CHAPTER-2

Mathematical Modeling of Physical System

2.1. Introduction
In this chapter, we lead you through a study of mathematical models of physical systems. After
completing the chapter, you should be able to

 Describe a physical system in terms of differential equations, transfer function and block
diagram.
 Understand the way these equations are obtained.
 Realize the use of physical laws governing a particular system such as Newton’s law for
mechanical systems and Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical systems.
 Realize that deriving mathematical models is the most important part of the entire analysis
of control systems.

A Physical system is a collection of physical objects connected in some designed pattern to serve
some prescribed objective. However, these real physical systems, which engineers design, analyze,
and understand, are usually very complex. For the analysis and design of control systems, we
therefore need to formulate a mathematical description of the physical system. The process of
obtaining the desired mathematical description of the system is known as “Modeling”. Where the
conceptual model is made up of basic building blocks. These blocks are idealizations of the
essential physical phenomena occurring in real systems. An adequate model of a particular
physical device or system will behave approximately like the real system, and the best system
model is the simplest one, which yields the information necessary for the engineering job.

As defined above mathematical models of control systems are mathematical expressions, which
describe the relationships among system inputs, outputs and other inner variables. Establishing the
mathematical model describing the control system is the foundation for analysis and design of
control systems. The two most common methods are the transfer function approach and the state-
space equation approach. The transfer function method is valid for the transient-response or
frequency-response analysis of single-input-single-output, linear time-invariant systems, whereas
the state-space equations are first-order to use transfer functions and linear state-space equations,
the system must first be linearized or its range of operation must be confined to a linear range.
Although the analysis and design of linear control systems have been well developed, their
counterparts for nonlinear systems are usually quite complex. Therefore, the control systems
engineer often has the task of determining not only how to accurately describe a system
mathematically, but also, more important, how to make proper assumptions and approximations,
whenever necessary, so that the system may be adequately characterized by a linear mathematical
model.

The basic models of dynamic physical systems, including mechanical systems, electrical systems,
thermodynamic systems, hydraulic systems or chemical systems etc. can be described by
differential equations obtained by application of the appropriate laws of nature (Newton’s law,
Kirchhoff’s law…). The response to the input (the output of the system) can be obtained by solving

1|
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
the differential equations, and then the characteristic of the system can be analyzed. The
mathematical model should reflect the dynamics of a control system and be suitable for analysis
of the system. Thus, when we construct the model, we should simplify the problem to obtain the
approximate model, which satisfies the requirements of accuracy. Where the formulated
differential equation may be linear or nonlinear depending on the phenomena being modeled.

2.2. Linear mathematical model:

Linear equation: A differential equation is linear, if the coefficients are constant or
functions only of the independent variable (time).
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Example: 𝑑𝑡 2 + 3 𝑑𝑡 + 6𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑡
𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ (6 − 𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡 3

Linear time variant equation: the system which represented by differential equation
whose coefficients are function of time for example
𝑦⃛ + (6 − 𝑡)𝑦̈ + 2𝑡 2 𝑦̇ + 4𝑦 = 𝑒 −2𝑡

An example of time varying control system is a spacecraft control system.

Nonlinear system: Nonlinear systems are ones which are represented by nonlinear
equations. Examples are
𝑌 = sin(𝑥) , 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ ( 𝑑𝑡 ) + 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡, + (𝑦 2 − 1) 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑦 = 0 and
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑦 + 𝑦 3 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2

A linear mathematical model obeys the principles of superposition and homogeneity. The
principle of superposition states that the
response produced by the simultaneous
application of two different forcing
functions is the sum of the two individual
responses. Therefore, for a linear system,
the response to several inputs can be
calculated by treating one input at a time
and adding the results.

Therefore, if input (𝑥1 ) yields an output (𝑦1 ) and if an input to the system (𝑥2 ) have a
response(𝑦2 ), then to be a linear these two inputs will added together and passed through a linear
system to give an output of the sum of the individual inputs’ output as shown on the above figure.

2|
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
Whereas, the homogeneity principle means that when an input to a given system is scaled up or
down by a constant value, the output of the system is also scaled by the same amount.

Therefore, a Linear Mathematical Model must satisfy the principles of Superposition and
Homogeneity.

i.e. 𝑎1 𝑥1 (𝑡) + 𝑎2 𝑥2 (𝑡) → 𝑎1 𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝑎2 𝑦2 (𝑡)

A system characterized by the relation y = x2 is not linear, because the superposition property is
not satisfied. A system represented by the relation y = mx + b is not linear, because it does not
satisfy the homogeneity property.

Finally, this chapter is concerned with differential equations, transfer functions, block diagrams,
signal flow graphs, etc., of different physical systems namely, mechanical, electrical, hydraulic,
pneumatic and thermal systems. Analysis of a dynamic system requires the ability to predict its
performance. This ability and the precision of the results depend on how well the characteristics
of each component can be expressed mathematically.

2.3. Differential Equations of Linear Components and Linear

Systems
2.3.1. Modeling of Mechanical Systems

Mechanical systems can be divided into two basic systems.

(a) Translational systems and (b) Rotational systems

We will consider these two systems separately and describe these systems in terms of three
fundamental linear elements.

3|
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
2.3.1.1. Mechanical Translational systems:
In translational mechanical systems, we consider motions that are restricted to translation along a
straight line and the variables involved in describing a straight-line motion are displacement,
velocity and acceleration. Newton’s second law of motion governs the linear motion. According
to this law, the algebraic sum of forces acting on a mechanical body is equal to zero. The law can
be expressed as, ∑(𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠) = 0

A. Mass
A force applied to the mass produces acceleration on the mass. This represents an element
which resists the motion due to inertia.

According to Newton's second law of motion, the inertia force is equal to mass times
acceleration.
That is reaction force 𝑓𝑚 is equal to the product of mass and acceleration and is opposite
in direction to the applied force in terms of displacement 𝑥, a velocity 𝑣, and acceleration
𝑎, then force equation is becomes,
𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑥
𝑓𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2

B. Spring
The elastance, or stiffness 𝑘 provides a restoring force
as represented by a spring. The reaction force 𝑓𝑘 on
each end of the spring is the same and is equal to the
product of stiffness 𝑘 and the amount of deformation
of the spring.

One end has a position 𝑥1 and the other end has a position 𝑥2 measured from the respective
equilibrium positions. The force equation, in accordance with the Hook’s law is

𝑓𝑘 = 𝑘(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )𝑓(𝑡)

If the second end is stationary, then 𝑥2 = 0 and the above equation reduces to

𝑓𝑘 = 𝑘𝑥1

4|
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
C. Dashpot(Damper)
The reaction damping force 𝑓𝑏 is approximated by the
product of damping 𝑏 and the relative velocity of the two
ends of the dashpot. The direction of this force depend on
𝑑𝑥
the relative magnitude and direction of the velocity 𝑑𝑡1 and
𝑑𝑥2
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥2
𝑓𝑏 = 𝑏(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 ) = 𝑏 ( 𝑑𝑡1 − )
𝑑𝑡
For an interconnected translational mechanical system, we derive one differential
equation for each mass in the system as shown below,

Example-1: Consider the spring-mass-damper system shown in

Fig. example-1, 𝑘 is the spring constant, 𝑏 is the damping of the
damper, and 𝑚 is the mass of the car. The friction between the car
and the floor is ignored. Obtain the differential equations of the
system, where the force 𝐹(𝑡) is the input and the displacement 𝑥(𝑡)
of the car is the output

Solution: This is a mechanical system. The force analysis of the car (F.B.D) is as shown in the
figure. By Newton’s second law, the horizontal motion can be
described as

∑𝐹 = 0
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑥(𝑡)
𝐹(𝑡) − 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) − 𝑏 −𝑚 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
Rearrange the differential equation
𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑2 𝑥(𝑡)
𝐹(𝑡) = 𝑘𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑏 +𝑚 is the differential equation of the system
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2

2.3.1.2. Mechanical Rotational systems:

In translational mechanical systems, we consider

motions that are restricted to translation along a
straight line.

The model of rotational mechanical systems can be

obtained by using three elements, moment of inertia [𝐽] of mass, dashpot with rotational frictional
coefficient [𝑏] and torsional spring with stiffness[𝑘].

When a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, it is opposed by opposing torques due
to moment of inertia, friction and elasticity of the system. The torque acting on rotational
mechanical bodies is governed by Newton‘s second law of motion for rotational systems.

5|
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
Corresponding to the three basic elements of translation systems, there are three basic elements
representing rotational systems.
A. Moment of Inertia: This element opposes the rotational
motion due to Moment of inertia. The opposing inertia
torque is given by,
𝑑𝜔 𝑑2 𝜃
𝑇𝑚 = 𝐽𝑎 = 𝐽 = 𝐽 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡

Wherea, 𝑎,ω and θ are the angular acceleration, angular velocity and angular displacement
respectively. 𝐽 is known as the moment of inertia of the body.

B. Rotational damper: Consider an ideal frictional element

dashpot shown in the figure, which has negligible moment
of inertia and elasticity. Let, a torque be applied on it. The
dashpot will offer an opposing torque proportional to
angular velocity of the body. The damping or frictional
torque which opposes the rotational motion is given by,

𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃2
𝑇𝑏 = 𝑏(𝜔1 − 𝜔2 ) = 𝑏 ( 𝑑𝑡1 − ) Where, 𝑏 is the
𝑑𝑡
rotational frictional coefficient.

C. Rotational spring: The torsional spring will offer an

opposing torque (restoring torque) which is proportional to
angular displacement θ of the body and is given by,

T𝑘 = k(θ1 − 𝜃2 ) Where, k is the torsional stiffness of the spring.

Since the three elements of rotational systems are similar in nature to those of translational systems
no separate symbols are necessary to represent these elements.

Having defined the basic elements of mechanical systems, we must now be able to write
differential equations for the system when these mechanical systems are subjected to external
forces. This is done by using the D' Alembert's principle, which is similar to the Kirchhoff's laws
in Electrical Networks. Also, this principle is a modified version of Newton's second law of
motion. The D' Alembert's principle states that,

"For anybody, the algebraic sum of externally applied forces and the forces opposing the
motion in any given direction is zero".

To apply this principle to anybody, a reference direction of motion is first chosen. All forces acting
in this direction are taken positive and those against this direction are
taken as negative.

Let us apply this principle to a mechanical rotational system shown

6|
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
A bar with an inertia 𝐽 is fixed to a wall with a spring 𝑘 and the inertia moves on the floor with a
viscous friction. An external torque 𝑇 is applied to the inertia. Let us obtain the differential
equation governing the motion of the body.

Let the position of the inertia be 𝜃. We assume that the bar with inertia is a rigid body, i.e., every
particle in the body has the same position, 𝜃. Let us enumerate the torques acting on the body.

(a) external torques = 𝑇

(b) resisting torques :
𝑑2 𝜃
i. Moment of Inertia, 𝑇𝑚 = −𝐽 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝜃
ii. Damping, 𝑇𝑏 = −𝑏
𝑑𝑡
iii. Spring, 𝑇𝑘 = −𝑘𝜃

Resisting torques are taken to be negative because they act in a direction opposite to the chosen
reference direction. Thus, using D' Alembert’s principle we have,

𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑇 − 𝐽 𝑑𝑡 2 − 𝑏 𝑑𝑡 − 𝑘𝜃 = 0 Or 𝑇 = 𝐽 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑏 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘𝜃

This is the differential equation governing the motion of the mechanical rotational system.

If angular velocity 𝜔 is chosen as the output variable, we can write the above equation as

𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜃
𝑇=𝐽 + 𝑏𝜔 + 𝑘 ∫ 𝜔 𝑑𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜔 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example-2: Write the equations that describing the motion of the mechanical
system shown in figure below,

Solution:

The first step is to identify the displacements of masses 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 as 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 in the direction
of the applied external force. Next we write the equilibrium equation for each of the masses by
identifying the forces acting on them. Let us first find out the forces acting on mass 𝑚1 .

External force = 𝑓
Restoring forces:
𝑑 2 𝑥1
i. Inertia force, 𝑓𝑚 = −𝑚1 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑(𝑥 −𝑥 )
ii. Damping force, 𝑓𝑏 = −𝑏1 1𝑑𝑡 2
iii. Spring force, 𝑓𝑚 = −𝑘1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) (If x1 > x2 the spring expands and restoring force
is upwards)

7|
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
(Note: Since top end of dash pot and spring are rigidly connected to mass 𝑚2 , their displacement
is 𝑥2 in the downward direction. Similarly, the bottom ends of dash pot spring are rigidly connected
the mass 𝑚1 they move downward by 𝑥1 . The relative displacement of the lower end and upper
𝑑(𝑥1 −𝑥2 )
end is 𝑥1 -𝑥2 in the downward direction. Hence restoring forces are−𝑏1 and −𝑘1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )
𝑑𝑡
respectively due to the dashpot and spring).
Hence then equation of motion is,
𝑑 2 𝑥1 𝑑(𝑥1 −𝑥2 )
𝑚1 + 𝑏1 + −𝑘1 (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) = 𝑓 … … … … … … … … … … . (1)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

Now for mass 𝒎𝟐

External force = 0
Restoring forces:
𝑑 2 𝑥2
i. Inertia force, 𝑓𝑚 = −𝑚2 𝑑𝑡 2
ii. Damping forces,
𝑑𝑥2
(a) 𝑓𝑏 = −𝑏2 (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑚1 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑦)
𝑑(𝑥2 −𝑥1 )
(b) 𝑓𝑏 = −𝑏1 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥2 𝑑𝑥1
(𝑖𝑓 > , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )

iii. Spring forces,

(a) 𝑓𝑘 = −𝑘2 𝑥2
(b) 𝑓𝑘 = −𝑘1 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝑖𝑓𝑥1 > 𝑥2 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑. )

Hence the equation of motion for 𝑚2 is,

𝑑2 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥2 𝑑(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )
𝑚2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑏1 + 𝑘2 𝑥2 + 𝑘1 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) = 0 … … … … … . (2)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Gear train

Gears are mechanical coupling devices used for speed

reduction or magnification of torque. Consider two gears
shown in the Fig below. The first gear, to which torque 𝑇1 is
applied, is known as the primary gear and has 𝑁1 teeth on it.
The second gear, which is coupled to this gear and is driving a
load, is known as the secondary gear and has 𝑁2 teeth on it.

Fig.1 Gear train

8|
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
The relationships between primary and secondary quantities are based on the following principles.

1. The number of teeth on the gear is proportional to the radius of the gear
𝑟1 𝑁
= 𝑁1 … … … … … … . . (𝑎)
𝑟2 2

2. The linear distance traversed along the surface of each gear is same. If the angular
displacements of the two gears are 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 respectively, then

𝑟1 𝜃1 = 𝑟2 𝜃2

𝑟1 𝜃
= 𝜃2 … … … … … … … … … . (𝑏)
𝑟2 1

3. The work done by one gear is same as that of the other. If 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 are the torques on the
two gears,
𝑇1 𝜃1 = 𝑇2 𝜃2 … … … … … … … … (𝑐)

Using equation (𝑎), (𝑏)and (𝑐)we have,

𝑁2 𝜃 𝑇 𝑟
= 𝜃1 = 𝑇2 = 𝑟2 … … … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑑)
𝑁1 2 1 1

Writing the equilibrium equations for the mechanical system under rotational motion,

𝑑2 𝜃1 𝑑𝜃1
𝑇𝑀 = 𝐽1 + 𝑏1 + 𝑘1 𝜃1 + 𝑇1 … … … … … … … … . (𝑒)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

𝑑2 𝜃2 𝑑𝜃2
𝑇2 = 𝐽2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑘2 𝜃2 + 𝑇𝐿 … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑓)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

Where 𝑇𝑀 is the motor torque driving the shaft of the gear, 𝑇1 is the torque available for the primary
gear, 𝑇2 is the torque at the secondary gear, 𝑇𝐿 is the load torque and 𝐽2 is the moment of inertia of
secondary gear and the load.

Using equation. (𝑑) in equation. (𝑓),we have

𝑁2 𝑑2 𝜃2 𝑑𝜃2
𝑇1 = 𝐽2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑘2 𝜃2 + 𝑇𝐿 … … … … … … … … … . . (𝑔)
𝑁1 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Rearranging equation (𝑔), then substituting for 𝑇1 in equation. (𝑒)
𝑑2 𝜃1 𝑑𝜃1 𝑁 𝑑2 𝜃2 𝑑𝜃2
𝑇𝑀 = 𝐽1 + 𝑏1 + 𝑘1 𝜃1 + 𝑁1 (𝐽2 + 𝑏2 + 𝑘2 𝜃2 + 𝑇𝐿 ) … … … … … (ℎ)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
However, we know that,
𝑁
𝜃2 = 𝑁1 𝜃1
2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒
𝑁 𝑁
𝜃2̇ = 𝑁1 𝜃1̇ and 𝜃2̈ = 𝑁1 𝜃1̈
2 2
Using these relations eqn. (ℎ) becomes

9|
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
𝑁 2 𝑁 2 𝑁 𝑁 2
𝑇𝑀 = [𝐽1 + 𝐽2 (𝑁1 ) ] 𝜃1̈ + [𝑏1 + 𝑏2 (𝑁1 ) ] 𝜃1̇ + [𝑘1 + 𝑘2 (𝑁1 ) ] 𝜃1 + 𝑁1 𝑇𝐿 … … … … (𝑖)
2 2 2 2

Replacing
𝑁 2 𝑁 2
𝐽1 + 𝐽2 (𝑁1 ) = 𝐽1 𝑒𝑞 , 𝑏1 + 𝑏2 (𝑁1 ) = 𝑏1 𝑒𝑞
2 2
𝑁1 2 𝑁1
𝑘1 + 𝑘2 (𝑁 ) = 𝑘1 𝑒𝑞 And 𝑁 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑇𝐿 𝑒𝑞
2 2
Then we have,
𝐽1 𝑒𝑞 𝜃1̈ + 𝑏1 𝑒𝑞 𝜃1̇ + 𝑘1 𝑒𝑞 𝜃1 + 𝑇𝐿 𝑒𝑞 = 𝑇𝑀 … … … … … … … . (𝑗)

Thus the original system in Fig.1 can be replaced by an equivalent system referred to primary side
as shown in Fig.2.

Fig. 2 Equivalent system refereed to primary side

The moment of inertia 𝐽2 , frictional coefficient 𝑏2 and torsional spring constant 𝑘2 of secondary
side are represented by their equivalents referred to primary side by,
𝑁 2 𝑁 2 𝑁 2
𝐽12 = 𝐽2 (𝑁1 ) , 𝑏12 = 𝑏2 (𝑁1 ) and 𝑘12 = 𝑘2 (𝑁1 )
2 2 2

All the quantities can also be referred to the secondary side of the gear. The relevant equations are

𝐽2 𝑒𝑞 𝜃2̈ + 𝑏2 𝑒𝑞 𝜃2̇ + 𝑘2 𝑒𝑞 𝜃2 + 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑇𝑀 𝑒𝑞 … … … … … … … . (𝑘)

𝑁 2 𝑁 2 𝑁 2 𝑁
Where, 𝐽2 𝑒𝑞 = 𝐽2 + 𝐽1 (𝑁2 ) , 𝑏2 + 𝑏1 (𝑁2 ) = 𝑏2 𝑒𝑞 , 𝑘2 + 𝑘1 (𝑁2 ) = 𝑘2 𝑒𝑞 and 𝑁2 𝑇𝑀 = 𝑇𝑀 𝑒𝑞
1 1 1 1

2.3.2. Electrical Systems

Similar to the mechanical systems, very commonly used systems are of electrical type. The
behavior of such systems is governed by ohm’s law. The dominant of an electrical system are,

I. Resistor III. Capacitor

II. Inductor
I. Resistor: consider a resistance carrying current ‘I’ as shown,
then the voltage drop across it can be written as,
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 the mathematical model is given by the
Ohm’s law relationship.
Suppose it carries a current (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) then for the polarity of the
voltage drop shown its equation is,
𝑉 = (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 )𝑅

10 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
II. Inductor: consider an inductor carrying current ‘I’ as shown, then the voltage drop it can be
written as,
𝑑𝐼
𝑉 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 the input output relations are given by
Faraday’s law,
𝑜𝑟
1
𝐼 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑡
If it carries a current (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) then for the polarity shown its
voltage equation is,
𝑑(𝐼1 −𝐼2 ) 1
𝑉=𝐿 𝑜𝑟 (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
III. Capacitor: consider a capacitor carrying current ‘I’ as shown, then
the voltage drop across it can be written as,
1
𝑉 = 𝐶 ∫ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡
In equation above, ∫ 𝐼𝑑𝑡 is known as the charge on the capacitor and is denoted by '𝑞'. Thus
𝑞 𝑑𝑉
𝑞 = ∫ 𝐼𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑐 = 𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝐼 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
If it carries a current (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) then for the polarity shown its
voltage equation is,
1 𝑑𝑉
𝑉 = 𝐶 ∫(𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) 𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 (𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
Electrical networks consisting of the above elements are analyzed using Kirchhoff's laws (voltage
and current laws).

Example-3: Consider the network in Fig. below. Write the equations that describing the relation
between the applied voltage and the current

Fig-example-3: An R, L, C series circuit excited by a voltage source.

Solution: Writing down the Kirchhoff's voltage law equation for the loop, we have
𝑑𝐼 1 𝑡
𝑅𝐼 + 𝐿 + 𝐶 ∫−∞ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝑡
Denoting ∫−∞ 𝐼 𝑑𝑡 by 𝑞, we can also write the above equation as below,
𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝐿 + 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑐 = 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 2

11 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
This is a 2𝑛𝑑 order linear differential equation with constant coefficients.

Example-4: Consider the parallel RLC network excited by a

current source in Fig. Write the equations that describing the
relation between the applied voltage and the current

Solution: Writing down the Kirchhoff's current law at the

node, we have
𝑣 𝑑𝑣 1
+ 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐿 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐼
𝑅

Analogous System
Sometimes mechanical and other systems are converted into electrical analogous (similar)
systems for the easy of design, modification and analysis. Analogous systems have same type of
differential equations. There are four types of types of analogous. Namely,

i. Force-Voltage Analogy iii. Torque-Voltage Analogy

ii. Force-Current Analogy iv. Torque-Current Analogy

The translational mechanical system is represented by mass, spring and damper in equation,
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡) … … … … … … … … … ()
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The rotational mechanical system is represented by moment of inertia, spring shaft and viscos
friction coefficient is equation,
𝑑2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐽 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑏 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑘𝜃 = 𝑇 … … … … … … … … … ()
The electrical system is represented by inductor, resistor, and capacitor in terms of voltage
𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣(𝑡) … … … … … … … … … ()
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞
But, 𝑖(𝑡) = that is current is the rate of flow of charge.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 1
Therefore, 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 + 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 𝑞 = 𝑣(𝑡) … … … … … … … … … … … … . ()
The electrical system can be represented by capacitor, resistor, inductor in terms of current.
1 𝑑𝑒 1
𝐿
∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 𝑑𝑡 + 𝑅 𝑒 = 𝑖(𝑡) … … … … … … … … … … … … . ()
𝑑𝜑
But, 𝑒 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜑 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝜑 1 𝑑𝜑 1
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐿 𝜑 … … … … … … … … … … . . ()
𝑑𝑡 2
Compare the above equations which gives equivalent parameters. It is summarizes on the table
below,

No Translational Rotational Electrical (In terms of 𝑉) Electrical (In terms of 𝐼 )

1 𝐹 𝑇 𝑉(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡)
2 𝑚 𝐽 𝐿 𝐶

12 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
3 𝑏 𝑏 𝑅 1
𝑅
4 𝑘 𝑘 1 1
𝐶 𝐿
5 𝑥 𝜃 𝑞 𝜑
6 𝑣 𝜔 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑉(𝑡)

2.3.3. Fluid systems

Fluid systems are those systems in which liquid or gas filled tanks are connected through pipes,
tubes, orifices, valves and other flow restricting devices. Compressibility of a fluid is an important
property which influences the performance of fluid systems. If the velocity of sound in fluids is
very high, compared to the fluid velocity, the compressibility can be disregarded. Hence
compressibility effects are neglected in liquid systems. However, compressibility plays an
important role in gas systems. The type of fluid flow, laminar or turbulent, is another important
parameter in fluid systems. If the Reynolds number is greater than 4000, the flow is said to be
turbulent and if the Reynolds number is less than 2000, it is said to be laminar flow.

Basic signals are fluid pressure or head (𝑝 𝑜𝑟 ℎ) and fluid mass flow rate (𝑄). There are two basic system
elements: fluid capacitor (𝐶), and fluid resistor (𝑅). The relations between the basic signals and the basic
elements for linear systems are summarized as follows

The capacitance 𝐶 of a tank is defined to be the

change in quantity of stored liquid necessary to
cause a unit change in the potential (pressure or
head). (The potential is the quantity that indicates
the energy level of the system.)

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑

𝐶 = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

∆𝑞 𝑞 −𝑞𝑖
= 𝑑ℎ 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑑ℎ𝑜 𝑑𝑝
𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Consider the flow through a short pipe connecting two tanks. The resistance 𝑅 for liquid flow in
such a pipe of restriction is defined as the change in the level difference (the difference of the
liquid levels of the two tanks) necessary to cause a unit change in flow rate; that is,

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 ∆ℎ 𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑝 ℎ

𝑅= = =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑞𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑞𝑜

13 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
Example-6: Given is a system with two water
vessels as in Fig-example 6. Derive the differential
equations for this system.

Water runs into the left vessel from a source with

mass flow rate 𝑞𝑖 , from the left vessel through a
restriction with restriction constant R1 into the
right vessel with mass flow rate 𝑞1 , and through a restriction with restriction constant R 2 out of
the right vessel with mass flow q o . The water levels are denoted by h1 and h2 .

Solution:

First, let us consider the left tank so, the fluid capacitance of the left tank is given by
𝑑ℎ1
𝐶1 = 𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞1
𝑑𝑡
And from the definition of resistance, we have the relationship between 𝑞𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ℎ is given by
ℎ1 −ℎ2
𝑅1 = 𝑞1
Therefore, the differential equation which describe the left tank becomes,
𝑑ℎ1
𝑅1 𝐶1 = 𝑅1 𝑞𝑖 − (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ1
𝑅1 𝐶1 + ℎ1 = 𝑅1 𝑞𝑖 + ℎ2 …………………………………()
𝑑𝑡
Next, considering the right tank
𝑑ℎ2 ℎ
𝐶2 = 𝑞1 − 𝑞𝑜 and 𝑅2 = 𝑞2
𝑑𝑡 𝑜
𝑑ℎ2 ℎ2 𝑑ℎ2
Hence, 𝐶2 = 𝑞1 − 𝑅 Rearrange, 𝑅2 𝐶2 + ℎ2 = 𝑅2 𝑞1 ………………()
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Then if 𝑞𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡, then the differential equation that relate
input and output becomes,
𝑑2 𝑞𝑜 𝑑𝑞𝑜
𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2 + (𝑅1 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 ) + 𝑞𝑜 = 𝑞𝑖
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
2.3.4. Thermal Systems

Thermal systems are those systems in which heat transfer takes place from one substance to
another. They can be characterized by thermal resistance and capacitance, analogous to electrical
resistance and capacitance. Thermal system is usually a nonlinear system and since the temperature
of a substance is not uniform throughout the body, it is a distributed system. But, for simplicity of
analysis, the system is assumed to be linear and is represented by lumped parameters.

i. Thermal resistance

14 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
There are three types of heat flow through conductors: Conduction, convection and radiation.
For conduction of heat flow through a specific conductor, according to Fourier law,
𝐽
𝑠𝑒
𝑘𝐴 𝐽 𝑚
𝑞 = ∆𝑥 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) Where 𝑞 = ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑠𝑒 𝑘 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑘
∆𝑥 = 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝑚 𝑇 = 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒, 𝑘
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑚2

For convection heat transfer,

𝐽
𝑚2
𝑠
𝑞 = 𝐻𝐴(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) Where 𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡,
𝑘
𝑇2 −𝑇1 ∆𝑥
Therefore the thermal resistance is defined by, 𝑅 = = 𝑘𝐴 ………………..conduction
𝑞
𝑇2 −𝑇1 1
𝑅= = 𝐻𝐴 ……………………convection
𝑞
𝑠𝑒𝑐
The unit of 𝑅 𝑖𝑠 deg 𝐽

For radiation heat transfer, the heat flow is governed by Stefan-Boltzmann law for a surface
receiving heat radiation from a black body:

𝑞 = 𝑘𝐴𝐸(𝑇24 − 𝑇14 )
𝐽
𝑠𝑒
𝑚2
=𝜎𝐴(𝑇24 − 𝑇14 ) Where 𝜎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡, 5.6697 ∗ 10−8 𝑘4
𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐸 = 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐴 = 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎, 𝑚2
The radiation resistance is given by

𝑑𝑇 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑅 = 𝑑𝑞 = 4𝐴𝜎𝑇 3 deg
𝑎 𝐽

Where 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟.

ii. Thermal Capacitance

Thermal capacitance is the ability to store thermal energy. If heat is supplied to a body, its internal
energy raises. For the system shown in the Figure the thermal capacitance
is given by,

𝑑𝑇
𝐶 =𝑞 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑊𝐶𝑝

15 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑊 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔
𝐽
𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔

Example-5: In the system shown in Fig-example 5, a heat flow q i is entering a wall with
temperature Tw and heat capacity Cw . From the wall a heat flow q o is entering the room with
temperature To and heat capacity Co . The thermal resistance from the wall to the room is equal to
R w . Derive the differential equations for this system.

Solution: The thermal capacitance of the wall is given by: The net heat
flow into the wall is equal to the difference between input and output
heat flow (𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞𝑜 )
𝑑𝑇𝑤
𝐶𝑤 = (𝑞𝑖 − 𝑞𝑜 ) and the wall thermal resistance becomes,
𝑑𝑡
𝑇𝑤 −𝑇𝑜
𝑅𝑤 = Substitution of 𝑞𝑜 results in:
𝑞𝑜
𝑑𝑇𝑤
𝑅𝑤 𝐶𝑤 + 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑅𝑤 𝑞𝑖 + 𝑇𝑜 …………………………..()
𝑑𝑡
In the same manner the derivation of the differential equation for the
room temperature is:
The net heat flow into the room is 𝑞𝑜 . The change in room temperature is 𝑇𝑜 :
𝑑𝑇𝑜 𝑇𝑤 −𝑇𝑜
𝐶𝑜 = 𝑞𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑜 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑞𝑜
Substitute of 𝑞𝑜 and rearrange the equation we obtain:
𝑑𝑇𝑜
𝑅𝑜 𝐶𝑜 + 𝑇𝑜 = 𝑇𝑤 ……………………………………()
𝑑𝑡

Here above we see that a differential equation can describe the relationship between the input and
output of a system. The form of the differential equation and its coefficients are a formulation or
description of the system. Although the differential equation relates the system to its input and
output, it is not satisfying representation from a system perspective. Looking at the following
𝑑𝑛 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑𝑛−1 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑𝑚 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑𝑚−1 𝑐(𝑡)
equation 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑐(𝑡), a
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1
general nth order, linear, time-invariant differential equation. We see that the system parameters,
which are the coefficients, as well as the output c(t), and the input r(t), appear throughout the
equation.

We would prefer a mathematical representation such as that shown in the figure (a) below, where
the input, output, and system distinct and separate parts. Also, we would like to represent

16 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
conveniently the interconnection of several subsystems. For example, we would like to represent
cascaded interconnections, as shown in figure (b), where a mathematical function, called a transfer
function, is inside each block, and block functions can easily be combined to yield figure (a) for
ease of analysis and design. This convenience cannot be obtained with the differential equation
rather to obtain this Transfer function is the way.

(a)Block diagram representation of a system (b) Block diagram representation of an

interconnection of subsystems

2.4. Transfer functions

The transfer function of a linear time-invariant system is define to be the ratio of the Laplace
transform (z transform for sampled data systems) of the output to the Laplace transform of the
input (driving function), under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.

It a very easy way to transform from the time domain to the 𝒔 domain, and a powerful tool for the
control engineer.

Example: Consider the linear time-invariant system

𝑎𝑛 𝑦 (𝑛) + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 (𝑛−1) + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑦̇ + 𝑎0 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 (𝑚) + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑥 (𝑚−1) + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑥̇ + 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛≥𝑚

Take the Laplace transform (£) of Y(t)

ℒ(𝑎𝑛 𝑦 (𝑛) ) = 𝑎𝑛 ℒ(𝑦 (𝑛) ) = 𝑎𝑛 [𝑠 𝑛 𝑌(𝑠) − 𝑠 (𝑛−1) 𝑦(0) − 𝑠 (𝑛−2) 𝑦(0) − ⋯ − 𝑦 (𝑛−1) (0)]

ℒ(𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 (𝑛−1) ) = 𝑎𝑛−1 [𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑌(𝑠) − 𝑠 (𝑛−2) 𝑦(0) − 𝑠 (𝑛−3) 𝑦(0) − ⋯ − 𝑦 (𝑛−2) (0)]

. .
. .
. .
ℒ(𝑎0 𝑦) = 𝑎0 𝑌(𝑠)

Same thing is applied to obtain the L.T of 𝑥(𝑡). By substitute all initial condition to zero. Then
the transfer function of the system become,

𝑋(𝑠) 𝑏𝑚 𝑠𝑚 +𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠𝑚−1 +⋯+𝑏1 𝑠+𝑏0

𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐺(𝑠) = 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑛 +𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠𝑛−1 +⋯+𝑎1 𝑠+𝑎0

The transfer function is obtained under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
The assumption indicates that

i) The input is connected to the system after the point 𝑡 = 0 , that is, the input and its higher
order derivatives were zero when t  0 ;

17 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
ii) The system was in equilibrium before the input is connected to the system, that is, the
output and its higher order derivatives were zero when t  0. Most systems in practice
satisfy this assumption. Under this assumption, the calculation is simplified. This
assumption is also essential to compare system responses under the same condition

As shown the transfer function can be represented as a block diagram, with input on the left, the
output on the right and the system transfer function inside the block. Notice that the denominator
of the transfer function is identical to the characteristic polynomial of the differential equation;
also we can find output, 𝐶(𝑠) by using

𝑋(𝑠) = 𝑌(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)
Y(s)
𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏1 𝑠 + 𝑏0 X(s)
𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 𝑠 + 𝑎0
 Transfer function is not provide any information concerning the physical structure of the
system (The T.F. of many physically different system can be identical).
 The highest power of 𝑠 in the denominator of T. F. is equal to the order of the highest derivative
term of the output. If the highest power of 𝑠 is equal to 𝑛 the system is called an nth order
system.

How you can obtain the transfer function (T. F.)?

i. Write the differential equation of the system

ii. Take the L. T. of the differential equation, assuming all initial condition to be zero.
iii. Take the ratio of the output to the input. This ratio is the T. F.

THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

The ability to obtain linear approximation of physical systems allows considering the use of the
Laplace transformation. A transform is a change in the mathematical description of a physical
variable to facilitate computation. The ability to obtain linear approximation of physical systems
allows considering the use of the Laplace transformation. The Laplace transform method
substitutes easily solved algebraic equations for the more difficult differential equations.

The Laplace transform exists for linear differential equations for which the transformation integral
converges.

Definition of Laplace Transform

The Laplace transform is defined by:

∞
ℒ [f(t)] = ∫0 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐹(𝑠)

18 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
𝜎 = 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡
Where 𝒔 is a complex variable (𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔) {
𝜔 = 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡

The transfer changes a function of time into a function of variables.

Derivation of Laplace Transform

1.Unit step function: u(t)

The Laplace Transform of the unit step function u(t) is

∞ 1
ℒ [u(t)] = ∫0 u(t)e−st dt = U(s) = s

2.Ramp function:𝐴𝑡 ; where A is a constant value.

∞ 𝐴
ℒ [𝐴𝑡] = ∫0 𝐴𝑡𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠2

3.Decaying exponential: Ae−at (a > 0)

∞ A
ℒ [Ae−at ] = ∫0 Ae−at e−st dt = s+a

4.Sinusoidal: cosωt
∞
∞ ∞ ejωt +e−jωt −st 1 e(jω−s)t e−(jω+s)t 𝒔
£ [cosωt] = ∫0 cos(ωt)e−st dt = ∫0 [ 2
] e dt =2[ jω−s
+ −jω−s
] = 𝒔𝟐 +𝝎𝟐
0

Finally, we can summarize the properties of the transfer function as follows:

1. Transfer function is defined only for a linear time-invariant system. It is meaningless for
nonlinear systems.

2. The transfer function between an input variable and an output variable of a system is defined as
the Laplace transform of the impulse response. Alternately, the transfer function between a pair of
input and output variables is the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace
transform of the input.

3. When defining the transfer function, all initial conditions of the system are set to zero.

4. The transfer function is independent of the input of the system.

5. Transfer function is expressed only as a function of the complex variable s. It is not a function
of the real variable, time, or any other variable that is used as the independent variable.

19 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
Example: On how you can obtain the transfer function (T. F.)

1. Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, 𝑉𝑐 (𝑠), to the input
voltage, 𝑉(𝑠) in Figure below.
𝑥1 (𝑠)
2. Find of the automobile suspension system shown in Fig-ex 2.
𝐹(𝑠)
3. Find the transfer function rotational mechanical system shown in Fig-ex 3.

2.5. Block Diagram

If a given system is complicated, it is very difficult to analyze it as a whole, with the help of transfer
function approach, we can find transfer function of each and every element of the complicated
system and by showing connection between the elements, complete system can be splitted into
different blocks and can be analyzed conveniently. This is the basic concept of block diagram
representation.

Basically block diagram is a pictorial representation and can be used simply to describe the
composition and interconnection of a given system. Together with transfer functions, it can
describe the cause-and-effect relationships throughout the system.

There are two methods to construct the block diagram: If the differential equations are known,
then taking the Laplace transform of the sub-equation of the equations and drawing the
corresponding sub-block diagram. The block diagram of the system can be obtained by connecting
the sub-block diagram; if the structure diagram is known, then transfer the name of every
component into its corresponding transfer function and represent all the variables by the Laplace
form, thus the block diagram can be obtained.

A pictorial representation of the relationships between system variables is offered by the block
diagram. In a block diagram, three ingredients are commonly present.

Block diagram representation of closed loop system is as shown in the figure below,

20 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
Block diagram is also called canonical form.
𝐸(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠) − 𝐵(𝑠)
𝐵(𝑠) = 𝐻(𝑠) ∗ 𝐶(𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠) … … … … . ( )
𝑅(𝑠) = 𝐸(𝑠) + 𝐵(𝑠)
= 𝐸(𝑠) + 𝐻(𝑠) ∗ 𝐶(𝑠)
Therefore, = 𝐸(𝑠) + 𝐻(𝑠)𝐸(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)
𝐶(𝑠)
Thus, the closed loop transfer function 𝑅(𝑠) becomes,
𝐶(𝑠) 𝐸(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)
= 𝐸(𝑠)+𝐻(𝑠)𝐸(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠)
𝑅(𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)
= 1+𝐻(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠) … … … … … 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝐺(𝑠)
= 1−𝐻(𝑠)𝐺(𝑠) … … … … … 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘
𝐺(𝑠)
= 1±𝐺(𝑠) … … … … … 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 (𝑖. 𝑒, 𝐻(𝑠) = 1)

a. Functional block: This is a symbol representing the transfer between the input 𝑈(𝑠) to an
element and the output 𝑋(𝑠) of the element. The block contains the transfer function G(s), as
shown in Fig 2.5a. The arrow directed into the block represents the input 𝑈(𝑠), while that
directed out of the block represents the output 𝑋(𝑠). The block shown represents the algebraic
relationship 𝑿(𝒔) = 𝑮(𝒔)𝑼(𝒔)

b. Summing Point: This is a symbol denoted by a circle, the output of which is the algebraic sum
of the signals entering into it. A minus sign close to an input signal arrow denotes that this signal
is reversed in sign in the output expression. Fig 2.5b shows the relationship
𝑬(𝒔) = 𝑹(𝒔) − 𝑪(𝒔)
c. Takeoff point. A takeoff point on a branch in a block diagram signifies that the same variable
is being utilized elsewhere, as shown in Fig 2.5c.

2.5.1. Block Diagram Transformations

The block diagram representations of a given system often can be reduced to a simplified block
diagram with fewer blocks than the original diagram. Let us now discuss about the block diagram
Reduction Techniques

21 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
Rule-1 Combining blocks in cascade

When two blocks are connected in cascade, as shown in Fig 2.5.1 (a), then the output 𝐂(𝐬)
becomes,

𝑪(𝒔) = 𝑼(𝒔)𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)

= 𝑹(𝒔)𝑮𝟏 (𝒔)𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)

Thus the transfer function,

𝑪(𝒔)
𝑮(𝒔) = 𝑹(𝒔) = 𝑮𝟏 (𝒔)𝑮𝟐 (𝒔) The equivalent diagram is shown in Fig 2.5.1 (b)

The results can be extended to the case of multiple factors in cascade. The transfer function of
a system with factors in cascade is the product of the transfer functions of the factors.

Rule-2 Combining blocks in parallel

When two blocks are connected in parallel, as shown in Fig 2.5.1 (c), we have

𝑪(𝒔) = 𝑮𝟏 (𝒔)𝑹(𝒔) ± 𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)𝑹(𝒔)= [𝑮𝟏 (𝒔) ± 𝑮𝟐 (𝒔)]𝑹(𝑺)

Thus, the transfer function of the parallel system is:

𝑪(𝒔)
𝑮(𝒔) = = 𝑮𝟏 (𝒔) ± 𝑮𝟐 (𝒔) Hence, The transfer function of a system with factors in
𝑹(𝒔)
parallel is the sum of the transfer functions of the factors.

22 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
Rule-3 Eliminating a feedback loop

Consider the block shown in Fig 2.5.1(d). The output 𝑪(𝒔) can be obtained as;

𝐶(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)𝐸(𝑠) = 𝐺(𝑠)[𝑅(𝑠) ± 𝐵(𝑠)]

= 𝐺(𝑠)[𝑅(𝑠) ± 𝐻(𝑠)𝐶(𝑠)]

Thus, the transfer function relating the output 𝑪(𝒔) to

the input R(𝒔) is

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺(𝑠)
=
𝑅(𝑠) 1 ± 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)

When the transfer function of the feedback path is 𝑯(𝒔) = 𝟏 , the system is a unity feedback
system. Consequently, the closed-loop transfer function is:

𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔)
= 𝟏±𝑮(𝒔)
𝑹(𝒔)

Rule-4 Moving a pick-off point after a block

Rule-5 Moving a take off point ahead of a block

Rule-6 Moving a summing point after a block

23 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
Rule-7 Moving a summing point ahead of a block

Note: Branch points and summing points cannot be interchanged.

Procedure to solve Block Diagram Reduction Problems

Step 1: Reduce the blocks connected in series
Step 2: Reduce the blocks connected in parallel
Step 3: Reduce the minor feedback loops
Step 4: Try to shift take off points towards right and Summing point towards left
Step 5: Repeat steps 1 to 4 till simple form is obtained
Step 6: Obtain the Transfer Function of Overall System

2.6. Signal Flow Graph Representation

A signal-flow graph (SFG) is a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic
equations. A signal flow graph contains essentially the same information as a block diagram. The
advantage of the signal flow graph is the availability of a flow graph gain formula, which provides
the relation between system variables without requiring any reduction procedure or manipulation
of the flow graph.

2.6.1. Basic Elements of a Signal flow graph

(a) Node: Represented by “”. A node is a point representing a system variable that equals the sum
of all the incoming signals. As shown in Fig. 2.6.1 the variables Xi to Xj are represented by a
small dot which is called Node.

24 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
(b) Branch: A branch is a directed line segment joining two nodes and represented by “”. The
arrowhead represents the direction of the signal transmission. X1 , X2 … . . X5 are different nodes
which have been connected by branches as shown in Fig. 2.6.1
(c) Gain: The gain is equivalent to the transfer function in the block diagram. It represents the
relation between the signals in the arrow head direction.. For example, a21 , a23 , a33 …. are the
gains
(d) Path: A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no node is
traversed more than once. In Fig. 2.6, X1 to X2 , X2 to X4 , X2 to X3 etc., are paths.
(e) Input Node (Source): It is a node with only outgoing branches. In Fig. 2.6.1, X1 is an input
node.
(f) Output Node (Sink): It is a node with only incoming branches. In Fig. 2.6.1, X5 is an output
(sink) node.
(g) Forward Path: A forward path is a path from an input node (source) to an output node (sink)
that does not cross any nodes more than once. In Fig. 2.6.1, X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 to X5 and
X1 to X2 to X4 to X5 are forward paths.
(h) Feedback Loop: It is a closed path that starts and ends at the same node and does not cross
any other nodes more than once. In Fig. 2.6.1. path X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a feedback
loop.
(i) Self-Loop: It is a feedback loop consisting of only one branch. In Fig. 2.6.1, a33 is a self-loop.
(j) Non-touching Loops: Loops which do not have a common node are said to be non-touching.
(k) Path Gain: It is the product of the branch gains encountered in traversing a path. For example,
the path gain of the forward path from X1 toX2 toX3 toX4 toX5 is given by a21 ∗ a32 ∗ a43 ∗ a54 .
(l) Loop Gain: It is the product of the branch gains of the loop. For example, the loop gain of the
feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a32 ∗ a23 .
2.6.2. Construction of Signal Flow Graphs

The signal flow graph of a linear feedback control system can be constructed by direct reference
to the block diagram of the system. Each variable of the block diagram becomes a node and each
block becomes a branch. Let us consider the block diagram of a canonical feedback control system
which is shown in Fig. 2.6.2 Then signal flow graph (SFG) is easily constructed from Fig. 2.6.2.(a)
as shown in Fig.2.6.2.(b)

As we in Fig.2.6.2.(b) that the − 𝑜𝑟 + sign of the summing point is associated with 𝐻.

25 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
The SFG of a system can be constructed from its describing equations. To explain the procedure,
let us consider a system described by the following set of simultaneous equations:

𝑥2 = 𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎23 𝑥3
𝑥3 = 𝑎31 𝑥1 + 𝑎32 𝑥2 + 𝑎33 𝑥3
𝑥4 = 𝑎42 𝑥2 + 𝑎43 𝑥3
There are four variables namely, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 and 𝑥4 and so four nodes are required. We arrange them
from left to right and connect them with appropriate branches by which we obtain the signal flow
graph of Fig. 2.6.2.(c)

The overall system gain from input to output may be obtained by Mason’s gain formula.

Mason’s Gain Formula

It is possible to reduce complicated block diagram to canonical form, from which the control ratio
is written as
𝑪(𝒔) 𝑮(𝒔)
= 𝟏±𝑮(𝒔)𝑯(𝒔)
𝑹(𝒔)

Given the signal flow graph or block diagram of a complex system, the task of solving for the
input-output relations by algebraic manipulation could be quite tedious. Fortunately, there is a
general gain formula available that allows the determination of the input-output relations of an
SFG by inspection.

Mason’s gain formula, which is applicable to the overall gain, is given by

𝒙𝒐𝒖𝒕 ∑𝒏𝒌=𝟏 𝑷𝒌 ∆𝒌
𝑮(𝒔) = =
𝒙𝒊𝒏 ∆

Where, ∆= Determinant of graph

∆= 1 − ∑ 𝐿𝑎 + ∑ 𝐿𝑏 𝐿𝑐 − ∑ 𝐿𝑑 𝐿𝑒 𝐿𝑓 + ⋯
𝑛 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑛𝑜𝑑𝑒.

26 |
 CHAPTER-2
Mathematical Modeling of Physical System
𝑃𝑘 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐾 𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ
∑ 𝐿𝑎 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠
∑ 𝐿𝑏 𝐿𝑐 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠.
∑ 𝐿𝑑 𝐿𝑒 𝐿𝑓 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑛 −
𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠.
∆𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐾 𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠
𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐾 𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑. 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚
∆ 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑜𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑃𝑘
Block Diagram Signal Flow Graph
 Basic importance is given to the variables of the
 Basic importance is given to the elements and systems.
their transfer functions.  Each variable is represented by a separated node.
 Each element is represented by a block.  The transfer function is shown along the branches
 Transfer function of the element is shown connecting the nodes.
inside the corresponding block.  Summing and takeoff points are absent. Any node can
 Summing points and takeoff points are have any number of incoming and outgoing branches.
separate.  Instead of feedback path, various feedback loops are
 Feedback path is present from output to input. considered for the analysis.
 For a minor feedback loop present, the formula  Gains of various forward paths and feedback loops are
𝐺
can be used. just the product of associative branch gains. No such
1±𝐺𝐻
𝐺
 Block diagram reduction rules can be used to formula 1±𝐺𝐻 is necessary.
obtain the resultant transfer function.  The Mason’s gain formula is available which can be
 Method is slightly complicated and time used directly to get resultant transfer function without
consuming as block diagram is required to be reduction of signal flow graph.
drawn time to time after each step of reduction.  No need to draw the signal flow graph again and
 Concept of self loop is not existing in block again. Once drawn, use of Mason’s Gain Formula
diagram approach. gives the resultant transfer function.
 Applicable only to linear time invariant  Self loops can exist in signal flow graph approach.
systems.  Applicable to linear time invariant systems.

27 |