ResearchMethodology Research

RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
(Business Research Methods)
MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 1

What is Research? (1)
There are many accepted definitions for the term

“research”, for example:
Research is an active, diligent and systematic process of

inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts,
events, behaviours, or theories, or to make practical
applications with the help of such facts, laws or theories.
The term ‘research’ is also used to describe the
collection of information about a particular subject
(Encyclopedia Wikipedia)

What is Research? (2)
Other insightful definitions of “research” are:
 Systematic, intensive, patient study and investigation in some field

of knowledge, usually employing the techniques of hypothesis and
experiment, whose purpose is to reveal new facts, theories, or
principles
 Means a systematic investigation, including research development,

testing and evaluation, designed to develop or contribute to
generalizable knowledge
 Systematic study directed toward more complete scientific

knowledge or understanding of the subject studied
Types and Scope of Research
BASIC TYPES OF RESEARCH APPLIED
Non-Specificity Specificity
Research is undertaken in numerous scientific disciplines, e.g.:
 Natural / Physical Sciences

 Social Sciences
 Management Sciences
 Humanities

The Dimensions of Research
Theories
Concepts Deductive
Reasoning
RESEARCH
Propositions
Scientific Method Inductive

Reasoning
Hypotheses
Empiricism

What is a Theory? (1)
Zikmund (p. 41) has defined a theory as “a coherent set of general
propositions, used as principles of explanation of the amount of the
apparent relationships of certain observed phenomona”
Concepts (or constructs) are the basic building blocks of theory

development. A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about a
class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that have
been given a name. A concept (or construct) may vary in terms of
the level of abstraction
Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale, Assets, Inflation

What is a Theory? (2)
A proposition is a statement concerned with the relationship
between concepts. It asserts a universal connection and logical
linkage between concepts. Propositions are at a higher level of
abstraction than concepts
Example: Smoking is injurious to health
Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They

are usually concerned with the relationships between variables
Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production

The Abstraction Ladder
Theory Abstract Level
Propositions
Levels of
Abstraction
Concepts / Constructs
Observations of Objects,
Events and Occurrences (Reality) Empirical Level

Qualities of a Good Theory (1)
“A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two

requirements. It must accurately describe a
large class of observations on the basis of a
model that contains only a few arbitrary
elements. And it must make definite predictions
about the result of future observations”
Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, 1988

Qualities of a Good Theory (2)
Often, competing theories are put forth to explain certain
phenomena. One cannot really be 100% certain that a
given theory is correct because, no matter on how many
occasions the results of experiments agree with the
theory, there may come an occasion when some do not
Theories must be:

 Objective
 Verifiable (i.e. within the accepted margins of error)
 Falsifiable / disprovable
Good theories must understand, explain and predict

Example of a Theory: Voluntary Job Turnover
Labour market conditions, number of
organizations, personal characteristics,
And other partial determinants
of ease of movement
Perceived ease of movement (e.g.

Job Performance
Expectation of finding alternatives,

unsolicited opportunities) Intention Voluntary
To Job
Quit Turnover
Perceived desirability of movement
(e.g. job satisfaction)
Equity of pay, job complexity, participation

In decision-making, and other partial Zikmund, pp. 44 - 45
Determinants of desirability of movement
Deductive Reasoning
Theory
Using deductive reasoning, one

starts with a given theory as the
Hypotheses basis for which we develop
hypotheses and then confirm
these with specific
data acquired using observation
or experimentation
Observation
(Is our theory valid or not?)
Confirmation

Inductive Reasoning
Observation
Using inductive reasoning, one

starts with a specific observation
Pattern
as the basis for which we develop
a general pattern and tentative
hypothesis as the foundation
of a theory
Tentative Hypothesis
Theory

The Scientific Method
The “scientific method” is basically an overarching
perspective on how scientific investigations should be
undertaken. It can, in effect, be considered as a
complete set of principles and methods that help
researchers in all scientific disciplines obtain valid results
for their research studies, and which includes the
provision of clear and universally accepted guidelines for
acquiring, evaluating and communicating information in
the context of a research study
The goals of scientific research are, broadly speaking, to

understand, explain and predict
Elements of the Scientific Method
 Empirical Approach
 Observation
 Questions
 Hypotheses
 Experiments
 Analysis
 Conclusion
 Replication

(Empirical Approach)
Evidence-based approach. The guiding principle

behind all research conducted in accordance
with the scientific method
Data derived from direct, systematic and careful

observation and experimentation (as opposed to
speculation, intuition, opinions, hunches, gut
feeling)

(Observation)
Awareness of the real / physical / social world in which
we exist. This, in turn, gives rise to questions as the
basis for research studies or investigations
Operational Definitions – Ensures consistency when

researchers talk about or are interested in undertaking or
replicating research on the same phenomenon.
Example: What is “exercise”?

(Questions)
Making an answerable question out of a research idea.
The question must be answered using available and
established scientific research techniques and
procedures. Scientific Analysis should not be attempted
on questions which cannot be answered
Example of an answerable question: Can regular

exercising reduce an individual’s cholesterol level?
Example of a (currently) unanswerable question: Is time

travel possible?
(Hypotheses)
Hypotheses attempt to explain phenomena of interest. A hypothesis
is a proposition which is empirically testable. It usually seeks to
explain relationships between variables, and predict, and must be
falsifiable
Typical hypotheses structures:
Conditional - If Condition X is fulfilled, then Outcome Y will result

Correlational - The value of Variable B is observed to be related with
changes in the value of Variable A
Causal – The value of Variable ψ determines the value of Variable ξ

(Experiments)
Experiments are basically about measuring phenomena

and collecting accurate and reliable data which are used
for analysis and evaluation
Accuracy – Correctness of the Measurement

Reliability – Consistency of the Measurement

(Analysis)
Analysis is about the use of qualitative or quantitative
tools and techniques to process data
Quantitative tools and techniques are considered more

desirable (objective) than qualitative tools and
techniques
Statistical analysis is typically used to quantitatively

analyze data acquired in research studies

(Conclusions)
Based on the results of the analysis conducted, and
used to support or refute a hypothesis
When undertaking research, conclusions should only be

based on the available data and not broadened to
include statements which are not supported by the data
Example: If the research analysis shows that two

variables are correlated (related), do not assert also that
a causal relationship exists between them
(Replication)
The purpose of replication is to ensure that if the same
research study is conducted with different participants
(i.e. researchers, research subjects), then the same
results are achieved
Replication establishes the reliability of a research

study’s conclusions
Conclusions are often based on the results of one

research study (aberration effect) which may not be
accurate

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RESEARCH

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 1

There are many accepted definitions for the term

Research is an active, diligent and systematic process of

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 2

Other insightful definitions of “research” are:

 Systematic, intensive, patient study and investigation in some field

 Means a systematic investigation, including research development,

 Systematic study directed toward more complete scientific

BASIC TYPES OF RESEARCH APPLIED

Research is undertaken in numerous scientific disciplines, e.g.:

 Natural / Physical Sciences

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 4

Scientific Method Inductive

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 5

Concepts (or constructs) are the basic building blocks of theory

Examples: Productivity, Leadership, Morale, Assets, Inflation

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 6

Example: Smoking is injurious to health

Hypotheses are propositions which are empirically testable. They

Example: Increasing salary by 10% will double the production

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 7

Theory Abstract Level

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 8

“A theory is a good theory if it satisfies two

Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time, 1988

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 9

Theories must be:

Good theories must understand, explain and predict

Perceived ease of movement (e.g.

Expectation of finding alternatives,

Equity of pay, job complexity, participation

Using deductive reasoning, one

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 12

Using inductive reasoning, one

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 13

The goals of scientific research are, broadly speaking, to

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 15

Evidence-based approach. The guiding principle

Data derived from direct, systematic and careful

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 16

Operational Definitions – Ensures consistency when

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 17

Example of an answerable question: Can regular

Example of a (currently) unanswerable question: Is time

Typical hypotheses structures:

Conditional - If Condition X is fulfilled, then Outcome Y will result

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 19

Experiments are basically about measuring phenomena

Accuracy – Correctness of the Measurement

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 20

Quantitative tools and techniques are considered more

Statistical analysis is typically used to quantitatively

MBA III (Research Methodology) Course Instructor: Dr. Aurangzeb Z. Khan 21

When undertaking research, conclusions should only be

Example: If the research analysis shows that two

Replication establishes the reliability of a research

Conclusions are often based on the results of one

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