Report on samples of steel from the Needham Research Institute, Cambridge.

Specimens of steel taken from the traditional “Su Kang” co-fusion steel factory at Pei-
phei near Chungking in 1958 were studied.

There are 3 ingots of approximately 25mm square cross-section.

The UPPER ingot shows a grey fracture with a dark circle within the square section at
both ends of the ingot. A sample was detached from the edge (labelled UE) and
another from the centre (labelled UC).

The MIDDLE ingot shows a grey fracture with an irregular surface at one end. A
sample was detached from the edge (labelled ME) and another from the centre of the
irregular end (labelled MC).

The LOWER ingot shows a grey fracture at both ends of the ingot. A sample was
detached from the edge (labelled LE) and another from the centre (labelled LC).

All 6 specimens were detached with a jeweller’s saw, and then embedded in epoxy
resin for polishing down to 1 micron in the usual way for metallography. After
etching to remove the topmost layer of atoms, the microstructures were revealed, and
found to be as follows:

UPPER ingot

UE – areas of pearlite, other carbides and ferrite in varying proportions. There are
numerous slag inclusions and cavities. The carbon content varies between around
0.1% and 0.6%.
The microhardness (Vickers, 100g) ranges from 228 to 272; average = 247 VPH.
(scale bar = 50 microns)
UC –a fairly uniform mixture of very fine pearlite and an irresolvable material with a
feathery morphology (upper bainite ?) with a few isolated grains of untempered
martensite. The carbon content is perhaps 0.6 %.

The microhardness (Vickers, 100g) ranges from 403 to 564; average = 456 VPH.
(scale bar = 50 microns)

MIDDLE ingot

ME – uniform martensite with some slag inclusions.

The microhardness (Vickers, 100g) ranges from 261 to 555; average (insofar as this
means anything) = 332 VPH.
The carbon content therefore (assuming minimal tempering) ranges from 0.1% to
0.3%. (scale bar = 50 microns)
MC- uniform martensite, essentially similar that to of ME (not illustrated).
The microhardness (Vickers, 100g) ranges from 599 to 755; average = 628 VPH.
The carbon content therefore (assuming minimal tempering) ranges from 0.4% to
0.6%.

LOWER ingot

LE – uniform very fine pearlite with a few irregular cementite areas and very few slag
inclusions. The carbon content is perhaps 1.0 %.
The microhardness (Vickers, 100g) ranges from 308 to 366; average = 335 VPH.
LC - uniform fine pearlite with a few irregular grains of cementite. The carbon
content is perhaps 1.0 %.
The microhardness (Vickers, 100g) ranges from 289 to 357; average = 320 VPH.
(scale bar = 10 microns)

The specimens from the edge of the samples generally seem to have lower carbon
contents than those from the centre.

UC ~ 0.6% UE < 0.6%

MC < 0.6% ME < 0.3%

LC ~ 1.0 % LE ~ 1.0 %

The carbon content in the upper and middle ingots appears to increase from the edge
towards the centre; presumably because sort of decarburising process has taken place,
whether deliberate or accidental.
Quenching of the upper and middle ingots may have been undertaken as an empirical
method of judging carbon content; the higher the carbon content, the greater the
increase in hardness on quenching. A similar method is described by the Italian
Biringuccio in 1540.

© Alan Williams 20.7.2005.