Lecture 3

Transfer Function

By: Kokeb G
 system modelling

2.1 Mathematical Modelling

In order to understand a behavior of a system mathematical models

are needed
Mathematical models are equations that describes the relation-ship
between inputs and output of a system
Dynamic System Modeling
In solving engineering problems, there is a need to understand and determine the
dynamic response of a physical system that may consist of several components.

These efforts involve modeling, analysis, and simulation of physical systems.

Dynamic systems and control involves the analysis, design, and control of physical
engineering systems that are often composed of interacting mechanical, electrical, and
fluid subsystem components.

Definitions:

System: A combination of components acting together to perform a specified objective.

The components or interacting elements have cause-and-effect (or input-output)
relationships.
cont’d
Dynamic system: A system where the current output variables (or dynamic variables)
depend on the initial conditions (or stored energy) of the system and/or the previous input
variables. The dynamic variables of the system (e.g., displacement, velocity, voltage,
pressure) vary with time.

Modeling: The process of applying the appropriate fundamental physical laws in order to
derive mathematical equations that adequately describe the physics of the engineering
system. Dynamic systems are represented by differential equations.

Mathematical model: A mathematical description of a dynamic system’s behavior,

which is usually a set of linear or nonlinear ordinary differential equations (ODEs).
cont’d
Simulation: The process of obtaining the system’s dynamic response by numerically
solving the governing modeling equations. Simulation involves numerical integration of
the model’s differential equations and is performed by digital computers and simulation
software.

System analysis: The use of analytical calculations or numerical simulation tools to

determine the system response in order to assess its performance.

General classification of Dynamic system:

1) Distributed vs. Lumped, 2) Linear vs. Non-linear dynamic system, 3) continuous time vs.
discrete time, 4) time variant vs. time invariant.
cont’d
Continuous time vs. Discrete time : A continuous-time system involves variables and
functions that are defined for all time, whereas a discrete time system involves variables
that are defined only at discrete time points.

Continuous-time systems consisting of variables in the “analog” domain, such as position

x(t). Discrete-time systems consist of variables in the “digital” domain, such as the
sampled (measured) position x(kTs) that exists only at the discrete-time points t = Ts, t =
2Ts, … , t = kTs where Ts is the sampling interval.

Time-Varying vs. Time-Invariant Systems: In a time-varying system the system

parameters change with time (e.g., the friction coefficient changes with time).
cont’d
In a time-invariant system the parameters remain constant. The reader should not confuse
the variation of the system parameters with the variation of the dynamic variables.

Linear vs. Nonlinear Systems: Suppose we have a system or input-output relationship

that is described by the function y = f (u) where u is the input and y is the output. Linear
systems obey the superposition property:
1. If y1 = f (u1), then ay1 = f (au1), where a = any constant.
2. If y1 = f (u1) and y2 = f (u2), then y1 + y2 = f (u1 + u2)

Non-linear systems do not obey either superposition property.

cont’d
(1)

(2)

(3)

Equation (1)is a second-order linear ODE because the dynamic variable x and its
derivatives appear as linear combinations.

Equation (2) is linear as x and its derivatives appear in linear combinations. Because the
coefficient changes with time.

Equation (3) is a nonlinear ODE because of the term.

Transfer function vs. State-Space
There are two fundamental approach to modeling and analyzing dynamic system.

1. Transfer function approach and,

2. State-Space approach.
Transfer Function Approach

Transfer Function. The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant differential-

equation system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
(response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving function) under
the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.

Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the differential equation

Where y is the output of the system and x is the input. The transfer function of this
system is the ratio of the Laplace-transformed output to the Laplace-transformed
input when all initial conditions are zero, or expressed as follows:
Transfer Function Approach

By using the concept of a transfer function, it is possible to represent system dynamics by
algebraic equations in s.

If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the
system is called an nth-order system.

Usually applicable to represent linear system.

Mechanical System Modeling
A mechanical system is composed of inertia, stiffness, and energy-dissipation elements.
In addition, it may possess mechanical transformers, such as gears or levers.

Inertia elements are either lumped masses (translational mechanical systems) or moments
of inertia (rotational mechanical systems). They are easily identified in Newton’s second
law.

(translational motion)

(rotational motion)

Stiffness elements: When a mechanical element stores energy due to a deformation or

change in shape, it can be modeled as a stiffness element or Spring element.
cont’d
A linear spring is a mechanical element that can be deformed by an external force or
torque such that the deformation is directly proportional to the force or torque applied to
the element.

Energy-dissipation elements: When a mechanical element dissipates energy due to its

motion, it can be modeled as a friction element. Just as we used a “spring element” to
model stiffness in a mechanical system, we can use a “damper” (or “dashpot”) element to
model friction.
Example

 Apply Newton’s second law and derive the differential equation of motion (system dynamics).
 Determine the transfer function form.

Figure: A mass–spring–damper system: (a) physical system and (b) free-body diagram
Exercise: 1

Figure: A quarter-car model: (a) physical system and (b) free-body diagram.
Exercise: 2

Figure: (a) Schematic diagram of the seat-suspension system for Example 2.3. (b) Mechanical
model for the seat-suspension system.
Electrical System Modeling
This section is concerned with mathematical modeling and the response analysis of
electrical systems and electromechanical systems.

Electrical systems and mechanical systems (as well as other systems, such as fluid
systems) are very often described by analogous mathematical models.

Basic elements of electrical system is classified as passive elements and active elements:
First review three passive types of elements of electrical systems which are: resistance,
capacitance, and inductance elements.

These elements are passive elements, because, although they can store or dissipate energy
that is already present in the circuit, they cannot introduce additional energy into the
circuit.
Resistance Elements
Active elements an electrical circuit are: Voltage and Current. (because they can
introduce energy into the circuit).

Resistance elements: The resistance R of a linear resistor is given by;

Where is the voltage across the resistor and is the current through the resistor. The unit of
resistance is the ohm (Ω).

Resistors do not store electric energy in any form, but instead dissipate it as heat.
Capacitance Elements
Capacitance elements: Two conductors separated by a non-conducting medium form a
capacitor, so two metallic plates separated by a very thin dielectric material form a
capacitor. The capacitance C is a measure of the quantity of charge that can be stored for
a given voltage across the plates, and given as;

Where q is the quantity of charge stored and is the voltage across the capacitor. The unit
of capacitance is the farad (F).

Note that: ,
cont’d
Furthermore;

, or

Therefore;

Inductance elements. If a circuit lies in a time-varying magnetic field, an electromotive

force is induced in the circuit. The inductive effects can be classified as self-inductance
and mutual inductance.
Inductance Elements
Self-inductance: is that property of a single coil that appears when the magnetic field set
up by the current in the coil links to the coil itself. The magnitude of the induced voltage
is proportional to the rate of change of flux linking the circuit.

Self-inductance, or simply inductance, L, is the proportionality constant between the

induced voltage volts and the rate of change of current (or change in current per second)
amperes per second; that is:

, ,
The unit of inductance is the henry (H).
cont’d
Mutual inductance refers to the influence between inductors that results from the
interaction of their fields. If two inductors are involved in an electrical circuit, each may
come under the influence of the magnetic field of the other inductor.

Voltage and current sources: A voltage source is a device that causes a specified voltage
to exist between two points in a circuit. The voltage may be time varying or time
invariant.

A current source causes a specified current to flow through a wire containing this source.
Fundamentals of Electrical Circuits
Ohm's law: Ohm's law states that the current in a circuit is proportional to the total
electromotive force (emf) acting in the circuit and inversely proportional to the total
resistance of the circuit.

Series circuits: The total voltage in series connected circuit is the direct sum of
individual voltage drop across each resistor.
cont’d
Parallel circuits: The total current in parallel connected circuit is the direct sum of
individual current passage across the resistor.
cont’d
Kirchhoff's laws: In solving circuit problems that involve many electromotive forces,
resistances, capacitances, inductances, and so on, it is often necessary to use Kirchhoff's
laws, of which there are two: the current law (node law) and the voltage law (loop law).

Kirchhoff's current law (node law): A node in an electrical circuit is a point where three
or more wires are joined together. Kirchhoff's current law (node law) states that the
algebraic sum of all currents entering and leaving a node is zero.
cont’d
Kirchhoff's voltage law (loop law): Kirchhoff's voltage law states that at any given
instant of time the algebraic sum of the voltages around any loop in an electrical circuit is
zero.
Mathematical Modeling of Electrical Systems

The first step in analyzing circuit problems is to obtain mathematical models for the
circuits.

A mathematical model may consist of algebraic equations, differential equations, integro-

differential equations, and similar ones.
Example
Consider the circuit shown in the figure below, assume that the switch open for t < 0, and
closed at t = 0. Obtain the mathematical model for the circuit and obtain an equation for
the current?

Figure: Electrical circuit

cont’d
 By arbitrarily choosing the direction of the current around the loop as shown in the figure,
we obtain;

or

 Note: This is a mathematical model for the given circuit, and Let us solve the above
equation for the current , and take the Laplace transforms both sides:

, Note that; and we will have,

 Or ,

called Invers Laplace Transform.

Exercise: 1
• Consider the electrical circuit shown in Figure below. The circuit consists of an
inductance L (in henrys), a resistance R (in ohms), and a capacitance C (in farads).
Obtain the transfer function . Also, obtain a state-space representation of the system.

Figure: Electrical circuit

Exercise: 1
• Consider the electrical circuit shown in Figure below. The circuit consists of an
inductance L (in henrys), a resistance R (in ohms), and a capacitance C (in farads).
Obtain the transfer function . Also, obtain a state-space representation of the system.

Figure: Electrical circuit