in asserting that it did.*
15/16;
or,
5/6, 3/4, x^ that an event occurred
and
* For some interesting applications of equations

to the Ninth Bridgewater Treatise
(3) see note
of
Appendix
by Charles Babbage (London,
1838).
Art.
8.]
probabilities of future events.
487
if
It is of theoretical interest to
(3)
observe that
x
xlt x
are
each greater than 1/2,

of witnesses
is
approaches unity as the
number
indefinitely increased.
The groups of numbers of one figure each, two figures three figures each, etc., which it is possible to form from the each, nine digits 1, 2, ... 9 are printed on cards and placed severally in
Prob. 13.
nine similar urns. What is the probability that the number 777 will be drawn in a single trial by a person unaware of the contents of the urns ?
Prob. 14.
How many
make
are essential to
witnesses whose credibilities are each 3/4

==
0.999
equation
(3)
Art.
manner:
8.
Probabilities of Future Events.

of Art. 7
.
Equations
(2)
may be
'
written in the following
p
If
pm
2p'
>
p /,... pm
lt
are found
by observation,
P P
t,
ti
Pm will
ex-
press the probabilities of the corresponding causes or their effects. When, as in the case of most physical facts, the num-
ber of causes and events
is
indefinitely great, the value of
any
or
in (1)
becomes
indefinitely small,
and the value
of
2p
must be expressed by means of a definite integral. Let x denote the probability of any particular cause, or of the event to which it gives rise. Then, supposing this and all the other
causes mutually exclusive, (1 x) will be the probability the event. Now suppose it has been observed that in against
(in
+ n) cases the event in question has

The
n
y
occurred
m
is
times and
is,
failed n times.
Art.
by unknown, it may be assumed to have any value within the limits o and 1 and all such values are a priori equally possible. Put
5,
probability of such a concurrence

c is a constant.
cxm {\
x)
where
Since
y
Then
signed possible limits a
cx m {\
X)
evidently the probability that
will fall
within any as-
and b
a
is
expressed by the fraction

1
Jydx J J ydx\
488
[CHAP. X.
so that the probability of any particular
is
given by
fxM (i
This
x)
dx
may be
then
regarded as the antecedent probability of the

in question.
is
cause or event
the probability that in the next {r -f- s) trials the event will occur r times and fail s times, if no regard is had of the order of occurrence? If x were known, the answer
What
would be by Arts. 2 and
*$**-*
But
since
(3)
(2),
is
restricted only
by the condition
the required
(2)
probability will be found by taking the product of and integrating throughout the range of x. Thus,
and
(3)
calling the
required probability Q,
1
^V-,
(r+s)l
r\s\
fx t
I
m+r
(i
x) n
n+s
dx
'
(4)
xm {i
x)
dx
The
definite integrals
which appear here are known as

all
Gamma
functions.
They
are discussed in
the Integral Calculus. treatises there results *
of the higher treatises on the rules derived in such Applying
y
If regard
is
(r
+ s)l(m + r)l{n + s)$m + n+i)\

r\s\m\n\(tn-\- n
-\-
-\- s
+1)!
of the event
'
had to the order of occurrence
that
the probability required is that of the event happenr times in succession and then failing s times in succession, ing
is, if
It is
values of m, n,
a remarkable fact that formula (5) is true without restriction as to The formula may be established by elementary considerar, s.
tions, as was done by Prevost and Lhuilier, 1795. he Theory of Probability, pp. 453-457-
See Todhunter's History of
Art.
8.]
probabilities of future events.

(r -f- s)
489
the factor
unity.
\/r
\s
in (3), (4), (5)
must be replaced by
To
illustrate these formulas,
has happened
ability that
it
times and
failed
suppose first that the event no times. What is the probtrial ?
will
occur at the next
In this case (4)
gives
m Q = fxm+1 dx/ Cx dx =
(m
-\-
$/{m
2).
When m
sun has
is
large this probability
is
risen without failure a great

it
nearly unity. Thus, the the number of times
probability that
I
will rise
to-morrow
is
+ i)( I+
1.
y'= I+
which
is
practically
an unknown
Secondly, suppose an urn contains white and black balls in If in ten trials 7 white and 3 black balls ratio.
are drawn, what is the probability that in the next five trials 2 white and 3 black balls will be drawn ? The application of {5) supposes the ratio of the white and black balls in the urn
to remain constant.
after each drawing, or
This
if
will follow
if
the balls are replaced

is
the
number
of balls in the urn
sup-
posed
infinite.
The data
n
n
-\- s
give
3,
m=
7,
m-{-r = g,
= 6,
m -\- n -{- r -\- s ~\Thus by

(5)
.
= 2, + = 5, = 16.
r
^
1
*0
= = + #+l
s
3,
ll,
G= 2!S\g\6lii\ = 3o/91 3 !7! 3 !i6!
Suppose there are two mutually exclusive events, the
first
of which has happened m times and the second n times in *n-\-n trials. What is the probability that the chance of the occurrence of the first exceeds 1/2 ? The answer to this question is given directly by equation (2) by integrating the numerator between the specified limits of x. That is,
490

i
[CHAP X.
fx
{\
xfdx
(6)
P~~,
fx
o
m
(i
xfdx
;
I and k Thus, if o, P 3/4 or the odds are three to one that the event is more likely to happen than not. Similarly, if the event has occurred m times in succession,
m=
P=
Art.
9.
-(i/2)
w+1
,
which approaches unity rapidly with increase of
n.
Theory of Errors.
The theory of errors may be defined as that branch of mathematics which is concerned, first, with the expression of the remore sources of error to which comand observed quantities are subject and, secondly, with puted the determination of the relation between the magnitude of an error and the probability of its occurrence. In the case of computed quantities which depend on numerical data, such as
sultant effect of one or
;
tables of logarithms, trigonometric functions, etc., it is usually possible to ascertain the actual values of the resultant errors.
In the case of observed quantities, on the other hand, it is not generally possible to evaluate the resultant actual error, since
the actual errors of observation are usually unknown.
In either
however, it expression which

Case,
always possible to write down a symbolical will show how different sources of error enter
is
;
and
affect the
is
expression
of
aggregate error and the statement of such an fundamental importance in the theory of errors.
To
fix
the ideas, suppose a quantity

.
to be a function of
several independent quantities x, y, z
.;
that
is,
Q=f{*>y,
and
in
let it
*)
. .
x,
be required to determine the error in Q due to errors Denote such errors by A Q, Ax, Ay, Az y, z
.
.
Then, supposing the errors so small that their squares, products,
and higher powers may be neglected, Taylor's
series gives
Art.
10.]
LAWS OF ERROR.
491
This equation
may
in
of the function
be said to express the resultant actual error terms of the component actual errors, since
the actual value of

x, y, z
.
. .
AQ
It
is
known when
the actual errors of
are known.
. .
quantities x, y, z independent of one another.

.
should be carefully noted that the are supposed subject to errors which are
The discovery
of the
sources of error
is
sometimes a matter
of difficulty,
independent and in general

if
requires close attention on the part of the student
he would
avoid blunders and misconceptions. Every investigator in work of precision should have a clear notion of the error-equation of
the type (i) appertaining to his work for it is thus only that he can distinguish between the important and unimportant
;
sources of error.
Prob. 15. Write out the error-equation in accordance with (1) % Q xyz -\- x log (y/z).
16.
for the function
Prob.
in a
In a plane triangle a/b

b,
sin ^4/sin
B.
Find the error
due
to errors in
A, and B.
^ = ^,+1(180-^- B- Q, B = B, + i(i8o - A-B - C ), where A B C are observed values. What then is Aa Prob. 18. If w denote the weight of a body and r the radius of the earth, show that for small changes in altitude, Aw/w= 2Ar/r\
x
Prob. 17. Suppose in place of the data of problem 16 that the angles used in computation are given by the following equations
:
it
whence, if a precision of one part in 500000000 is attainable in comparing two nearly equal masses, the effect of a difference in altitude of one centimeter in the scale-pans of a balance will be noticeable.*
Art.
10.
Laws of Error.
which expresses the relative terms of their magnitudes.
let e
A law
of error
is
a function
frequency of occurrence of errors in
Thus, using the customary notation,
denote the magni-
* This problem arose with the International Bureau of Weights and Measures^
whose work
of intercomparison of the
Prototype Kilogrammes attained a pre-
cision indicated by a probable error of 1/500 000 oooth part of a
kilogramme.
492

o.
[Chap. X.
tude
any error
in a
of such system
may
system of possible errors. Then the law be expressed by an equation of the form
= K4
(0
Representing e as abscissa and y as ordinate, this equation gives a curve called the curve of frequency, the nature of which, This as is evident, depends on the form of the function 0.
equation gives the relative frequency of occurrence of errors in the system so that if e is continuous the probability of the
;
occurrence of any particular error
expressed by yde cp(e)de; which is infinitesimal, as it plainly should be, since in any continuous system the number of different values of e is infinite.
is
Consider the simplest form of 0(e), namely, that in which This form of 0(e) obtains in the case of c a constant. 0(e)
the errors of tabular logarithms, natural trigonometric funcIn this case all errors between minus a half-unit tions, etc.
and plus a
to occur.
half-unit of the last tabular place are equally likely
just cited belongs, all errors
Suppose, to cover the class of cases to which that a and -\- a between the limits
probability of any individual cde, and the sum of all such prob4,
are equally likely to occur. error will then be cf>(e)de

abilities,
The
by equation
(2),
Art.
must be
-H*
unity.
That
is,
+*
/ <p(e)de
-a
= c jde = a
I.
(2)
This gives
Q
=
.d
1/20, or
by (1) y = i/2a. The curve of frequency in this case is shown in the figure,
It
is
AB
being the axis of e and OQ that of y. evident from this diagram that if the
errors of the system be considered with
respect to magnitude only, half of
them
should be greater and half less than a/2. This is easily found to be so in the case of
tabular logarithms, etc. As a second illustration of
(1),
suppose
is
y and
connected
circle,
by the relation^ = c Va
2
,
where a
the radius of a
ART.
c
11.]
TYPICAL ERRORS OF A SYSTEM.
493
a constant, and e
may have any

+a
value between
a and
-f- a.
Then
the condition
cjde Va'-e*
a
In this, as in the preceding case, <p(-\- e) 2/(0*71). the meaning of which is that positive and negative 0( e), errors of the same magnitude are equally likely to occur. It
gives c
will be noticed, however, that in the latter case small errors have a much higher probability than those near the limit a while in the former case all errors have the same probability.
In general,
tion
/ (p(e)de
when
is
continuous 0(e) must satisfy the condi-
I,
the limits being such as to cover the entire
range of values of e. The cases most commonly met with are those in which 0(e) is an even function, or those in which In such cases, if a denote the limiting 0( e). 0(-|- e)
value of
e,
a.
f<P{e)de
= 2f<p(e)de =
I.
(3)
Art.
11.
Typical Errors of a System.
Certain typical errors of a system have received special designations and are of constant use in the literature of the
theory of errors.
These special errors are the probable error, the mean error, and the average error. The first is that error of the system of errors which is as likely to be exceeded as
;
not
the second
is
;
of all the errors
and the third
the square root of the mean of the squares is the mean of all the errors
Confining attention to systems in which positive and negative errors of the same magnitude are equally probable, these typical errors are defined matheLet matically as follows.
regardless of their signs.
ep
= the probable error, = the mean error, ea = the average error.

em
494

(2),
[CHAP. X.
Then, observing
-ep
of Art. 10,
+p
e
-\-a
f(p(e)de =J<t>{e)de
-a
-*p
j* $(e)de =J^(e)de
+e^
= J,
(I)
em
=y*0(e)eVe,
ea
fcj>(e)ede.
student should seek to avoid the very common misapprehension of the meaning of the probable error. It is not
The
" the
most probable
" the error," nor
most probable value of
the actual error"; but it is that error which, disregarding signs, would occupy the middle place if all the errors of the system
were arranged
suffice to fix
few illustrations will order of magnitude. the ideas as to the typical errors. Thus, take the
in
simple case wherein 0(e)

logarithms, etc.
eP
=c=
=
i/2a,
Equations
-a,
em
(1) give at
which applies to tabular once

ea
- Vj,
-a.
For the case

tabular place.
ep
of tabular values, a
= 0.5
in units of
the last
Hence
for such values

ew
=0.2$,
e
=o.29,
0(e)
.-=0.25.
<f>(e)=c cos (?re/ 2 a);
2
Prob. 19. Find the typical errors for the cases in which the law
of error
is
0(e) == cVc?
2
,
= c(aê),
in
x being a constant to be determined a. a and value between
each case and e having any
Art.
12.
Laws of Resultant Error.
When
duce
there
is
several independent sources of error conspire to proa resultant error, as specified by equation (1) of Art. 9,
resultant error
presented the problem of determining the law of the by means of the laws of the component errors.
is
algebraic statement of this problem for the case of continuous errors

:
The
obtained as follows
In the equation
(1),
Art. 9, write for brevity
ART.
12.]
LAWS OF RESULTANT ERROR.

the laws of error of
2(
495
0(e),
and
let
e,
e xi e a
be denoted by
given by
<&(,),
e a)
Then
the value of e
is
=,+*. +.-.
The
of ext e a
probabilities of the occurrence of
,
(i)
are given
by
(e,)dfe 1
is
any particular values e e2 and the 3(
probability of their concurrence
responding value of
infinite
e.
the probability of the corBut since this value may arise in an

of e lf e a
, . .
number
of
ways through the variations

e,
.
over their ranges, the

expressed by the restriction
x
probability of the integral of (e- )ê l

1 1
or <p(e)de, will be subject to a (e- a )afe a

.
(i).
This latter gives
e,
e2
e,
.,
and
.
.
de = de for the multiple Hence there results

<P(e)de
integration with respect to e
=
dej*4>
{e
- e,
.
.
e8
.)<f>9 (et
)d*t
or
0(e)
fê-e,
ea
O&W^v/V.W*.
formula
(2)
It is readily seen that this
will increase rapidly in
complexity with the number of independent sources of error.* For some of the most important practical applications, howequation (2) to the case of two indesources of error, each of constant probability within pendent assigned limits. Thus, to consider this case, let e vary over
ever,
it
suffices to limit
the range
a to
-\-a,
(2),
and e2 vary over the range

Art.
1
b to
-f- b.
Then by
equation
10,
0^) =
Hence equation
(2)
/(2d),
0,(6.)
1/(20).
becomes
In
evaluating
this
integral
ea
e e3 must not surpass <?, of the integral for any value (a -f- b) and (a b) are
must not surpass b and Assuming # > b, the limits of e = e e a tying between b and This fact is #). (e
a.
+ + +
x
* The reader desirous of pursuing this phase of the subject should consult
Bessel's Untersuchungen ueber die Wahrscheinlichkeit der Beobachtungsfehler;
Abhandlungen von Bessel
(Leipzig, 1876), Vol. II.
496

plain
[CHAP.
Xw
by a numerical example. For instance, suppose. = 3^. Then 8 and (a -j- b) = 5 (a b) Take e = 8 and Then 6, a number intermediate to 3. the following are the possible integer values of e and e a which
a
made
and
= 3.
e
will
produce
=
e
-6= - 5 -ls= + (e+^ = - 4 - 2, = -3-3, - 3 = - *1,
e,
e,
limits of ea
Similarly, the
(#
b)
limits of
b) are
e a for values of e lying
between
limits of
and
+ (0
and
)
+ &\
and the
e a for values of e
between
-f (#
and
-\-{a-\-b) are
+ (e
a)
and
-j-
&
Hence
"^
v
'
4#
4^
for
(a+b)
< e< -
(a- J),
4<zb
/
b
4ab
(3)
^=43/^=^^
Thus
it
for
+(-*><+<+*>.
law of error
appears that in this case the graph of the resultant is represented by the upper base and the two sides
of
lion
1110111 IIIIOII
a trapezoid, the lower base being the

.
.
axis of e and the line joining the middle
union
IIIIIIOII
points of the bases being the axis of 0(e). (See the first figure in Art. 13.) The properties of (3), including the
..,.,
.
,
determination
numerals arranged IIIIIIIIOII 11111 * to represent the case wherein a = 0.5 and The vertical scale, or that for 0(e), does not, howb 0.3.
adjacent trapezoid of
1
minion
=
nil
of the limits, are also illustrated

.
by the J
ever,
conform exactly to that
for
e.
ART.
13.]
ERRORS OF INTERPOLATED VALUES.
497
Prob. 20. Prove that the values of 0(e) as given by equation (3) satisfy the condition specified in equation (3), Art. 10.
b = o;
and (3) for the cases wherein a and interpret for the latter case the first and last of (3). Prob. 22. Find from (3), and (r) of Art. 11, the probable error of
Prob. 21.
Examine equations
the
sum
of
two tabular logarithms.

13.
Art.
Case
I.
Errors of Interpolated Values.

of the
One
most instructive cases to which formulas

is
(3) of Art. 12 are applicable
that of interpolated logarithms,
trigonometric functions, etc., dependent on first differences. Thus, suppose that v and z>2 are two tabular logarithms, and
1
that
it is
required to get a value v lying

.
tenths of the interval
from v towards v2
x
Evidently
= v + (,
e,
*0 1 =
(1
- t)v + tv
x
and hence
spectively,
if
e l9
e^
denote the actual errors of

r
v,
vlf
v^
re-
"-/)'. (0 It is to be carefully noted here that e as given by (1) requires the retention in v of at least one decimal place beyond the last tabular place. For example, let v = log (24373) Then ^ = 4.38686, v% from a 5-place table. 4.38763,
= (1
i7
= +0.00017, t = 0.3,
table, e
x
and v =4.38691.1.
Likewise, as
units of
is,
found from a 7-place

the
fifth place; actual error of v
=
is
0.45,
e.t
+0.37 in
That
is
and hence by
= 4.3869 1.1
0.20. (1) e= = 0.20, and this
the
verified
by
reference to a 7-place table. The reader is also cautioned against mistaking the species of interpolated values here considered for the species commonly used
value
is
by computers, namely, that rounded to the nearest unit

is
in
which the interpolated
of the last tabular place.
The
latter species
discussed under Case II below.
Confining attention now to the class of errors specified by equation (1), there result in the notation of the preceding
article
,
= (1
ei
t)e v
e^
e^
te^
and
=e=e +e
x
and since
and
each vary continuously between the limits
498
[Chap. X.
in
0.5 of a unit of the last tabular place,

(3) of that article
a and b
equations
have the values

a
0.5(1
/),
b =0.5/.
is
Hence
the law of error of the interpolated values

:
ex-
pressed as follows
0(e)
O.S
+e
t
for values of e betw.
0.5
and
{i-t)t
I
(0.5/),
(0.5/) and +(0.5/),
(2)
0.5
(I

t)t
+(0.5/) and +0.5.

shown by the trapezoid
Evidently the equa-
The graph of 0(e) for / = 1/3 AB, BC CD in the figure on page

f
is
$00.
tions (2) are in general represented by a trapezoid, erates to an isosceles triangle when / 1/2.
which degen-
The probable, mean, and average errors of an interpolated value of the kind in question are readily found from (2), and from equations (1) of Art. 11, to be
e,
=(i/4)(i-/)
for
= =
" __
1/2
1/4/
f
(1/2)^2/(1
for 1/3
for 2/3
</< </ < <t <
1/3,
2/3,
1.
i-ft-aQ' )*
96(1
(1
/)/ -/)/)'
y
for
(3)
2ty
/)/
3
<t<
<
t
1/2,
24(1
l-(2t24(1
It
is
I)
ty
for 1/2
<
1.
thus seen that the probable error of the interpolated value here considered decreases from 0.25 to 0.15 of a unit of
the last tabular place as values are
/
increases from o to 0.5.

;
Hence such
who
precise than tabular values and the computer desires to secure the highest attainable precision with a
more
given table of logarithms should retain one additional figure beyond the last tabular place in interpolated values.
Art.
13.J
errors of interpolated values.

II.
490
v x -\- t(v.x v ) for an Recurring to the equation v value v in terms of two consecutive tabular values interpolated v x and v a it will be observed that if the quantity t{v% v ) is Case
x
rounded to the nearest unit of the last tabular place, a new error is introduced. For example, if v = log 1633 = 3.21299, and v* = lg J ^34 = 3-2 1 325 from a 5-place table, v^ v = -\- 26
x
x
v ) = 8f so that by the method of interpolation in question there results v Now the actual errors of z\ and 3.21308. 3.21299
units of the last tabular place
;
and
if /
1/3, t(v%
+9 =
-3 8
v%
are, as
found from a 7-place table,
of the
(0> f
fifth place.
Hence the
0.38 and -)-o.2i in units actual error of v is by equation
+i
is
+
in
21
-5 2 >
as
is
shown
di-
rectly by a 7-place table. It appears, then, that
this case the error-equation cor-
responding to
(1)
= (1- />, + /*, +e

same
t{y^
% ,
(4)
therein
ex
and
e^
are the
as in (1)
and
e3
is
the actual error
that comes from rounding last tabular place.

%
,
to the nearest unit of the
The error e however, differs radically in kind from e and The two latter are continuous, that is, they may each have while e is dis0.5 and +0.5 -any value, between the limits continuous, being limited to a finite number of values dependx
ent on the interpolating factor /. Thus, for t 1/2 the only likewise for t 1/2 1/2, and possible values of e 3 are o
It 1/3, and 1/3. 1/3, the only possible values of e s are o, is also clear that the maximum value of e, which is constant and
equal to 1/2 for
(1), is
variable for (4) in a
manner dependent
/
on
/.
For example,
in (4),
The maximum
of e
= 1/2 + 1/2 = for = 1/2, = 1/2 + 1/3 = 5/6, " = 1/3, e " * = "*= 1/2 + 1/2 = i/4, " " e= = 9/10 / = 1/5. 1/2 + 2/5
1,
1,
The determination some novelty, since it

errors
(1
of the law of error for this case presents

is
essential to
combine the continuous

.
t)e x
and
te^
with the discontinuous error e3
The
500
simplest
[Chap. X.
fol-
mode
of attacking the
problem seems to be the

e
e3 )
te^
lowing quasi-geometrical one.

13,
In the notation of Arts. 12 and
put
in (4) e
e, (1
t)e^
=
e3
.
e2 ,
and
e%
e3
Then
(5)
=>* +
2
value of
The law of error for (e. -f- e ) is given by equation (2) for any Hence for a given value of t there will be as many /. The expressions of 0(e) as there are different values of e
3
.
graphs of 0(e) will
all
be of the same form but
will
be differently
if t
placed with reference to the axis of 0(e). Thus, values of e 3 are
1/3 the
1/3, o,
and
these are equally -f- 1/3, and to occur. For e = o the likely
3
graph is given directly by (2), and is the trapezoid ABCD

symmetrical with respect to OQ.
For e
abQd,
=
of
1/3 the graph is the same form as

left
ABCD
<i
but shifted to the

of
by the amount
d
t.
e3
1/3.
Similarly, the graph for the case

is
of e3
=+
1/3
is
a Qb'd', and
'
produced by shifting
ABCD to
the right by an
amount equal
to
/3*
Now,
since the three systems of errors for this case are
equally likely to occur, they may be combined into one system by simple addition of the corresponding element areas of the
several graphs.
Inspection of the diagram shows* that

is
the
resultant law of error

0(e)
expressed by
for for for
= (1/4X5 + 6e) = = (l/4)(5 - 6e)

1
5/6
1/6
1/6
< < <
< < <

-L
1/6, ^
}-
e e
+ 1/6,
(6>
5/6. J
is
This
represented by a trapezoid whose lower base base 2/6, and altitude 1. upper
is
10/6,
Sum
the three areas and

(3),
divide
by
3 to
make
resultant area
i,
as
required by equation
Art. 10.
Art.
13.]
501
As
/
a second illustration, consider equation (5) for the case In this case e 3 must be either o or 1/2, the sign of 1/2.
latter
is
which
arbitrary.
For
e3
= o,
o
equations
(2)
give
(7)
0(e) = 2 -f- 4e
46-
for
for
1/2
<
<
<
e <-|- 1/2.
This function
whose
altitude
represented by the isosceles triangle OQ is twice the base AE.

is
AQE
Similarly 0(e) for e 3
-\-
1/2
would
be represented by the triangle
AQE dis;
and placed to the right a distance 1/2 o and e 3 if the two systems for e3
-j-
1/2
be combined into one system,

is
their resultant law of error
evidently
\
<p(e)= i-\-2e
= =
i/2<e<o, foro< e< + i/2,

-f1
;
for
(.
(8)
2e for
the graph of which the other hand, if the errors in this combined system be considered with respect to magnitude only, the law of error is
0(e)
1/2 < e< is ABCD. On

)
2(1
e)
for
< e<
I,
(9)
the graph of which is OQD. The student should observe that

the condition
/ cp(e)de
e.
(6), (7), (8),
and
(9) satisfy
if
the integration embraces the
whole range
of
The determination of the general form of 0(e) in terms of the interpolating factor / for the present case presents some difficulties, and there does not appear to be any published solution of this problem.*
The
results arising
from one phase of
the problem have been given, however, by the author in the Annals of Mathematics,! and may be here stated without:
The phase in question is that wherein / is of the form proof. n being any positive integer less than twice the greatest l/n,
* The author explained a general method of summer meeting of the American Mathematical
f Vol. II, pp. 54-59.
solution in a paper read at the

Society, August, 1895.
502
[CHAP.
X.
tabular difference of the table to which the formulas are apFor this restricted form of / the possible maximum plied.
value of e as given by equation (5) is, in units of the last tabular place, {2n i)/n for n odd and 1 for n even.
The
possible values of e 3 of equation (5) are

I
o,
ART. 13]

Typical Errors of Interpolated Logarithms, etc.
503
Interpolating Factor.
504
Prob. 24.
[CHAP. X.
Show
/
for the case of
that the probable, mean, and average errors 0.261, 0.251, 2/5 cited above (p. 503) are
and
0.290, respectively.
Art.
14.
Statistical Test of Theory.
statistical test of the theory developed in Art. 13 may be readily drawn from any considerable number of actual errors of interpolated values dependent on the same interpolating
The application of such a test, if carried out fully by factor. the student, will go far also towards fixing clear notions as to the meaning of the critical errors.
Consider
first
the case in which an interpolated value
falls
midway between two consecutive values, and suppose this interpolated value retains two additional figures beyond the
Then by equations last tabular place. error of this interpolated value is
0(e)
(2),
Art. 13, the law oi
= 2 + 46 for e between 0.5 and o = 2 4e for e between o and + 0.5.

(1) of
Hence by equation
Art.
1 1,
or equation (3) of Art. 12, the

is
J-
probable error in this system of errors
(J)
V2
= 0.15.
It follows, therefore, that in any large number of actual errors of this system, half should be less and half greater than 0.15. Similarly, of the whole number of such errors the percentage
falling
between the values 0.0 and 0.2 should be + 0-3 +0-2

-0.2
cp(e)de
= 2J
(2
4e)de
= 0.64
that
less
is,
sixty-four per cent of the errors in question should be

afford a
numerically than 0.2.
detailed comparison in this case, the acthundred interpolated values from a 5-place table have been computed by means of a 7-place table. The used were the following numbers 2 arguments 20005, 35> 20065, 20105, 20135, etc., in the same order to 36635. The actual and theoretical percentages of the whole number of errors falling between the limits 0.0 and 0.1, 0.1 and 0.2, etc.,
ual errors of five
:
To
more
are shown in the tabular form following
ART.
14.]
STATISTICAL TEST OF THEORY. D

Actual
505
Theoretical
Limits of Errors.
Percentage.
Percentage.
o.oando.i 0.1 and 0.2 0.2 and 0.3 0.3 and 0.4 0.4 and 0.5
0.0 and 0.1
5
33.2
30.2 19.0
13.2
36 28
20
12
4.4
51.4
4
50
The agreement shown

percentages
is
here between the actual and theoretical
quite close, the

1.5 per cent.
maximum
discrepancy being 2.8
and the average
Secondly, consider the case of interpolated mid-values of the The law of error for species treated under Case II of Art. 13. this case is given by the single equation (9) of Art. 13, namely,
no regard being paid to the signs The probable error is then found from
<p(e)
2(1
e),
of the errors.
2f(i-e)de
whence
ep
=h
may
be expected to
is
i V2
0.0
= 0.29.
Similarly, the percentage of

lie,
the whole
number
of errors
which
for
example, between
and
9
0.2 in this
system
2 / (1
e)de
= 0.36.
last tabu-
Using the same

lar place
five
hundred interpolated values cited
above, but rounding them to the nearest unit of the

table, the following
Limits of
t
,
and computing their actual errors by means of a 7-place

comparison
is
afforded
4 i?* Errors.
MM
Actual Percentage.
Theoretical
Percentage.
0.0 and 0.2
35.8
,
and 0.4 0.4 and 0.6 0.6 and 0.8

0.2
27.8
18.6
12.2
5.6
36 28
20
12
0.8
and
1.0
4
50
0.0 and 0.29
49.8
506
[CHAP. X.
The agreement shown here between

percentages
is
the actual and theoretical
somewhat
closer than in the preceding case, the
maximum
per cent.
discrepancy being only 1.6 and the average only 0.6
Finally, the following data derived
from one thousand
act-
ual errors
may
be cited.
The
errors of one
hundred
inter-
polated values rounded to the nearest unit of the last tabular * for each of the place were computed interpolating factors The averages of these several groups of act0.1, 0.2, 0.9.
. .
ual errors are given along with the corresponding theoretical

errors in the parallel
Interpolating Factor.
columns below:
Actual
Theoretical
Average Error.
Average Error.
0.1
0.2
O.3
0.338 0.288
O.32I
0.320
O.303
O.304
O.4
0.5
O.268
O.29O
O.333
O.324
O.276
O.32I
O.6 ...
O.29O
O.304
O.303
07
O.8 O.9
O.289
O.347
O.32O
The average discrepancy between

ical
the actual and theoret-
is, perhaps, somewhat 0.017. smaller than should be expected, since the computation of the actual errors to three places of decimals is hardly warranted
values
shown here
is
It
by the assumption
of
dependence on
first
differences only.
in
The average
of the
whole number of actual errors
this
case is 0.308, which agrees to the same number of decimals with the average of the theoretical errors, f
*
By
Prof.
H. A. Howe.
See Annals of Mathematics, Vol.
Ill, p.
74.
The
f
theoretical averages
were furnished to Prof.
The reader who

it
is
by the author. acquainted with the elements of the method of
Howe
least
squares will find
instructive to apply that

of
e.
method
to equation (1), Art. 13,
and derive the probable error
This
is
frequently done without reserve
by
Art.
14.]
statistical test of theory.

.25.
507
Apply formulas (3) of Art. 12 to the case of the sum two tabular logarithms and derive the correspondThe graph values of the probable, mean, and average errors. ing of 0(e) is in this case an isosceles triangle whose base, or axis of e> is 2, and whose altitude, or axis of 0(e), is 1.
Prob.
or difference of
those familiar with least squares.
0.25, the probable error of e
is
Thus, the probable error of
or
<? a
being
found to be
0.25 Vi
2/
2**.
t
This varies between 0.25 for

the probable error, as
for the
/=
It
o and 0.18 for

(3),
=\
while the true value of
shown by equations
/.
Art. 13, varies
from 0.25
to 0.15 of least
same values
of
is,
indeed, remarkable that the
method
squares, which admits infinite values for the actual errors e x and e i} should give so close an approximate formula as the above for the probable error of e.
Similarly, one accustomed to the
to
apply
it
to equation (4), Art. 13, to

is .to
natural blunder in this case

ei
of least squares would be inclined determine the probable error of e. The consider e u 2 and e% independent, and e% like
method
<?
and
e-x
continuous betweer the limits 0.0 and 0.5

In
t'.is
and
to assign a probable
error of 0.25 to each.
manner the value

0.25^2(1
-/ + /
is
derived.
But
this
The formula
near
0.5.
fails
o. is absurd, since gives 0.25 V2 instead of 0.25 for t then to give even approximate results except for values of t
it
508
[CHAP. XI
Chapter
XL

By David Eugene Smith,
Professor of Mathematics in the Michigan State Normal College.
Art.
1.
is
Introduction.
a term by no
Modern Mathematics
means
well defined.
Algebra cannot be called modern, and yet the theory of equations has received some of its most important additions during
the nineteenth century, while the theory of forms is a recent creation. Similarly with elementary geometry; the labors of
Lobachevsky and Bolyai during the second quarter of the century threw a new light upon the whole subject, and more recently the study of the triangle has added another chapter to the theory. Thus the history of modern mathematics must also be the modern history of ancient branches, while subjects which seem the product of late generations have root in other
centuries than the present.
How unsatisfactory
must be so
brief a sketch
may be
in-
ferred from a glance at the Index du Repertoire Bibliographique
des Sciences Mathmatiques (Paris, 1893), whose seventy-one pages contain the mere enumeration of subjects in large part
modern, or from a consideration
of the twenty-six volumes of the
Jahrbuch. tiber die Fortschritte der

gress of the science.*
Mathematik, which now
devotes over a thousand pages a year to a record of the pro-
The
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries laid the founda-
cited.
* The foot-notes give only a few of the authorities which might easily be They are thought to include those from which considerable extracts
of
have been made, the necessary condensation of these extracts making any other
form
acknowledgment impossible.
Art.
1.]
INTRODUCTION.
50$
to-day.
tions of
much
of the subject as
known
The discovery
geometry by Descartes, the contributions to the of numbers by Fermat, to algebra by Harriot, to theory geometry and to mathematical physics by Pascal, and the
of the analytic
all
discovery of the differential calculus by Newton and Leibniz, contributed to make the seventeenth century memorable.
The eighteenth century was
naturally one of great activity.

in
Euler and the Bernoulli family
Switzerland, d'Alembert,
Lagrange, and Laplace in Paris, and Lambert in Germany, popularized Newton's great discovery, and extended both its
theory and its applications. Accompanying this activity, however, was a too implicit faith in the calculus and in the inherited principles of mathematics, which left the foundations insecure and necessitated their strengthening by the succeed-
ing generation. The nineteenth century has been a period of intense study of first principles, of the recognition of necessary limitations of various branches, of a great spread of mathematical knowledge, and of the opening of extensive fields for applied mathematics. Especially influential has been the establishment of
The schools and journals and university chairs. renaissance of geometry is not a little due to the foundagreat tion of the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris (1794-5), and the simiscientific
lar
schools in Prague (1806), Vienna (181 5), Berlin (1820), Karlsruhe (1825), and numerous other cities. About, the mid-
dle of the century these schools began to exert a still a greater influence through the custom of calling to them mathemati-
cians of high repute, thus making Zurich, Karlsruhe, Munich, Dresden, and other cities well known as mathematical centers.
In 1796 appeared the
first
number
of the Journal de l'Ecole
fiir die reine und angewandte and ten years later Liouville began the publication of the Journal de Mathematiques pures et appliquees, which has been continued by Resal and Jordan.
Polytechnique.
Crelle's Journal
in
Mathematik appeared
1826,
The Cambridge Mathematical Journal was

and merged
into the
established in 1839,
Cambridge and
Dublin
Mathematical
510
[Chai\ XI.
Journal in 1846. Of the other periodicals which have contributed to the spread of mathematical knowledge, only a few
can be mentioned
the Nouvelles Annales de Mathematiques
(1842), Grunert's Archiv der Mathematik (1843), Tortolini's Annali di Scienze Matematiche e Fisiche (1.850), Schlomilch's
Zeitschrift fur
Mathematik und Physik
(1856), the Quarterly
Journal of
tin
Mathematics
(1857), Battaglini's Giornale di
Mate-
matiche (1863), the Mathematische Annalen (1869), the Bulledes Sciences Mathematiques (1870), the American Journal of Mathematics (1878), the Acta the Annals of Mathematics (1884) *
Mathematica
(1882),
and
To
this
list
should be
added a recent venture, unique
in its
aims, namely, L'lnter-
mediaire des Mathematiciens (1894), and two annual publica-
mentioned (1868), and the Jahresbericht der deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinitions of great value, the Jahrbuch already
gung
(1892).
To
added that
the influence of the schools and the journals must be of the various learned societies f whose published
proceedings are widely known, together with the increasing liberality of such societies in the preparation of complete
works
of a
monumental
character.
The study
culus
of first principles, already mentioned,
was a
natcal-
ural consequence of the reckless application of the
new
and the Cartesian geometry during the eighteenth century. This development is seen in theorems relating to infinite series, in
* For a
schritte der
list
the fundamental principles of number, rational,
of current mathematical journals see the Jahrbuch iiber die Fort-
Mathematik.
small but convenient
list
of standard periodicals
;
is
Mackay, J. S., Notice p. 843 given sur le journalisme mathematique en Angleterre, Association francaise pour l'Avancement des Sciences, 1893, II, 303 Cajori, F., Teaching and History of
;
in Carr's
Synopsis of
Pure Mathematics,
S., History of American Mathematical Periodicals, The Analyst, Vol. II, p. 131. f For a list of such societies consult any recent number of the Philosophical
Mathematics
in the
United States, pp. 94, 277; Hart, D.
Transactions of Royal Society of London. Dyck, W., Einleitung zu dem fur den mathematischen Teil der deutschen Universitatsausstellung ausgegebenen Specialkatalog, Mathematical Papers Chicago Congress (New York, 1896), p. 44.
Art.
2.]
theory of numbers.
and complex, and
511
in the concepts of limit, contiBut the the infinite, and the infinitesimal. unity, function, nineteenth century has done more than this. It has created
irrational,
new and extensive branches of an importance which promises much for pure and applied mathematics. Foremost among
these branches stands the theory of functions founded by Cauchy, Riemann, and Weierstrass, followed by the descriptive
and projective geometries, and the theories of groups, of forms, and of determinants.
The nineteenth century has naturally been one of specialization. At its opening one might have hoped to fairly compass
the mathematical, physical, and astronomical sciences, as did Lagrange, Laplace, and Gauss. But the advent of the new
generation, with
Galois, Abel,
Monge and
Carnot, Poncelet and
Steiner,
and Jacobi, tended to split mathematics into branches between which the relations were long to remain obIn this respect recent years have seen a reaction, the scure.
unifying tendency again becoming prominent through the theories of functions and groups.*
.
Art.
2.
Theory of Numbers.
The Theory
Greeks, had
its
of Numbers, f a favorite study among the renaissance in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries in the labors of Viete, Bachet de Meziriac, and es-
In the eighteenth century Euler and contributed to the theory, and at its close the subLagrange ject began to take scientific form through the great labors of
pecially
Fermat.
Legendre (1798), and Gauss (1801). With the latter's Disquisitiones Arithmeticae (1801) may be said to begin the modern theory of numbers. This theory separates into two branches,
the one dealing with integers, and concerning
* Klein, F.,
itself
especially
of
The Present
State of Mathematics, Mathematical Papers
Ill, p. 94; Smith, H. J. S., Report on the theory of numbers; Collected Papers, Vol. I; Stolz, O., Grossen und Zahlen, Leipzig, 1891.
Chicago Congress (New York, 1896), p. 133. f Cantor, M., Geschichte der Mathematik, Vol.
612

(i)
[CHAP.
XL
with
and
in
the study of primes, of congruences, and of residues, particular with the law of reciprocity, and (2) the theory
of forms,
and the other dealing with complex numbers.
of Primes* has attracted many investigators the nineteenth century, but the results have been deduring tailed rather than general. Tchebichef (1850) was the first to reach any valuable conclusions in the way of ascertaining the
The Theory
between two given limits. Riemann (1859) also gave a well-known formula for the limit of the number of primes not exceeding a given number.
of primes
number
The Theory
of
Congruences
may
be said to
start
with
introduced the symbolism a = b (mod c), and explored most of the field. Tchebichef published in 1847 a work in Russian upon the subject, and in France Serret has done much to make the theory known.
Gauss's Disquisitiones.
He
Besides summarizing the labors of his predecessors in the
theory of numbers, and adding

contributions, to
many original and noteworthy Legendre may be assigned the fundamental

his
theorem which bears

ratic Residues.
name, the
Law
of Reciprocity of
Quad-
This law, discovered by induction by Euler, was enunciated by Legendre and first proved in his Theorie
des
Nombres
(1798) for special cases.
Independently of Euler
and Legendre, Gauss discovered the law about 1795, and was the first to give a general proof. To the subject have also
Cauchy, perhaps the most versatile of French mathematicians of the century; Dirichlet, whose Vorlesungen
contributed
liber Zahlentheorie, edited
by Dedekind,
is
a classic
Jacobi,
who introduced
the generalized symbol which bears his
name
The Liouville, Zeller, Eisenstein, Kummer, and Kronecker. extended to include cubic and biquadratic theory has been
reciprocity, notably by Gauss, by Jacobi, law of cubic reciprocity, and by Kummer.
who
first
proved the
velle
* Brocard, H., Sur la frequence et la totality des nombres premiers; NouCorrespondence de Mathematiques, Vols. Vand VI; gives recent history to
1&79.
ART.
3.]
IRRATIONAL AND TRANSCENDENT NUMBERS.
513
To
Gauss
is
also
due the representation of numbers by
Cauchy, Poinsot (1845), Lebesques (1859, 1868), and notably Hermite have added to the subject. In the theory of ternary forms Eisenstein has been a leader, and to him and H. J. S. Smith is also due a noteworthy adbinary quadratic forms.
vance
in the theory of forms in general. Smith gave a complete classification of ternary quadratic forms, and extended Gauss's researches concerning real quadratic forms to complex
forms.
The
investigations concerning the representation of
numbers by the sum of 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 squares were advanced by Eisenstein and the theory was completed by Smith.
In Germany, Dirichlet was one of the most zealous workers in the theory of numbers, and was the first to lecture upon the
subject in a German university. Among his contributions is the extension of Fermat's theorem on x n -\-y n zn which Euler
and Legendre had proved
for
x -\~y^ az\
and
Stieltjes.
Among
Among
the later
3, 4, Dirichlet showing that French writers are Borel

;
Poincare, whose memoirs are
numerous and valuable
Tannery,
the leading contributors in
Germany
are Kronecker,
Kummer, Schering, Bachmann, and Dedekind. In Austria Stolz's Vorlesungen iiber allgemeine Arithmetik
and
in
(1885-86),
England Mathews' Theory of Numbers (Part I, 1892) are among the most scholarly of general works. Genocchi, Sylvester, and J. W. L. Glaisher have also added to
the theory.
Art.
3.
Irrational and Transcendent Numbers.
sixteenth century saw the final acceptance of negative The seventeenth century numbers, integral and fractional.
The
saw decimal fractions with the modern notation quite generally used by mathematicians. The next hundred years saw the
imaginary become a powerful tool in the hands of De Moivre, For the nineteenth century it reand especially of Euler. mained to complete the theory of complex numbers, to separate irrationals into algebraic and transcendent, to prove the existence of transcendent numbers, and to
make
a scientific study
514
of a subject
[CHAP. XI.
which had remained almost dormant since Euclid,
the theory of irrationals. The year 1872 saw the publication of the theories of Weierstrass (by his pupil Kossak), Heine Meray had (Crelle, 74), G. Cantor (Annalen, 5), and Dedekind.
taken in 1869 the same point of departure as Heine, but the theory is generally referred to the year 1872. Weierstrass's
method has been completely
set forth
by Pincherle
(1880),
and
Dedekind's has received additional prominence through the author's later work (1888) and the recent indorsement by Tanories
nery (1894). Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theon infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea
of a cut (Schnitt) in the
system of
real
numbers, separating
all
rational
numbers
into
two groups having
certain characteristic
properties.
The
subject has received later contributions at the

(Crelle, 101),
hands of Weierstrass, Kronecker
and Meray.
Continued Fractions, closely related to irrational numbers (and due to Cataldi, 1613),* received attention at the hands of
Euler, and
at
brought
into
the opening of the nineteenth century were prominence through the writings of Lagrange.
Other noteworthy contributions have been made by Druckenmuller (1837), Kunze (1857), Lemke (1870), and Gunther (1872).
Ramus
(1855)
first
connected the subject with determinants,

the theory of
resulting, with the subsequent contributions of Heine, Mobius,
and Gunther,
Dirichlet also
in
Kettenbruchdeterminanten.
as
added to the general theory,
have numerous
contributors to the applications of the subject.
Transcendent Numbers f were

braic irrationals
it
first
by Kronecker.
e
n
Lambert proved
(n
distinguished from alge(1761) that
cannot be rational, and that
irrational, a proof, however, which
being a rational number) is left much to be desired.
* But see Favaro, A., Notizie storiche sulle frazioni continue dal secolo deci-
moterzo
533-
al
decimosettimo, Boncompagni's Bulletino, Vol. VII, 1874, pp. 451,
f Klein, F., Vortrage iiber ausgewahlte
1895, p. 38;
1892.
Bachmann,
P.,
Vorlesungen
iiber die
Fragen der Elementargeometrie, Natur der Irrationalzahlen,
.Art.
4]
COMPLEX NUMBERS.
515
Legendre (1794) completed Lambert's proof, and showed that it is not the square root of a rational number. Liouville (1840)
showed that neither e nor e* can be a root of an integral quadratic equation. But the existence of transcendent numbers was first
-established
by
Liouville (1844, 1851), the proof being subse-
quently displaced by G. Cantor's (1873).
Hermite (1873)
first
proved e transcendent, and Lindemann (1882), starting from Hermite's conclusions, showed the same for n. Lindemann's
proof was much simplified by Weierstrass (1885), still further by Hilbert (1893), and has finally been made elementary by
Hurwitz and Gordan.
Art.
4.
Complex Numbers.
said to have
The Theory
recognition,
sible
of
Complex Numbers* may be
attracted attention as
by
early as the sixteenth century in the the Italian algebraists, of imaginary or impos-
roots.
In
the
seventeenth century Descartes distin-
guished between real and imaginary roots, and the eighteenth saw the labors of De Moivre and Euler. To De Moivre is
due (1730) the well-known formula which bears h is name, M i sin #0, and to Euler (1748) the (cos <p-\-t sin 0) = cos ncfy
formula cos
sin
***.
The geometric notion
of
complex quantity now
arose,
and
as a result the theory of complex numbers received a notable expansion. The idea of the graphic representation of complex numbers had appeared, however, as early as 1685, in Wallis's
De Algebra tractatus. In the eighteenth century Kuhn (1750) and Wessel (about 1795) made decided advances towards the
Wessel's memoir appeared in the Proceedpresent theory. ings of the Copenhagen Academy for 1799, and is exceedingly
*Riecke, F., Die Rechnung mit Richtungszahlen, 1856, p. 161 Hankel, H., Theorie der komplexen Zahlensysteme, Leipzig, 1867 Holzmiiller, G., Theorie
;
;
derisogonalen Verwandtschaften, 1882,
p. 21;
Macfarlane, A.,
The Imaginary
;
of Algebra, Proceedings of American Association 1892, p. 33 Baltzer, R., Stolz, O., Vorlesungen iiber Einflihrung der komplexen Zahlen, Crelle, 1882
;
allgemeine Arithmetik,
2.
Theil, Leipzig, 1886.
516
clear
[Chap.
XL
and complete, even
in
He
also considers the sphere,
comparison with modern works. and gives a quaternion theory
from which he develops a complete spherical trigonometry.

In 1804 the Abbe Buee independently idea WTiich Wallis had suggested, that
sent a unit line, and
its
came upon the same |/_ should reprej
negative, perpendicular to the real axis.
Buee's paper was not published until 1806, in which year Argand also issued a pamphlet on the same subject. It is to Argand's essay that the scientific foundation for the graphic
representation of complex numbers is now generally referred. Nevertheless, in 183 1 Gauss found the theory quite unknown, and in 1832 published his chief memoir on the subject, thus
bringing it prominently before the mathematical world. Mention should also be made of an excellent little treatise by
Mourey
rectional
(1828), in
which the foundations

are scientifically laid.
is
for the
theory of
di-
numbers
The
general accept-
due to the labors of Cauchy and Abel, and especially the latter, who was the first to boldly use complex numbers with a success that is well known.
ance of the theory
not a
little
The common terms used

the founders.
factor",
in
Argand
Vc?
the
1,
called cos
b*
the theory are chiefly due to the "direction -f- i sin

;
and r
/sin
" the " modulus
Cauchy ( 828)
1
called
cos
+
i
"
reduced form"(l'expression reduite); Gauss
used
a
for
-f- bi,
" introduced the term " complex number for " b* the and called c? norm/' The expression
" direction coefficient
",
often used for cos
-f- z
sin 0, is
due
is
to
Hankel
(1867),
and "absolute value,"
for
"modulus,"
due to
Weierstrass.
Following Cauchy and Gauss have come a number of contributors of high rank, of
whom
the following
maybe especially
mentioned:
185
1,
Kummer
(1844), Kronecker(i845), Scheffler (1845,

1852),
1880), Bellavitis (1835,
Morgan
(1849).
Mobius must
also be
Peacock (1845), and De mentioned for his num-
erous memoirs on
the geometric applications of complex numbers, and Dirichlet for the expansion of the theory to in-
ART.
5.]
QUATERNIONS AND AUSDEHNUNGSLEHRE.

etc.,
517
elude primes, congruences, reciprocity, real numbers.
as in the case of
Other types* have been studied, besides the familiar a

in
-\-bi,
which
i is
the root of x*
-f-
= o.
Thus
Eisenstein has
%
studied the type a

Similarly,
+ bj\J being a complex root of x
{k prime).
whom
is
complex types have been derived from x This generalization is largely due to Kummer, to also due the theory of Ideal Numbers,f which has
= o. 1=0
^(^=0
recently been simplified by Klein (1893) from the point of view further complex theory is due to Galois, the of geometry. basis being the imaginary roots of an irreducible congruence, (mod/, a prime). The late writers (from 1884) on
the general theory include Weierstrass, Schwarz, Dedekind, Holder, Berloty, Poincare, Study, and Macfarlane.
Art.
5.
Quaternions and Ausdehnungslehre.
Quaternions and Ausdehnungslehre^: are so closely related to complex quantity, and the latter to complex number, that the brief sketch of their development is introduced at this
Caspar Wessel's contributions to the theory of complex quantity and quaternions remained unnoticed in the
point.
proceedings of the Copenhagen Academy.

to extend his of
method
of
Argand's attempts complex numbers beyond the space

Servois
field.
two dimensions
failed.
(1813),
trespassed on the quaternion
however, almost Nevertheless there were
fewer traces of the theory anterior to the labors of Hamilton than is usual in the case of great discoveries. Hamilton dis-
covered the principle of quaternions
in 1843,
and the next year

extending This step necesComplex Num-
his first contribution to the theory appeared, thus
the Argand idea to three-dimensional space.

*
Chapman,
Bulletin
C. H., Weierstrass and Dedekind on General
150; Study, E., Aeltere und neuere Untersuchungen liber Systeme complexer Zahlen, MatheI, p.
bers, in
New York
Mathematical Society, Vol.
matical Papers Chicago Congress,

f Klein, F.,
p.
367; bibliography, p. 381.
Evanston Lectures, Lect. VIII. % Tait, P. G., on Quaternions, Encyclopaedia Britannica; Schlegel, V., Die Grassmann'sche Ausdehnungslehre, Schldmilch's Zeitschrift, Vol. XLI.
518
sitated
[CHAP. XL.
that while r should be a real
an expansion of the idea of r(cos <p +/sin cp) suck a real angle, i, j> number and 2 k* = I. or k should be any directed unit line such that i =j
2
It also necessitated a
withdrawal of the commutative law of
multiplication, the adherence to which obstructed earlier disIt was not until 1853 that Hamilton's Lectures on covery.
Quarternions appeared, followed (1866) by his Elements of

Quaternions. In the same year in which Hamilton published his discovery (1844), Grassmann gave to the world his famous work,.
Die
been
from
lineale
Ausdehnungslehre, although
in
he seems to have
Differing
in possession of
the theory as early as 1840.
Hamilton's Quaternions
several essential principles held in discovered independently of the other.*
many features, there are common which each writer
Following Hamilton, there have appeared in Great Britain numerous papers and works by Tait (1867), Kelland and Tait
(1873),
On the Continent Sylvester, and McAulay (1893). Hoiiel (1874), and Laisant (1877, 1881) have (1867), written on the theory, but it has attracted relatively little
Hankel
Benjamin Peirce (1870) has been developing the quaternion theory, and especially prominent Hardy (1881) Macfarlane, and Hathaway (1896) have contributed to the subject. The difficulties have been largely in
In America,
in
attention.
the notation.
lane has aimed at showing
In attempting to improve this symbolism Macfarhow a space analysis can be de-
veloped embracing algebra, trigonometry, complex numbers, Grassmann's method, and quaternions, and has considered the
general principles of vector and versor analysis, the versor being circular, elliptic logarithmic, or hyperbolic. Other recent
contributors to the algebra of vectors are Gibbs (from
1
881)
and Heaviside (from
1885).
The
followers of
Grassmann f have not been much more

J.
* These are set forth in a paper by

f
W.
Gibbs, Nature, Vol.
XLIV,
p. 79.
For bibliography see Schlegel,
V.,
Die Grassmann'sche Ausdehnungs-
lehre, Schlomilch's Zeitschrift, Vol.
XLI.
Art.
G.j
THEORY OF EQUATIONS.
519
numerous than those of Hamilton. Schlegel has been one of the chief contributors in Germany, and Peano in Italy. In has made a plea America, Hyde (Directional Calculus, 1890)
for the
Grassmann theory.*
lines
Along
analogous to those of Hamilton and Grassmann'

of
Scheffler.
have been the contributions
While the two
former sacrificed the commutative law, Scheffler (1846, 1851,. 1880) sacrificed the distributive. This sacrifice of fundamental
laws has led to an investigation of the
field
in
which these
(1872),
laws are valid, an
investigation
to
which Grassmann
Cayley, Ellis, Boole, Schroder (1890-91), and Kraft (1893) Another great contribution of Cayley \s have contributed.
along similar lines
is
the theory of matrices (1858).
Art.
6.
Theory of Equations.
Numerical Equations f concerns itself first with the location of the roots, and then with their approxiof
The Theory
mation.
contribution to the
Neither problem former

Fourier's
is
in
new, but the first noteworthy the nineteenth century was

at
Budan's (1807).
work was undertaken

in 1831.
about the
same
time, but appeared
posthumously
All processes
were, however,
exceedingly cumbersome until Sturm (1829)
communicated to the French Academy the famous theorem which bears his name and which constitutes one of the most
brilliant discoveries of algebraic analysis.
The Approximation of the Roots, once they are located, can be made by several processes. Newton (171 1), for example,
gave a method which Fourier perfected; and Lagrange (1767)
discovered an ingenious way of expressing the root as a conIt tinued fraction, a process which Vincent (1836) elaborated.
* For Macfarlane's Digest of views of English and American writers, see Proceedings American Association for Advancement of Science, 1891.
tannica;
and Kelland. P., Algebra, in Encyclopaedia BriFavaro, A., Notizie storico-critiche sulla costruzione delle equazioni. Modena, 1878; Cantor, M., Geschichte der Mathematik, Vol. Ill, p. 375.
f Cayley, A., Equations,
520
[CHAP. XI.
was, however, reserved for Horner ( 1 8 1 9) to suggest the most practical method yet known, the one now commonly used.
With Horner and Sturm

open
field.
this
branch practically
closes.
is
The
an
calculation of the imaginary roots
by approximation
still
The Fundamental Theorem* that every numerical equation has a root was generally assumed until the latter part of the
D'Alembert (1746) gave a demonstration, as did Lagrange (1772), Laplace (1795), Gauss (1799) and Argand The general theorem that every algebraic equation of (1806). the th degree has exactly 11 roots and no more follows as a
eighteenth century.
special case of Cauchy's proposition (183
1)
as to the
number
of
roots within a given contour.
Proofs are also due to Gauss,
Serret, Clifford (1876), Malet (1878),
and many others.
Impossibility of Expressing the Roots of an equation as algebraic functions of the coefficients when the degree ex-
The
ceeds 4 was anticipated by Gauss and announced by Ruffini,
and the
is
belief in the fact
became strengthened by the
failure
of Lagrange's
proof
this
methods for these cases. But the first strict due to Abel, whose early death cut short his labors in
fields.
and other
The Quintic Equation has

special study.
naturally
its
been an object of
solution depends on
Lagrange showed that
that of a sextic, " Lagrange's resolvent sextic," and Malfatti and Vandermonde investigated the construction of resolvents.
The
was somewhat simplified by Cockle and and by Cayley (1861), but Kronecker (1858) Harley (1858-59) was the first to establish a resolvent by which a real simplifiThe transformation of the general quintic cation was effected.
resolvent sextic
into the trinomial form
-\-
ax
-f-
=o
square and cube roots only, was

*
Loria, Gino,
first
by the extraction of shown to be possible by
Esame
di alcune ricerche concernenti l'esistenza di radici
nelle equazioni algebriche; Bibliotheca
on
p. 107.
Pierpont,
J.,
On
Mathematica, 1891, p. 99; bibliography the Ruffini-Abelian theorem, Bulletin of American
II, p. 200.
Art.
6.]
theory of equations.
521
* Bring (1786) and independently by Jerrard (1834). reduction, by means
Hermite
(1858) actually effected this hausen's theorem, in connection with his solution by elliptic
functions.
of Tschirn-
Abel and
The Modern Theory of Equations may be said The latter's special memoir on Galois.
to date from
the subject,
not published until 1846, fifteen years after his death, placed the theory on a definite base. To him is due the discovery that to each equation corresponds a group of substitutions
"
(the
tial
group
of the equation ") in
which are reflected
its
essen-
characteristics^
Galois's untimely death left without suffi-
several important propositions, a gap which Betti (1852) has filled. Jordan, Hermite, and Kronecker were also among the earlier ones to add to the theory. Just prior to Galois's researches Abel (1824), proceeding from the
cient
fact that a rational function of five letters
demonstration
having
less
than
five
values cannot have more than two, showed
that the roots of a
general quintic equation

its coefficients
cannot be
of radicals.
by means
finite
expressed in terms of He then investigated
special forms of quintic equations
the extraction of a
ter,
number
which admit of solution by of roots. Hermite, Sylves-
and Brioschi have applied the invariant theory of binary forms to the same subject. From the point of view of the group the solution by radicals,
formerly the goal of the algebraist, now appears as a single link in a long chain of questions relative to the transfor-
mation of irrationals and to their classification. Klein (1884) has handled the whole subject of the quintic equation in a
simple manner by introducing the icosahedron equation as the normal form, and has shown that the method can be generalized so as to embrace the whole theory of higher equations.;); He and Gordan (from 1879) nave attacked those equations of
*
of the
f
Harley, R.,
fifth
contribution of the history
...
of the general equation
degree, Quarterly Journal of Mathematics, Vol. VI, p. 38.

7.
See Art.
% Klein, F.,
Vorlesungen
iiber
das Ikosaeder, 1884.
522
[CHAP.
XL
the sixth and seventh degrees which have a Galois group of 168 substitutions, Gordan performing the reduction of the
equation of the seventh degree to the ternary problem. Klein (1888) has shown that the equation of the twenty-seventh
degree occurring in the theory of cubic surfaces can be reduced to a normal problem in four variables, and Burkhardt
(1893) has performed the reduction, the quaternary groups involved having been discussed by Maschke (from 1887).
Thus the attempt
to solve the quintic equation
by means
of radicals has given place to their treatment
Hermite (1858) has shown use of elliptic functions, of any Bring quintic, and hence of any equation of the fifth degree. Kronecker (1858), working from
a different standpoint, has reached the
by transcendents. the possibility of the solution, by the
same
results,
and
his
method has
since been simplified
by
Brioschi.
More
recently
Kronecker, Gordan, Kiepert, and Klein, have contributed to the same subject, and the sextic equation has been attacked by
Maschke and Brioschi through the medium

functions.
of hyperelliptic
Binomial Equations, reducible to the form x n 1 =0, admit of ready solution by the familiar trigonometric formula
x
to
2kn
cos
that
+ zsm
.
2kn
;
but
it
was reserved
is
for
Gauss (1801)
/ox
show
an algebraic solution
possible.
Lagrange
(1808) extended the theory, and its application to geometry is one of the leading additions of the century. Abel, generaliz-
ing Gauss's results, contributed the important theorem that if two roots of an irreducible equation are so connected that the
one can be expressed rationally

tion
yields
in
terms of the other, the equa-
to radicals if the degree is prime and otherwise on the solution of lower equations. The binomial depends
n-i
equation, or rather the equation
2 xm
o, is
one of
this class
considered by Abel, and hence called (by Kronecker) Abelian Equations. The binomial equation has been treated notably by Richelot (1832); Jacobi (1837), Eisenstein (1844, 1850), Cay-
Art.
6.]
theory of equations.
and Kronecker
(1872).
is
523
ley
(1851),
(1854),
and
treatise
by Bachmann
Among
is the subject of a the most recent writers
on Abelian equations
Pellet (1891).
Certain special equations of importance in geometry have been the subject of study by Hesse, Steiner, Cayley, Clebsch^ Salmon, and Kummer. Such are equations of the ninth degree
determining the points of inflection of a curve of the third degree,

in
and of the twenty-seventh degree determining the points which a curve of the third degree can have contact of the
order with a conic.
fifth
Symmetric Functions of the coefficients, and those which remain unchanged through some or all of the permutations of the
the present theory. The first formulas for the computation of the symmetric functions of the roots of an equation seem to have been worked out
roots, are subjects of great
importance
in
by Newton, although Girard (1629) had given, without proof, a formula for the power sum. In the eighteenth century Lagrange (1768) and Waring (1770, 1782) contributed to the theory, but
the
in
first
tables, reaching to the tenth degree,
appeared
in
1809
In Cauchy's celethe Meyer- Hirsch Aufgabensammlung. brated memoir on determinants (18 12) the subject began to
assume new prominence, and both he and Gauss (1816) made numerous and valuable contributions to the theory. It is, however, since the discoveries
by Galois that the subject has be-
come one
of great importance.
ple rules for the degree
Cayley (1857) has given simand weight of symmetric functions, and

tables.
he and Brioschi have simplified the computation of
Methods
(Bezout)
of
Elimination
and
of
finding
the resultant
(De Morgan) occupied a number of eighteenth-century algebraists, prominent among them being Euler (1748), whose method, based on symmetric functions, was improved by Cramer (1750) and Bezout (1764). The leading
or eliminant
steps in the development are represented
by Lagrange (1770-71),
1857),
Jacobi, Sylvester (1840), Cayley

1859),
(1848,
Hesse (1843,
Bruno (1859), and Katter (1876). Sylvester's dialytic method appeared in 1841, and to him is also due (185 1) the
i)2
[CHAP. XI.
name and a portion of the theory of the discriminant. Among recent writers on the general theory may be mentioned Burnside
and
Pellet (from 1887).
Art.
7.
Substitutions and Groups.
The Theories of Substitutions and Groups* are among the most important in the whole mathematical field, the study of groups and the search for invariants now occupying the attention of
portance of the
recognition of the imoccurs in the problem of combinatory analysis of the roots forming an wth-degree equation having for roots of a given wth-degree equation {in < n). For simple cases
many mathematicians. The first
the problem goes back to Hudde (1659). Saunderson (1740) noted that the determination of the quadratic factors of a biquadratic expression necessarily leads to a sextic equation, and Le Sceur (1748) and Waring (1762 to 1782) still further elaborated the idea.
Lagrangef
ory
first
undertook a
scientific
treatment of the the-
of substitutions.
Prior to his time the various
methods
of
solving lower equations had existed rather as isolated artifices than as a unified theory.;]; Through the great power of analysis possessed by Lagrange (1770, 1 771) a common foundation
was discovered, and on

tions.
He
theory of substituundertook to examine the methods then known,

this
was
built the
and to show a
but otherwise
priori
failed.
why
these succeeded below the quintic,
In his investigation he discovered the important fact that the roots of all resolvents (resolvantes, reduites) which he examined are rational functions of the roots
of the respective equations. To study the properties of these " functions he invented a Calcul des Combinaisons," the first
* Netto, E., Theory of Substitutions, translated by Cole; Cayley, A., Equations, Encyclopaedia Britannica, gth edition. f Pierpont, James, Lagrange's Place in the Theory of Substitutions, Bulletin of American Mathematical Society, Vol. I, p. 196. } Matthiessen, L.,
Grundziige der antiken und modernen Algebra der
littera-
len Gleichungen, Leipzig, 1878.
Art.
7.]
substitutions and groups.
525
important step towards a theory of substitutions. Mention should also be made of the contemporary labors of Vander-
monde
(1770) as foreshadowing the
coming theory.
great step was taken by Ruffini* (1799). Beginlike Lagrange with a discussion of the methods of ning solving lower equations, he attempted the proof of the impossibility of
solving the quintic and higher equations. While the attempt failed, it is noteworthy in that it opens with the classification
of the various
The next
"permutations" of the coefficients, using the word to mean what Cauchy calls a "systeme des substitutions " conjuguees," or simply a systeme conjugueY' and Galois calls
a " group of substitutions."
called intransitive, transitive
Ruffini distinguishes
what are now and imprimitive, and transitive
and primitive groups, and (1801) freely uses the group of an " equation under the name Tassieme della permutazioni." He also publishes a letter from Abbati to himself, in which the
group idea
is
prominent.
honor of establishing the theory of awarded. He found that if rxt r 3 rn are groups generally the n roots of an equation, there is always a group of permutations of the rs such that (1) every function of the roots invariGalois, however, the
is
,
To
able
by the substitutions
of the
group
is
rationally
known, and
determinable function of the (2), reciprocally, every rationally the substitutions of the group. Galois roots is invariable by
also contributed to the theory of
modular equations and
to that
of elliptic functions.
was made
attracted
at
publication on the group theory the age of eighteen (1829), but his contributions
His
first
little
papers
in
attention until the publication of his collected 1846 (Liouville, Vol. XI).
Cayley and Cauchy were among the first to appreciate the importance of the theory, and to the latter especially are due a
number
ject
is
of important theorems.
The
popularizing of the subhis
largely
due to Serret, who has devoted section IV of
Burkhardt, H., Die Anfange der Gruppentheorie und Paolo Ruffini, Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematik, VI, 1892, p. 119. Italian by E. Pascal,
Brioschi's Annali di Matematica, 1894.
526
[Chap. XI.
algebra to the theory; to Camille Jordan, whose Traite des Substitutions is a classic and to Netto (1882), whose work has
;
been translated into English by Cole (1892). Bertrand, Hermite, Frobenius, Kronecker, and Mathieu have added to the The general problem to determine the number of theory.
groups of n given
letters
still
awaits solution.
But overshadowing all others in recent years in carrying on the labors of Galois and his followers in the study of discontinuous groups stand Klein, Lie, Poincare, and Picard.
Besides
these discontinuous groups there are other classes, one of which, that of finite continuous groups, is especially important in the theory of differential equations. It is this class which
Lie (from 1884) has studied, creating the most important of the recent departments of mathematics, the theory of transformation groups. Of value, too, have been the labors of Killing on the structure of groups, Study's application of the
group theory to complex numbers, and the work of Schur and Maurer.
Art.
8.
Determinants.
Determinants* may be said to take its origin with Leibniz (1693), following whom Cramer (1750) added slightly to the theory, treating the subject, as did his
of
The Theory
The repredecessor, wholly in relation to sets of equations. current law was first announced by Bezout (1764). But it was
Vandermonde
pendent
tion
(1771)
functions.
who first recognized determinants as indeTo him is due the first connected exposiand he may be called
its formal founder. Laplace (1772) gave the general method of expanding a determinant in terms of its complementary minors, although Vandermonde had already given a special case. Immediately fol-
of the theory,
lowing, Lagrange (1773) treated
determinants of the second
* Muir, T., Theory of Determinants in the Historical Order of its Development, Part I, 1890; Baltzer, R., Theorie und Anwendung der Determinanten,
1881.
The
writer
is
under obligations to Professor Weld, who contributes
Chap.
II, for
valuable assistance in compiling this article.
Art.
8.]
determinants.
537
and
third order, possibly stopping here because the idea of

in
hyperspace was not then
vogue.
Although contributing
nothing to the general theory, Lagrange was the first to apply determinants to questions foreign to eliminations, and to him
are due
many
little
special identities
under well-known theorems.

century
of importance
which have since been brought During the next quarter of a
was done. Hindenburg (1784) and Rothe (1800) kept the subject open, but Gauss (1801) made the next advance. Like Lagrange, he made much use of dein
terminants
the theory of numbers.
He
introduced the word
"determinants" (Laplace had

in the present signification,*
used " resultant "),
though not
criminant of a quantic.
reciprocal determinants,
but rather as applied to the disGauss also arrived at the notion of
and came very near the multiplication
theorem.
1
The next
of
81 2),
who
contributor of importance is Binet (181 1, stated the theorem relating to the product formally
of
two matrices
columns and n rows, which
for the special
case of
m=
n reduces to the multiplication theorem.
On
the
same day (Nov. 30, 1 8 12) that Binet presented his paper to the Academy, Cauchy also presented one on the subject. In this M in its present sense, summahe used the word " determinant rized and simplified what was then known on the subject, improved the notation, and gave the multiplication theorem with a proof more satisfactory than Binet's. He was the first to grasp the subject as a whole before him there were determi;
nants, with him begins their theory in
its
generality.
great contributor, and the greatest save Cauchy, " was Jacobi (from 1827). With him the word " determinant
The next
its
received
final
acceptance.
He
early used the functional
" determinant which Sylvester has called the Jacobian," and in his famous memoirs in Crelle for 1 841 he specially treats this
subject, as well as that class of alternating functions which Sylvester has called "Alternants." But about the time of
Jacobi's closing memoirs, Sylvester (1839) anc* Cayley began
Numerum bb-ac, cuius indole proprietates formae (, b, c) imprimis pendcre in sequentibus docebimus, determinantem huius uocabimus."
* "
528
[CHAP.
XL
their great work, a
work which
it
is
impossible to briefly sum-
marize, but which represents the development of the theory to
the present time.
The study
of special forms of determinants has been the
natural result of the completion of the general theory. Axisymmetric determinants have been studied by Lebesgue, Hesse,
and Sylvester; per-symmetric determinants by Sylvester and Hankel circulants by Catalan, Spottiswoode, Glaisher, and Scott; skew determinants and Pfaffians, in connection with the
;
theory of orthogonal transformation, by Cayley

;
continuants
by Sylvester by Muir) by Christoffel and Frobenius compound determinants by Sylvester, Reiss, and Picquet Jacobians and Hessians by Sylvester and symOf the text-books on metric gauche determinants by Trudi. In America, Hanus the first. the subject Spottiswoode's was (1886) and Weld (1893) have published treatises.
;
Wronskians
(so called
Art.
9.
Quantics.
The Theory
of Quantics or
of
Forms * appeared
1775),
1
in
embryo
in
the Berlin memoirs
Lagrange (1773,
who
2
,
considered
cy and estabbinary quadratic forms of the type ax -f- bxy lished the invariance of the discriminant of that type when x -{- \y is put for x. He classified forms of that type accord-
ing to the sign of
&
âc,
and introduced the ideas
of trans-
formation and equivalence. Gauss f (1801) next took up the subject, proved the invariance of the discriminants of binary and ternary quadratic forms, and systematized the theory of
binary quadratic
forms, a
subject
Smith, Eisenstein, Dirichlet, Lipschitz,

Galois also entered the
*
field, in his
by H. J. S. Poincare, and Cayley. theory of groups (1829), and

elaborated
der Invarianten-
Meyer, W.
F.,
Bericht liber den gegenwartigen Stand
theorie.
jahresbericht der deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung, Vol. I, See also the review by Franklin in Bulletin New Berlin 1892, p. 97. 1890-91; York Mathematical Society, Vol. Ill, p. 187 Biography of Cayley, Collected
;
Papers, VIII, f See Art.
p. ix,
2.
and Proceedings
of
Royal Society, 1895.
Art.
9.]
quantics.
521>
the
is
first step towards the establishment of the distinct theory sometimes attributed to Hesse in his investigations of the
plane curve of the third order. It is, however, to Boole (1841) that the real foundation of
the theory of invariants is generally ascribed. He first showed the generality of the invariant property of the discriminant,, which Lagrange and Gauss had found for special forms.
Inspired by Boole's discovery Cayley took up the study
in
memoir " On the Theory of Linear Transformations " (1845), which was followed (1846) by investigations concerning covariants and by the discovery of the symbolic method of find-
By reason of these discoveries concerning ing invariants. invariants and covariants (which at first he called " hyperdeterminants
called
")
he
is
regarded as the founder of what
is
variously
Modern Algebra, Theory of Forms, Theory of Quantics r and the Theory of Invariants and Covariants. His ten memoirs.
on the subject began in 1854, and rank among the greatest which have ever been produced upon a single theory. Sylvester soon joined Cayley in this work, and his originality and vigor in discovery soon made both himself and the subject
prominent.
To him
are
due (1851-54) the foundations of the
general theory, upon which later writers have largely built, as. well as most of the terminology of the subject. Meanwhile in Germany Eisenstein (1843) na d become aware
and covariants of a cubic and biquadratic form, and Hesse and Grassmann had both (1844) touched upon the subject. But it was Aronhold (1849) who> He devised the symbolic first made the new theory known.
of the simplest invariants
.
method now common
in
Germany, discovered the invariants
of a ternary cubic and their relations to the discriminant, and, with Cayley and Sylvester, studied those differential equations
which are
satisfied
by
invariants
and covariants of binary/
His symbolic method has been carried on by quantics. Clebsch, Gordan, and more recently by Study (1889) and Stroh
(1890), in lines quite different
from those of the English
school..
1).
In France Hermite early took up the work (185
He
530
[CHAP. XI.
or
discovered (1854) the law of reciprocity that to every covariant invariant of degree p and order r of a form of the mXXi
order corresponds also a covariant or invariant of degree 111 and of order r of a form of the pth order. At the same time
(1854) Brioschi joined the movement, and his contributions have been among the most valuable. Salmon's Higher Plane
Curves (1852) and Higher Algebra (1859) should also be mentioned as marking an epoch in the theory.
Gordan entered the

added greatly
field,
as a critic of Cayley, in 1868.
He
to the theory, especially
by
his
theorem on the
Endlichkeit des Formensystems, the proof for which has since been simplified. This theory of the finiteness of the number
and covariants of a binary form has since been Peano (1882), Hilbert (1884), and Mertens (1886). extended by Hilbert (1890) succeeded in showing the finiteness of the complete systems for forms in n variables, a proof which Story has
of invariants
simplified.
Clebsch* did more than any other to introduce into Germany the work of Cayley and Sylvester, interpreting the projective
it
geometry by their theory of invariants, and correlating with Riemann's theory of functions. Especially since the
publication of his work on forms (1871) the subject has attracted such scholars as Weierstrass, Kronecker, Mansion,
others.
Noether, Hilbert, Klein, Lie, Beltrami, Burkhardt, and many On binary forms Faa di Bruno's work is well known,
is
as
Study's (1889) on ternary forms.
De Toledo
(1889) and
Elliott (1895)
have published
treatises
on the subject.
of contributors,
Dublin University has also furnished a considerable corps among whom MacCullagh, Hamilton, Salmon, Michael and Ralph Roberts, and Burnside may be especially
Burnside,
mentioned.
who wrote
in
the latter part of Burnside
and Panton's Theory transformation which
of Equations, has set forth a

is fertile
method of geometric interpretation and
hinds together binary and certain ternary forms.

* Klein's Evanston Lectures, Lect.
I.
Art.
10.]
CALCULUS.
531
The equivalence problem of quadratic and bilinear forms has attracted the attention of Weierstrass, Kronecker, Christoffel,
Frobenius, Lie, and more recently of
Rosenow
(Crelle,
The (1889), Killing (1890), and Scheffers (1891). of non-quadratic forms has been studied equivalence problem
108),
Werner
by
ChristofTel.
Schwarz
1884), Brioschi (1877),
Fuchs (1875-76), Klein (1877, and Maschke (1887) have contributed

(1872),
to the theory of forms with linear transformations into

selves.
Cayley (especially from
have worked out the methods of

generating functions.
themand Sylvester (1877) 1870) denumeration by means of
have been studied and Hammond. Starting from the by Sylvester, MacMahon, differential invariant, which Cayley has termed the Schwarzian
Differential invariants
derivative, Sylvester (1885) has founded the theory of reciprocants, to which MacMahon, Hammond, Leudesdorf, Elliott,
Forsyth, and Halphen have contributed. Canonical forms have been studied by Sylvester (185 1), Cayley, and Hermite (to whom the term " canonical form " is due), and more recently
by Rosanes
bert (1886).
(1873), Brill (1882), Gundelfinger (1883),
and Hil-
The Geometric Theory

Poncelet and his followers.
of Binary
Forms may be traced to But the modern treatment has its
tions,
origin in connection with the theory of elliptic modular funcand dates from Dedekind's letter to Borchardt (Crelle,
1877).
The names
of Klein
and Hurwitz are prominent
in
this connection.
On
the
method
of nets (reseaux), another
geometric treatment of binary quadratic forms Gauss (1831), Dirichlet (1850), and Poincare (1880) have written.
Art.
10.
Calculus.
and Integral Calculus,* dating from Newv ton and Leibniz, was quite complete in its general range a"
The
Differential
* Williamson, B., Infinitesimal Calculus, Encyclopaedia Britannica, gth edi

tion; Cantor, M., Geschichte der
Mathematik, Vol.
petit,
Ill, pp. 150-316; Vivanti, G.,

p. 1
,-
Note sur
Mansion,
l'histoire
de l'infiniment
Bibliotheca Mathematica, 1894,
P., Esquisse
de
l'histoire
du calcul infinitesimal, Ghent, 1887.
Le
532
[CHAP.
XL
the close of the eighteenth century.

first
Aside from the study of
which Gauss, Cauchy, Jordan, Picard, Meray, and those whose names are mentioned in connection with the theory of functions, have contributed, there must be menprinciples, to
tioned the development of symbolic methods, the theory of definite integrals, the calculus of variations, the theory of differential
equations,
and
the
numerous applications
of
the
to physical problems. Among those who have prepared noteworthy general treatises are Cauchy (1821),
Newtonian calculus
(1839-47), Duhamel (1856), Sturm (1857-59), Bertrand Serret (1868), Jordan (2d ed., 1893), and Picard (1891-93). (1864), recent contribution to analysis which promises to be valu-
Raabe
able
is
Oltramare's Calcul de Generalization (1893).
Abel seems to have been the first to consider in a general way the question as to what differential expressions can be
integrated in a finite form
by the
aid of ordinary functions, an
Cauchy early undertook investigation extended by Liouville. the general theory of determining definite integrals, and the
has been prominent during the century. Frullani's theorem (1821), Bierens de Haan's work on the theory (1862)
subject
and
his elaborate tables (1867), Dirichlet's lectures (1858)

in
em-
bodied
Meyer's Legendre, Poisson, Plana, Raabe, Sohncke, Schlomilch, Elliott, Leudesdorf, and Kronecker are among the noteworthy conEulerian Integrals were first studied by Euler and afterwards investigated by Legendre, by whom they were classed as Eulerian integrals of the first and second species, as follows
:
treatise (1871),
and numerous memoirs of
tributions.
x n ~\i
~
n~ x
x)
dx,
I e~
xn ~
dx, although these were not the

If
exact forms of Euler's study.

n / e~*x dx
x
is
integral,
it
it
follows that
n
it
!,
but
if
is
fractional
is
a transcendent
function.
To
Legendre assigned the symbol

calcul
and
;
it
is
deux centieme anniversaire de învention du

Vol. IV,
p. 163.
differentiel
Mathesis,
Art.
10.]
calculus.
533
now
called the
gamma
function.
To
the subject Dirichlet has
contributed an important theorem (Liouville, 1839), which has been elaborated by Liouville, Catalan, Leslie Ellis, and others. On the evaluation of Fx and \ogTx Raabe (1843-44), Bauer (1859), a d Gudermann (1845) have written. Legendre's great
table appeared in 18 16.
Symbolic Methods may be traced back to Taylor, and the analogy between successive differentiation and ordinary exponentials had been observed by numerous writers before the
nineteenth century. Arbogast (1800) was the first, however, to separate the symbol of operation from that of quantity in a differential equation. Francois (18 12) and Servois (18 14) seem
to have been the
first
to give correct rules
Hargreave (1848) applied these methods in his

ferential equations,
on the subject. memoir on difGrass-
and Boole
freely
employed them.
mann and Hankel made

bers.
great use of the theory, the former in
studying equations, the latter in his theory of complex num-
The
Calculus of Variations*
may be
said to begin with a
problem of Johann Bernoulli's (1696). It immediately occupied the attention of Jakob Bernoulli and the Marquis de
l'Hopital, but Euler
first
elaborated the subject.

his
His contri-
butions began
to the theory,
in 1733,
and
Elementa
Calculi
Variationum
gave to the science its name. Lagrange contributed extensively and Legendre (1786) laid down a method,
not
entirely
satisfactory,
for
the
discrimination
of
max-
ima and minima. To this discrimination Brunacci (1810), Gauss (1829), Poisson (1831), Ostrogradsky (1834), and Jacobi An important gen(1837) have been among the contributors. eral work is that of Sarrus (1842) which was condensed and improved by Cauchy (1844). Other valuable treatises and memoirs have been written by Strauch (1849), Jellett (1850), Hesse (1857), Clebsch (1858), and Carll (1885), but perhaps the most
*
Carll,
I.,
hunter,
1
861
L. B., Calculus of Variations, New York, 1885, Chap. V; TodHistory of the Progress of the Calculus of Variations, London, Reiff, R., Die AnfSnge der Variationsrechnung, Mathematisch-naturp. 90.
wissenschaftliche Mittheilungen, Tubingen, 1887,
534
[CHAP. XI.
important work of the century is that of Weierstrass. His celebrated course on the theory is epoch-making, and it may be asserted that he was the first to place it on a firm and unquestionable foundation. The Application of the Infinitesimal Calculus to problems in physics and astronomy was contemporary with the origin of
the science.
All through the eighteenth century these appliits
and Lagrange had brought the whole range of the study of forces into the
cations were multiplied, until at
close Laplace
realm of analysis.
the
To Lagrange
"
tion of the theory of the
(1773) we owe the introducpotential* into dynamics, although
and the fundamental memoir potential function of the subject are due to Green (1827, printed in 1828). The name ''potential" is due to Gauss (1840), and the distinction
its
name
"
between potential and potential function to Clausius. With development are connected the names of Dirichlet, Rie-
mann, Neumann, Heine, Kronecker, Lipschitz, Christoffel, Kirchhoff, Beltrami, and many of the leading physicists of the
century.
It is
impossible in this place to enter into the great variety
of other applications of analysis to physical problems.
Among
;
them are the investigations of Euler on vibrating chords Sophie Germain on elastic membranes Poisson, Lame, Saint;
Venant, and Clebsch on the

ies;
elasticity of three-dimensional
bod-
Fourier on heat diffusion; Fresnel on light; Maxwell, Helm-
holtz,
electricity; Hansen, Hill, and Gylden on Maxwell on spherical harmonics; Lord Rayleigh on astronomy; acoustics; and the contributions of Dirichlet, Weber, Kirchhoff, F. Neumann, Lord Kelvin, Clausius, Bjerknes, MacCullagh, and Fuhrmann to physics in general. The labors of Helm-
and Hertz on
holtz should be especially mentioned, since he contributed to the theories of dynamics, electricity, etc., and brought his great
analytical
chanics as well as
*
powers to bear on the fundamental axioms of meon those of pure mathematics.

This
Bacharach, M., Abriss der Geschichte der Potentialtheorie, 1883.
contains an extensive bibliography.
ART.
11.]
535
Art.
11.
Differential Equations.
* has been called by Equations the most important of modern mathematics. The influLief ence of geometry, physics, and astronomy, starting with New-
The Theory
of Differential
ton and Leibniz, and further manifested through the Bernoullis, Riccati, and Clairaut, but chiefly through d'Alembert and
Euler, has been very marked,- and especially on the theory of
linear partial differential equations with constant coefficients.
The
method of integrating linear ordinary differential with constant coefficients is due to Euler, who made equations ' dny A dn y A . . . A n y O, dethe solution of his type, n -fw-1
first
y
,
-j-
is* +
= o,
is
pend on that
l
of
~
l
n n F{z) = z -\-A z
th degree, the algebraic equation of the k in which z takes the place of o, .-\-A n -\-.
.
dy
k
-y
(k
i, 2,
n).
This equation F(z)
the
"char-
acteristic
"
equation considered later by
Monge and Cauchy.
The theory
of linear partial differential equations
may be
Lagrange Monge (1809) treated ordinary and partial differential equations of the first and second order, uniting the theory to geometry, and introducing the notion of the "characteristic," the curve represented o, which has recently been investigated by Darboux, by F(z)
said to begin with
(1779 to 1785).
Cantor, M., Geschichte der Mathematik, Vol.
Ill, p.
429
Schlesinger, L.
Handbuch derTheorie der linearen Differentialgleichungen, Vol. I, 1895, an exreview by Mathews in Nature, Vol. LI I, p. 313; Lie, S., cellent historical view Zur allgemeinen Theorie der partiellen Differentialgleichungen, Berichte liber
;
die
Verhandlungen der
P.,
Gesellschaft
der Wissenschaften
zu
Leipzig,
1895;
Mansion,
Theorie der partiellen Differentialgleichungen ier Ordnung, Ger;
man by
letin
Maser, Leipzig, 1892, excellent on history

in the
Craig, T.,
Some
of the
De
velopments
Theory of Ordinary
Differential
Equations, 1878-1893, Bul;
Mathematical Society, Vol. II, p. 119 Goursat, E., Legonssur des equations aux derivees partielles du premier ordre, Paris, 1891; l'integration Burkhardt, H., and Heffier, L., in Mathematical Papers of Chicago Congress,
p. 13 \
New York
and
p. 96.
ist
" In der ganzen modernerj Mathematik

"
die Theorie der Differential-
gleichungen die wichtigste Discipiin
536

Pfaff (1814, 18 15)
[CllAl\ XI.
general method of integrating partial differential equations of the first order, a method of which Gauss (181 5) at once recognized the value
Levy, and Lie.
gave the
first
and
ical
is
which he gave an analysis. Soon after, Cauchy (18 19) gave a simpler method, attacking the subject from the analytof also
To him standpoint, but using the Monge characteristic. due the theorem, corresponding to the fundamental
theorem of algebra, that every differential equation defines a function expressible by means of a convergent series, a proposition more simply proved by Briot and Bouquet, and also by
Picard (1891). Jacobi (1827) also gave an analysis of Pfaff's method, besides developing an original one (1836) which
Clebsch published (1862). Clebsch's own method appeared in 1866, and others are due to Boole (1859), Korkine (1869), and
A. Mayer
(1872).
Pfaff's
ject of investigation,
problem has been a prominent suband with it are connected the names of
Natani (1859), Clebsch (1861, 1862), DuBois-Reymond (1869),

Cayley, Baltzer, Frobenius, Morera, Darboux, and Lie. The next great improvement in the theory of partial differential equations of the first order is due to Lie (1872), by whom the
whole subject has been placed on a rigid foundation. Since about 1870, Darboux, Kovalevsky, Meray, Mansion, Graindorge, and Imschenetsky have been prominent in tin's line.
The
theory of partial differential equations of the second and higher orders, beginning with Laplace and Monge, was notably advanced by Ampere (1840). Imschenetsky* has summarized
the contributions to
imperfect
state.
1873,
but the theory remains
in
an
The
integration of partial differential equations with three
or more variables was the object of elaborate investigations by Lagrange, and his name is still connected with certain subsid-
To him and to Charpit, who did much to iary equations. the theory, is due one of the methods for integrating develop
the general equation with two variables, a method which bears Charpit's name.
* Grunert's Archiv fur Mathematik, Vol. LIV.
now
ART.
11.]
537
of singular solutions of ordinary and partial differential equations has been a subject of research from the
The theory
time of Leibniz, but only since the middle of the present cenvaluable but littletury has it received especial attention.
Jcnown work on the subject is that of Houtain (1854). ;boux (from 1873) has been a leader in the theory, and
geometric interpretation of these solutions
Darin
the
he has opened a field which has been worked by various writers, notably CasoTo the latter is due (1872) the theory of rati and Cayley.
singular solutions of differential equations of the at present accepted.
first
order as
The
-of
liad in view a reduction to quadratures.
primitive attempt in dealing with differential equations As it had been the hope
eighteenth-century algebraists to find a method for solving the general equation of the nth degree, so it was fhe hope of
tial
analysts to find a general
method for integrating any differenGauss (1799) showed, however, that the difequation. ferential equation meets its limitations very soon unless
Hence analysts began to are introduced. substitute the study of functions, thus opening a new and fertile field. Cauchy was the first to appreciate the importance
complex numbers
of this view, and the modern theory may be said to begin with him. Thereafter the real question was to be, not whether a
solution
tegrals, differential equation suffices for the definition of a function of the independent variable or variables, and if so, what are the characteristic properties of
by means but whether a given

is
possible
of
known
functions or their
in-
this function.
Within a half-century the theory of ordinary differential -equations has come to be one of the most important branches
of analysis, the theory of partial differential equations remaining as one still to be perfected. The difficulties of the general problem of integration are so manifest that all classes of investigators have confined themselves to the properties of the inThe new tegrals in the neighborhood of certain given points.
departure took
its
greatest inspiration from two
memoirs by
538

(Crelle, 1866, 1868), a
[ChAP. XI.
Fuchs
work elaborated by Thome and

contributor since
Frobenius.
Collet has been a prominent
1869, although his
method
for integrating a non-linear

in
system
Clebsch * (1873) attacked the theory along lines parallel to those followed in his theory of Abelian integrals. As the latter can be classified according to the properties of the fundamental curve which,
was communicated to Bertrand
1868.
remains unchanged under a rational transformation, so Clebsch proposed to classify the transcendent functions defined by the
differential equations according to the invariant properties of
the corresponding surfaces

transformations.
f=o
under rational one-to-one
Since 1870 Lie's f labors have put the entire theory of difHe has ferential equations on a more satisfactory foundation.
shown
ticians,
that the integration
theories of
the
older
mathemaby the
which had been looked upon
as isolated, can
introduction of the concept of continuous groups of transformations be referred to a common source, and that ordinary
differential equations
which admit the same infinitesimal trans-
He has also formations present like difficulties of integration. the subject of transformations of contact (Beruhemphasized rungstransformationen) which underlies so much of the recent
The modern school has also turned its attention to theory. the theory of differential invariants, one of fundamental importance and one which Lie has
made prominent.
of
With
this
theory are associated the
names Cayley, Cockle, Sylvester, Forsyth, Laguerre, and Halphen. Recent writers have shown the same tendency noticeable in the work of Monge and
Cauchy, the tendency to separate into two schools, the one inclining to use the geometric diagram, and represented by
Schwarz, Klein, and Goursat, the other adhering to pure analysis, of which Weierstrass, Fuchs, and Frobenius are types.
Fuchs and the theory of elementary divisors have formed the basis of a late work by Sauvage (1895). Poincare's
of
* Klein's Evanston Lectures, Lect. f Klein's Evanston Lectures, Lect.
I.
The work
II, III.
Art.
12.]
infinite series.
539
His theory of Fuchsian equations (also investigated by Klein) is connected He has also brought the whole subwith the general theory. Appell ject into close relations with the theory of functions. has recently contributed to the theory of linear differential
recent contributions are also very notable.
equations transformable into themselves by change of the function and the variable. Helge von Koch has written on infinite
determinants and linear differential equations. Picard has undertaken the generalization of the work of Fuchs and Poincar6
in the case of differential
Fabry equations of the second order. the normal integrals of Thome, integrals (i885)has generalized which Poincare has called " integrates anormales," and which
Picard has recently studied.
Riquier has treated the question
of the existence of integrals in
any
differential
system and
given a brief summary of the history to 1895.* The number of contributors in recent times is very great, and includes, besides
those already mentioned, the names of Brioschi, Konigsberger,
Peano, Graf, Hamburger, Graindorge,
Schlafli, Glaisher,
Lom-
mel, Gilbert, Fabry, Craig, and Autonne.
Art.
12.
Infinite Series.
The Theory
of Infinite Series f in its historical develop-
ment has been divided by Reiff into three periods: (1) the period of Newton and Leibniz, that of its introduction;
that of Euler, the formal period (3) the modern, that of the scientific investigation of the validity of infinite series, a
(2)
;
period beginning with Gauss. This critical period begins with the publication of Gauss's celebrated memoir on the series
'
jj
*
xA
Riquier,
~
,
in
l8l2
Euler
C, Memoire
ferentiel quelconque, etc.

f Cantor,
Memoires des Savants

Reihen,
sur l'existence des integrates dans un systeme difetrangers, Vol. XXXII, No. 3.
Ill, pp. 53, 71
; ;
M., Geschichte der Mathematik, Vol.

Society, Vol.
p.
Reift, R.,
Geschichte der unendlichen
Tubingen, 1889
I, p.
Cajori,
F.,
Bulletin
New
York Mathematical
in
184; History of Teaching of
Mathe-
matics
United States,
361.
540

this series, "
[CHAP.
first
XL
to
had already considered

master
it,
but Gauss was the
and under the name
hypergeometric
series
"
(due
to PfafT)
it
has since occupied the attention of Jacobi,
Schwarz, Cayley, Goursat, and numerous others. ular series is not so important as is the standard of criticism
Kummer, The partic-
which Gauss set up, embodying the simpler criteria of convergence and the questions of remainders and the range of
convergence. Gauss's contributions were not at once appreciated, and the next to call attention to the subject was Cauchy (1821),
who may be
considered the founder of the theory of convergence and divergence of series. He was one of the first to he showed that if two insist on strict tests of convergence
;
series are
convergent their product
is
not necessarily so
and
with him begins the discovery of effective criteria of convergIt should be mentioned, however, that ence and divergence. these terms had been introduced long before by Gregory (1668), that Euler and Gauss had given various criteria, and that Maclaurin had anticipated a few of Cauchy's discoveries.
Cauchy advanced the theory of power series by his expansion His test for convergence of a complex function in such a form. is still one of the most satisfactory when the integration involved
is
possible.
Abel was the next important contributor.

(1826) on the series
1
In his
. .
.
memoir
ivyi
x -|
'Jfliffl
j
_|_
he corrected
certain of Cauchy's conclusions,

tific
He
and gave a completely sciensummation of the series for complex values of m and x. was emphatic against the reckless use of series, and showed
the necessity of considering the subject of continuity in questions of convergence.
Cauchy's methods led to special rather than general criteria, and the same may be said of Raabe (1832), who made the first elaborate investigation of the subject, of De Morgan (from 1842), whose logarithmic test DuBois-Reymond (1873) and Pringsheim (1889) have shown to fail within a certain region
Art,
12.]
INFINITE SERIES.
&41
(1846, 1847, th ^
of Bertrand (1842),
latter
Bonnet
(1843),
Malmsten
without integration); Stokes (1847), Paucker (1852),. Tchebichef (1852), and Arndt 1853). General criteria began with Kummer (1835), and have been studied by Eisenstein
to the theory (1847), Weierstrass in his various contributions of functions, Dini (1867), DuBois-Reymond (1873), and many
others.
Pringsheim's (from 1889) memoirs present the most
complete general theory.
The Theory
Cauchy
the
first
of
Uniform Convergence was

it
treated
by
(1821), his limitations
to
attack
being pointed out by Abel, but successfully were Stokes and Seidel
Cauchy took up the problem again (1853), acknowl(1847-48). edging Abel's criticism, and reaching the same conclusions
which Stokes had already found. Thome used the doctrine (1866), but there was great delay in recognizing the importance of distinguishing between uniform and non-uniform convergence, in spite of the
demands
of the theory of functions.
Semi-Convergent Series were studied by Poisson (1823), who also gave a general form for the remainder of the Maclaurin formula.
is
The most important
solution of the problem
due, however, to Jacobi (1834), who attacked the question of the remainder from a different standpoint and reached a differ-
This expression was also worked out, and ent formula. another one given, by Malmsten (1 847). Schlomilch (Zeitschrif t,
Vol. I, p. 192, 1856) also improved Jacobi'sremainder,and showed the relation between the remainder and Bernoulli's function
(* i_|- 2* +... F{x) contributed to the theory.
i)\
Genocchi (1852) has further

Wronski, whose
"
*'
Among the early writers was
loi
supreme
until Cayley (1873) brought it (181 5) was hardly recognized Transon (1874), Ch. Lagrange (1884), into prominence.
* Echols, and Dickstein have published of late various memoirs
on the subject.
Interpolation Formulas have been given
* Bibliotheca Mathematica, 1892-94;
by various
writers
historical.
542
[CHAP. XI.
from Newton to the present time. Lagrange's theorem is well known, although Euler had already given an analogous form, as are also Olivier's formula (1827), and those of Minding {1830), Cauchy (1837), Jacobi (1845), Grunert (1850, 1853),
Christoffel (1858),
and Mehler (1864).
Fourier's Series* were being investigated as the result of physical considerations at the same time that Gauss, Abel,
and Cauchy were working out the theory of infinite series. Series for the expansion of sines and cosines, of multiple arcs in powers of the sine and cosine of the arc had been treated by Jakob Bernoulli (1702) and his brother Johann (1701) and Euler and Lagrange had simplified the still earlier by Viete.
subject, as have,
more
recently, Poinsot, Schroter, Glaisher,
and Kummer.
Fourier (1807) set for himself a different probto expand a given function of x in terms of the sines or lem, cosines of multiples of x, a problem which he embodied in his
Theorie analytique de la Chaleur (1822). Euler had already given the formulas for determining the coefficients in the
series;
and Lagrange had passed over them without recognizing their value, but Fourier was the first to assert and at-
tempt to prove the general theorem. Poisson (1820-23) also attacked the problem from a different standpoint. Fourier
did not, however, settle the question of convergence of his series, a matter left for Cauchy (1826) to attempt and for
Dirichlet (1829) to handle in a thoroughly scientific manner. Dirichlet's treatment (Crelle, 1829), while bringing the theory of trigonometric series to a temporary conclusion, has been
the subject of criticism and improvement by
Riemann
(1854),
Heine, Lipschitz, Schlafli, Among other prominent contributors to the theory of trigonometric and Fourier series have been Dini, Hermite, Halphen, Krause,
and DuBois-Reymond.
Byerly and Appell.

Summary by Bocher, Chap. IX of Byerlv's Fourier's Series and Spherical Harmonics, Boston, 1893 Sachse, A., Essai historique sur la Bulletin representation d'une fonction .... par une serie trigonometrique.
;
* Historical
des Sciences mathematiques, Part
I,
1880, pp. 43, 83.
.Art. 13.]
theory of functions.
543
Art.
13.
Theory of Functions.
may
be said to have
its
The Theory
development
of Functions *
first
in Newton's works, although algebraists had already become familiar with irrational functions in considering cubic and quartic equations. Newton seems first to have
grasped the idea of such expressions in his consideration of symmetric functions of the roots of an equation. The word
was employed by Leibniz
(1694), but
in
connection with the
In its modern sense it seems to have Cartesian geometry. been first used by Johann Bernoulli, who distinguished between algebraic and transcendent functions. He also used (1718) the
function symbol <p. Clairaut (1734) used IIx, $x, Ax, for various functions of x> a symbolism substantially followed by
Lagrange (1772, 1797, 1806) laid the foundations for the general theory, giving to the symbol a broader meaning, and to the symbols f,0,F,...
v
d'Alembert (1747) and Euler (1753).
f,
to
0', F',
their
modern
signification.
Gauss contributed
the theory, especially in his proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra, and discussed and gave name to the theory
" " of "conforme Abbildung," the orthomorphosis of Cayley.
a point of departure, Cauchy so the theory that he is justly considered one greatly developed His memoirs extend over the period 1814of its founders.
Making Lagrange's work
and cover subjects like those of integrals with imaginary limits, infinite series and questions of convergence, the applica185
1,
tion of the infinitesimal calculus to the theory of

*
Brill, A.,
complex
schen Functionen
and Noether, M., Die Entwickelung der Theorie der algebraiin alterer und neuerer Zeit, Bericht erstattet der Deutschen
Mathematiker-Vereinigung, Jahresbericht, Vol. II, 'pp. 107-566, Berlin, 1894; KOnigsberger, L., Zur Geschichte der Theorie der elliptischen Transcendenten
in
den Jahren 1826-29, Leipzig, 1879; Williamson, B
Infinitesimal Calculus,
Encyclopaedia Britannica; Schlesinger, L., Differentialgleichungen, Vol. I, 1895; Casorati, F., Teorica delle funzioni di variabili complesse, Vol. I, 1868; Klein's
For bibliography and historical notes, see Harkness and Morley's Theory of Functions, 1893, and Forsyth's Theory of Functions, 1893; Bibliotheca Mathematica, Enestrom, G., Note historique sur les symboles.
Evanston Lectures.
.
.
1891, p
89.
544:
[CHAP. XL.
numbers, the investigation of the fundamental laws of mathematics, and numerous other lines which appear in the general
Originally opposed theory of functions as considered to-day. to the movement started by Gauss, the free use of complex
numbers, he finally became, like Abel, its advocate. To him is largely due the present orientation of mathematical research,
making prominent the theory of functions, distinguishing between classes of functions, and placing the whole subject upon The historical development of the gena rigid foundation. eral theory now becomes so interwoven with that of special classes of functions, and notably the elliptic and Abelian, that economy of space requires their treatment together, and hence
a digression at this point.
The Theory
of Elliptic
Functions*
is
usually referred for
its
origin to Landen's (1775) substitution of

single hyperbolic arc.
two
elliptic arcs for a
But Jakob Bernoulli (1691) had sug-
curve, and
gested the idea of comparing non-congruent arcs of the same Johann had followed up the investigation. Fagnano
(1716) had made similar studies, and both Maclaurin (1742) and d'Alembert (1746) had come upon the borderland of elliptic Euler (from 1761) had summarized and extended functions.
the rudimentary theory, showing the necessity for a convenient notation for elliptic arcs, and prophesying (1766) that "such
signs will afford a
new
sort of calculus of
which
have here atEuler's inves-
tempted the exposition

tigations continued
of the
first
elements."
until about the time of his death (1783), and to him Legendre attributes the foundation of the theory. Euler was probably never aware of Landen's discovery.
It is to
tions
is
Legendre, however, that the theory of elliptic funclargely due, and on it his fame to a considerable degree
His earlier treatment (1786) almost entirely suba strict analytic for the geometric method. stitutes For forty
depends.
years he had the theory in hand, his labor culminating in his
*
1890;
Enneper, A., Elliptische
Funktionen, Theorie
und Geschichte, Halle,

der elliptischen Tran-
Konigsberger, L., Zur Geschichte der Theorie scendenten in den Jahren 1826-29, Leipzig, 1879.
Art.
13.]
theory of functions.
545
Traite des Fonctions elliptiques et des Integrates Euleriennes surprise now awaiting him is best told in his (1825-28).
own words: "Hardly had my work seen the light its name could scarcely have become known to scientific foreigners, when I learned with equal surprise and satisfaction that two
young mathematicians,
of Christiania,
MM.
Jacobi of Konigsberg and Abel

their
had succeeded by
own
studies in perfect-
ing considerably the theory of elliptic functions in its highest Abel began his contributions to the theory in 1825, parts."
and even then was in possession of his fundamental theorem which he communicated to the Paris Academy in 1826. This communication being so poorly transcribed was not published in full until 1841, although the theorem was sent to Crelle Abel discovered the (1829) just before Abel's early death. double periodicity of elliptic functions, and with him began
the treatment of the
elliptic
integral
as a function of the
amplitude.
Jacobi, as also
praise of the delayed
it
Legendre and Gauss, was especially cordial in theorem of the youthful Abel. He calls "monumentum sere perennius," and his name "das
Abel'sche
of
Theorem
"
has since attached to
it.
The
functions
multiple periodicity to
which
it
refers
have been called
Abelian Functions.
Abel's work was early proved and elucidated by Liouville and Hermite. Serret and Chasles in the Comptes Rendus, Weierstrass (1853), Clebsch and Gordan in
their Theorie der Abel'schen
Bouquet
theory.
in
Functionen (1866), and Briot and their two treatises have greatly elaborated the
Riemann's * (1857) celebrated memoir in Crelle presented the subject in such a novel form that his treatment was
slow of acceptance. He based the theory of Abelian integrals and their inverse, the Abelian functions, on the idea of the sur-
now so well known by his name, and on the correspondfundamental existence theorems. Clebsch, starting from ing
face
Riemann and Modern Mathematics, Klein, Evanston Lectures, p. 3 transited by Ziwet, Bulletin of American Mathematical Society, Vol. I, p. 165; Burkhardt, H., Vortrag iiber Riemann, Gottingen, 1892.
;
546

its
[CHAP. XI.
equation, made the subject more accessible, and generalized the theory of Abelian integrals to a theory of algebraic functions with several variables, thus
an algebraic curve defined by
creating
branch which has been developed by Noether,
Picard, and Poincare\
The
introduction of the theory of
in-
variants and projective geometry into the domain of hyperelliptic and Abelian functions is an extension of Clebsch's
scheme.
In this extension, as in the general theory of Abelian With the development of functions, Klein has been a leader.
the theory of Abelian functions is connected a long list of names, including those of Schottky, Humbert, C. Neumann,
Fricke,
Konigsberger,
Prym,
Schwarz,
Painlev,
Hurwitz,
Bfioschi, Borchardt, Cayley, Forsyth,
and Rosenhain, besides
others already mentioned. Returning to the theory of elliptic functions, Jacobi (1827) began by adding greatly to Legendre's work. He created a
new
notation and gave

use.
name
which he made
Among
modular equations of those who have written treatises

.
to the "
"
upon the
elliptic-function
theory are Briot and Bouquet,
The
Laurent, Halphen, Konigsberger, Hermite, Durege, and Cayley. introduction of the subject into the Cambridge Tripos
it,
and the fact that Cayley 's only book was devoted to have tended to popularize the theory in England.
(1873),
Theta Functions was the simultaneous and of Jacobi and Abel (1828). Gauss's independent notes show that he was aware of the properties of the theta
of
The Theory
creation
functions twenty years earlier, but he never published his investigations. Among the leading contributors to the theory
are
Rosenhain (1846, published in 185 1) and Gopel(i847), who connected the double theta functions with the theory of Abelian
functions of two variables and established the theory of hyperelliptic functions in a manner corresponding to the Jacobian
theory of elliptic functions. Weierstrass has also developed the theory of theta functions independently of the form of their
space boundaries, researches elaborated by Konigsberger (1865) to give the addition theorem. Riemann has completed the
ART.
13.]
THEORY OF FUNCTIONS.
547
investigation of the relation between the theory of the theta and the Abelian functions, and has raised theta functions to
their present position
by making them an
H.
J.
essential part of his
theory of Abelian integrals.
S.
Smith has included
among
Prym
his contributions to this subject the theory of
omega
functions.
Among
the
recent contributors are Krazer and

(1895).
(1892),
and Wirtinger
Cayley was a prominent contributor to the theory of His memoir (1845) on doubly periodic periodic functions. functions extended Abel's investigations on doubly infinite Euler had given singly infinite products for sin x products. cos x, and Abel had generalized these, obtaining for the
y
elementary doubly periodic functions expressions for sn x> en x, dn x. Starting from these expressions of Abel's Cayley
laid a
complete foundation
for his
theory of
elliptic functions.
Eisenstein (1847) followed, giving a discussion from the standpoint of pure analysis, of a general doubly infinite product,
and
his labors, as
supplemented by Weierstrass, are
classic.
The General Theory of Functions has received its present form largely from the works of Cauchy, Riemann, and Weierstrass.
tion
Endeavoring to subject all natural laws to interpretamathematical formulas, Riemann borrowed his methods by from the theory of the potential, and found his inspiration in
the contemplation of mathematics from the standpoint of the concrete. Weierstrass, on the other hand, proceeded from the
purely analytic point of view.

of
To Riemann*
making
certain partial differential
due the idea equations, which express

is
the fundamental properties of all functions, the foundation of a general analytical theory, and of seeking criteria for the determination of an analytic function by its discontinuities
and boundary conditions. His theory has been elaborated by Klein (1882, and frequent memoirs) who has materially extended the theory of Riemann's surfaces. Clebsch, Liiroth,
and
later writers
F..
have based on
this
theory their researches on

translated
* Klein,
Bulletin of
Riemann and Modern Mathematics,

I,
by
Ziwet,
American Mathematical Society, Vol.
p.
165.
548
loops.
[CHAP.
XL
Riemann's speculations were not without weak points,, and these have been fortified in connection with the theory of the potential by C. Neumann, and from the analytic standpoint
by Schwarz.
In both the theory of general and of elliptic and other He introduced the systemfunctions, Clebsch was prominent.
atic
algebraic curves of deficiency I, bringing to bear on the theory of elliptic functions the ideas of
consideration of
modern
alized
projective geometry.
his
in
This theory Klein has generTheorie der elliptischen Modulfunctionen, and
has extended the method to the theory of hyperelliptic and Abelian functions.
Following Riemann came the equally fundamental and original and more rigorously worked out theory of Weierstrass.
His early lectures on functions are justly considered a landin modern mathematical development. In particular, transcendents are perhaps the most his researches on Abelian
mark
important since those of Abel and Jacobi. His contributions to the theory of elliptic functions, including the introduction His conof the function f{u\ are also of great importance. tributions to the general function theory include much of the
symbolism and nomenclature, and many theorems. He first announced (1866) the existence of natural limits for analytic
and Fricke.
functions, a subject further investigated by Schwarz, Klein, He developed the theory of functions of complex
its
variables from
foundations, and his contributions to the

less
theory of functions of real variables were no
marked.
Fuchs has been a prominent contributor, in particular (1872) on the general form of a function with essential singularities. On functions with an infinite number of essential singularities
Mittag-Lenrer (from 1882) has written and contributed a fundamental theorem. On the classification of singularities of
functions Guichard (1883) has summarized and extended the researches, and Mittag-Lenrer and G. Cantor have contributed
to the
same
result.
Laguerre (from 1882) was the
first
to
M " of transcendent class discuss the
functions, a subject to
-ART. 13.]
THEORY OF FUNCTIONS.
549
also con-
which Poincare, Cesaro, Vivanti, and Hermite have

tributed.
Automorphic functions, as named by Klein, have been investigated chiefly by Poincare^ who has established their
contributors to the theory include Schwarz, Fuchs, Cayley, Weber, Schlesinger, and Burnside.
general classification.
The
The Theory of Elliptic Modular Functions, proceeding from Eisenstein's memoir (1847) and the lectures of Weierstrass on
elliptic functions,
has of late assumed prominence through the

Schlafli (1870),
influence of the Klein school.
and
later Klein,
Dyck, Gierster, and Hurwitz, have worked out the theory which Klein and Fricke have embodied in the recent Vorlesungen uber die Theorie der elliptischen Modulfunctionen In this theory the memoirs of Dedekind (1877), (1890-92).
Klein (1878), and Poincare" (from 1881) have been among the most prominent. For the names of the leading contributors to the general
and special
theories, including
among
others Jordan, Hermite,

Pellet, Reichardt,
Holder, Picard, Biermann,

Brill-Noether Bericht.
Darboux,
Burk-
hardt, Krause, and Humbert, reference must be had to the
Of the various
special algebraic functions space allows
men-
tion of but one class,that bearing Bessel's
name.
Bessel's funcof Daniel Ber-
tions * of the zero order are found in

noulli (1732)
memoirs
(1764), and before the end of the eighteenth century all the Bessel functions of the first kind and Their prominence as special integral order had been used.
and Euler
functions
in their
is
due, however, to Bessel (181617),

in 1824.
who put them
with Lagrange's Laplace's extension (1777), had been regarded as the best
series (1770),
present form
method
time or
of solving Kepler's
quantities in
problem (to express the variable undisturbed planetary motion in terms of the
first
mean anomaly), and

1868), F.
functions were
to improve this method Bessel's prominently used. Hankel (1869), Lom-
mel (from
*
Neumann, Heine, Graf

107.
(1893),
Gray and
Mathe-
Bocher, M.,
bit of
II, p.
mathematical history, Bulletin of
New York
matical Society, Vol.
550
[CHAP. XI.
Mathews (1895), and others have contributed to the Lord Rayleigh (1878) has shown the relation between
theory.
Bessel's
and Laplace's functions, but they are nevertheless looked upon Tables of Bessel's funcas a distinct system of transcendents. tions were prepared by Bessel (1824), by Hansen (1843), an d
by Meissel
(1888).
Art.
14.
Probabilities and Least Squares.

of Probabilities
is, as applied to The observations, largely a nineteenth-century development. doctrine of probabilities dates, however, as far back as Fermat
The Theory
and Errors*
(1657) gave the first scientific treatment of the subject, and Jakob Bernoulli's Ars Conjectandi (posthumous, 171 3) and De Moivre's Doctrine of Chances
(1654).
and Pascal
Huygens
171 8)fraised the subject to the plane of a
branch of mathematics.
The theory
Simpson
in
of errors
may be
Miscellanea (posthumous,
traced back to Cotes's Opera 1722), but a memoir prepared by
1755 (printed 1756) first applied the theory to the discussion of errors of observation. The reprint (1757) of this memoir lays down the axioms that positive and negative errors
and that there are certain assignable errors may be supposed to fall continuous errors are discussed and a probability curve is given.
are equally probable,
limits within
which
all
Laplace (1774) made the first attempt to deduce a rule for the combination of observations from the principles of the theory of probabilities. He represented the law of probability of
errors
bility,
by a curve y = (p(x), x being any error and y and laid down three properties of this curve
jj/-axis;
its
:
probaIt is
(1)
symmetric as to the
it
(2)
the ^r-axis
is
an asymptote, the
probability of the error 00 being o; (3) the area enclosed is 1, being certain that an error exists. He deduced a formula
*
;
Merriman, M., Method of Least Squares, New York, 1884, p. 182 TransAcademy, 1877, Vol. IV, p. 151, with complete bibliography; Todhunter, I., History of the Mathematical Theory of Probability,
actions of Connecticut
1865; Cantor, M., Geschichte der Mathematik, Vol. Ill, p. 316.
J-EnestrOm, G., Review of Cantor, Bibliotheca Mathematica, 1896,
p. 20.
Art.
14.]
probabilities
and least squares.
551
for the
mean
of three observations.
He
also gave (1781) a
formula for the law of
facility of error (a term due to Lagrange, but one which led to unmanageable equations. Daniel 1774), Bernoulli (1778) introduced the principle of the maximum
product of the probabilities of a system of concurrent errors. The Method of Least Squares is due to Legendre (1805),
who
Nouvelles methodes pour la determiIn ignorance of Legendre's nation des orbites des coinetes. " The contribution, an Irish-American writer, Adrain, editor of
introduced
it
in his
Analyst" (1808),
<p(x)
first
deduced the law of
facility
of error,
ce'^^, c and h
cision of observation.
He
being constants depending on pregave two proofs, the second being
essentially the
same
as Herschcl's (1850).
Gauss gave the
first
proof which seems to have been

after Adrain's) in 1809.
in Europe (the third due much of the honor of placing the subject before the mathematical world, both as to the theory and its applications.
known
is
To him
Further proofs were given by Laplace (1810, 1812), Gauss
Hagen (1837), Bessel (1838), Donkin and Crofton (1870). Other contributors have (1844, 1856), been Ellis (1844), De Morgan (1864), Glaisher (1872), and Schi(1823), Ivory (1825, 1826),
aparelli (1875).
Peters's (1856) formula for

is
r>
the probable
error of a single observation,
well
known.*
the contributors to the general theory of probabilthe nineteenth century have been Laplace, Lacroix (1816), Littrow (1833), Quetelet (1853), Dedekind (i860), Helmert (1872), Laurent (1873), Liagre, Didion, and Pearson.
Among
ities in
De Morgan and Boole improved the theory, but added little that was fundamentally new. Czuber has done much both in his own contributions (1884, 1 891), and in his translation (1879)
of Meyer.
On
The Educational Times has been marked,
the geometric side the influence of Miller and as also that of such
contributors to this journal as Crofton, McColl, Wolstenholme, Watson, and Artemas Martin.
* Bulletin of
New York
II, p. 57.
552
[CHAP. XI.
Art.
15.
Analytic Geometry.
The History
the four periods:
of
practically closing
in
Geometry* may be roughly divided into (i) The synthetic geometry of the Greeks, with Archimedes (2) The birth of analytic
;
which the synthetic geometry of Guldin, Degeometry, sargues, Kepler, and Roberval merged into the coordinate geometry of Descartes and Fermat (3) 1650 to 1800, characterized by the application of the calculus to geometry, and including the names of Newton, Leibnitz, the Bernoullis, Clairaut, Mac;
laurin, Euler,
and Lagrange, each an analyst rather than a ge-
ometer;
The nineteenth century, the renaissance of pure characterized by the descriptive geometry of Monge, geometry, the modern synthetic of Poncelet, Steiner, von Staudt, and Cremona, the modern analytic founded by Plticker, the non(4)
Euclidean hypothesis of Lobachevsky and Bolyai, and the more elementary geometry of the triangle founded by Lemoine. It is quite impossible to draw the line between the analytic
and the synthetic geometry of the nineteenth century, in their historical development, and Arts. 15 and 16 should be read together.
The Analytic Geometry which Descartes gave

in
to the world
163/was
confined to plane curves,
and the various important
properties common to all algebraic curves were soon discovered. To the theory Newton contributed three celebrated theorems
on the Enumeratio linearum
tertii
ordinis f (1704), while others
are due to Cotes (1722), Maclaurin,

*
Loria,
G.,
II
and Waring (1762, 1772,
passato e
il
Memorie Accademia Torino,
1887;
presente delle principali teorie geometriche. translated into German by F. Schutte
under the title Die hauptsachlichsten Theorien der Geometrie in ihrer iriiheren und heutigen Entwickelung, Leipzig, 1888; Chasles, M., Apercu historique sur l'origine et le developpement des methodes en Geometrie, 1889 Chasles,
I
M., Rapport sur
Geometrie, Paris, 1870; Cayley, A., Curves, Encyclopaedia Britannica; Klein, F., Evanston Lectures on Mathematics, NewA. V. Braunmuhl, Historische Studie iiber die organische ErYork, 1894
;
les
Progres de
la
zeugung ebener Curven, Dyck's Katalog mathematischer Modelle, 1892. + Ball, W. W. R., On Newton's classification of cubic curves. Transactions of London Mathematical Society, 1891, p. 104.
.Art. 15.1
ANALYT.IC GEOMETRY.
553
The scientific foundations of the theory of plane curves be ascribed, however, to Euler (1748) and Cramer (1750). may Euler distinguished between algebraic and transcendent curves,
etc.).
and attempted known for the

which
a classification of the former.

"
Cramer
is
well
"
paradox
which bears
his
name, an obstacle
removed from the theory. To due an attempt to put the theory of singularities of algebraic curves on a scientific foundation, although in a modern geometric sense the theory was first treated by
Lame
is
(1818) finally
Cramer
also
Poncelet.
Meanwhile the study of surfaces was becoming prominent. Descartes had suggested that his geometry could be extended to three-dimensional space, Wren (1669) had discovered the two systems of generating lines on the hyperboloid of one sheet, and Parent (1700) had referred a surface to three coordinate planes.
The geometry
of three dimensions
began to
(1
assume
definite shape, however, in a
memoir of
Clairaut's
73
1),
in which, at the
many
age of sixteen, he solved with rare elegance of the problems relating to curves of double curvature.
Euler (1760) laid the foundations for the analytic theory of curvature of surfaces, attempting the classification of those of the second degree as the ancients had classified curves
of the second order.
Monge, Hachette, and other members
of
that school entered into the study of surfaces with great zeal. Monge introduced the notion of families of surfaces, and dis-
covered the relation between the theory of surfaces and the integration of partial differential equations, enabling each to be
advantageously viewed from the standpoint of the other. The theory of surfaces has attracted a long list of contributors in
the nineteenth century, including most of the geometers whose names are mentioned in the present article.*
Mobius began
his contributions to
geometry
in 1823,
and
four years later published his Barycentrische Calcul.
In this
great work he introduced homogeneous coordinates with the

* For
details see Loria, II passato e
il
presente, etc.
554
[CHAP.
XL
attendant
symmetry
of
geometric formulas,
of signs in
the
scientific
geometry, and the exposition of the principle establishment of the principle of geometric correspondence He also (1852) summed up the classifisimple and multiple.
cation of cubic curves, a service rendered
for quartics.
by Zeuthen (1874)
the period of Mobius also belong Bobillier used trilinear coordinates, and Bellavitis, whose (1827), Gercontributions to analytic geometry were extensive.
To
who
first
gonne's labors are mentioned in the next
article.
Of
all
modern contributors
to analytic geometry, Pliicker

first
stands foremost.
In 1828 he published the
volume
of his
which appeared Analytisch-geometrische Entwickelungen, the modern abridged notation, and which marks the beginning of a new era for analytic geometry. In the second volume
in
(1831) he sets forth the present analytic form of the principle of duality. To him is due (1833) the general treatment of foci
and the complete classification of plane cubic curves (1835) whick had been so frequently tried before him. He also gave (1839) an enumeration of plane curves of the fourth order, which Bragelogne and Euler had
for curves of higher degree,
" attempted. In 1842 he gave his celebrated six equations"" by which he showed that the characteristics of a curve (order,
double points, number of cusps, number of tangents, and number of inflections) are known when any three are given. To him is also due the first scienclass,
number
of
double
tific
dual definition of a curve, a system of tangential coordinates, and an investigation of the question of double tangents,
a question further elaborated

(1847),
Salmon
(1858),
by Cayley (1847, 1858), Hesse and Dersch (1874). The theory of

also
ruled surfaces,
opened by Monge, was
extended by him.
Possibly the greatest service rendered by Pliicker was the introduction of the straight line as a space element, his first contribution (1865) being followed by his well-known treatise
work he treats certain general properties of complexes, congruences, and ruled surfaces, as well as special properties of linear complexes and congruenon the subject (1868-69). In
this
Art.
15.]
analytic geometry.
considered by
school.
Tt
535
ces, subjects also
Kummer
is
others of the
modern
not a
little
and by Klein and due to Plucker
that the concept of 4- and hence ^-dimensional space, already suggested by Lagrange and Gauss, became the subject of
later
research.
Riemann, Helmholtz, Lipschitz, Kronecker
Klein, Lie, Veronese, Cayley, d'Ovidio, and many others have elaborated the theory. The regular hypersolids in 4-dimensional space
have been the subject of special study by Scheffler,

the consideration (1836) of from the intersection of
Rudel, Hoppe, Schlegel, and Stringham.
Among
algebraic
Jacobi's contributions
is
curves and groups
of points resulting
To
by Reye (1869), due the conformal representation of the Jacobi ellipsoid on a plane, a treatment completed by Schering (1858).
is
surfaces, a subject carried forward
also
The number
of
examples
(1872).
of conformal representation of sur-
faces on planes or on spheres has been increased
by Schwarz
(1869) and Amstein
In 1844 Hesse, whose contributions to geometry in general are both numerous and valuable, gave the complete theory of
inflections of a curve,
and introduced the so-called Hessian
instance of a covariant of a ternary form. He also contributed to the theory of curves of the third order, and generalized the Pascal and Brianchon theorems on a
curve as the
first
Hesse's methods have recently been elabospherical surface. rated by Gundelfinger (1894). Besides contributing extensively to synthetic geometry, Chasles added to the theory of curves of the third and fourth
degrees.
In the
method
first
of characteristics
out
may
be found the
trace of the
which he worked Abzahlende Geometrie*
which has been developed by Jonquieres, Halphen (1875), an <l Schubert (1876, 1879), ancl to which Clebsch, Lindemann, and Hurwitz have also contributed. The general theory of correspondence starts with Geometry, and Chasles (1864) undertook
* Loria,
G.,
Notizie
storiche
;
sulla
Geometria numerativa.
Bibliotheca.
Mathematica, 1888, pp.
39, 67
1889, p. 23.
556
the
first

special researches
[CHAP.
XL
curves, limiting his
on the correspondence of algebraic investigations, however, to curves of defi-
ciency zero.
Cayley (1866) carried this theory to curves of higher deficiency, and Brill (from 1873) completed the theory. * influence on geometry was very great. He early Cayley's
carried on Pliicker's consideration of singularities of a curve,
(1864, 1866) that
and showed
sidered as
every singularity
may be
con-
compounded of ordinary singularities so that the " "six equations apply to a curve with any singularities whatHe thus opened a field for the later investigations of soever.
Noether, Zeuthen, Halphen, and H. J. S. Smith. Cayley's theorems on the intersection of curves (1843) an d the deter-
mination of self-corresponding points for algebraic correspondences of a simple kind are fundamental in the present theory,
subjects to which Bacharach, Brill, and Noether have also contributed extensively. Cayley added much to the theories of rational transformation and correspondence, showing the distinction between the theory of transformation of spaces
and that of
correspondence of loci.
plane curves, and in a non-singular quartic, his developments of Pliicker's conception of foci, his discussion of the osculating conies of curves and of
His investigations on the bitangents of particular on the twenty-eight bitangents of
the sextactic points on a plane curve, the geometric theory of the invariants and covariants of plane curves, are all noteworthy.
lines
He was
lie
the
first
to
announce (1849) tne twenty-seven
on a cubic surface, he extended Salmon's theory of reciprocal surfaces, and treated (1869) the classification of cubic
which
surfaces, a subject already discussed
by
Schlafli.
He
also con-
tributed to the theory of scrolls (skew-ruled surfaces), orthogonal systems of surfaces, the wave surface, etc., and was the
to reach (1845) any very general results in the theory of curves of double curvature, a theory in which the next great
first
advance was made (1882) by Halphen and Noether.
Among
Cayley's other contributions to geometry is his theory of the Absolute, a figure in connection with which all metrical properties of a figure are considered.
Biographical Notice
in
Cayley's Collected papers, Vol. VIII.
Art.
15.]
analytic geometry.
in
557
Clebsch* was also prominent

surfaces.
the study of curves
and
geometry.
He first applied the algebra of linear transformation to He emphasized the idea of deficiency (Geschlecht)
which dates back to Abel, and applied the
it
of a curve, a notion
theory of elliptic
and Abelian functions to geometry, using
Clebsch (1872) investigated the shapes of surfaces of the third order. Following him, Klein attacked
for the study of curves.
the problem of determining all possible forms of such surfaces, and established the fact that by the principle of continuity all forms of real surfaces of the third order can be derived from
Zeuthen the particular surface having four real conical points. has discussed the various forms of plane curves of the (1874)
showing the relation between his results and those of Klein on cubic surfaces. Attempts have been made to extend the subject to curves of the nth order, but no genfourth
order,
Quartic surfaces have been studied by Rohn (1887) but without a complete enumeration, and the same writer has contributed (1881) to the theory of
eral classification
has been made.
Kummer
surfaces.
Lie has adopted Plucker's generalized space element and extended the theory. His sphere geometry treats the subject from the higher standpoint of six homogeneous coordinates,
as distinguished
but
from the elementary sphere geometry with and characterized by the conformal group, a geometry studied by Darboux. Lie's theory of contact transformations, with its application to differential equations, his line and sphere complexes, and his work on minimum surfaces are all
five
prominent.
the study of curves and surfaces and of the theory of functions are the models prepared by Dyck, Brill, O. Henrici, Schwarz, Klein, Schonflies, Kummer, and
in
Of great help
others.f
The Theory
*
f
of
Minimum
Surfaces has been developed along

I.
Klein, Evanston Lectures, Lect.
Dyck,
W., Katalog mathematischer und

Miinchen,
1892
;
Modelle,
Deutsche
p. 49.
Universitatsausstellung,
mathematisch-physikalischer Mathematical
Papers of Chicago Congress,
558
[CHAP. XI.
with the analytic geometry in general. Lagrange (1760-61) gave the equation of the minimum surface through a given:
contour, and Meusnier (1776, published in 1785) also studied the question. But from this time on for half a century little
that
noteworthy was done, save by Poisson (18 13) as to certain imaginary surfaces. Monge (1784) and Legendre (1787) connected the study of surfaces with that of differential equais
but this did not immediately affect this question. Scherk (1835) added a number of important results, and first applied the labors of Monge and Legendre to the theory. Catalan
tions,
(1842), Bjorling (1844),
and Dini (1865) have added to the
But the most prominent contributors have been subject. Bonnet, Schwarz, Darboux, and Weierstrass. Bonnet (from
1853) has set forth a new system of formulas relative. to the general theory of surfaces, and completely solved the problem
surface through any curve and admitting in each point of this curve a given tangent plane. Weierstrass (1866) has contributed several fundamental theoof determining the
minimum
rems, has shown

surfaces,
how
to find
all
of the real algebraic
minimum
of
and has shown the connection between the theory
functions of an imaginary variable and the theory of

surfaces.
minimum
Art.
16.
Modern Geometry.
Descriptive,* Projective, and Modern Synthetic Geometry are so interwoven in their historic development that it is even
more
difficult
to separate
them from one another than from
the analytic geometry just mentioned. Monge had been in of his theory for over thirty years before the publipossession
cation of his Geometrie Descriptive (1800), a delay due to the jealous desire of the military authorities to keep the valuable
secret.
It
is
true that certain of
its
features can be traced

it
back to Desargues, Taylor, Lambert, and Frezier, but
was
Monge who worked

*
it
out in detail
as a science, although
Wiener, Chr., Lehrbuch der darstellenden Geometrie, Leipzig, 1884-87;
Geschichte der darstellenden Geometrie, 1884.
ART.
16.]
MODERN GEOMETRY.
in
559
the
Lacroix (1795), inspired by Monge's lectures

Polytechnique, published the
materially to
first
Ecole
After
work on the
subject.
Monge's work appeared, Hachette (1812, 1818, 1821) added its symmetry, subsequent French contributors being Leroy (1842), Olivier (from 1845), de ^ a Gournerie (from In Germany i860), Vallee, de Fourcy, Adhemar, and others. leading contributors have been Ziegler (1843), Anger (1858), and especially Fiedler (3d edn. 1883-88) and Wiener (1884-87). At this period Monge by no means confined himself to the deSo marked were his labors in the analytic scriptive geometry. geometry that he has been called the father of the modern He also set forth the fundamental theorem of reciptheory.
rocal polars,
though not
in
modern language, gave some
treat-
ment
of ruled surfaces,
and extended the theory of polars to
quadrics.*
concerned themselves especially with the relations of form, and particularly with those of surfaces
his school
Monge and
in
a space of three dimensions. Inspired by the general activity of the period, but following rather the steps of Desargues and Pascal, Carnot treated chiefly the metrical relations of figures.
and curves
In particular he investigated these relations
as connected with the theory of transversals, a theory whose fundamental property of a four-rayed pencil goes back to
for the
Pappos, and which, though revived by Desargues, was set forth first time in its general form in Carnot's Geometrie de
Position (1803), and supplemented in his Thorie des TransIn these works he introduced negative magversales (1806).
nitudes, the general quadrilateral and quadrangle, and numerous other generalizations of value to the elementary geometry of to-day. But although Carnot's work was important and
many
details are
now commonplace,
neither the
theory nor the method employed have endured. Geometry of Position (Geometrie der Lage) has mon with Carnot's G6omtrie de Position.
*
name of the The present

little in
com-
On
recent development of graphic
methods and the influence of Monge
branch of mathematics, see Eddy, H. T., Modern Graphical Developupon ments, Mathematical Papers of Chicago Congress (New York, 1896), p. 58.
this
560
[CHAP. XL-
Projective Geometry had its origin somewhat later thart the period of Monge and Carnot. Newton had discovered that all curves of the third order can be derived by central
But ill spite of this, projection from five fundamental types. fact the theory attracted so little attention for over a century
that
prisoner generally ascribed to Poncelet. in the Russian campaign, confined at SaratofT on the Volga " de toute espece de livres et (1812-14), "prive," as he says, de secours, surtout distrait par les malheurs de ma patrie et les
its
origin
is
miens propres," he
still
had the vigor
of spirit
and the
leisure
to conceive the great work which he published (1822) eight years later. In this work was first made prominent the power
of central projection in demonstration
and the power of the
His leading idea was the of projective properties, and as a foundation principle he study introduced the anharmonic ratio, a concept, however, which
principle of continuity in research.
dates back to Pappos and which Desargues (1639) had alsoused. Mobius, following Poncelet, made much use of the an-
harmonic
the
"
name term now
ratio in his Barycentrische Calciil (1827), but under " " (ratio bisectionalis), a Doppelschnitt-Verhaltniss
in
common
use under Steiner's abbreviated form
" anharmonic ratio or Doppelverhaltniss." " function " (rapport anharmonique, or fonction anharmonique)
The name
"
is
due to Chasles, and " cross-ratio was coined by Clifford. The anharmonic point and line properties of conies have been further elaborated by Brianchon, Chasles, Steiner, and von
due the theory of " figures homologiques," the perspective axis and perspective center (called by Chasles the axis and center of homology), an extension of
Staudt.
"
To
Poncelet
is
also
" of Carnot's theory of transversals, and the " cordes idales He also conies which Pliicker applied to curves of all orders.
discovered what Salmon has called " the circular points at infinity," thus completing and establishing the first great principle
of
modern geometry, the

through
principle of continuity.
Brianchon
(1806),
his application of Desargues's
theory of polars,
ART.
16.]
MODERN GEOMETRY.
for
561
completed the foundation which Monge had begun

let's
Ponce-
(1829) theory of reciprocal polars.
the most prominent geometers contemporary with Poncelet was Gergonne, who with more propriety might be
Among
ranked as an analytic geometer.

"
in its
He
first
(1813) used the term
sense, although Servois (1811) polar" " had used the expression pole." He was also the first (1825 26) to grasp the idea that the parallelism which Maurolycus,
Snell,
modern geometric
and Viete had noticed
principle he stated
and to
it
a fundamental principle. This he gave the name which it now

is
bears, the Principle of Duality, the
most important,
after that
This principle of geometthe discovery of which was also claimed by ric reciprocation, Poncelet, has been greatly elaborated and has found its way
of continuity, in
modern geometry.
into
modern algebra and elementary geometry, and has recently been extended to mechanics by Genese. Gergonne was the first to use the word "class" in describing a curve, explicitly
defining class and between the two.
He
degree (order) and showing the duality and Chasles were among the first to
study scientifically surfaces of higher order.

Steiner (1832) gave the
jective relations
first
between rows,
pencils, etc.,
complete discussion of the proand laid the foun-
dation for the subsequent development of pure geometry. He practically closed the theory of conic sections, of the corre-
sponding figures in three-dimensional space and of surfaces of the second order, and hence with him opens the period of special study of curves and surfaces of higher order. His treatment of duality and his application of the theory of projective
The pencils to the generation of conies are masterpieces. of polars of a point in regard to a curve had been theory studied by Bobillier and by Grassmann, but Steiner (1848)
showed that
this theory can
serve as the foundation for the
study of plane curves independently of the use of coordinates,
and introduced those noteworthy curves covariant to a given curve which now bear the names of himself, Hesse, and Cayley. This whole subject has been extended by Grassmann, Chasles,
562
[CHAP.
XL
Cremona, and Jonquieres. Steiner was the first to make prominent (1832) an example of correspondence of a more complicated nature than that of Poncelet, Mobius, Magnus, and His contributions, and those of Gudermann, to the Chasles. geometry of the sphere were also noteworthy.
While
Mobius, Plucker, and Steiner
were
at
work
in
Germany, Chasles was closing the geometric era opened in France by Monge. His Apercu Historique (1837) * s a classic,
and did
for
France what Salmon's works did for algebra and
England, popularizing the researches of earlier geometry writers and contributing both to the theory and the nomenTo him is due the name " homoclature of the subject.
in
graphic" and the complete exposition of the principle as applied to plane and solid figures, a subject which has received
attention in England at the hands of Salmon,
Townsend, and
H.
J. S.
Smith.
Staudt began his labors after Plucker, Steiner, and Chasles had made their greatest contributions, but in spite of
this
Von
seeming disadvantage he surpassed them all. Steiner school, as opposed to that of Plucker, he
Joining the
greatest exponent of pure synthetic geometry of He set forth (1847, 1856-60) a complete, pure geometric system in which metrical geometry finds no place. Projective properties foreign to
became the modern times.
number
of
measurements are established independently of relations, number being drawn from geometry instead conversely, and imaginary elements being systematically
introduced from the geometric side. projective geometry based on the group containing all the real projective and dualistic transformations, is developed, imaginary transformations
being also introduced.
Largely through
his*
influence pure
geometry again became a fruitful field. Since his time the distinction between the metrical and projective theories has been to a great extent obliterated * the metrical properties
*
of
Klein, F., Erlangen
Programme
of
1872, Haskell's translation, Bulletin

II, p. 215.
New York
ART.
17.]
ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY.
563
being considered as projective relations to a fundamental conUnfiguration, the circle at infinity common for all spheres.
fortunately von Staudt wrote in an unattractive style, and to Reye is due much of the popularity which now attends the
subject.
Cremona began his publications work on projective geometry (1875)

is
in in
1862.
His elementary
Leudesdorf's translation
His'contributions to the theory of geometric transformations are valuable, as also his works on
familiar to English readers.
plane curves, surfaces, etc.

In England Mulcahy, but especially
Hirst, a pupil
of
Steiner's,
Townsend
(1863),
and
geometry.
opened the subject of Clifford did much to make known the
modern German
theories, besides himself contributing
to the study of polars
and
the general theory of curves.
Art.
17.
Elementary Geometry.
affected
Trigonometry and Elementary Geometry have also been by the general mathematical spirit of the century.
In trigonometry the general substitution of ratios for lines in the definitions of functions has simplified the treatment, and
certain
The convergence
formulas have been improved and others added.* of trigonometric series, the introduction of
the Fourier series, and the free use of the imaginary have already been mentioned. The definition of the sine and cosine
and the systematic development of the theory on this basis, have been set forth by Cauchy (1821), Lobachevsky The hyperbolic trigonometry,f already {1833), and others. founded by Mayer and Lambert, has been popularized and
by
series,
further developed
{1871),
by Gudermann (1830), Houel, and Laisant and projective formulas and generalized figures have
I.,
* Tod hunter,
History, of certain formulas of spherical trigonometry,
Philosophical Magazine, 1873.

f Gunther, S., Die Lehre von den gewohnlichen und verallgemeinerten Hyperbelfunktionen, Halle, 1881; Chrystal, G., Algebra, Vol. II, p. 288.
564
[CHAP.
XL
been introduced, notably by Gudermann, Mobius, Poncelet, and Steiner. Recently Study has investigated the formulas,
of spherical trigonometry from the standpoint of the modern theory of functions and theory of groups, and Macfarlane has
generalized the fundamental theorem three-dimensional space.
of
trigonometry for
Elementary
Geometry has
been
even
more
affected.
Among
the
many
contributions to the theory
may be men-
tioned the following: That of Mobius on the opposite senses of lines, angles, surfaces, and solids the principle of duality
;
as given
by Gergonne and Poncelet

;
the contributions of
De
Morgan to the logic of the subject the theory of transversals as worked out by Monge, Brianchon, Servois, Carnot, Chasles,
and others
covered by
;
the theory of the radical axis, a property disthe Arabs, but introduced as a definite concept by
Gaultier (1813) and used by Steiner under the name of " line " of equal power the researches of Gauss concerning inscriptible polygons, adding the 17- and 257-gon to the list below the
;
1000-gon
the theory of stellar polyhedra as worked out by
Cauchy,
Jacobi, Bertrand, Cayley, Mobius, Wiener, Hess, Hersel, and others, so that a whole series of bodies have been
;
added to the four Kepler-Poinsot regular solids and the researches of Muir on stellar polygons. These and many other improvements now find more or less place in the text-books
of the day.
To
angle,
these must be added the recent
Geometry
of the Tri-
now
a prominent chapter in elementary mathematics.
Crelle (18 16)
made some
also
investigations in this line, Feuerbach
(1822) soon after discovered the properties of the Nine-Point

Circle,
and Steiner
came
across
some
of the properties of
the triangle, but none of these followed up the investigation. Lemoine * (1873) was the first to take up the subject in a sys*
Vol. Ill, p. 29; Mackay,
Smith, D. E., Biography of Lemoine, American Mathematical Monthly, J. S., various articles on modern geometry in Proceed-
ings Edinburgh Mathematical Society, various years; Vigarie. E\. Geometrie du Articles in recent numbers of Journal de Mathematiques speciales, triangle. Mathesis> and Proceedings of the Association francaise pour Tavancement des
Art.
18.]
non-euclidean geometry.
565
tematic way, and he has contributed extensively to its de" velopment. His theory of transformation continue" and his
*'
"
geometrographie
to
should also be mentioned.
Brocard's con1877.
tributions
the geometry of the triangle began in
Other prominent writers have been Tucker, Neuberg, Vigarie, The Emmerich, M'Cay, Longchamps, and H. M. Taylor. is also greatly indebted to Miller's work in The Educatheory tional Times, and to Hoffmann's Zeitschrift. The study of linkages was opened by Peaucellier (1864), who gave the first theoretically exact method for drawing a Kempe and Sylvester have elaborated the straight line.
subject.
In recent years the ancient problems of trisecting an angle, doubling the cube, and squaring the circle have all been settled by the proof of their insolubility through the use of compasses
and
straight edge.*
Art.
18.
Non- Euclidean Geometry.
futile
The Non-Euclidean Geometry f is a natural result of the attempts which had been made from the time of Proklos
the opening of the nineteenth century to prove the fifth postulate (also called the twelfth axiom, and sometimes the
to
* Klein,
F.,
von der Quadratur des

schrift, 1890;
VortrEge iiber ausgew&hlten Fragen; Rudio, F., Das Problem Zirkels. Naturforschende Gesellschaft Vierteljahr-
f Stackel
Archimedes, Huygens, Lambert, Legendre (Leipzig, 1892). and Engel, Die Theorie der Parallellinien von Euklid bis auf
Gauss, Leipzig, 1895; Halsted, G. B., various contributions: Bibliography of Hyperspace and Non-Euclidean Geometry, American Journal of Mathematics, Vols. I, II; The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. I; translations of Lobachevsky's Geometry, Vasiliev's address on Lobachevsky, Saccheri's try, Bolyai's work and his life; Non-Euclidean and Hyperspaces,
GeomeMathe-
matical Papers of Chicago Congress, p. 92. Loria, G., Die hauptsachlichsten Theorien der Geometrie, p. 106 Karagiannides, A., Die Nichteuklidische
;
On
Gegenwart, Berlin, 1893; McClintock, E., New York Mathematical Society, Vol. II, p. 144; Poincar6, Non-Euclidean Geom., Nature, 45:404; Articles on Parallels and Measurement in Encyclopaedia Britaneica,
the early history of Non-Euclidean Geometry, Bulletin of
Geometrie
vom Alterthum
bis zur
9th edition; Vasiliev's address (German by Engel) also appears in the Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematik, 1895.
566
[CHAP.
XL
eleventh or thirteenth) of Euclid. The first scientific investU gation of this part of the foundation of geometry was made by Saccheri (1733), a work which was not looked upon as a precursor of Lobachevsky, however, until Beltrami (1889) called Lambert was the next to question the attention to the fact.
validity of Euclid's postulate, in his Theorie der Parallellinien of many treatises on 1786), the most important
(posthumous,
the subject between the publication of Saccheri's work and those of Lobachevsky and Bolyai. Legendre also worked in
field, but failed to bring himself to view the matter outside the Euclidean limitations.
the
During the closing years of the eighteenth century Kant's* doctrine of absolute space, and his assertion of the necessary
postulates of geometry, were the object of much scrutiny and At the same time Gauss was giving attention to the attack.
It was at postulate, though on the side of proving it. one time surmised that Gauss was the real founder of the nonfifth
Euclidean geometry, his influence being exerted on
Loba-
chevsky through his friend Bartels, and on Johann Bolyai

through the father Wolfgang, who was a fellow student of But it is now certain that Gauss can lay no claim to Gauss's.
priority of discovery, although the influence of himself
of Kant, in a general way,
and
must have had

in
its effect.
Bartels
pupil.
went to Kasan
1807,
and Lobachevsky was his
The
latter's lecture
notes
show that
Bartels
never
mentioned the subject of the fifth postulate to him, so that his. investigations, begun even before 1823, were made on his own
motion and his results were wholly original. Early in 1826 he sent forth the principles of his famous doctrine of parallels, based on the assumption that through a given point more than
can be drawn which shall never meet a given line with it. The theory was published in full in 1829-30, coplanar and he contributed to the subject, as well as to other branches
one
line
of mathematics, until his death.

*
Fink, E.,
Kant
als
Mathematiker, Leipzig, 1889.
ART.
18.]
NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY.
his father,
567
Johann Bolyai received through

of
the
inspiration to original research which the latter
Wolfgang, some had
received from Gauss.

at
When only twenty-one he discovered, about the same time as Lobachevsky, the principles of nonEuclidean geometry, and refers to them in a letter of Novem1823.
in
ber,
They were committed

1832.
to writing
in
1825 and
published
Gauss asserts
in his
correspondence with
Schumacher (1831-32) that he had brought out a theory along the same lines as Lobachevsky and Bolyai, but the publication of their works seems to have put an end to his investigations. Schweikart was also an independent discoverer of the
geometry, as his recently recovered letters show, but he never published anything on the subject, his work on the theory of parallels (1807), like that of his nephew
non-Euclidean
Taurinus (1825), showing no trace of the Lobachevsky-Bolyai

idea.
The
world.
hypothesis was slowly accepted by the mathematical
was about forty years after its publication that it began to attract any considerable attention. Houel and Flye St. Marie (1871) in France, Riemann (1868), (1866) Helmholtz (1868), Frischauf (1872), and Baltzer (1877) in GerIndeed
it
many, Beltrami (1872) in Italy, de Tilly (1879) m Belgium, Clifford in England, and Halsted (1878) in America, have been among the most active in making the subject popular. Since 1880 the theory may be said to have become generally
understood and accepted as legitimate.*
Of
all
scientific
these contributions the most noteworthy from the In his Habilitationsstandpoint is that of Riemann.
he applied the methods of analytic geometry to the theory, and suggested a surface of negative curvature, which Beltrami calls " pseudo-spherical," thus leaving Euclid's
schrift (1854)
geometry on a surface of zero curvature midway between his He thus set forth three kinds of own and Lobachevsky 's.
* For
article
an
excellent
summary
II, p.
of the
results
of the hypothesis,
see an
by McClintock, The Non-Euclidian Geometry, Bulletin of

1.
New York
568
[CHAP. XI.
These Klein geometry, Bolyai having noted only two. (1871) has called the elliptic (Riemann's), parabolic (Euclid's),
and hyperbolic (Lobachevsky's). Starting from this broader point
of
view* there have con-
tributed to the subject many of the leading mathematicians of the last quarter of a century, including, besides those already
named, Cayley,
Lie,
Klein,
Newcomb,
"
Pasch, C.
S.
Peirce,
Killing, Fiedler, Mansion, tion of his " metrical
and McClintock.
geometry It remained identical with that of Lobachevsky and Bolyai. for Klein (1871) to show this, thus simplifying Cayley's treatment and adding one of the most important results of the
entire
Cayley 's contribuwas not at once seen to be
theory.
is
Cayley's
metrical
formulas
are,
when the
geome-
Absolute
try
;
real, identical with those of the hyperbolic

is
;
imaginary, with the elliptic the limiting case between the two gives the parabolic (Euclidean) geometry.
it
when
question raised by Cayley's memoir as to how far projective geometry can be defined in terms of space without
The
the introduction of distance had already been discussed by von Staudt (1857) and has since been treated by Klein (1873) and by Lindemann (1876).
Art.
19.
Bibliography.
The following are a few of the general works on the history of mathematics in the nineteenth century, not already mentioned in the foot-notes. For a complete bibliography of recent
schritte der
works the reader should consult the Jahrbuch liber die FortMathematik, the Bibliotheca Mathematica, or the Revue Semestrielle, mentioned below.
Ball,
Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der Mathematik (Leipzig). W. W. R., A short account of the history of mathematics
(London, 1893).
Ball,
W. W.
W. W.
R.,
History of the study of mathematics at
Cam-
bridge (London, 1889).

Ball,
R.,
Primer of the history of mathematics (London,

Klein, Evanston Lectures, Lect. IX.
1895).
Art.
19.J
bibliography.
569
Bibliotheca Mathematica, G. Enestrom, Stockholm. Quarterly. Should be consulted for bibliography of current articles and works
on
history of mathematics. idme Bulletin des Sciences Mathematiques (Paris, Partie). of Mathematics (New York, 1894). Cajori, F., History Cayley, A., Inaugural address before the British Association,
Nature, Vol. XXVIII, p. 491. Dictionary of National Biography. London, not completed. Valuable on biographies of British mathematicians.
1883.
D'Ovidio, Enrico,
Uno
sguardo
alle origini
ed
alio
sviluppo della
Matematica Pura (Torino,

Dupin, Ch., Coup
1889). d'ceil sur quelques progres des Sciences
mathe-
matiques, en France, 1830-35.
Comptes Rendus,
1835.
Valuable biographical articles by Encyclopaedia Britannica. Clerke, and others. Cayley, Chrystal, BibFink, K., Geschichte der Mathematik (Tubingen, 1890). liography on p. 255. Gerhardt, C. J., Geschichte der Mathematik in Deutschland
(Munich, 1877).
Graf, J. H., Geschichte der Mathematik und der NaturwissenAlso numerous bioschaften in bernischen Landen (Bern, 1890).
graphical articles.
Gunther, S., Vermischte Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der mathematischen Wissenschaften (Leipzig, 1876). Gunther, S., Ziele und Resultate der neueren mathematischhistorischen Forschung (Erlangen, 1876).
Hagen,
J. G.,
Synopsis der hoheren Mathematik.

,
Two volumes
(Berlin, 1891-93).
Hankel, H., Die Entwickelung der Mathematik in dem letzten Jahrhundert (Tubingen, 1884). Hermite, Ch., Discours prononce devant le president de la republique le 5 aout 1889 a l'inauguration de la nouvelle Sorbonne. also Nature, Vol. XLI, Bulletin des Sciences mathematiques, 1890 (History of nineteenth-century mathematics in France.) p. 597.
;
Hoefer,
F., Histoire
des mathematiques (Paris, 1879).
Isely, L., Essai sur l'histoire des mathematiques dans la Suisse franchise (Neuchatel, 1884). Jahrbuch iiber die Fortschritte der Mathematik (Berlin, annually,
1868 to date). Marie, M., Histoire des sciences mathematiques et physiques. Vols. X, XI, XII (Paris, 1887-88). Matthiessen, L., Grundziige der antiken und modernen Algebra
der litteralen Gleichungen (Leipzig, 1878).
570
[CHAP. XI.
Bulletin New Newcomb, S., Modern mathematical thought. York Mathematical Society, Vol. Ill, p. 95; Nature, Vol. XLIX>
P- 325-
Poggendorff, J. C, Biographisch-literarisches Handworterbuch zur Geschichte der exacten Wissenschaften. Two volumes (Leipzig,.
1863).
Quetelet, A., Sciences
mathematiques
et
physiques chez les
Beiges au commencement du
les
XIX
siecle (Brussels, 1866).
Revue semestrielle des publications mathematiques redigee sous auspices de la Societe mathematique d'Amsterdam. 1893 to date.
Proceedings of the Irish
(Current periodical literature.) Roberts, R. A., Modern mathematics.
Academy,
1888.
J.
S.,
Smith, H.
On
the present state and prospects of
some
branches of pure mathematics. Proceedings of London Mathematical Society, 1876; Nature, Vol. XV, p. 79. Nature, Sylvester, J. J., Address before the British Association.
Vol.
I,
pp. 237, 261.
Wolf, R.,
Handbuch der Mathematik.
Two
volumes (Zurich,
1872). Zeitschrift fur
Abtheilung.
Mathematik
The Leipzig. are supplements.
Mathematik und Physik. Historisch-literarische Abhandlungen zur Geschichte der
For a biographical table of mathematicians see Fink's GeFor the names and positions schichte der Mathematik, p. 240.
of living mathematicians see the
Jahrbuch der gelehrten Welt>
published at Strassburg!
INDEX.
571
INDEX.
Abelian functions, page 545. Abel's quintic demonstration,

520.
22,
Calculus, 531. of variations, 533.
Catenary,
14, 145, 327.
Absolute convergence, 228. Absolute, the, 556. Addition of vectors, 426, 443.
of uniform strength, 147^

'
Adjustment of observations,
Algebraic equations, 1-32. Alternants, 527.
469.
Cauchy's expansion, 52. theorem, 262, 264. Center and diameter, 94.
Central axis, 456.
Centroids, 381, 386.
Alternating current, 153. electromotiveforce, 440,

442.
Chance, games
of, 467.
Characteristic ratios in conies, no. Clairaut's equation, 324.
Analytic geometry, 552.
Anharmonic
ratio, 560.
Anti-hyperbolic functions, 116.
Coaxial quaternions, 439. Cofactors in determinants, 47, 62. Combinations, 473.
Approximation of Arched catenary,
roots,
146.
3, 12,
5IQ.
Combinatory multiplication, Commutative law, 392.

Complete
362.
392.
Array of determinant,
Associative law, 392.
36.
integral,
309,
333,
359,
Ausdehnungslehre, 374-424, Automorphic functions, 549. Average error, 493.

Axial projection,
72.
517.
Complement, the, 399, 416. Complementary function, 399,

of rotations, 463. of vectors, 428.
416.
Composition of quantities, 453.
Bernoulli's theorem, 482.
Complex hyperbolic
numbers,
roots, 31.
Bibliography, 508, 568. Binary forms, 513, 531. Binomial equations, 16, 522.
factors, 46.
functions, 140. integrals, 261.

138, 515.
variable, 226-302.
theorem, 462.
Bessel's functions, 169, 183, 213, 215,
220, 221, 224, 345, 549of a function, 251.
Concurrent events, 479. Conduction of heat, 183, 219. Conformal representation, 236,
244.
238,.
Branch
point, 252.
Congruences, 512. Conic ranges, 91.

Conies, points on, 107.
Canonical forms, 53 r
57^
HIGHER MATHEMATICS.
,
Conies, projective generation of 86,

561.
Differentiation, 54, 120, 322.
sectors of, no.

triangles of,
Direct probabilities, 476. Dirichlet's conditions, 198.
no.
245.
Conjugate functions, Cosine series, 192.

Continued fractions,
Discontinuous groups, 526. Discriminant, 319.

58.
Consistence of equations,
515.
Distributive law, 392. Doubly ruled surfaces, 102.
Duality of plane and point, 96.

principle of, 74.
Continuity of functions, 230. Convergence, of series, 540. uniform, 274. Conversion hyperbolic formulas,
118.
Dynamo,
445.
Elastic catenary, 148.
Cooling of iron plate,
174.
Elementary functions, geometry,

Electric charges, 177.
229.
564.
Coplanar vectors,
Correlation, 74.
426, 432.
currents, 153, 305, 440, 452.

107.
Correspondence in conies, Cosine series, 192.

Covariants, 529.
Critical lines, 298.
motor, 445.
Elements
at infinity, 72.
of a group, 34. of roots, 15.
points, 250, 278.
Eliminant,
59, 61.
regions, 298.
Cross ratio, 104. Cubic equations,
17.
Elimination, 523. Ellipse, functional relations, in. Elliptic functions, 23, 107, 291, 522,
544.
surfaces, 556. Curves of second degree, 82.
Curvilinear integrals, 267.
modular functions, Equation of energy, 331.

Equations,
differential,
549.
Cusp
locus, 319.
169,
172,
Cut, 251.
Cutting,
72. 13.
303-373. 535solution of, 1-32.
Cylinder, floating,
Deficiency curves, 548.
De Moivre's formula,
515.
quintic, 23.
Derivative equation, 9. Derivatives of complex functions,

233-
theory of, 519. Equilibrium of forces, 404. Equipotential curves, 248. Energy, equation of, 332. Envelopes, 317. Error function, 492.
Errors, theory of, 467-507, 550. Essential singularity, 253.
gudermanians, 130. hyperbolic functions, 120, 122.
Eulerian integrals, 532.
Exact differential equations, 308. Expansion of hyperbolic functions,

123, 125.
Descriptive geometry, 554.
Determinant array,
36.
Exponential expressions,
124.
Determinants, 33-69, 408, 526. Development of determinants, 49, 52.

Differential calculus, 531.
functions, 229.
theorem, 460.
First integrals, 332, 333.
equations, 172, 303-373,

535.
Flexure and tension, 151. Flotation of bodies, 13.
INDEX.
Fluid motion, 246. Flux across a curve, 247.
573
174, 183, 215, 219.
Heat conduction,
Hessian curve,
History
of
555.
magnetic, 445, 452.

Forces, equilibrium of, 404. resultant of, 398, 430.
modern mathematics,
256.
508-570.
Holomorphic function,
Forms,
530.
Homogeneous differential equations,

172, 311, 342.
Fourier's series, 194, 196, 273, 542. Fractions, continued, 514.
linear equations, 60.
Functions, Bessel's, 169-220, 549. determinantal, 37.

elliptic, 107, 522, 544.
Horner's method,
2,
12, 519.
Howe
truss strut problem, 21. functional relations, Hyperbola,
harmonic, 169-225.
hyperbolic, 107-168. of a complex variable,
226-302.
in.
Hyperbolic functions, 107-168.
paraboloid. 99.
symbols
for, 543.
Hyperboloid of one nappe, Hyperdeterminants, 525.
100.
theory of, 543. with n values, 300.

Galois's group theory, 525. Games of chance, 467.
Hyperelliptic functions, 546.
Hypergeometric
series, 348, 540.
Icosahedron equation,
521.
Gamma
Imaginaries, 141, 227, 516.

Infinitesimal calculus, 534.
Infinite series, 539.
Infinity,
functions, 488, 533.
General integrals, 359. Geometric applications, 325.

elements,
70.
elements
at, 73.
point at, 256.
multiplication, 390.
Inner products, 401.

Integral calculus, 531. Integral, complex, 261.
curvilinear, 267.
representation, 227, 305.
Geometry, analytic,
552.
descriptive, 558.
elementary. 563.
modern,
558.
hyperbolic, 135. one-valued function, 284.

probability, 483.
Integrals, 257, 3 3~373-
non-Euclidean, 104, 565.

projective, 76-106, 560.
Graphic representations,
232.
3.
Intermediate differential equation,

366.
Graphs
solution of equations, of equations, 9.
of hyperbolic functions, 132. of laws of errors, 492, 496,

500, 503.
Interpolated values, 497. Interpolation formulas, 541.

Invariants, 531.
Grassmann's space analysis, 374424.
Inverse probabilities, 484. Inversions in permutations, 35. Involution, 88.

Irrational numbers, 513. Irrotational motion, 248.
Groups,
34, 524129.
Gudermanian angle,
function, 128.
tables of, 168.
Jacobians, 357.
Journals, mathematical, 509.
Harmonic
analysis, 169.
elements,
77.
functions, 169-225.
Kern curve,
88.
574
Lagrange's equation,
HIGHER MATHEMATICS.
356.
Modulus
of integral, 259.
235.
lines, 358.
resolvent, 15, 520.
Monge's equations, 367. Monogenic function, 233,

theorem,
Lam
's
series, 549. functions, 221.
Multiplication, geometric, 390, 457.

65.
Laplace's equation, 170, 203. Laurent's series, 271.
Newton's approximation
rule, 6.
Laws
of error, 491.
Node
locus, 321.
Least squares, 470, 550. Legendre's equation, 179. Limiting values, 119. Linear algebraic equations, 56. differential equations, 172,
312, 336, 338, 368.
Non-Euclidean geometry, 104, 565. Notations for determinants, 39.

for functions, 543. for vectors, 427.
Numbers, projective
theory
definition, 104.
of, 511, 513.

10, 519.
Literature, 436, 569.
Numerical equations,
Observations, errors
252.
Locus, 317, 319, 321. Logarithmic branch point,
of, 550.
Omega
functions, 547.
discontinuity, 252.
expressions, 127. functions, 229. solution of equations,

32.
One-valued functions, 226, 278. Orders of determinants, 40.

Orthogonal trajectories,
Parallel lines, 43, 566. Partial derivatives, 245.
differential
326.
tables, 497, 499, 503.
Loxodrome,
150.
equations,
355,
305, 368, 535-
Maclaurin's configuration, 35.

series, 271.
Particular integral, 337.

Pencils, 71.
Magnetic
flux, 445, 449.
Periodicals, 509.
Magnification, 237.
Periodic functions, 169-225, 547.
Map
drawing, 237. Mathematical bibliography, 568.

history, 503-570.
periodicals, 509.
Permutations,
Physics, 534.
34, 471.
Plane and point duality, 96. Plane perspective, 76.

sects, 412.
Mathematicians, living,
570.
Matrix, 60. McClintock's method for equations,

29.
vectors, 413.
Planes, sum of, 413. Planimetric products, 390, 392.

Pliicker's equations, 554, 556.
Mean
error,
4^,3.
Mercator's projection, 151, 245.
Point analysis, 374-424.

at infinity, 256.
Mereomorphic function,
256.
Metrical geometry, 104, 568.
Points,
sum
of, 375.
Minimum
surfaces, 557.
47.
Minor determinants,
Models,
557.
Pole and polar, 87, 559, 561. Polygons, 564.
Mittag-Leffler's theorem, 292, 548.
Polygrams, Polyhedra,
74.
564.
Modern geometry,
Modulus
of
558.
Polystims, 74.
Potential, 177, 534.
227.
mathematics, 508-570.
complex variable,
Primal forms,
70.
INDEX.
Prime numbers,
512.
575
225.
Roots of Bessel's functions,
Primitive of differential, 307.
Probable error, 493.

Probabilities, 467-507, 550.
of equations, 1-32, 520. of unity, 15.
Rotations, 463.
Product of arrays,
68.
Rows and columns,
42.
of determinants, 67. of points, 392, 410.
Ruled quadric surfaces, Rules for versors, 457.
98.
of sects, 394, 411. of vectors, 394, 432, 444,

449.
Sarrus's rule, 40. Scalar products, 433, 446.

quantities, 375, 433.
of versors, 459.
Products, planimetric, 390, 392.

stereometric, 390, 410.
Schools of mathematics, 509. Second-degree curves, 82.
Projecting, 72. Projective conic ranges, 91.
Semi-convergent series, 534. Separation of roots, 8.

of variables, 304.
Series, convergence of, 274. for roots, 27, 30.
geometry, 70-106, 560.

Projectivity, 80.
Quadrantal versors, 457. Quadratic equations, 16. Quadric surfaces, 98.

Quantics, 528. Quantity, complex, Quartic equations, 19.
515.
Fourier's, 273.
infinite, 228, 342, 537.
Laurent's, 271'
Maclaurin's, 271.
Taylor's, 269.
Quaternions, 425-466, 517.

Quintic equations,
21, 520.
trigonometric, 174, 542. Sextic resolvent, 17, 520.
Simultaneous
327-
differential equations,
Raising the order, 55. Reciprocal of vectors, 435. determinants, 69.

Reciprocity, 512. Rectangle inscribed
20, 25.
Sine series, 188, 542.
Singular solutions, 317, 320, 537.

Singularity, essential, 253. Solution of equations. 1-32, 519. linear equations, 56.
in
rectangle,
Reference systems, 386. Regions, critical, 298.
Space analysis, 374-424, 425. Sphere, conformal representation,

244.
Regula
falsi, 5.
Removal
of terms,
n,
244.
22, 520.
depth of immersion, 13, Spherical harmonics, 169, 213.

trigonometry, 418, 457.
versors, 458.
15.
Representation, conformal, 236,238,

geometric, 305.
graphic, 232.
Stereometric products, 391, 410. Stirling's theorem, 482.
Residues, 282, 512. Resolvent equations,
Stream function,
17.
247.
2, 8, 12,
Sturm's theorem,
519.
sextic, 23, 520.
Resultant error, 494. Resultant of equations
59, 61, 523.
Substitutions, 524. Sum and difference formulas, 116. of points, 375.
of forces, 398. of vectors, 429.
Surfaces, ruled, 98.
Surveying problems,
80.
57o*
HIGHER MATHEMATICS.
method
of
Sylvester's
'63.
elimination,
Torque, 455.
Tractory, 149.
Trajectories, 325.
Symbolic methods, 533. Symmetric functions, 523.

Synectic function, 256.
Transcendent equations, I-IS

functions, 538.
Synthetic geometry, 552. Systems of curves, 306, 325, 333.

of
differential
349-
numbers,
Trigonometric
513.
Triangle, geometry of, 564.

series, 174, 200.
equations,
solution of equations,
24.
Tables of Bessel's functions, 224. of combinations, 475. of gudermanians, 168.

of hyperbolic functions, 160168.
Trigonometry, 559. Typical errors, 493.
of permutations, 471. of probability integral, 484. of roots of Bessel's functions,

225.
Uniform convergence, 274, 541. Uniform strength, catenary of,

Variations, calculus of, 533.
147.
Vector analysis, 425-466.

products, 434, 447.
quantities, 138, 374-466, 518.
of surface zonal harmonics,

222.
of values of Jo{xi) 225.

y
Versors, 457.
Tabular values, 494,
503.
Tac
locus, 318.
Water
151.
pipe, 13.
Taylor's series, 269.
Weierstrass's ^-function, 297, 548.
Tension and flexure,
theorem, 287.
in catenary, 14, 146.
Weighted
Whist,
points, 378.
of, 477.
Ternary forms,
509.
game
Tetrahedra, 412, 422.
Theory
of errors, 467-507. of functions, 226, 543. of numbers, 511.
Zero determinants,
formulas,
208, 212, 222.
51.
62.
Zonal harmonics, 169, 177. 202, 20$
Theta functions,
546.
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Higher Mathematics. A Text-Book For Clas - Merriman - Mansfield - 1848-1925 PDF

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5B

PROF. MANSFIELD MERRIMAN

JOHN WILEY & SONS,

CHAPMAN & HALL,

and a Manual for Engineers.

Text-book for Engineering Colleges Octavo, cloth. Price $4.00.

limns, and Shafts.

the Method of Least Squares.

Text=book on Roofs and Bridges.

By Professors Merriman and

Stresses in Simple Trusses.

Text-book for Classical and Engineering ColMerriman and Woodward. Octavo,

CLASSICAL AND ENGINEERING COLLEGES.

SECOND EDITION, REVISED.

CHAPMAN & HALL,

ROBERT DRUMMOND, ELECTROTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK.

more eminent minds

from wasting valuable time and energy

and engineering colleges the elementary course

for a suitable text to

work that the

opportunity to select such topics as

suited to their time

gestive matter of a historical and critical nature.

NOTE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

which seemed obscure.

of this edition are requested to bring to the notice of the editors

which may be discovered.

THE SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS.

Professor of Civil Engineering in Lehigh University.

Introduction Graphic Solutions

Newton's Approximation Rule

Numerical Algebraic Equations Transcendental Equations

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

The Quartic Equation

Real Roots by Series Computation of All Roots

By Laenas Gifford Weld,

Identical Parallel Lines

Article 13. Multiplying

15. 16. 17.

Development in Terms of Co-factors The Zero Formulas Cauchy's Method of Development

22. 23. 24. 25.

Rectangular Arrays Reciprocal Determinants

By George Bruce Halsted,

The Elements and Primal Forms

Correlation and Duality

Polystims and Polygrams

Curves of the Second Degree Pole and Polar

12. 13. 14.

Associate Professor of Mathematics in Cornell University.

Ratios expressed as Triangle-measures Functional Relations for Ellipse

Functional Relations for Hyperbola Relations between Hyperbolic Functions

Functions of Sums and Differences Conversion Formulas

Expansion of Anti-functions Logarithmic Expression of Anti-functions

The Gudermanian Function

23. 24. 25.

Professor of Mathematics in Harvard University.

History and Description Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations

Problem Problem Problem

Trigonometric Series in Zonal Harmonics in Bessel's Functions

The Sine Series The Cosine Series

Extension of Fourier's Series