Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2
• A mathematical model is developed from the
physical model using appropriate physical laws.
• Mathematical model can be:
➢ Scalar differential equation
➢ State variable vector-matrix differential equation
• Linear Mathematical model: obeys the principles
of super-position and homogeneity
1 x1 ( t ) + 2 x2 ( t ) → 1 y1( t ) + 2 y2 ( t )
Inputs Outputs
3
• For analysis and synthesis of the mathematical
models available mathematical tools have to be
utilized.
Example: Laplace, Fourier Transforms & Linearization
• Unfortunately no physical system in nature is
perfectly linear.
• Certain assumptions must always be considered
to get a linear model which is a compromise
between the simplicity of the mathematical
model and the accuracy of results obtained.
4
2.1. Translation Mechanical Systems modeling
5
• Dampers (with equivalent damping constant)
will be modeled to represent either of the
following:
➢ Coulomb Friction Force (Dry Friction): force of
sliding friction between dry surfaces and it is
substantially constant.
➢ Viscous Friction Force: force of friction between
moving surfaces separated by viscous fluid or
between solid surface and a fluid medium.
7
Gear Train Modeling
• Used in control systems to attain the mechanical
matching of motor to load.
Example: Servo-motor operates at high speed
but low torque.
• Multiplication of Torque and reduction of speed is
achieved by the application of gear trains.
Primary Gear
N1
Input Torque
from Motor θ1
T1
TM
Input Shaft θ2
I1, C1 Load Torque
TL
Secondary Gear
N2 Load Shaft
8
I2, C2
• Gear 1
I11 + C11 + T1 = TM .....................(1)
Where T1 is the load Torque on Gear 1 due to the
rest of Gear Train
• Gear 2 I 22 + C22 + TL = T2 ......................(2)
Where T2 is the load transmitted to Gear 2 via Gear 1
Using the relation
2 N1
1r1 = 2 r2 1 N1 = 2 N 2 =
1 N 2
and assuming there is no loss in power transfer
T1 2 N1
T11 = T2 2 = = N11 = N 2 2
T2 1 N 2
9
• Differentiating the above twice:
N11 = N22 and N11 = N22
• Replacing in to equations 1 and 2 and rearranging:
N1
I11 + C11 + T2 = TM
N2
I11 + C11 +
N1
N2
( )
I 2 2 + C2 2 + TL = TM ......(3)
• Eliminating θ2:
N1
2
N1
2
N1
I1 + I 2 1 + C1 + C2 1 + TL = TM
N2 N2 N2
N1 I1eq,C1eq
I 1eq1 + C1eq1 + TL = TM N1
TL
N2 TM N 2 10
• Similarly eliminating θ1 from equation 3:
2 2
N2 N2
I 2eq = I2 + I 1 and C2eq = C2 + C1
N1 N1
• Hence, the Torque equation to the load shaft will
then be expressed as:
N2
I 2eq 2 + C2eq 2 + TL = TM
N1
I2eq,C2eq
N2
TM TL
N1
11
2.3. Equation of Electrical Networks
12
Kirchoff’s Law:
• Describes how the electrical building blocks can
be combined
i = 0
2. KVL: In a closed circuit or loop, the algebraic
sum of the potential difference across each part
of the circuit is equal to the applied emf.
V = 0 13
Examples
14
2.4. Transfer Functions
• Defn: The transfer function of a linear time-
invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of
the Laplace transform of the output variable to
the Laplace transform of the input variable, with
all initial conditions assumed to be zero.
θi(s) θ0(s)
G(s)
Input Output
0 ( s )
Transfer Function = G( s ) =
i ( s )
15
• If θi is related to θo by the following differential
equation:
d 20 d0
a2 2 + a1 + a00 = b1i
dt dt
where a2 ,a1 ,a0 and b1 are constants.
• The Laplace Transform becomes:
a2 s 20 ( s ) + a1 s0 ( s ) + a00 ( s ) = b1i ( s )
And hence the Transfer function is:
0 ( s ) b1
TF = =
i ( s ) a2 s + a1 s + a0
2
16
2.5. Block diagram and Signal Flow Graph
• Transfer function is an expression in S domain,
relating the output and input of the LTI system in
terms of the system parameters and is
independent of the input.
θi(s) θo(s)
G1(s) G2(s) G3(s)
Input θ1(s) θ2(s) Output
G2(s)
o ( s ) = i ( s )G1 ( s ) + i ( s )G2 ( s )
o ( s ) = i ( s )[ G1 ( s ) + G2 ( s )] = i ( s )G( s )
o ( s )
G( S ) = = G1 ( s ) + G2 ( s )
i ( s ) 19
Multiple input, Multiple output system
• For the case of a linear system, each input can be
treated independently and the complete output
of the system will be obtained by superposition.
U(s)
R(s) + e C(s)
G1(s) G2(s)
-
H(s)
R(s) + e CR(s)
G1(s) G2(s)
-
H(s) 20
• The output will then be:
G1G2
CR ( s ) = R( s )
1 + G1G2 H
Step 2: Assume R(s)=0 and the system will look like:
U(s) + e Cu(s)
G2(s)
-
G1(s) H(s)
Rr(S) Cm(S)
r
Ci ( s ) = Gij ( s )R j ( s ), i = 1,2,...,m 22
j =1
Transfer Function for Liquid Level Control System
Q
T-2
T-1 H1 Q1 Q2
H2
P-1 P-2
• Because of interaction of the tanks, the complete
transfer function can not be obtained by
multiplying individual transfer functions of the
tanks.
✓ Q1 and Q2 : Steady state outflow rates
✓ R1 and R2 : Resistance of pipes 1 and 2
✓ C1 and C2 : Liquid Capacitance of tank 1 and 2
✓ H1 and H2 : Heads in tank 1 and 2
✓ ΔQ : Small deviation in the flow rate Q
✓ ΔH1, ΔH2, ΔQ1 and ΔQ2 : Small deviations of all
parameters from their steady state values 23
Signal Flow Graph (SFG)
• For complicated systems, BD reduction process
will be tedious and time consuming .
• In such cases SFG is an alternative method and is
developed by S.J. Mason.
• SFG does not require any reduction process due
to availability of a flow graph gain formulas.
• The formulas relate the input and output system
variables.
R 1 E G C R 1 E G C 1 C
Input Input Output
Node -1 H Node -1 H Node
B B
24
Signal flow terms
• Node: represents a system variable which is equal
to the sum of all incoming signals at the nodes.
✓ Outgoing signals from the node don’t affect the value
of the node variable.
✓ R, E and C are nodes.
25
• Input Node (source): node only with outgoing
branches.
✓ R is an input node
• Output Node (Sink): node only with incoming
branches.
✓ Achieved by introducing a branch with unit gain.
• Path: it is the traversal of connected branches in
the direction of the branch arrows such that no
node is traversed more than once.
• Forward Path: from input node to the output
node, R-E-C is an example
• Loop: a path which originates and terminates at
the same node, E-C-B-E is an example.
26
• Non touching Loops: loops which don’t posses
any common node.
• Forward Path Gain (FPG): is the product of
branch gains encountered in traversing a forward
path.
✓ FPG of path REC is G.
• Loop Gain(LG): is the product of the branch gains
encountered in traversing the loop
✓ LG of loop ECBE is -GH
R 1 E G C R 1 E G C 1 C
Input Input Output
Node -1 H Node -1 H Node
B B
27
Construction of Signal Flow Graph
• It is constructed from its describing equations
• Example:
– Let a system is described by the following set of
equations
x2 = a12 x1 + a32 x3 + a42 x4 + a52 x5
x3 = a23 x2
x4 = a34 x3 + a44 x4
x5 = a35 x3 + a45 x4
where x1 is the input variable and
x5 is the output variable 28
Steps:
1-
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
a42
a12 a32
2- x2
x1 x3 x4 x5
a52
a23
3- x2
x1 x3 x4 x5
a44
a34
4- x2
x1 x3 x4 x5
a45
5-
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
a35 29
• Combining the above five relations
a42 a44
a12 a23 a34
6- x2
x1 x3 x4 a45 x5
a32
a35
a52
• Exercise:
– Find the overall gain of the following using Mason’s
gain formula
32
Application:
• Consider the following model of an electro-
mechanical system
• The system objective is to move the load at a
desired speed.
Ra
Amplifier
if
TD
er e kA ea Ia TM Load
ω J, C
DC Motor
Tachometer
et (Conventional
DC Generator)
33
• DC tachometer is a conventional DC generator
with permanent magnetic excitation (PME)
• The DC tachometer gives a voltage et proportional
to the output speed ω,
• er-et=e is the difference signal used after
amplification to control ia of the motor such that
the motor acquires the desired speed ωo.
• The open circuit voltage will then be :
et = k1 et
volt.s
et = kt , kt ...........................( 1 )
rad
where kt is called the tachometer constant 34
• The voltage at the armature terminals of the motor
is given by:
ea = k Ae
where k A is the transfer function of the amplifier
ea = k A ( er − et ).....................(2)
• For the armature circuit (applying KVL):
Ra I a + kb = ea .................(3)
where kb is the back EMF of the motor
when there is constant field current
i.e kb = ka 35
• For constant field current, the torque
developed will be:
60
TM = kT ia [ kT = k M ,k M = ka ]
2
Hence, the torque equation of the system
is:
d
J + C + TD = TM = kT ia ...............( 4 )
dt
• Taking the Laplace transform of the above 4
equations we will get:
36
( 1 ) Et ( s ) = kt( s )
( 2 ) Ea ( s ) = k A [ Er ( s ) − Et ( s )]
Ea ( s ) = k A [ Er ( s ) − kt( s )]
( 3 ) Ra I a ( s ) + kb( s ) = Ea ( s )
1
Ia ( s ) = [ Ea ( s ) − kb( s )]
Ra
( 4 ) kT I a ( s ) = ( Js + C )( s ) + TD ( s )
( s )( Js + C ) = TM ( s ) − TD ( s )
1
( s ) = [ kT I a ( s ) − TD ( s )]
Js + C 37
Taking the nodes:
1. Er ( s ),2. Ea ( s ),3. I a ( s ),4. ( s ) and 5. TD ( s )
• The SFG representation of the above LT equations
will then be :
TD(s)
1 1
Er(s) 1 KA Ea(s) Ra Ia(s) K
T
-1
Js + C 1 ( s )
( s )
-Kb
-Kt
39