Handout 1: Mine Planning Some Considerations This handout discusses the pre-planning stage of mine development.

. We assume here that we have a mineral deposit of sufficient quality to justify mining. At this point, one needs to decide if a method of mining should be surface or under-ground. Usually, the depth and size of the deposit makes this decision obvious. However, that is not always the case. The factors affecting the two options are given below: Underground or Surface Underground methods Good for relatively deep deposits. Usually, the depth is more than 100 feet. In a lot of situations, the depth factor makes the decision easy. If the deposit is too deep inside, surface methods are ruled out. Generally cost per ton is higher than surface methods. Therefore, good for high quality grades only. Less disruptive environmentally. In the past, however, reckless underground mining left behind large tracts of subsided land. Mining is rarely affected by the climate. However, artificial ventilation and lighting is required. In some very deep mines, mine production is affected by heat (due to the depth). Definitely more hazardous than surface mines. Mining in a coal seam is affected by present/old workings in other seams. Return on capital is generally not quick. Generally less dilution when mining. Especially good for complex ore bodies where selective mining can be carried out.

Surface methods Good for shallow deposits. The maximum depth that can be mined by this method is dictated by the technology used. With rapid advances in technology, surface mines have gone significantly deeper than before. For example, Bingham Canyon copper mine in Utah is about half a mile deep. Generally lower cost per ton than underground methods. Therefore, even relatively poor grades can be mined too. Very disruptive to the environment. According to a study in 1978, 75% of the land affected by surface mining is due to mining of coal, gravel and crushed stone. Reclamation can be expensive. Sometimes, companies prefer to go underground (despite bad economics) simply to alleviate environmental concerns. De Beers only considered underground mining in their Snap Lake diamond project in Mackenzie Valley, Canada. Mining is affected by weather. Inclement weather can lead to mining stoppages. Less hazardous. Does not require artificial lighting during day hours. Multiple seams can be mined without being subject to ground control problems. In Yellandu, India, the Singareni Colleries Company Limited mined seams by surface methods that were previously mined by underground methods. High capital required for modern mines.

The factors listed here cover both non-coal and coal applications. Therefore, some factors may not be applicable in coal and vice versa.

Cannot be used for selective mining. Generally higher productivity than underground mines.

It should be mentioned here that not all factors mentioned above are hard and fast. For example, if a company has several open pit mines, and decides to open a new one, the capital required will be less if they divert some equipment from the existing mines. Indeed, I was once involved in designing an underground mine for which the equipment was to come from another of the companys mines. Usually, companies may schedule the closure of a mine with the opening of another just to reduce capital costs. Having decided to mine by a surface or u/g method, the next step is to plan and develop the mine. The surface mining method will be presented later in this class. In this handout, we will discuss planning of an u/g coal mine. Preliminary Strata Mechanics A very good practice in mine design is to look at the strength data available from the boreholes. This can help in avoiding problems in the future. Even when strength data is not available, one can look at the lithology and make a qualitative assessment. This assessment, though entirely based on experience, is very useful. An immediate use of strata characterization is in the layout of the mains and sub-mains in coal mines. Mains have a long life and therefore, their size and location must be planned carefully. They are the main arteries of material and human transport. The same is true for non-coal mines as well. The main entries/drifts to the mines are always in strong strata. Their location is also determined with regards to future mining activities, i.e. they are sited so that future mining activities do not deleteriously harm them. Background on Roof and Floor Characterization: Roof (or back in non-coal mines) and floor stability is very important for ensuring smooth and safe production. While roof falls can be fatal and disruptive to production, floor disturbances generally slow production. A good floor is essential for conveyors and most production machines. In severe cases, floor heave can essentially close an entry. An inspection of the borehole logs gives a very good idea of the roof and floor that can be expected around the seam. In coal mines, one must estimate the immediate roof from the borehole logs. Generally, the immediate roof is the strata between the top of the seam and the plane of contact of weak shales and rocks with strong strata (Figure 1). If the weak rocks immediately above the seam are thick in comparison with the coal seam, then the immediate roof depends on the expansion ratio of the rocks, as when they fall, they occupy a volume indicated by the expansion ratio. Depending on the expansion ratio, the immediate roof varies from two to five times the excavation or seam height. Immediate roof is important to know since that is the roof that needs to be supported for safe mining.

Since the u/g workings used very little technology, only a small fraction of coal was mined and most got left behind due to ground control problems.

sandstone

Immediate roof

shale siltstone coal

Figure 1. The immediate roof is the distance between the roof of the seam and the floor of the first hard layer. The roof and floor can be characterized using criteria such as compressive strength, shear strength, tensile strength, moisture content and presence of joints/fractures. Typically, roof falls are caused by tensile stresses, at the center of the opening, and shear stresses, at the corners of the openings. Weak immediate roof, or presence of clay and moisture, or fractures/slickensides indicates greater support requirement. Soft floors, on the other hand, may be punctured by pillars. Other things to watch out for are shale/sandstone contacts. These contact regions have high stresses due to the significant difference in their Youngs modulus. We discuss some quantitative characterization methods next. Rock Quality Designation (RQD): This is a very handy classification tool. It is defined as the ratio of the cumulative length of core sticks (NX size) each greater than 100 mm long to the total length of the drill hole. This method assumes that the length of the core pieces depend on the structure and strength of rock. Sum of length of core sticks greater than 100 mm long RQD= Total length of drill hole X 100

It is evident from above that computing the RQD is very easy. One must, however, be careful. For example, when the holes are parallel to bedding, high RQD is indicated, while for the same rock if the hole is perpendicular to the bedding, low RQD is indicated. Rock Mass Rating (RMR): This is one of the most popular characterization criteria. It uses six parameters in its classification: the uniaxial compressive strength, RQD, spacing of discontinuities, condition of discontinuities, groundwater conditions and the orientation of discontinuities. Depending on the conditions, the strata in question is assigned a rating for each of the first five parameters. These ratings are summed to arrive at the basic RMR. This rating is then adjusted for orientation of discontinuities. The adjustment takes the form of a penalty for harmful discontinuity

orientation. The adjusted RMR is the rocks RMR. The classification also provides a table for translating the RMR into average stand up time for tunnels, cohesion of the rock mass and the friction angle. Q system: This system was developed out of a study of 212 tunnels in Norway. The Q rating was given by the formula: RQD x Jr x Jw Q= Jn x Ja x SRF where, Jr = joint roughness number, Jw = joint water reduction number, Jn = joint set number, Ja = joint alteration number, and SRF = stress reduction factor. The RQD and Jn are indicators of the overall rock structure, Jr and Ja are indicators of shear strength of the joints, Jw is a measure of water pressure, and finally, SRF is a function of i) load reduction due to shear zones and clayey rocks, ii) stress existing in rock and ii) squeezing and swelling loads in soft plastic rock. Jw and SRF are indicators of confining stress. One aspect of the Q system that stands out is that the rock strength is not directly taken into account. An Example Characterization: Figure 2 below shows a coal property with borehole locations and their RQDs. The method of polygons is used to obtain the areas of influence of each borehole. It is assumed here that the polygons shown in the figure accurately represent the weight of each borehole. We color code the polygons according to the scheme: Good or RQD 90 Moderate or 90>RQD 80 Bad or RQD < 80 Green Yellow Red

65

75 89 95 87 91 75

93

Mains

84

Figure 2. Roof characterization using RQD for a coal property.

This map is very good for deciding on the location of the mains. As we would want to lay the mains in areas of competent roof, the only option for Figure 2 is to lay the mains East-West as shown. Most of the mains will have very good roof in that case. During mining, they should expect roof control problems in the north, northwest, and south side of the property. If possible, one could also size the pillars in the different zones differently. In light of the Sago mine accident (earlier in 2006), I would venture to say that mains should also be laid out to minimize the time of travel along sealed out panels. Traditionally, the first panels that are mined are those closest to the shaft. As mines expand, these panels are sealed; however, miners have to travel past these sealed panels to get to the currently operating panel. This exposes them to the dangers of sealed panels. This danger could be avoided by driving to the end of the property to start panels near the property boundaries. This alternative, of course has the obvious disadvantages, i.e. it takes longer to recoup capital costs and certain infrastructure, such as long main belts, need to be laid out early on. Portal Location It is very important for a mine to have a reliable access to the deposit. The type and location of the portal significantly affects mine operation. The only way for men and machines to reach the deposit is through them. Portals are the first to be developed and the last to be abandoned, and therefore, they have the longest life among other mine structures. Some of the factors that should be taken into account during portal construction are: Portal should be located in strong strata. Else, the portal could be subject to strata disturbance jeopardizing mine production. Portal area should be free from flooding. Should be as close to the center of the property as possible. The portal should be at the lowest elevation of the seam/orebody so that the grades favor hauling and mine drainage. Transportation costs are lower if coal/ore is hauled down gradient and drainage is easier when the final destination is lower than the origin. Transportation, both inside and outside the mine, is affected by portals. Conveyor belts, loading chutes and other elements of coal hauling network inside the mine are planned on the basis of portal location and size. If for some reason a portal cannot be used, arranging for alternate routes can be very expensive. The location of the entrance to the mine affects the trucking distance between the mine output and the next destination for the coal/ore (coal/ore processing plant or customer). This is especially true in hilly areas such as the Appalachia, where a portal placed on the wrong side of a hill adds several miles of additional transportation. Generally also, remote location of a portal requires building a road. A deeper/longer portal is often preferred to a shorter portal when the shorter portal is farther away from the customer or the washing plant or the highway (Figure 3).

to the highway or the customer Longer portal Good location even though the portal is deeper (one time large expense).

Bad location: requires going around the hill

portal coal seam

Figure 3. Effect of the location of the portal on transportation. It is often found that the best conditions do not occur together. For example, a portal location that is the closest to the customer may have the worst strata conditions. Therefore, one must carefully weigh all the options before deciding on the location. Types of Portals There are three types of portals: shafts, inclines or slopes, and adits or drifts (Figure 4).

adit

incline

shaft

Figure 4. The three types of portals. Adits or Drifts: An adit or a drift is the access of choice when the coal seam outcrops or where the ore/coal is accessible through a horizontal drift. No special equipment besides what is needed for the mine is generally necessary to drive them. They are the cheapest to construct and have a low operating cost. However, their application is limited to those with favorable geology. Inclines or slopes vs. shafts: Slopes have certain advantages over shafts: - They can be driven quicker than shafts, and cheaper on a per foot basis (up to a certain depth). Figure 5 shows the comparative costs (unit and total) for shaft and slope. - They support continuous hauling, by use of conveyors, unlike shafts. They can also handle large volumes, making the operating costs cheaper. - Provides access to the outside of the mine in the case of emergencies. While this is true of shafts too, climbing hundreds of feet vertically is difficult. - Transporting heavy and wide/long equipment is relatively easy and may not require dismantling.

The disadvantages of slopes are: - Even at the maximum angles for coal transport by conveyor belt, slopes are about three times in length, for the same depth, compared to shafts. - Capital cost is higher than shafts. - If the strata is poor, the increased length results in higher maintenance costs. - Increased length causes greater pressure drops affecting the ventilation.
2000 Unit cost, slope 1600 Unit cost, $/vertical meter 1200 800 400 122 244 366 486 610 732 853 914 Total cost, slope Total cost, shaft Unit cost, shaft 4000 3000 2000 1000 Total cost, 000s $

5000

Total depth, meters

Figure 5. Comparative costs for shafts and slopes. Driving an incline or a shaft is a technical endeavor. Therefore, the economics also depends on the type of equipment used. Mismatch between the strata and the equipment can prove costly. References and Suggested Reading for this Handout Hartman, H. L., 1987, Introductory Mining Engineering, John Wiley Interscience. Peng, 1978, Coal Mine Ground Control, John Wiley and Sons. SME, 1992, Mining Engineering Handbook, SME.