Objectives

Students should be able to:

 Find a mathematical model, called a state-space
representation, for a linear, time-invariant
system.
 Model electrical and mechanical systems in state
space representation.
 Convert between transfer function and state-
space models.
 INTRODUCTION
Two approaches are available for the analysis and design
in feedback control system.
 Classical, or frequency domain technique
 Modern, or time domain technique

Classical Modern

Frequency
Time domain
domain
 INTRODUCTION
Classical, or frequency domain technique
 Convert a system’s differential equation to a transfer
function, thus generating a mathematical model of system
that relates output to input.
 Advantage - can rapidly provide stability and transient
response information.
 Disadvantage - limited applicability, can be applied only to
linear, time invariant system.
 INTRODUCTION
Modern, or time domain technique
 Unified method for modeling, analyzing, designing a wide
range of systems.
 It can be used to represent non-linear system and can
handle a system with non-zero initial condition.
 Time varying system can be represented in state space,
multiple input and multiple output.
 SOME OBSERVATIONS
 Select a particular subset of all possible system variables and call
the variables in this subset state variables.
 For nth order system, we write n simultaneous, first order DE in
terms of state variables called state equations.
 If we know the initial condition of all state variables at to to as
well as system input for t >= to, we can solve the simultaneous
DE for state variables for t >= to.
 We algebraically combine the state variables with the system’s
input and find all of the other system variables for t >= to, called
as output equation.
 The state equations and the output equations is a viable
representation of the system, called as state-space
representation.
 DEFINITION
 A state space representation is a mathematical model of a
physical system as a set of input, output and state variables related
by first-order differential equations.
 To abstract from the number of inputs, outputs and states, the
variables are expressed as vectors.
 If the dynamical system is linear and time invariant, the differential
and algebraic equations may be written in matrix form.
 The state space representation provides a convenient and compact
way to model and analyze systems with multiple inputs and
outputs.
 State space refers to the space whose axes are the state variables.
The state of the system can be represented as a vector within that
space.
 THE GENERAL STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
A state-space representation consist of
 simultaneous first order DE from which the state variables can
be solved.
 algebraic output equation from which all other system variables
can be found.
A system is represented in state space by the following equations:
x  Ax  Bu state equation
y  Cx  Du output equation
for t >= to and initial conditions, x(to), where
 THE GENERAL STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION

As an example, for a linear, invariant, 2nd order with single input,

v(t) the state equation could be the following:
dx1
 a11 x1  a12 x2  b1v (t )
dt
dx2 x  Ax  Bu
 a21 x1  a22 x2  b2 v (t )
dt

dx1 
 dt   a11 a12   x1   b1  v (t )
dx  a a   x  b 
 2 dt   21 22   2   2 
 THE GENERAL STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION

 x1 and x2 are the state variables.

 If there is a single input, the output equation could take on the
following term:

y  c1 x1  c2 x2  d1v (t )

y  Cx  Du
 x1 
 y   c1 c 2     d 1 v ( t ) 
 x2 
 THE GENERAL STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION

In this section we apply the state-space formulation to

the representation of more complicated physical system.

Block diagram representation of the state space equations

 APPLYING THE STATE-SPACE REPRESENTATION
The first step in representing a system is to select the state
vector, which must be chosen according to the following
considerations:
 A minimum number of state variables must be selected as
components of the state vector.
 This minimum number of state variables is sufficient to
describe completely the state of the system.
 The components of state vector must be linearly
independent.
CONVERTING A TRANSFER FUNCTION TO
STATE SPACE
Example 5.1
Find the state equations for the translational mechanical
system shown in figure.
CONVERTING A TRANSFER FUNCTION TO
STATE SPACE
Example 5.1
Solution:
First draw the FBD for the two masses. Assume zero initial
conditions and obtain the DE equation,

2
d x1 dx1
M1 2  D d  Kx1  Kx2  0
dt dt
d 2 x2
 Kx1  M 2 2  Kx2  f (t )
t
CONVERTING A TRANSFER FUNCTION TO
STATE SPACE
Example 5.1
Solution:
2 2
Now let d x dv1 and d x2 dv2
2
1
 2

dt dt dt dt
and also select x1, v1, x2, v2 as state variables.
CONVERTING A TRANSFER FUNCTION TO
STATE SPACE
Example 5.1
Solution:
Next, form the state equations
dx1
  v1
dt
dv1 K D K
 x1  v1  x2
dt M1 M1 M1
dx2
  v2
dt
dv2 K K 1
 x1  x2   f (t )
dt M2 M2 M2
 CONVERTING A TRANSFER FUNCTION TO
STATE SPACE
Example 5.1
Solution:
Finally you will get:
 0 1 0 0
 x1  
   x1  
 0   x1 
 v    K M D K 0   0  v 
M1 M1 v1   
 1  1
   0  f (t ) y  0 0 1 0 1 
 x2   0 0 0 1   x2   x2 
    
K  v   1   
 v2   K 0 0  2   M2  v2 
 M2 M2 
if the output is x2.
Example 5.2

Produce the state space representation for the translational mechanical

system shown below where x1 is the output.

 dx1 
 dt   v1 
 dv   x1   d 2 x 
 1   v   21 
State variables are given as:  dt    1    dt 
 dx 2   x 2   v 2 
 dt     d 2 x 2 
 dv   v2   2 
 2  dt 
 dt 
Example 5.2

First, draw the free body diagram and get the simultaneous equations.
Second, write the DE equations.

d 2 x1 dx1 dx 2
M1 2
D  ( K 1  K 2 ) x1  D  K 2 x2  0
dt dt dt

dx1 d 2 x2 dx 2
D  K 2 x1  M 2 2
D  ( K 2  K 3 ) x 2  f (t )
dt dt dt
dx1 dv1 ( K1  K 2 ) D K2 D
 v1  x1  v1  x2  v2
dt dt M1 M1 M1 M1

dx 2 dv 2 K2 D (K 2  K3 ) D 1
 v2  x1  v1  x2  v2  f (t )
dt dt M2 M2 M2 M2 M2

 0 1 0 0   0 
 x1   ( K1  K 2 )
 D K2 D  1  x 
 v       0 
 1   M1 M1 M1 M 1   v1   
 
 x 2   0 0 0 1   x2   0 
   K2 D (K 2  K 3 ) D    1 
 v2      v2   M 
 M2 M2 M2 M 2   2
 x1 
v 
y  1 0 0 0 1 
 x2 
 
 v2 
 CONVERTING A TRANSFER FUNCTION TO
STATE SPACE

 One advantage of the state-space representation is that it

can be used for the simulation of physical systems on the
digital system.
 Thus, if we want to simulate a system that is represented by
a transfer function, we must first convert the transfer
function representation to state space.
 CONVERTING A TRANSFER FUNCTION TO
STATE SPACE

 Consider a differential equation

n n 1
d y d y dy
 an1 n1  ...  a1  a0 y  b0u
dt dt dt
 CONVERTING A TRANSFER FUNCTION TO
STATE SPACE
 Choosing state variable, xi, we get
x1  y
dy
x2 
dt
2
d y
x3  2 …Eq 1
dt

d n1 y
xn  n1
dt
 CONVERTING A TRANSFER FUNCTION TO
STATE SPACE
 and differentiating both side yields
dy
x1 
dt
d2y
x2  2
dt
d3y
x3  3 …Eq 2
dt

dny
xn  n
dt
 CONVERTING A TRANSFER FUNCTION TO
STATE SPACE
 Substituting eq. 1 into 2, the state equations are evaluated
as
x1  x2
x2  x3
 …Eq 3

xn 1  xn

xn   a0 x1  a1 x2  ...  an1 xn  b0u

 CONVERTING A TRANSFER FUNCTION TO
STATE SPACE
n
 Eq 3 is obtained from Eq 1 by solving for ny using Eq 2.
d
dt
 In matrix form, the state equation becomes
 x1   0 1 0 0 0 0 ... 0   x1  0 
 x     x  0 
  2 0 0 1 0 0 0 ... 0  2   
 x3   0 0 0 1 0 0 ... 0   x3  0 
       u
         ...      
 x n1   0 0 0 0 0 0 ... 1   xn1  0 
      
 -a -a -a
 n   0 1 2 3 4 5
x -a -a -a ... -a n 1 
  xn  b0 
 x1 
 and the output equation x 
 2 
 x3 
y  1 0 0 0 ... 0  
 
 xn1 
 
 xn 
 CONVERTING A STATE SPACE TO
TRANSFER FUNCTION
 Given the state and output equations:
x  Ax  Bu and y  Cx  Du

 Take Laplace transform, assuming zero initial conditions,

sX ( s )  AX ( s )  BU ( s )
Y ( s )  CX ( s )  DU ( s )

 Solving for x
sI  AX ( s )  BU ( s ) X ( s )  sI  A  BU ( s )
1

where I is the identity matrix.

 CONVERTING A STATE SPACE TO
TRANSFER FUNCTION
 Substitute eq. x( s )  sI  A 1 BU ( s ) into eq.

Y ( s )  Cx( s )  DU ( s )
Y ( s )  C sI  A BU ( s )  DU ( s )  ( C sI  A B  D )U ( s )
-1 -1

 If u(s) and Y(s) are scalar, we can find the transfer function:
Y( s )
T( s )   C sI  A B  D
-1 Transfer Function Matrix
U( s )
 CONVERTING A STATE SPACE TO
TRANSFER FUNCTION
Example 5.3
Given a state space representation:
 x1   0 1   x1  0   x1 
 x    - 2 - 3   x   2u y  1 0  
and  x2 
 2    2  

x  Ax  Bu y  Cx  Du

 0 1  0 
A  B  C  1 0 D0
 - 2 - 3   2
 CONVERTING A STATE SPACE TO
TRANSFER FUNCTION
Example 5.3
Solution:
( sI  A)  ?
 s 0  0 1   s - 1 
( sI  A)       
0 s   - 2 - 3   2 s  3 
Therefore
 s3 1 
 -2 
adj( sI  A) s
( sI  A) 1   2 
det( sI  A) s  3s  2
 CONVERTING A STATE SPACE TO
TRANSFER FUNCTION
Example 5.3
Solution:
Substituting (sI-A)-1, B, C and D into transfer function
matrix Eq.:
Y (s)
G (s)   C sI  A -1 B  D
U (s)
We obtain the transfer function:
 s3 1 
 -2 s  0 
Y ( s)
 1 0  2 
 
U (s) s  3s  2  2 
 CONVERTING A STATE SPACE TO
TRANSFER FUNCTION
Example 5.3
Solution:
Then
0 
s  3 1  
Y( s )  2 2
 2  2
U( s ) s  3s  2 s  3s  2
 CONVERTING A STATE SPACE TO
TRANSFER FUNCTION
Example 5.3
Given a state space representation, find the transfer
function.
 0 1 0 10 
x   0 0 1  x  0  u y  1 0 0 x
 - 1 - 2 - 3  0 

Get A, B and C.
 CONVERTING A STATE SPACE TO
TRANSFER FUNCTION
Example 5.3
Solution:
 s 0 0  0 1 0
( sI  A)   0 s 0    0 0 1 
 0 0 s   - 1 - 2 - 3 
 s -1 0 
( sI  A)   0 s - 1 
 1 2 s  3
 CONVERTING A STATE SPACE TO
TRANSFER FUNCTION
Example 5.3
Solution:
Now, form (sI - A)-1
 (s 2  3s  2 ) s3 1
 
 -1 s(s  3 ) s 
1 adj( sI  A )  -s -( 2 s  1 ) s 2 
( sI  A )  
det( sI  A ) s 3  3s 2  2 s  1
 CONVERTING A STATE SPACE TO
TRANSFER FUNCTION
Example 5.3
Solution:
10 
As B  0  C 1 0 0 D0
0 
Substituting (sI-A)-1, B, C and D into transfer function
matrix eq .
Y( s )
G( s )   C sI  A -1 B  D
U( s )
 CONVERTING A STATE SPACE TO
TRANSFER FUNCTION
Example 5.3
Solution:
 (s 2  3s  2 ) s3 1
 
 -1 s(s  3 ) s 
2 
 10 
Y( s ) -s -( 2 s  1 ) s  
G( s )   1 0 0  0
   0
U( s ) s 3  3s 2  2 s  1
0 

We obtain the transfer function:

Y ( s ) 10( s 2  3s  2 )
G( s )   3
U ( s ) s  3s 2  2 s  1