1

Function and Concept

- G. Frege

Preface
, .
,
.
.
, .
.
. ,
.

,
. , .
,
.
. (bedeutung)
; .
. .
.
. .
,
. : x x
, x

* Distinction between form and content, sign and thing signified

2 x 3

+ x x , 2.2 3 + 2 2 .

, .
. .
.
. .
. 2.2 3

+ 2 ? 18 3.6 .

+ 2 = 18 .
2 + 5 3 + 4 .

2.2

, .
. .

7
. , .
. .
. ,
1 .

. . ,
,
.
. ,
.
. , 2, 1+1,
3-1, 6:3 .
. : 1+1
, 6:3 . 6:3 ? 3 6 .
, ;
.
: (1+1) + (1+1) + (1+1) = 6. (1+1) (6:3)
. ,
.

x 2 = 4 2 -2 (1+1)

. , .

.
3, 18, 132
:

'2.13 + 1' , '2.2 3 + 2' , '2.4 3 + 4'

, .
.
x ,

'2.x 3 + x '

. .
, x .

* Argument and function

x
. x ,
:

'2.13 + 1' , '2.4 3 + 4' , '2.5 3 + 5' .

:
. x
: 2. ( ) 3

'2.x 3 + x '

( )

, .
, , .
. ,

'2.2 3 + 2'

'2.13 + 1' ,

'2.13 + 1' 4 1

. ,
.
. .
, ;
, . ( .
.
, , ,
. , .
, ,
. ,
)

2 x 3 + x , x

. .
.
. 3

2 x 3 + x 1 .
(

2 + x x 2 + 0.x ) .

2 .
. 2 2 .

.
.
, ,
.
.

y = x 2 4 x

. y , x

. x ( x 4) ,
. x :
x2

4 x = x( x 4) .

y = x 2 4 x

y = x( x 4)

. :

x( x 4) x 2 4 x

.
x 2

4 x = x( x 4) ,

, .
x ,
. :

x( x 4) x 2 4 x

, .
, .
.
.
.
:

4 ) x 2 4 x . ( .( 4)) x( x 4) .
( 2 4 ) = ( .( 4)) : .
( 2

.
x2

4 x = x( x 4) , sense .1

sense ;
, .
x2

4 x = x( x 4)

.
2
x 2 4 x sense y 4 y .
x y .

, . ,
.
. .
,

F : x
' f ( x )' , ' F ( x)' . f

F .
. f ( ) .
,

x 2 4x

x( x 4)
sense .
Grundgesetze , Bedeutung
sense .
: (F )(G )({x : Fx} = {x : Gx} (x )( Fx Gx))
F G F , F G .

?
.
, . ,
, .
.
. , 1,
0 , .
, . ,
sense .

* Truth values as values

. +, - , x

x 2 = 1 = , > , <

.
. x -1, 0, 1, 2 , .

(1) 2 = 1 , 0 2 = 1 , 12 = 1 , 2 2 = 1
, : ,
. (True), (False) .

22

4 2 2 = 4 . 2 2 = 1 .
, 2 2 = 4 , 2 > 1 , 2 4 = 4 2 . ( 2 2 = 4) = ( 2 > 1)

.
2 2

= 4 2 > 1

(thoughts) . 2 4

= 4 2 4.4 = 4 2 .

2 4 4.4 . .

2 4 = 4 2 4.4 = 4 2

.

.
. ;
. sense
Bedeutung . 2 4 4.4 . .
sense . 2 4

= 4 2 4.4 = 4 2

sense ( ).
2 4
.

= 4.4

, ( 2 4

= 4 2 ) = (4.4 = 4 2 ) (2 2 = 4) = ( 2 > 1)

=, >, <

?
.
. ,
.
.

x 2 = 1 . ,

-1 , , : -1
1 -1 1 -1 1
. , 2

x 2 = 1

: 2 1 2 1
. :
. ,

( x + 1) 2 = 2( x + 1)

. -1 .
: -1 1 . -1
.

2
x 2 = 1 ( x + 1) = 2( x + 1)

. .
:
( ( 2

= 1) = (( + 1) 2 = 2( + 1))

.
.
. . sense
( ). .
, 4 2 + 2 ,
.

* Objects as arguments and as values

. , , .
.
. .
sense . (
). .
.
. (persnos)

. .
. , .
. . ~
, ,
. x
.
.
,
. .
. .
: ,
.
.
. .

4 ) = ( .( 4))
( 2 4 ) ( ) = ( .( 4)) .
. . ( 2 4 )
: ( 2

. , .

( 2 = 1) . (1 )
. , .

. a+b a b
. . a b
.
(bedeutungslos) .

. .
, +1
. .
. a b a+b
. .
. :
.
. x + 1 x x + 1 = 10
. 1

10 . ,
.

* Functions that have a truth-value as arguments

. ,
.
,
. . ,
.
: x .
, -
- . 1 + 3 =

1 + 3 = 5 4 . .
.
horizontal .
.

5 > 4 5 4 .
5 > 4 1 + 3 = 5 .
( ) .
. .
. :
2 + 3 =

5 2+3 5 . 2 + 3 = 5

, .
x ,
x . :
x , . x
: ( x ) = ( ( x ))
2 . :
( ( x )) = ( x ),
x . x
. 2 2

2 =5

= 5

2 = 5 2 2
5 . 2 . 2 (?): 2 , 2

. :

.
.

x = x x .

f ( ) f (x) ,
. . x = x .
f ( ) . : =
(horizontal) .
. .
: 2

=1
= 1 . x 2 = 1 .
2 = 1 , 2 = 1 .

2 = 1 ; 1 1
2

1 ?
x2

= 1

2 = 1

x2 = 1

= 1 . . x = 1
. 2 = 1 2 = 1 :
2 = 1 , x 2 = 1 1
2

0
< 0
3

: .
: .

3 2 + 2 = 0

x 3 3 x 2 + 2 x = 0 .
. f
, f ( ) .
x 2 12 , 2 2

:
2
3

= 1 ,

0 ,

< 0,

3 2 + 2 = 0 .

x 2 x ,

f ( ) f

.
. .
,
. first-level , second-level
. . Second-level ,
( ), .

10

.
. 3

> 2 3 x > 2

> 2 2 x > y .
y 2 . x > y
. x y . 3 > 2
. x

3 2 . .
. .

x 2 + y 2 = 9 x 2 + y 2 > 9

x2 + y2

. y- , x-
. .

horizontal .
x y( ) .

first-level second-level .
. .
. .
, ( ) ,
. .
first-level second-level . Second-level
. F

F ( f (1))

seond-level ,
, .
. second-level
. . .
(P.147 )

xy ( f ( x, y ) z ( f ( x, z ) y = z )) (many-one relation)

second-level . .

.
, .
. .
.

11

(a + b).c = a.c + b.c .

. ,
, .
, .

f,F

df ( x ) F ( x)
df ( x)
dF ( x )
= F ( x)
+ f ( x)
dx
dx
dx
second-level . second-level
. , .
.
. second-level first-level . firstlevel second-level .
.
.
.