MINERALIZATION ALONG CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY ENVIRONMENTS The most common Igneous rocks associated with convergent plate

boundaries have the greatest diversity. In this case, granite batholiths underlie the great composite volcanoes and consist of rocks ranging from basalt through andesite to dacite and rhyolite. These boundaries are destructive and consume the subducting oceanic lithosphere formed at the divergent centres. The rocks generated, however, are added on (accreted) to the continent. Oceanic trenches outline the junction of the colliding plates, but the igneous activity takes place on the overriding plate along a line at least about 100 kilometres above the subducting plate margin. mineralization takes place in the principal arcs as well as in the inner side of the principal arc. Important deposits associated with present and former convergent margins are: i) Base metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Mo). ii) Precious metals (Pt, Au, Ag). iii) Other metals (Sn, W, Sb, Hg). (Red Bed uranium deposits ar lso associated with convergent boundaries Eg SW United States). Along the Circum-Pacific Belt major metallic deposits occur in western North and South America, Japan, Philippines, New Zealand and Indonesia.
In convergent plate boundary environments

A:Mineralization at principal arc:

Principal arcs are linear belts of volcanoplutonic rocks

that occur above subducting lithospheric slabs. Mineralization, particularly of Cu, Fe, Au and Ag are closely associated with calc-alkaline magmahost are acid plutonic rock of granite clane ranging from adamallite through granodiorite to tonalite.sometimes diorite through monazite to syenite are also important host rock type.

Important types of deposits 1. Porphyry type deposits: Porphyry copper deposits,the major type of porphyry deposit,which may also carry minor amounts amounts of molybdenum and gold deposits. More than half of the world's supply of copper comes from the Porphyry Copper Deposits of this region. E.g. around the pacific rim,The El Salvador porphyry copper deposits(chile) and The Pangua porphyry copper deposit(Bogainville,Papua New Guinea). 2. Copper bearing Breccia pipes: Copper,iron and molybdenum sulfides are the principal economic minerals in breccia pipe found in principal arcs,but some pipe contain significant amounts of tungsten,found with rocks of intermediate composition. Eg.Breccia pipe at Los Bronces Rio Blanco,Chile.

3. Skarn Deposits: Skarn deposits formed as the result of metasomatic and hydrothermal processes.Eg. Magnetite Skarn Deposits and Magnesium Skarn Deposits in Cordillarian settings associated with qurtz monzonites and tend to form only in dolomitic country rocks.Tungsten skarns associated with coarse grained stock and batholith, in western USA and northern Mexico. contact metasomatic (skarn) deposits of Zn, Pb, Ag in eastern Peru, and on the eastern side of the Sierra Madre ranges in Mexico.

4. Epithermal deposits: Epithermal deposits are best defined as epigenetic,principally vein type deposits formed at shallow depth, which containe Copper,Gold ,Silver, Led. 5. Additional deposits of principal Arcs: Massive Magnetite Deposits around the Pacific margin that represent important local sources of iron ore. Manto type Copper deposits are essentially limited to Chile in their occurrence, although possibly similar example are found in Peru and British Columbia.

B:MINERALIZATION AT INNER ARC: Mineralization is also noted on the inner side of the principal arcs. Mineralization, particularly of Mo, Sn, Tu, Zn, Pb and Ag are closely associated with quartz diorite, granodiorite and granite.sometimes diorite through monazite to syenite, carbonate are also important host rock type.
1:contact metasomatic deposits: Mineralization is also noted on the inner side of the principal arcs. Examples of these are the contact metasomatic (skarn) deposits of Zn, Pb, Ag in eastern Peru, and on the eastern side of the Sierra Madre ranges in Mexico. These deposits are related to subduction in the western United States during Cretaceous to mid-Tertiary. Similar occurrence possibly include the skarn deposits of the Snin belt, Honshu, japan and related deposits in southern Korea. The tin-tungsten belts of Bolivia, East Indian Archipelago and South China are thought to be located along similar tectonic settings. The ores of these deposits tend to be massive in character, specialy where scarns development is restricted. Iron sulphides tyycally represents a significant fraction of massive ores and occur as pyrite in instances accompanied by lesser pyrhotite.

2:Plymettali vein systems: Polymettalic vein systems containing silver, lead, zinc and some times cooper also charcterise inner sites of principle arc systems and exhibit a similar areal distribution to the contact metasomatic deposits. The major differences is that this vein system develop primarily in non carbonate host rocks Major polymetallic vein deposit in the Centra Andes include San Cristoba, Casapalc , Huaron and Morokocha., and there are a host of smaller vein system mined primarily for their silver contain 3:Epithermal vein deposits: The epithermal vein minralisation can be of either low or high sulphidation type. Eg; Cu, Bi, and Au deposits of Pere

C: Metal Deposits Of Arc Rlated Rift:

1:Climaxe type of porphyries molybdenum deposites: comes from a series of large molybdenum deposits that are specially associated with the Rio Grand Rifts system and / or The Colorado mineral belt The deposits are associated with a series of high silica, Alkally rich rhyolite porphyries. Polymetallic conformable lenses of massive sulfide ore exhibiting a close stratigraphic relationship to felsic volcanism represent an important and wide type of metal deposite The type example occurs within the so called Miocene Green Tuff belts of Honshu and Hokkaido in Japan. Three basic ore types arte recognized: A low grade underlying sockwork {Keiko } ore , Yellow ore (Oko) ore, Black (Kuruko) ore, which are consisting pyrite chalcopyrite massive galena and sphalerite and barite
Asignificant faction of world molybdenum production

MINERALIZATION ALONG DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY ENVIRONMENTS AND TRANSFORM FAULTS

A: Mineralization along Divergent Plate Boundaries:

primarily represents a transform plate boundary, it contains a number of short seafloor spreading centers. As newly formed oceanic crust moves away from oceanic ridges it cools, thickens, attaning normal oceanic depths after a time interval of approximately 50 Ma.Irregularoties along the axial valley, has given rise to a number of hot brine pools. Hydrothermal activity with formation of iron, zinc and copper sulfide mounds scattered over an area 7 k.m. long and 2 k.m. wide has recently been discovered in the Guaymas Basin, gulf of California. Ultramafic rocks in ophiolites are hosts to asbestos, chromite and nickel ores. These are generally accessible in Phanerozoic orogenic belts to which sites they have been transported due to plate movement. Important metallic deposits formed are Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb, Au and Ag.

1:Ophiolite Hosted massive sulfide deposits: The fact that ophiolite complexes contain massive sulfide deposits that bear close similarties to the sulfide material that collects at the base of and below black smoker chimneys at modern vent sites . Eg. Massive Sulfide deposits of troodos ophiolite,Cyprus. Massive sulfide Deposits of the Semail Ophiolite, Oman.

The Turner Albright massive Sulfide deposit, Josephine Ophiolite, Oregon. Etc. 2)Chromite deposits in Ophiolite Complexes: Important examples of these deposits known from Yugoslavia, Grece, Turkey, Iran,Philippines, and new Caledonia in the western pacific. The ophiolite belts in the cuba also contain important deposites. The podiform chromite deposits occur as tabular, elongate, or irregular masses that invariably exhibit evidence of some degree of metamorphic deformation. Podiform chromite deposits are found with the lherzolitic or harzburgitic type of ultramafic rock. The late Precambrian Ophiolites in the Arabian Nubian shield only contain minor amount of podiform chromites, but the early proterozoic ophiolite belts of Brazil are now significant producers.

B:Mineralization along Transform Faults:

True transform faults appear to have little importance in metallogenesis because, except where "leaky" they have no magmatism associated with them. A possible genetic relationship has been noticed between the Cenozoic Chaman transform fault in Pakistan and stibnite vein deposits. The Coast Range of California also host late Cenozoic mercury deposits. The intersections of a spreading axis and transform fault appear to important in terms of localizing metalliferous brine pools in the Red Sea. The McLaughlin hot-spring gold deposit in California Coast Ranges north of San Francisco is localized along a major thrust fault that has been reactivated by the San Andreas Fault. The Salton Sea geothermal system of the Imperial Valley, California has a significant energy potential and sits astride short spreading segments that connect offset strands of the San Andreas transform fault in California. An example of a recent thermal plume generated rift with sedimentary mineralization is that of the Red Sea. Although the rifting there started 50 m.y. ago, the complete rupture leading to true oceanic accretion took place 5-6 m.y. ago. The movement still continues with the sea opening at a half rate of 1 cm/yr. Irregularities along the axial valley of the Red Sea has given rise to a number of hot brine pools.

BLACK SMOKERS & VMS DEPOSITS :

It is at these sites of extensive basaltic volcanism that modern "black smokers" occur, their dark colour the result of suspended sulphide particles. The circulation of water throught the ridge system begins with the downward percolation of sea water through extensive fissures on either side of the rigde axis. The water percolates down to the base of the dyke complex which underlies the ridge where it is heated to 400450 C, before rising to be expelled throught the hydrothermal vents of the black smokers. It is during this high temperature circulation that the heated water alters and corrodes the surrounding basaltic rocks, dissolving the metals it contains and precipitating them at the vent in contact with cold oceanic waters. It is with a concentration factor of around 400 that the copper from the original basaltic rocks is concentrated to form volcaniogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits. These modern sites of ore deposition are only likely to be preserved in oceanic depressions or traps that exclude oxygenated sea waters. Modern examples are occurring in the Lau and Manus Basins, in the Red Sea and along the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceanic ridges.

MANGANGANESE NODULES ON THE OCEAN FLOOR:

Ferromanganese nodules and encrustations occur both overlying basalt lava at mid-oceanic ridges where they are considered to be hydrothermal deposits, and overlying sediments away from ridge crests where they are considered hydrogenous or authegenic in origin. They are of economic interest because of their high copper, nickel and cobalt content, these metal abundances being particularly high where nodules are widely dispersed on the sea floor. The absence of manganese nodules from deep sea cores indicates that they do not normally survive burial by younger sediments.

MINERALIZATION ALONG COLISION ZONE

A:CONTINENT-CONTINET COLISION ZONE

Figure from A.K. Pachauri (1992). Different tectonic settings created by the collision of the Indian plate and the Asian plate also produced zones of potential mineralization. Overall, the Himalaya are not exceedingly mineralized. However, tectonic settings compared with similar locations in other areas of the world indicate that metals in economic abundances could be present in this huge mountain range. As a mid-Teriary mounatin belt, the Himalayas have lacked time to develop convective hydrothermal systems that work to concentrate metals in the crust. In terms of mineral deposits, the Himalayas can be broken down into the following north to south direction tectonic settings: 1. Pre-collision basins 2. Ophiolitic suite of rocks 3. Hinterland region (north of ITSZ) 4. Barren hinterland basins 5. Foreland Thrust Belt zone 6. Foreland basin 7. Sedimentary sequences in the Klippe zone
Pre-collision basin :

This zone is difficult to distinguish in the field. These basins occur between the MBT and the MCT and consist of

primarily turbidite sequences. No economically valuable minerals have been found, but Au is possible . Ophiolitic suites: Ophiolites are obducted sections of oceanic crust, so mineralization here is expected to be associated with those mafic oceanic rocks. As in many ophiolites, chromite and copper sulphide minerals occur in this Himalayan zone. It is thought that the slab was obducted during the closure of the Tethys Ocean . Once exposed, supergene enrichment could concentrate chromium and copper-bearing minerals. Hinterlands: Hinterland regions, like Kashmir, experienced high-grade metamorphism, which resulted in the formation of rubies throughout this zone. They are aso mined in Afghanistan and Burma, where the rubies are found in sillimanite gneisses and several metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. Arcs are also produced during collision events, and batholith emplacement is associated with arc formation . In Tibet, part of the Himalayan hinterlands, huge batholiths are found. It is not precisely known when the island arc formed and accreted to Asia, but it occurred sometime in the Mesozoic . Rocks within these island arc settings host porphyry copper, tin-tungsten, and gold deposits. Before the Himalayan Orogeny, collision occured between India and this island arc, separated from Asia by a basin. This basin eventually subducted under Asia with the continual movement of India, producing volcanic and plutonic rocks in what is now southern Tibet. These rocks then became hosts of porphyry copper, though the source of the metals in unknown.
Barren hinterland basins:

No mineral deposits have been recorded in this zone, though some could be expected. These hinterlands can be compared to similar tectonic environments in other mountain belts, like the Central French Massif, which contain Uranium deposits. They occur in grabens and troughs within tectonically similar basin structures. Uranium is also found in basins in the Alps.

 Foreland Thrust Belt Zone:

Foreland thrust fault terraine encompasses the Lesser Himalayas and part of the Higher Himalayas, making up the largest area in the mountain belt. The area has also experienced the largest amount of shortening during orogeny. Collision related granites host the most amount of ore mineralization, but sedimentary strata and carbonate rocks also contain some mineralization . Tin-Tungsten deposits occur both in the Lesser and Higher zones. In the Lessers, tungsten has been found in garnetiferous mica schists and granitic gneiss. "The Lower Himalayan granites were emplaced in a foreland thrust belt following the Cambrian collision of southern Tibet with India and the inferred thrusts of this belt may have been reactivated following the India-Asia collision to form some of the Cenozoic thrusts". Granites in the Lesser are also quite tin enriched. The tin-tungsten deposits in the Higher Himalaya are Sn,W, and U rich, but not to known economic grade. Alteration of these granites, evidenced by the presence of muscovite, biotite, and tourmaline, is similar to other collision related granites around the world. In Bolivia, Sn,W, and U are more enriched because of abundant circulating meteoric waters, making it one of the richest locations for these ores . Concentrations of Mo, Ta, and Nb have also been recorded in the Lesser Himalayas as occuring in fine-grained leucocratic granites and pegmatites that form north dipping sheet within the thrust system. Sulphide deposits in the foreland thrust are known to occur in both the Lesser and Higher Himalayas but are more abundant in the Lesser. Deposits occur as Pb(Zn, Fe, Cu, Ag, Au, Sb, Ba) and Cu(Pb, Fe, As).
Foreland Basins:

Uranium, vanadium, and copper are thought to be stratabound in this southern Himalayan zone. Uranium in the form of uraninite has been found in Siwalik region sandstones and greywackes. Mineralization is epigenetic, occuring after rock formation, and it is thought that the uranium source could be uranium-rich carbonatites of the Indian plate. Ground water circulation controlled the

transport of metals and its depostion. Placer gold can be found in Himalayan streams with its origin in the Higher Himalayas
Sedimentray sequences in the Klippe zone:

Carbonate deposits host some metal mineralization, such as lead-zinc,occur in this zone, but not on an economic scale. These deposits may be related to alteration the took place during regional thrusting and metamorphism that occured syn-to post collision. Limestone and magnesite are abundant and mined for the cement industry. Coal has also been found and extracted in the klippe zone, having 60-82% fixed carbon.

STRATABOUND TUNGSTUN MINERALIZATION: Stratabound scheelite mineralization has been discovered in the Hindu Kush range of northern Pakistan as a result of a geochemical drainage survey. The mineralization occurs predominantly in clinozoisite-bearing calcsilicate quartzite beds within a sequence of mica schist and subordinate graphitic phyllite, mica quartzite, tourmalinite and feldspathic gneiss, but not in adjacent calcite marble. The sequence is intruded by a small leucogranite stock emplaced after the climax of Barrovian-type metamorphism during the later of two deformation phases which are related to continentarc collisions in the Cretaceous and Eocene. In the calcsilicate quartzites, scheelite crystal-lized simultaneously with clinozoisite prior to the leucogranite emplacement and is clearly of metamorphic origin. Tungsten-rich brines, generated from hot springs in an extensional tectonic environment, are thought to have been concentrated in the relatively porous precursor of the calcsilicatequartzite during diagenesis. Subsequent metamorphism recrystallized the tungsten as scheelite along with metamorphic silicate minerals and caused limited mobility of the element into veins.

B:CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC COLISION ZONE: These zones are caused due to progressive liberation of metals from the descending slab, with Sn coming from a depth of 300 Km. The metals are derived from some combination of the descending slab and the overlying mantle wedge.They move upwards in magmas or fluids and are concentrated in late hydrothermal and magmatic fluids. Fig. shows a compressional arc system and related metallogeny.

MINERALIZATION RELATED TO INTRA CONTINENTAL RIFTING:

Ore deposit related to this tectonic setting are subdivided in to in to two main groups;those in central parts of spreading centres, those associated with the flanks like graben basins and/or graben-horst structures .The former group is genetically related to volcanic-intrusive and volcanic-sedimentary complexes. These include volcanic-sedimentary sulfides and oxides, with predominant Pb-Zn accompanied by barite, FeMn oxide eposits and sporadic skarn deposits, massive sulfide deposits are both volcanic and sediment-hosted, the latter usually associated with most advanced stages of continental rifting- e.g. the Greater Caucasus. The second group related to shallow-water sediments, usually carbonate reef facies. These deposits are mainly nonmagmatogenic, but volcanic sources can provide the necessary thermal energy to form and derived the hydrothermal systems, mobilization of ore metals, and there transport to site of deposition . These mineral deposits are predominantly temperature, composed of Pb-Zn sulfides, one of usually dominates the other, plus local barite and sporadic fluorite. They are situated near continental margin such as the Pb-Zn deposits of central Iran and the Pb-Zn-barite, flurite deposits of baluchistan.