VII.NeilBohrplanetarymodeloftheatom1913.

A. Goals;
1. Atommustbestable.
2. Explainchemicalperiodicity.
3. Includedthequantumidea.
4. Explainatomicspectroscopy.

B. Postulatesofthemodel;
1. Theelectroncanexistinonlycertaincircularorbits&whileinthese
orbits,theelectrondoesnotloseenergy.
2. Theenergyoftheelectroninanorbitisquantized(discrete).
3. Theelectroncanjumpfromoneorbittoanother&insodoingwill
eithergainorloseenergy.

C. AgeneralpictureoftheBohrplanetarymodel;
D. Shells,orbits,levelsareSynonymous.
E. Howmanyelectronscaneachorbitholds?

2n
2(1)=2
2(2)=8
2(3)=18
2(4)=32

F. HowdidtheBohrmodelexplainchemicalperiodicity?
Chemicalperiodicityrepeatingpatternofpropertiesagainsttheelements.
Toexplainthis;Bohr'smodelpicture;
BohrmodelpictureforelementsZ=1toZ=20

Outershell=valenceelectronsnumberofpoundsofelectrondeterminesthe
mostphysicalandchemicalproperties.

G. HowdidtheBohrmodelstabilizetheatom?
Secondpartofpostulatesone.

H. HowdidtheBohrmodelincludethequantaidea?
.
*electronvolt(tinyunitofenergy)
Forhydrogenatom:E=

I. HowdidtheBohrmodelexplainatomicspectroscopy?
Atomicspectroscopypostulate2&3;

h=0
Surfacerun
2
2
2
2
2
8+10=+2
8(10)

J. Energyleveldiagram;
0
.850m=E
1.51m=E
3.40m=E
13.6m=E
*levelsbegintocometogethercalledcontinuous
*Groundstateforthehydrogenatom
Allelectronsinthelowestpossibleenergylevels
Hydrogenatom

Electrontransition12

=EE=+10.2ev
E
*excitedstateoneormoreelectronsarenotinthelowestpossibleenergylevel.

Electronmustgainthisabsorbedenergytojump12.
Source;
1. Heat.
2. Electricity
3. Light
*electronabsorbswhatitneedsleasttorest.
*themustonexactmatch.

*energyneededbytheelectron
Ifhf=10.2ev*thentheelectronabsorbsit&jumps12
Areinstantaneous
Ifhf,doesnotequal10.2ev*thentheelectronabsorbsitanditpassesthrough
theatomunabsorbed.

E=

E=

E=

=13.6ev

=3.40ev

=1.51ev
.

=.850ev

|
|
|

=0

K. Whatdoesitmeantohavenegativeenergy?
Attractiveforceactingontheelectron

100=50
150=0
200=
250=

L. movinguptheenergyleveldiagramrequiresenergy

M. Movingdowntheenergyleveldiagramreleasesenergy
0
0
E=E=
E=E=
E=eE=
E=21E=e
E=EE=10.2ev

*electronmustreleasetheamountofenergytojump21
*exactedstateareunstable.
Lastfor~1ns

*theformofenergyisalwaysaprotonoflight.LightmeaningUV,visible,IR.
(Emissionspectrumbrightline)4lines.
43 43 42
31 32 42
21 41 21
Allshouldoccur

N. TheBohrmodelworksmathematicallyonlyforhydrogenatoms.
Bigsuccesses
1. Chemicalperiodicity.
2. Anatomicspectrumofhydrogen.
*Bohrcalculateswavelength,werealmostexact.
*Otheratomarenotequal.
BigfailureBohrsmodelworksmathematicallyonlyforhydrogen.
Otherminorproblemswereovercomeoverthenextfewyears(19131917).But
themainproblemcouldnotbeovercome.

O. Fluorescence;absorptionofhighenergylight(UV)followedbythe
immediatereleaseoflowerenergylightblue.

P. Phosphorescence(glowinthedark)absorptionofhighenergylight(UV)
followedbydelayedreleaseoflowerenergylightbluish(regionofthe
spectrum).

Q. Thewavenatureofmatter;
1. DeBroglie1924iflightcansometimesbehaveasaparticle,then
maybemattercansometimesbehaveasawave.Waveparticle
duality

Wavelengthofamatterwave;=
h=planksconstant(10)
m=mass
v=velocity

Ordinarysizematterhassuchlargemasscomparedtohydrogenthatits
shouldbelargeenoughtodetectandaffectbehavior.
Subatomicsizematter(electrons)hasannouncedalmostassmallas
hydrogenbondeditshouldbelargeenoughtodetectandaffect
behavior.

2. Davisson,GermerandG.Thomson1927
Experimentallydiscoveredthewavenatureoftheelectrons.
Discoveredthatelectronbeamsshoweddiffraction(waveproperty).
(Basesforelectronmicroscope).

VIII.Themoderntheoryoftheatomquantummodel1925
Quantumtheoryorquantummechanics;

Threeindependentlyworkingscientist;
a) Diracquantumalgebra.Mostgeneralusingverydifficultmathematics
(quantumalgebra).Atomcouldnotbepictured.Notwellaccepted.
b) Heisenbergmatrixmechanics.Difficultmathematics,concernedonlywith
measurablequalities(matrixmechanics).Atomcouldnotbepictured.Not
wellaccepted.
c) 1926ErwinSchroedingerwavemechanics.Creatingmathematicalmodel
thatdescribedelectronsaswaves.Treattheelectronasawaveinsidethe
8

nucleusofanatom(wavemechanics).Mathematicsofwaveswaswell
understood.Atomcouldbepictured.

AnyatomSetupSchroedingerwaveeqnormolecule.(S.W.E)

Thistreatmentofatomsledtoabranchofphysicscalledwavemechanics
orquantummechanics.

*Everythinginnatureallowsustoknow
almosttheelectroninthequantumatom

Solveit

for

Exactlyonlyforhydrogen
Itcanbesolvedalmosttheexactly

d) Howaretheelectronsorganizedwithinthequantumatom?
Bohrmodelvs.Quantummodel
Quantumnumbers.

Bohrmodelelectronexistsinlevels(n=1,2,3.).
Forhydrogen
Energy
Radius
Velocity(speed)

Quantummodel4q.ns
electronsexistsinlevels(n=1,2,3..).

Levelsbreakdownintosublevels( =0,n1)

Sublevelsbreaksdownintoorbitals(

Orbitalsbreaksdownintospinorbitals(

l 0+ l )

=+ ,

Quantummodel=(qn)

Bohrmodelvs.Quantummodel
Quantumnumbers.
Name
1. Principal

Symbol
n(1,2,3)

Labelswhat
Levels

Determineswhat
Energyofelectron,andmost
probabledistancefromthe
nucleus.

2. Orbital

l (0,1,n1)

Sublevels

(Energy)&shapeoftheelectron
cloud.Morethanoneelectron.
Orientation(direction)theelectron
cloudpoints.

3. Magnetic

(-l,o+

4. Spin

(+ ,

l)

Orbitals

) Spinorbitals

Spinoftheelectron.

10

e) Quantumnumberscanbethoughtofastheaddressesoftheelectrons;
n=state,l=city,

=street,

=maleorfemale.

1. Eachlevelconsistsofsublevels.Eachsublevelconsistsoforbitals.

Levels

Sublevels

Orbitals

11

2. ThePauliexclusionprinciple;Anatomicorbitalcanholdamaximumof
twoelectrons,whichmusthaveoppositespins.
Thefirstprincipleenergylevelcontainsonetypeoforbital(1s)thatholdsa
maximumoftwoelectrons.

3. Howmanyelectronscaneachsublevelandlevelhold?

Quantumnumberasanaddress;n=state,l=city, =street, =female

ormale

maximumelectrons numberoforbitals
levels
letters
2
4
6
8
18

1
3
5
7
9

0
1
2
3
4

Sharp
Principal
Diffuse
Fundamental
G..(followsthe
alphabet)

12

4. Thesublevelscanbeorderedbyenergy.
Energysubleveldiagram;
E=0
4p
3d
4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s

2
1s

2
2s

6
2p

2
3s

6
3p

2
4s

10
3d

6
4p

5. Notation

6. Orbitalregionaroundthenucleuswitha90%probabilityoffindingthe
electron.Withthataddress(n=state,l=city,

=street,

=maleor

female).
Housingunits

13

7. Eachtypeoforbitalhasadifferentshape;orbitalshapeisdetermined

l level.
sorbitals(l =0)allhaveasphericalshape.
bythe

a.

b. porbitals(l =1)allhaveadumbbellshapeorfigure8.

14

8. Probabilityplaysamajorroleinthequantumtheory;
Bohrsmodelcalculationforhydrogengivesexactvalues.
Quantummodelcalculationsgiveonlyprobabilities.

Wavefunctiontheprobabilityvalue

9. Heisenberguncertaintyprinciple;
themoreaccurately,thepositionofanelectronismeasured,thelessaccurately
thespeedcanbemeasured,andviceversa.Quantumatomisfuzzy.
Builtintonaturecannotbeovercomewithtechnology.
Duebecause;atthequantumlevel,observingasystemnecessarilydisturbs
it.
Energyandtimearealsorelatedinthisway.Thismeansoververyvery
shorttime( 10 s)theuncertaintyandenergyissolargethatmatter
(energy)canbecreatedoutofnothingness&disappearbackinto
nothingnessveryveryquickly.

(Virtualparticles)
emptyspacequantumfoam.
violationofthelawofconcentrationofmatterenergy.

15

Interpretation

Copehogen

probabilities

manyworlds

uncertainty

everyquantum
choiceproducesa
newworld
universe.

2
1s

2
2s

6
2p
()

2
3s

6
2
3p
4s
( )

10
6
3d
4p
( ) ( )

10.Aufbauprinciplesublevelsfillfromlowesttohighestenergy(leftto
right).
16


11.Valenceelectronselectronsintheoutermost(highest)energylevelof
anatom.Example;oxygen,whichhaselectronconfigurationof1s2s
2p.

12.Buildingtheelementsinthequantummodel;
=spin=+ ,

+ up down

Pauliexclusionprincipleeachorbitcanholdamaximumoftwoelectrons,
andtheseelectronsmusthaveoppositespins.

17

Energyorbitaldiagram
E=0
|
|
|
|
___
4p
_____
3d
_
4s
___
3p
_
3s
___
2p
_
2s
_
1s

13.Hundsrulewhenplacingelectronintothedegeneratedorbital,they
remainunpairedaslongaspossible.
14.Isoelectronichavingthesameelectronconfiguration.
15.Octethavingeightvalanceelectrons.
18

16.TheperiodicLawthereisarepeatingpatternofphysicalandchemical
properties.periodiclaw&chemicalperiodicity.

IX.ModernperiodictablebasedonthedivisionscreatedbyMendeleev&
Meger.
Mendeleevfatheroftheperiodictable
Periodshorizontalrows.
Groupsverticalcolumns

Mainsystem:
Americansystem:AA

Europeansystem:AA

Unifiedsystem:118

A. Certaingroupshavespecialnames;
Agroupelementsmaingrouporrepresentativeelements
Bgroupelementstransitionelements.

19


Group:
1Aalkalimetals
2Aalkalineearthmetals
6AChalcogens
7AHalogens
8ANoblegases

B. Certainperiodshavespecialnames;
Lanthanideseries
Actinideseries

C. periodicproperties;
Canbedeterminedfromtheportionofanelementintheperiodictable.

1. Numberofvalanceelectrons;
GroupA:numberofvalanceelectrons=groupnumber.
GroupB:numberofvalanceelectronsisusually2butcanbe1.

2. Metallicnature
a) METALS;
1) Havelustrous.
2) Ourmalleable
3) Ourductile.
20

4)
5)
6)
7)

Havehighm.p.&b.p.
Allbutonearesolidatroomtemperature(Mercury).
Goodconductorsofheatandelectricity.
Tendtoloseelectronsduringchemicalchanges

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)

b) NONMETALS;
Nonlustrous
Brittle.
Convertibleassolids.
Havelowerm.p.&b.p.
Allbutonearegasesorsolid.
Poorconductorsofheatandelectricity.
Tendtogainelectronsduringchemicalchanges.

c) METALLOIDS;
1) Havesomemetalproperties.
2) Havesomenonmetalproperties.
3) Havesomenewproperties.

d) Whichismoremetallic?
Goingdownagroup:metallicnatureincreases.
Goingprocessesaperiod:metallicnaturedecreases.

Navs.KMgvs.Al

Kvs.MgNa?vs.?Ca

21

3. Atomicsize:Atomstonothaveasharpboundary(fuzzy).
a) TheQuantumatomisfuzzy
Covalentradius

ductusbetweenthenuclei.

b) Goingdownagroup:atomicsizeincreasesbecauseoftheaddedlevel
(Agroup)

c) goingacrossaPeriod:atomicsizeslightlydecreases.

d) Anytwoelementscanbecomparedastoatomicsize;

Navs.KMgvs.Al

Kvs.MgNa?vs.?Ca

4. Ionizationenergy(I.E.)energyrequiredtoremovetheoutermostelectron
fromgaseousatomorion.

a) 1stionizationenergy=energyrequiredtoremovethefirstoutermost
electronfromgaseousatom.
22

b) Goingdownagroup:1stionizationenergydecreasessincetheelectron
beingremovedisheldlesstightlyastheatomgetsbigger.
c) Acrossaperiod:1stionizationenergyincreasesslightly.(Itdoes
irregularly).
d) Higherionizationenergybeyondthe1st
e) Thehighertheionizationlevelthelargerenergiesrequired.

1stI.E.<2ndI.E.<3rdI.E<.<<

5. 1stElectronAffinity:(1stE.A.)energyrequiredorreleased,whena
neutralgaseousatomgainsinelectron.

Energyisrequiredwhenanatomdoesnotwantanextra
electron.1stE.A.>0(metals).
Energyisrequiredwhenanatomdoesnotwanttheextra
electron.1stE.A.<0(nonmetals).

Addin;
Electronconfiguration

23

Element

Electron
OrbitalDiagram
configuration
1s

1s

#ofvalence Dot
electrons formula
1
H

He

1. H

1e

2. He

2e

1s

3. Li

3e

1s2s

Li

4. Be

4e

1s2s

Be

5. B

5e

1s2s2p

6. C

6e

1s2s2p

7. N

7e

1s2s2p

1s

24