Example

A DC motor is shown schematically in the figure below.

L and R represent the inductance and resistance of the motor armature circuit, and voltage 𝑉𝑏
𝑑𝜃
represents the generated back emf which is proportional to the shaft velocity . The torque T
𝑑𝑡
generated by the motor is proportional to the armature current 𝑖. Inertia J represents the combined
inertia of the motor armature and the load, and B is the total viscous friction acting on the output
shaft. Determine the transfer function between the input voltage V and the angular position 𝜃 of
the output shaft.

Solution
The differential equations of the motor armature circuit and the inertial load are:
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝜃 𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 = 𝑣 − 𝐾𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝑡 𝑖 = 𝐽 + 𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Taking the Laplace transform of each equation, ignoring initial conditions,
(𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿)𝐼 = 𝑉 − 𝐾𝑓 𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝑡 𝐼 = (𝐽𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠)𝜃
Solving these equations simultaneously for the transfer function between V and 𝜃, we have
𝜃 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑡 /𝐽𝐿
= =
𝑉 (𝐽𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠)(𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅) + 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑓 𝑠 𝐵 𝑅 𝐵𝑅 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑓
𝑠 [𝑠 2 + ( 𝐽 + 𝐿 ) 𝑠 + 𝐽𝐿 + 𝐽𝐿 ]
Example
Given the mechanical system below,
i. draw the equivalent mechanical network.
ii. write the equations describing the system.
iii. obtain F-V and F-I analogies.

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Solution

Equivalent mechanical network

At node X1
d2 x1 dx1 dx2
F = M1 2 + K1 (x1 − x2 ) + B1 ( − ) (1)
dt dt dt
At node X2
d2 x2 dx2 dx2 dx1
M2 2
+ B2 + K 2 x2 + B1 ( − ) + K1 (x2 − x1 ) = 0 (2)
dt dt dt dt

To derive the Force Voltage analogy, the mechanical components are replaced as,
1 1
M1 = L1 , M2 = L2 , K1 = , K 2 =
C1 C2
F = V, X1 = q 1 , X2 = q2 , B1 = R1 , B2 = R 2
For node X1
d2 q1 1 dq1 dq 2
V = L1 2 + (q1 − q 2 ) + R1 ( − )
dt C1 dt dt
Let
dq
i=
dt
di1 1
V = L1 + ∫(i1 − i2 )dt + R1 (i1 − i2 ) (a)
dt C1
At node X2
d2 q 2 dq 2 1 dq 2 dq1 1
L2 2 + R 2 + q 2 + R1 ( − ) + (q 2 − q1 ) = 0
dt dt C2 dt dt C1
Let
dq
i=
dt
di2 1 1
L2 + R 2 i2 + ∫ i2 dt + R1 (i2 − i1 ) + ∫(i2 − i1 )dt = 0 (b)
dt C2 C1

The Force Voltage analogous electrical circuit is,

2
To derive the Force Current analogy, the mechanical components are replaced as,
1 1
M1 = C1 , M2 = C2 , B1 = , B2 =
R1 R2
1 1
F = I, K1 = , K2 = , X1 = φ1 , X2 = φ2
L1 L2
For node X1
d2 φ1 1 1 dφ1 dφ2
I = C1 2
+ (φ1 − φ2 ) + ( − ) (c)
dt L1 R1 dt dt
At node X2
d2 φ2 1 dφ2 1 1 dφ2 dφ1 1
C2 2
+ + φ2 + ( − ) + (φ2 − φ1 ) = 0 (d)
dt R 2 dt L2 R1 dt dt L1

The Force - Current analogous circuit is,

EEE 2411 - Lecture 3 - Block diagram representation of control systems

1 Introduction
A block diagram is a pictorial representation of control systems, giving the relationship between
input and output of a system. Each element in the system is represented as a block, and the transfer
function of that element is placed inside the block. Different blocks are interconnected as per the
sequence of operation of the system. An arrow indicates the direction of flow of signals from one
block to another. The basic elements of a block diagram are shown below.

Block diagram of a control system.

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 i. Block - it has a single input and single output, and it carries the transfer function.
ii. Summing point - it is the component of a block diagram model at which two or more signals
can be added or subtracted.

iii. Take-off point - it is the component of a block diagram model at which a signal can be
taken and supplied to one or more points.

iv. Forward path - it is the direction of signal flow from input towards output.
v. Feedback path - it is the direction of signal flow from output towards input.

1.1 Advantages of block diagrams

i. The functional operations of a system can be observed from the block diagram.
ii. The diagram gives information about performance of the system.
iii. Block diagram is used for analysis and design of control systems.
iv. It is very simple to construct even for complicated systems.

1.2 Disadvantages of block diagrams

i. The block diagram for a given system is not unique.
ii. Source of energy in the system is not shown in the diagram.
iii. In block diagram algebra, some important functions may be omitted or hidden. There is no
check for it.
iv. The block diagram does not give any information about the physical construction of a
system.

2 Block diagram algebra

2.1 Basic connections for blocks
There are three basic types of connections between two blocks: series, parallel and feedback.
2.1.1 Series connection
A series connection is also called cascade connection, in which blocks are connected in series, as
shown below.

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For this combination,
Y(s) = G2 (s)Z(s)
where,
Z(s) = G1 (s)X(s)
Thus,
Y(s) = G2 (s)[G1 (s)X(s)] = G1 (s)G2 (s)X(s)
The equivalent block diagram is,

Similarly, any series connection of ‘n’ blocks can be represented by a single block, and the transfer
function of the single block is the product of the transfer functions of all ‘n’ blocks. If there is a
summing point or take-off point between the blocks, the blocks cannot be said to be in series.

2.1.2 Parallel connection

Blocks connected in parallel have the same input, as shown in the Figure below, and outputs of
these blocks are connected to a summing point.

The output
Y(s) = Y1 (s) + Y2 (s)
Where,
Y1 (s) = G1 (s)X(s)
Y2 (s) = G2 (s)X(s)
Thus
Y(s) = G1 (s)X(s) + G2 (s)X(s) = (G1 (s) + G2 (s))X(s)

The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks can be represented by a single block, whereby the
transfer function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all ‘n’ blocks.
For a parallel connection, the direction of flow of signals through the blocks must be the same. For
instance, this rule cannot be applied in the system below.

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2.1.3 Feedback connection
There are two types of feedback: positive and negative feedback. The Figure below shows a
negative feedback control system.

The output of the summing point is,

E(s) = X(s) − H(s)Y(s) (i)
While,
Y(s) = E(s)G(s) (ii)
Substitute (i) in (ii),
Y(s) = {X(s) − H(s)Y(s)}G(s)
Y(s){1 + G(s)H(s)} = X(s)G(s)
Y(s) G(s)
= (iii)
X(s) 1 + G(s)H(s)
The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, the positive feedback connection of two blocks can be represented with a single block,
whose transfer function is,
𝑌(𝑠) G(s)
=
𝑋(𝑠) 1 − G(s)H(s)
Example
Consider the system shown below,

G1 and G2 are in series. The series combination is obtained, then feedback loop eliminated.

2.2 Block diagram algebra for summing points

There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks, viz, shifting
summing point after the block, shifting summing point before the block.

2.2.1 Shifting summing point from before a block to after a block

Consider the block diagram shown below, in which a summing point is before the block.

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The output
Y(s) = G(s)(R(s) + X(s)) = G(s)R(s) + G(s)X(s) (1)
To move the summing point after the block,

Y(s) = G(s)R(s) + X(s) (2)

Comparing (1) and (2), the first term “G(s)R(s)” is same in both equations, but the second term is
not. To get the second term also same, we require a block G(s), at the input X(s), as shown on the
right.

2.2.2 Shifting summing point from after block to before block

Consider the block diagram shown below, in which the summing point is after a block.

Y(s) = G(s)R(s) + X(s) (3)

Shifting the summing point before the block gives,

Y(s) = G(s)R(s) + G(s)X(s) (4)

Comparing (3) and (4), the first term “G(s)R(s)” is same in both equations, but there is a difference
in the second term. To get the second term also same, we use 1/G(s), at the input of X(s) as shown
on the right.

2.2.3 Associative law for summing point

The order of summing point can be changed if two or more summing points are in series.

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From Figure (a) above,
y = R(s) − B1
C(s) = y − B2 = R(s) − B1 − B2
For Figure (b) above,
y = R(s) − B2
C(s) = y − B1 = R(s) − B2 − B1
Associative law for summing point is applicable only to summing points directly connected to
each other.

2.3 Block diagram algebra for take-off points

There are two possibilities of shifting take-off points with respect to blocks, viz, shifting take-off
point to after a block and shifting take-off point to before a block.

2.3.1 Shifting a take-off point from before a block to after the block
Consider the block diagram shown below, where the take-off point is before a block.

X(s) = R(s)
Y(s) = G(s)R(s)
When we shift a take-off point to after a block, the output Y(s) will be same, but X(s) will be
different. To get the same value for X(s), we require a block 1/G(s), as shown on the right.

2.3.2 Shifting take-off point from after a block to before the block
Consider the block diagram shown below, in which the take-off point is after a block.

X(s) = Y(s) = G(s)R(s)

Shifting the take-off point before the block, the output Y(s) will remain the same, but X(s) will be
different. For X(s) to remain the same, we require a block G(s), as shown on the right.

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3 Block diagram reduction rules
✓ Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
✓ Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
✓ Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
✓ Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards right.
✓ Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards left.
✓ Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., a single block.

Example
Simplify the system shown below.

Solution
By moving the summing point of the negative feedback loop containing H2 outside the positive
feedback loop containing H1, we obtain,

Eliminating the positive feedback loop we have,

Elimination of the loop containing H2/G1 gives,

Finally, eliminating the feedback loop results in,

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Example
Simplify the block diagram shown below and obtain the transfer function C(s)/R(s).

Solution
Moving the take off point past block G,

Simplifying the feedback loop and the parallel connection,

Final block

Example
Find the transfer function of the system below.

Solution
Step 1: Collapse summing junctions.

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Step 2: form equivalent cascaded system in the forward path and equivalent parallel system in the
feedback path

Step 3: form equivalent feedback system and multiply by G1 (s).

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