H.V.

Warren School of Prospecting

PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

A prospector must know some geology to be successful. We have started with

rocks and minerals, but before getting into mineral deposits and the topics that follow,
there are other aspects of geology that must be briefly considered. In particular there are a
number of terms that you need to know, especially those describing various igneous
features and geological structures. This page presents an explanation of the more
important of these terms.

Unfortunately, little time can be spent going into geological processes - the
"how's" and "why's" of rock formation, geological structures and the processes leading to
the formation of mineral deposits. Some beginning prospectors may feel that with only a
limited knowledge of geology they cannot hope to compete with a geologist who has had
years of training. Remember that finding a mineral deposit sooner or later requires
looking at the ground, and a prospector with basic knowledge and experience can often
do this as well as or better than a geologist. In fact it is not unusual to have prospectors,
as well as geologists, on an exploration team. Prospectors have been responsible for the
initial discoveries that have led to many of Canada's mines. They are always finding
mineralization in areas that have already been "looked at" and sometimes in places where
the latest geological theories say it shouldn't be! The discovery of gold at Hemlo, a world
class deposit, illustrates this.

Geological knowledge, moreover, is something that can always be added to. If

you are near a Chamber of Mines or a good city or Community College library, you
should be able to find books or articles that are not too technical. Your District Geologist
will know what resources are available locally and may be able to give you some
suggestions for further reading.

PROSPECTING - FOLLOWING THE GEOLOGICAL CLUES

So much has been said about the "luck" involved in finding an ore body that other
significant aspects are often overlooked. While the search for minerals can still be
compared to the traditional "needle in a haystack" situation, the increasing use of science
and technology has done much to reduce the role of chance. For instance, the sciences of
geology, plate tectonics and geologic history, applied to mineral exploration, have helped
to explain the physiochemical processes by which minerals are formed, deposited, altered
and re-deposited.

Prospecting and exploration starts with an appreciation of our planet. The earth
has three layers: the surface or crust is about 40 kilometres thick; next is the mantle,
about 2,900 kilometres thick and composed of denser, heavier rocks. Last is the core,
believed to be mainly iron and nickel in a molten or semi-molten state. Additionally, the
earth is a dynamic and constantly changing planet. On a human scale, these changes are
gradual and only occasionally remind us of their existence in the form of volcanic
eruptions and earthquakes. Structural readjustments in the crust are caused by convection
currents in the mantle which produce movement in the earth's surface. Shifting of the
crust results in fracturing which can release and channel molten material called magma.
The shifting also creates openings in which the magma may come to rest, cool and
crystallize as intrusions. Commercial minerals often occur as sulphides and if these are
present in the magma, their concentration may occur in the latter part of the intrusive
phase as there is a tendency for some metal-bearing minerals to segregate themselves
during cooling.

Want to learn more about basic concepts in geology? Interested in studying a subject in
depth? The following selection will link you to numerous topical class lectures, Web
sites, references, news items, organizations, and glossaries.

Inside Geology:
http://college.hmco.com/geology/resources/geologylink/index.html
-most of what a prospector needs to know about general geology is found on their well
organized pages.

PLATE TECTONICS

In the early 1960s, the emergence of the theory of plate tectonics started a
revolution in the earth sciences. Since then, scientists have verified and refined this
theory, and now have a much better understanding of how our planet has been shaped by
plate-tectonic processes. We now know that, directly or indirectly, plate tectonics
influences nearly all geologic and ore forming processes, past and present. Indeed, the
notion that the entire Earth's surface is continually shifting has profoundly changed the
way we explore for minerals in the last three decades.

This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics:

http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/dynamic.html
-USGS on-line edition of a book on plate tectonics written by W. Jacquelyne Kious and
Robert I. Tilling.

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

Structural geology deals with the various structures we find within rocks and
mineral deposits, and also with the relationships we find between different rocks in the
field. The importance of structural geology to a prospector lies in the fact that all mineral
deposits have some kind of structure, and most of them are controlled by the structures
existing in their host rocks.

A knowledge of elementary structural geology will help you to understand

geological maps and reports. It will also help you visualize the shape and size of any
mineral deposit you find, imagine what it is doing below the surface and predict where
you might look for extensions of the deposit or for other similar deposits.

After you read chapter five in Introduction to Prospecting, please try the following:

Folds:
http://www.dc.peachnet.edu/~pgore/geology/geo101/folds.htm

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

Why do prospectors need to know about geologic time?

Geological time is a method of ordering and measuring past events. The ordering of
events uses a group of observational methods known collectively as:

• relative dating methods

Measuring techniques rely on looking at geological processes with a strong annual

signature (e.g. growth rings in various organisms) or on processes that occur at a constant
and measurable rate (e.g. radioactive decay). These methods comprise:

• absolute dating methods

The importance of "time" in mineral exploration is in providing estimates of the

age of rock packages, ore deposits, and ore forming events. Knowing the age and rock
types underlying a given economic deposit, a prospector has a higher probability of
finding similar deposits by working in similarly aged rock packages. Rocks and
mineralization events can be dated for studies of ore formation processes.

Geological time periods have been given names that correspond to segments of
the distant past. These names were appropriate when few absolute ages were known but
relative ages could be assigned (mainly by analysis of the fossil record). The names are
now part of the technical literature and popular culture (Jurassic Park).

Geology & Geologic Time (Berkeley University):

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibit/geology.html

Geologic Time:
http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/contents.html
-layman's description

Historical Geology:
http://www.dc.peachnet.edu/~pgore/geology/geo102.htm
-Interactive Course from DeKalb College, Georgia
Geologic Time Charts

Detailed Breakdown of Geologic Time:

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/help/timeform.html

Simple Geologic Time Chart:

http://www.dc.peachnet.edu/~pgore/geology/geo102/timechrt.htm

CLASS NOTES

Chapter five in Introduction to Prospecting by E.L. Faulkner.

No hand-outs for this class.

RESOURCES TO CHECK OUT!

Introduction to Geology:
http://www.geosc.psu.edu/~engelder/geosc20/classnotes.html
-notes from a Penn State geology course, by Terry Englander

Plate Tectonics:
http://www.dc.peachnet.edu/~pgore/geology/geo101/plateb.htm
-notes on terminology, definitions, etc.

Good Plate Tectonics notes from Volcano World:

http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/vwlessons/plate_tectonics/introduction.html
-Click on arrow at bottom to go on to each section.

Global Earth History:

http://www4.nau.edu/geology/
-this site uses a series of plate-tectonic reconstructions to show the broad patterns of
Phanerozoic Earth history.

For the brave, try some of the links to advanced geology material in:

Structural Geology and Metamorphic Petrology on the WWW:

http://craton.geol.brocku.ca/guest/jurgen/struct.htm

The Big Bend:

http://geoweb.tamu.edu/faculty/herbert/bigbend/
-Big Bend National Park can be found in Texas, appropriately enough where the Rio
Grande bends and causes the state's southern border to follow a sigmoid curve. This site,
though somewhat limited in scope, uses explanatory info and a virtual tour of the park to
explore geological processes.