Chapter 2 Mechanics Pg 1

Force a push or a pull Tension, Compression, Shear, Gravitational Buoyant, Friction, Normal, Fluid Resistive [in gases due to pressure, in liquids to viscosity] Energy The capacity to do Work

11/05/12 P. Freda

Uniform Circular Motion / Constant Speed

Circular motion requires a Force to change the tangential motion to circular motion. This force must be supplied by either Gravity, tension in cord, friction on a road or banked curve, or curved SpaceTime. Centripetal & Centrifugal Forces are NOT Forces of Nature. 2 2 Centripetal Force F= mv /r = mw r 2 2 Centripetal Acceleration a = v / r = w r Tangential velocity v=r
a vector is toward the center or axis of rotation v vector is the tangential direction of motion Centrifugal [pseudo/fictitious] Force causes a ball to move toward the passenger window of a car turning to the left. It exists only in the motion [non inertial] frame of reference, not the observer frame. It is really just Inertia. Examples; Conical Pendulum, Orbits,Car turning, Banked curve, Ball swinging on string in horizontal plane Displacement Time Graphs [Velocity/Acceleration]

Types; Kinetic [KE], Potential [PE], Heat [Q] Sources; Petrol, Gas, Solar, Chemical, Nuclear Work Force x Distance [ in direction of the Force ]

Power Energy [or Work] per unit time P = J / sec Universal Law of Gravitation F = G m1 m2 / r2 [Newtons ULG] G = 6.67 10 11 N m2 kg 2 Newtons 1st Law [ inertia ]
A body with constant velocity tends to stay that way until an unbalanced force acts upon it.This includes v=0, objects at rest no unbalanced forces If change in velocity = 0 [dv/dt = 0]

If the velocity of a body is not constant, then a net force is acting upon it. This is how nature works in the absence of Forces such as gravity or friction [outer space] [F = m a ] Newtons 2nd Law
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the unbalanced Force acting on it

To go from one graph to the next one Find slope of the tangent line at that point OR area under the curve up to that point Slope; s => v [ v = ds/dt ] , v => a [ a = dv/dt ] Area under curve; v => s [s=v t] , a => v [v= a t]
The area under the y = f(x) graph is y times x

The acceleration, not velocity, of a body is proportional to the unbalanced Force acting on it. F = d / dt [ m v ] or F=ma Can use 2nd Law & the ULG to show that a feather and rock will fall at the same speed to Earth Newtons 3rd Law [action = reaction]
For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction No net force can be generated in an isolated system Conservation of Momentum is the basic idea Always concerns itself with 2 bodies. This Law explains why rockets work in vacuum of outer space

Position

Velocity

Acceleration

( slope ) differentiate

integrate ( area )

Conservation Laws . Energy Momentum Angular Momentum Conservation of Energy ; Energy can neither be created nor destroyed KE + PE before = KE + PE after Conservation of Momentum Momentum before = Momentum after
for an isolated system and no external forces The Sum of the Initial and Final Momentums of the 2 bodies must be equal

Collisions Kinetic energy only, No potential energy Elastic; Energy & Momentum are Conserved Inelastic; KE NOT Conserved, Momentum is Conserved KE I + Q = KE f Q = Energy lost or added Q > 0 SuperElastic compressed spring Q = 0 Elastic hard objects Q < 0 Inelastic objects crush or stick Q<0 Energy is lost to heat
In a perfectly inelastic collision, there is zero coefficient of restitution, so the colliding particles stick together Explosions are always inelastic. The small bits get most of the KE from the chemical energy. Free Body Diagrams; only forces acting on one body and NOT forces the body acts on another body. Ladder leaning against wall has 5 forces acting on it; Weight, 2 friction ( wall, floor), 2 normal ( wall, floor ) Vertical Forces = 0 & Horizontal Forces = 0 Equilibriums F = 0

m1 v1 + m2 v2 = 0 or mv 1 i + mv 2 i = mv 1 f + mv 2 f
Forces act on two different bodies are = but they should NOT be thought to balance Projectile Motion Parabolic trajectory Vertical motion is constant acceleration a = g Horizontal motion is constant velocity a=0 2 Max Range = 45 deg; Range = v / g Basic equation for both vertical and horizontal motion

1/ Translational

Sum of Forces = 0

No Acceleration or unbalanced forces. But the body can still be in motion at constant speed. Skydiver falling at terminal velocity speed is in TE.

s ( t ) = s0 + v 0 t + a t 2
Suvat formulas; u = initial velocity, v = final velocity v =u +2as ;
2 2

2/ Rotational Sum of Torques = 0 3/ Static Sum of forces = 0 & Sum of Torques = 0

Object in SE can be both spinning at constant speed and have its center of mass moving at constant speed .

s=(u+v)t

; a=

Chapter 2 Mechanics
Elevator Acceleration a

Pg 2
P. Freda

You weigh more on an elevator accelerating up or decelerating on its way down; F = mg + ma You weigh less on an elevator accelerating down or an elevator decelerating on its way up; F = mg ma Elevator in free fall [ a = g ] weightlessness Gravity vector due to elevator acceleration is opposite in direction to the elevator acceleration vector Pseudo, Fictitious, Inertial Force An apparent force in an accelerating, non inertial frame [ like an elevator or rotating frame] that explains the observation of force or motion. Ex; Centrifugal, Coreolis, or Simulated Gravity forces Newtons Laws do not hold in non inertial frames. So there is no reaction Force seen in this frame

Simple Machines
Mechanical Advantage; Output / Input of Force, Distance, or Speed. Increase/Decrease [or Magnify] Force, Distance or Speed by a tradeoff due to the Conservation of Energy Levers Classifications "what is in the middle ? " 1/ Pivot [Fulcrum]; crowbar, scissors 2/ Load ; wheelbarrow, nutcracker, bottle opener 3/ Effort ; tweezers, shovel Lever Trades distance for reduction in Force; Force or Distance magnifier Inclined Plane ; Trades distance for Effort/Force. Knife/Blade/Axe are double inclined planes Wedge ; trades lateral force for longitudinal force Screw ; is an Inclined Plane wrapped around a shaft Trades/Converts Rotational motion for/to Linear motion Scissors ; Force magnifier uses torque [force]away from pivot Gears ; Force Distance Speed magnifiers Wheel & Axel ; Continuous Rotational lever using torque [handle to axel] Arm is a distance magnifier Ex; bike handle or pedal, car steering wheel, doorknob Wheel Barrow ; a Type 2 Lever with load in between the pivot and the force Pulleys; Single fixed allows pulling down rather than up Mechanical advantage = # ropes lifting the load x 100% 3x, 4x, etc reduce force needed by 3, 4, etc Force magnifier ; Smaller force moves the longer distance Friction, rope & pully mass reduces the multiplier to under 100% efficiency Mechanics; Units Comparisons p = m v = F t = kg m / s 2 F = kg m / s 2 2 W=F d = kg m / s 2 3 P = F d / t = kg m / s 2 F/m = F / kg = J / m kg = kg [m/ s ]

** Gravity itself is a pseudo force in Einsteins General Theory of Relativity. Attraction of mass is really due to a curvature of Space-Time ** Hookes Law Springs Simple Harmonic Oscillator

F [Restoring] = k x

[1676 Robert Hooke] Restoring Force proportional to spring compression 2 KE = m x energy of compression

Work done = Area under the F vs s curve

Youngs Modulus E Tensile Stress to Strain Ratio E = / = [F/A] / [L / L] Hookes Law constant k = E A / L Friction Static Friction [Stiction] & Kinetic Friction Stability Centers of Mass (CM) & Gravity (CG)
To find CM, suspend object from a point. CM lies on the vertical line to ground. Repeat for another point and the intersection is CM. You should be able to balance the object from the CM Center of Gravity is below CM for large objects .
Empire State Bldg CG is 1 mm below its CM

CM can be located outside the boundaries of the mass This is why the upside down Fosbury Flop works so well. The high jumper can get his body over the bar while his CM is under the bar.So he does less work per unit height. Objects with wide bases and low CG are more stable If CM is not over the base, a torque is a measure of instability Larger the torque greater the instability

Momentum Force Work Power 2 m / kg m m/ s Field Strength 2 2 PE/m = J / kg = kg [m/ s ] m / kg = [m/ s ] m Field Potential Rotational Linear Variable Analogs x distance angle v = dx/dt = d/dt angular velocity a = dv/dt = d/ddt angular acceleration F=ma =I Torque p=mv L=I L angular momentum dp/dt = F dL/dt = I Moment of Inertia Fd Work Fv Power

Standing up in a boat raises CG instability A measure of stability is the height needed to raise the CG so it will tip over. Larger height more stability

Chapter 2 Mechanics Pg 3 (Symbol) - Concept - Units

Vocabulary, Units & Definitions - [vector/scalar] - Equation(s) P. Freda

[s] = scalar quantity [v] = vector quantity
G = 6.67 10 11 N m2 kg 2

(a) Acceleration meters / sec2 [v] a=v/t Acceleration is the rate at which the velocity vector changes. Acceleration due to Gravity = g = 9.8 m/s2 = 32 ft/s2 Newtons Universal Law of Gravitation F = G m1 m2 / r2 () () () (L)

Angular Displacement radians or degrees [s] = S / r = arclength / radius [ rad = 180 deg ] Angular Velocity rad / sec [v] = v[tangential] / r = 2 f = 2 /T 2 Angular Acceleration rad / sec [v] = a[tangential] / r = d / dt Angular Momentum kg m2 / sec [v] L = I = r x p = r x m v = m ( r x v ) x = Cross Product Angular vectors are the axis of rotation found with the Right Hand Rule = dL / dt [s] Obtained from Tables of Objects ( I ) Moment of Inertia

(q) Charge Coulombs C [s] One electron has 1.6 10-19 Coulombs OR 6.24 1018 electrons = 1 Coulomb (I) Current Amperes = Coulombs / sec [v] I=q/t Current is the rate of flow of electrical charge. (s) Displacement meters [v] (E) Energy Joules = Newton meter = kg meter2 / sec2 [s] Conservation of Energy KE + PE = constant (KE) Kinetic energy Joules = Newton meter KE = m v2 kg (m/sec)(m/sec) = kg m2 / s2 (PE) Potential Energy Joules = Newton meter PE = m g h g = 9.8 m/sec2 = 32 ft / sec2 (W) Work Joules = Newton meter W = F dot d [ dot product is vector multiplication ] (Q) Heat Joules (f) (F) (p) (m) Frequency cycles / sec [s] 2 Force Newton = kg meter / sec [v] Impulse Change in Momentum [v] Mass Kilograms Kg [s] f =1/T F=ma m v [kg m/sec] = Force time = N sec [(kg m/s2 ) s]
Distance (d), a scalar, is the magnitude of the Displacement vector between 2 points.

( p ) Momentum p = m v kg m / sec [v] p = F t F = dp/dt Conservation of Momentum m1 vi + m2 vi = m1 vf + m2 vf = constant (s) (P) Position Meters [v] s ( t ) = s0 + v0 t + a t2
s0 = initial position , v0 = initial velocity, a = g = 9.8 m/s

Power Watts = Joules / sec P = W / t = E / t Electrical Power [s] kg m2 / s3 P= F v = F s/t Ohms Law

P = I V = I2 R = V2 / R V=I R P=

(R) Resistance Ohms = Volts / Amps [s] R = L / A ( resistivity ) L (length) A (area) Series resistors add. Parallel resistors follow 1 / Rt = 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3 (v) Speed Distance / time Meter / Sec [s] Average Speed vavg = (u + v ) / 2
Speed is the magnitude of the Velocity vector

v = d/ t u = initial speed, v = final speed

(T) Period Seconds [s] Time to complete a full cycle T=1/f (t) Time Seconds [s] Time is relative motion, Earth around the Sun [year] or Moon around the Earth [month] () Torque N m [v] Force of Rotation = I = r x F = r x m a = m ( r x a ) x = Cross Product Vector An entity that has Magnitude and Direction. Used for concepts where direction is as
important as size, length or magnitude. The geometric interpretation is an arrow.

(v) Velocity Displacement / time Meter / Sec (V) Voltage Volts = Joules / Coulomb [s]

[v]

v = s/t V=E/q V= I R