7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 1

CSE 4215/5431:
Mobile Communications
Winter 2010
Suprakash Datta
datta@cs.yorku.ca

Office: CSEB 3043
Phone: 416-736-2100 ext 77875

Course page: http://www.cs.yorku.ca/course/4215

Some slides are adapted from the book website
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 2
Last class
Introduction to mobile communications
Similarities and differences with wired
communication
Review of the TCP/IP architecture
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 3
Today
The physical layer for mobile
communications

Lets start with the very basic notions
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 4
Signals, channels and systems
What is a signal?
Baseband signal
Modulation
Bandwidth
Transmission/reception
What is a channel?
Bandwidth
Noise
Loss?
What is a communication system?
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 5
Types of signals
(a) continuous time/discrete time
(b) continuous values/discrete values
analog signal = continuous time, continuous values
digital signal = discrete time, discrete values
Periodic signal - analog or digital signal that repeats
over time
s(t +T ) = s(t ) -< t < +
where T is the period of the signal
signal parameters of periodic signals:
period T, frequency f=1/T, amplitude A, phase shift
sine wave as special periodic signal for a carrier:

s(t) = A
t
sin(2 t f
t
t +
t
)
Sine Wave Parameters
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 7
Bandwidth
Of a signal
Of a channel

7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 8
The underlying mathematics
) 2 cos( ) 2 sin(
2
1
) (
1 1
nft b nft a c t g
n
n
n
n
t t


=

=
+ + =
1
0
1
0
t t
ideal periodic signal
real composition
(based on harmonics)
Fourier representation of periodic signals
What about aperiodic signals ?
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 9
Frequency domain
Fundamental frequency - when all frequency
components of a signal are integer multiples
of one frequency, its referred to as the
fundamental frequency
Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal
contains
Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of
a signal
Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) -
narrow band of frequencies that most of the
signals energy is contained in
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 10
Transmitting rectangular signals
Observations
Any digital waveform will have infinite
bandwidth
BUT the transmission system will limit the
bandwidth that can be transmitted
AND, for any given medium, the greater the
bandwidth transmitted, the greater the cost
HOWEVER, limiting the bandwidth creates
distortions
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 11
Bit rates, channel capacity
Impairments, such as noise, limit data
rate that can be achieved
For digital data, to what extent do
impairments limit data rate?
Channel Capacity the maximum rate
at which data can be transmitted over a
given communication path, or channel,
under given conditions
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 12
Nyquist Bandwidth
For binary signals (two voltage levels)
C = 2B
With multilevel signaling
C = 2B log
2
M
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 13
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Ratio of the power in a signal to the power
contained in the noise thats present at a
particular point in the transmission
Typically measured at a receiver
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, or S/N)


A high SNR means a high-quality signal, low
number of required intermediate repeaters
SNR sets upper bound on achievable data rate
power noise
power signal
log 10 ) (
10 dB
= SNR
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 14
Shannon Capacity Formula
Equation:

Represents theoretical maximum that can be
achieved
In practice, only much lower rates achieved
Formula assumes white noise (thermal noise)
Impulse noise is not accounted for
Attenuation distortion or delay distortion not
accounted for
( ) SNR 1 log
2
+ = B C
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 15
Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulations
Spectrum of a channel between 3 MHz
and 4 MHz ; SNR
dB
= 24 dB



Using Shannons formula


( )
251 SNR
SNR log 10 dB 24 SNR
MHz 1 MHz 3 MHz 4
10 dB
=
= =
= = B
( ) Mbps 8 8 10 251 1 log 10
6
2
6
= ~ + = C
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 16
Example of Nyquist and Shannon
Formulations
How many signaling levels are
required?
( )
16
log 4
log 10 2 10 8
log 2
2
2
6 6
2
=
=
=
=
M
M
M
M B C
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 17
Modulation
Why?
How?




7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 18
Frequencies for wireless communication
VLF = Very Low Frequency UHF = Ultra High Frequency
LF = Low Frequency SHF = Super High Frequency
MF = Medium Frequency EHF = Extra High Frequency

HF = High Frequency UV = Ultraviolet Light
VHF = Very High Frequency

Frequency and wave length
= c/f
wave length , speed of light c ~ 3x10
8
m/s, frequency f
1 Mm
300 Hz
10 km
30 kHz
100 m
3 MHz
1 m
300 MHz
10 mm
30 GHz
100 m
3 THz
1 m
300 THz
visible light VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF infrared UV
optical transmission
coax cable twisted
pair
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 19
Frequencies for wireless communication
VHF-/UHF-ranges for mobile radio
simple, small antenna for cars
deterministic propagation characteristics, reliable connections
SHF and higher for directed radio links, satellite
communication
small antenna, beam forming
large bandwidth available
Wireless LANs use frequencies in UHF to SHF range
some systems planned up to EHF
limitations due to absorption by water and oxygen molecules
(resonance frequencies)
weather dependent fading, signal loss caused by heavy rainfall
etc.
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 20
Frequencies and regulations
ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency
bands worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences)
Examples Europe USA Japan
Cellular
phones
GSM 880-915, 925-
960, 1710-1785,
1805-1880
UMTS 1920-1980,
2110-2170
AMPS, TDMA,
CDMA, GSM 824-
849, 869-894
TDMA, CDMA, GSM,
UMTS 1850-1910,
1930-1990
PDC, FOMA 810-888,
893-958
PDC 1429-1453,
1477-1501
FOMA 1920-1980,
2110-2170
Cordless
phones
CT1+ 885-887, 930-
932
CT2 864-868
DECT 1880-1900
PACS 1850-1910,
1930-1990
PACS-UB 1910-1930
PHS 1895-1918
JCT 245-380
Wireless LANs
802.11b/g 2412-2472 802.11b/g 2412-2462 802.11b 2412-2484
802.11g 2412-2472
Other RF
systems
27, 128, 418, 433,
868
315, 915 426, 868
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 21
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions
space (s
i
)
time (t)
frequency (f)
code (c)

Goal: multiple use
of a shared medium

Important: guard spaces needed!
s
2

s
3

s
1

Multiplexing
f
t
c
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1

f
t
c
f
t
c
channels k
i

7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 22
Frequency multiplexing
Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller
frequency bands
A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the
whole time
Advantages
no dynamic coordination
necessary
works also for analog signals

Disadvantages
waste of bandwidth
if the traffic is
distributed
unevenly
inflexible
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1

f
t
c
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 23
f
t
c
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1

Time division multiplexing
A channel gets the whole spectrum for a certain
amount of time

Advantages
only one carrier in the
medium at any time
throughput high even
for many users

Disadvantages
precise
synchronization
necessary
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 24
f
Time and frequency multiplex
Combination of both methods
A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain
amount of time
Example: GSM

Advantages
better protection against
tapping
protection against frequency
selective interference
but: precise coordination
required
t
c
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1

7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 25
Code multiplex
Each channel has a unique code

All channels use the same spectrum
at the same time
Advantages
bandwidth efficient
no coordination and synchronization
necessary
good protection against interference
and tapping
Disadvantages
varying user data rates
more complex signal regeneration
Implemented using spread spectrum technology
k
2
k
3
k
4
k
5
k
6
k
1

f
t
c
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 26
Example
Lack of coordination requirement is an
advantage.
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 27
Aside: Digital Communications
What is coding?
What is source coding?
What are line codes?
What is channel coding?

7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 28
Transceivers
How are signals sent and received in
wireless communications?
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 29
Antennas: isotropic radiator
Radiation and reception of electromagnetic waves,
coupling of wires to space for radio transmission
Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions
(three dimensional) - only a theoretical reference
antenna
Real antennas always have directive effects
(vertically and/or horizontally)
Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around
an antenna

z y
x
z
y x
ideal
isotropic
radiator
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 30
Antennas: simple dipoles
Real antennas are not isotropic radiators but, e.g., dipoles with lengths
/4 on car roofs or /2 as Hertzian dipole
shape of antenna proportional to wavelength



Example: Radiation pattern of a simple Hertzian dipole



Gain: maximum power in the direction of the main lobe compared to the
power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)
side view (xy-plane)
x
y
side view (yz-plane)
z
y
top view (xz-plane)
x
z
simple
dipole
/4
/2
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 31
Antennas: directed and sectorized
side view (xy-plane)
x
y
side view (yz-plane)
z
y
top view (xz-plane)
x
z
top view, 3 sector
x
z
top view, 6 sector
x
z
Often used for microwave connections or base stations
for mobile phones (e.g., radio coverage of a valley)
directed
antenna
sectorized
antenna
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 32
Antennas: diversity
Grouping of 2 or more antennas
multi-element antenna arrays
Antenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity
receiver chooses antenna with largest output
diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain
cophasing needed to avoid cancellation

+
/4 /2 /4
ground plane
/2
/2
+
/2
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 33
Antenna Gain
Antenna gain
Power output, in a particular direction,
compared to that produced in any direction
by a perfect omnidirectional antenna
(isotropic antenna)
Effective area
Related to physical size and shape of
antenna
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 34
Antenna Gain
Relationship between antenna gain and
effective area



G = antenna gain
A
e
= effective area
f = carrier frequency
c = speed of light (~ 3 10
8
m/s)
= carrier wavelength
2
2
2
4 4
c
A f A
G
e e
t

t
= =
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 35
Back to modulation
Digital modulation
digital data is translated into an analog signal (baseband)
ASK, FSK, PSK - main focus in this chapter
differences in spectral efficiency, power efficiency, robustness
Analog modulation
shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4)
Frequency Division Multiplexing
medium characteristics
Basic schemes
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 36
Modulation and demodulation
synchronization
decision
digital
data
analog
demodulation
radio
carrier
analog
baseband
signal
101101001
radio receiver
digital
modulation
digital
data
analog
modulation
radio
carrier
analog
baseband
signal
101101001
radio transmitter
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 37
Digital modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
very simple
low bandwidth requirements
very susceptible to interference

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK):
needs larger bandwidth


Phase Shift Keying (PSK):
more complex
robust against interference
1 0 1
t
1 0 1
t
1 0 1
t
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 38
Advanced Frequency Shift Keying
bandwidth needed for FSK depends on the distance
between the carrier frequencies
special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts
MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is
doubled
depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower
frequency, original or inverted is chosen
the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other
Equivalent to offset QPSK

even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian low-
pass filter GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 39
Example of MSK
data
even bits
odd bits
1 1 1 1 0 0 0
t
low
frequency
high
frequency
MSK
signal
bit
even 0 1 0 1
odd 0 0 1 1
signal h n n h
value - - + +
h: high frequency
n: low frequency
+: original signal
-: inverted signal
No phase shifts!
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 40
Advanced Phase Shift Keying
BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying):
bit value 0: sine wave
bit value 1: inverted sine wave
very simple PSK
low spectral efficiency
robust, used e.g. in satellite systems
QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift
Keying):
2 bits coded as one symbol
symbol determines shift of sine wave
needs less bandwidth compared to
BPSK
more complex
Often also transmission of relative,
not absolute phase shift: DQPSK -
Differential QPSK (IS-136, PHS)
11 10 00 01
Q
I
0 1
Q
I
11
01
10
00
A
t
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 41
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
combines amplitude and phase modulation
it is possible to code n bits using one symbol
2
n
discrete levels, n=2 identical to QPSK
Bit error rate increases with n, but less errors
compared to comparable PSK schemes
Example: 16-QAM (4 bits = 1 symbol)
Symbols 0011 and 0001 have
the same phase , but different
amplitude a. 0000 and 1000 have
different phase, but same amplitude
0000
0001
0011
1000
Q
I
0010

a
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 42
Hierarchical Modulation
DVB-T modulates two separate data streams onto a
single DVB-T stream
High Priority (HP) embedded within a Low Priority
(LP) stream
Multi carrier system, about 2000 or 8000 carriers
QPSK, 16 QAM, 64QAM
Example: 64QAM
good reception: resolve the entire
64QAM constellation
poor reception, mobile reception:
resolve only QPSK portion
6 bit per QAM symbol, 2 most
significant determine QPSK
HP service coded in QPSK (2 bit),
LP uses remaining 4 bit
Q
I
00
10
000010 010101
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 43
Signal propagation basics
Many different effects have to be
considered
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 44
Signal propagation ranges
Transmission range
communication possible
low error rate
Detection range
detection of the signal
possible
no communication
possible
Interference range
signal may not be
detected
signal adds to the
background noise

distance
sender
transmission
detection
interference
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 45
Signal propagation
Propagation in free space always like light (straight line)
Receiving power proportional to 1/d in vacuum much more in real
environments
(d = distance between sender and receiver)
Receiving power additionally influenced by
fading (frequency dependent)
shadowing
reflection at large obstacles
refraction depending on the density of a medium
scattering at small obstacles
diffraction at edges
reflection scattering diffraction shadowing refraction
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 46
Real world example
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 47
Propagation Modes
Ground-wave propagation
Sky-wave propagation
Line-of-sight propagation
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 48
Ground Wave Propagation
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 49
Ground Wave Propagation
Follows contour of the earth
Can Propagate considerable distances
Frequencies up to 2 MHz
Example
AM radio
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 50
Sky Wave Propagation
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 51
Sky Wave Propagation
Signal reflected from ionized layer of
atmosphere back down to earth
Signal can travel a number of hops,
back and forth between ionosphere and
earths surface
Reflection effect caused by refraction
Examples
Amateur radio
CB radio
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 52
Line-of-Sight Propagation
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 53
Line-of-Sight Propagation
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be
within line of sight
Satellite communication signal above 30 MHz
not reflected by ionosphere
Ground communication antennas within effective
line of site due to refraction
Refraction bending of microwaves by the
atmosphere
Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of
the density of the medium
When wave changes medium, speed changes
Wave bends at the boundary between mediums
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 54
Line-of-Sight Equations
Optical line of sight

Effective, or radio, line of sight


d = distance between antenna and horizon
(km)
h = antenna height (m)
K = adjustment factor to account for
refraction, rule of thumb K = 4/3
h d 57 . 3 =
h d K = 57 . 3
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 55
Line-of-Sight Equations
Maximum distance between two
antennas for LOS propagation:


h
1
= height of antenna one
h
2
= height of antenna two

( )
2 1
57 . 3 h h K + K
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 56
LOS Wireless Transmission
Impairments
Attenuation and attenuation distortion
Free space loss
Atmospheric absorption
Multipath (diffraction, reflection,
refraction)
Noise
Thermal noise
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 57
Attenuation
Strength of signal falls off with distance over
transmission medium
Attenuation factors for unguided media:
Received signal must have sufficient strength so
that circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal
Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher
than noise to be received without error
Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies,
causing distortion
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 58
Free Space Loss
Free space loss, ideal isotropic antenna



P
t
= signal power at transmitting antenna
P
r
= signal power at receiving antenna
= carrier wavelength
d = propagation distance between antennas
c = speed of light (~ 3 10 8 m/s)
where d and are in the same units (e.g.,
meters)
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
4 4
c
fd d
P
P
r
t
t

t
= =
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 59
Free Space Loss
Free space loss equation can be recast:




|
.
|

\
|
= =

td
P
P
L
r
t
dB
4
log 20 log 10
( ) ( ) dB 98 . 21 log 20 log 20 + + = d
( ) ( ) dB 56 . 147 log 20 log 20
4
log 20 + =
|
.
|

\
|
= d f
c
fd t
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 60
Free Space Loss
Free space loss accounting for gain of
other antennas



G
t
= gain of transmitting antenna
G
r
= gain of receiving antenna
A
t
= effective area of transmitting antenna
A
r
= effective area of receiving antenna
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
t r t r t r r
t
A A f
cd
A A
d
G G
d
P
P
2
2 2
2
2 2
4
= = =

t
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 61
Free Space Loss
Free space loss accounting for gain of
other antennas can be recast as
( ) ( ) ( )
r t dB
A A d L log 10 log 20 log 20 + =
( ) ( ) ( ) dB 54 . 169 log 10 log 20 log 20 + + =
r t
A A d f
Multipath Propagation
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 63
Multipath propagation
Signal can take many different paths between sender
and receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction





Time dispersion: signal is dispersed over time
interference with neighbor symbols, Inter Symbol
Interference (ISI)
The signal reaches a receiver directly and phase
shifted
distorted signal depending on the phases of the different
parts
signal at sender
signal at receiver
LOS pulses
multipath
pulses
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 64
Atmospheric absorption
Water vapor and oxygen contribute
most
Water vapor: peak attenuation near
22GHz, low below 15Ghz
Oxygen: absorption peak near 60GHz,
lower below 30 GHz.
Rain and fog may scatter (thus
attenuate) radio waves.
Low frequency band usage helps
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 65
Effects of mobility
Channel characteristics change over time and
location
signal paths change
different delay variations of different signal parts
different phases of signal parts
quick changes in the power received (short term
fading)

Additional changes in
distance to sender
obstacles further away
slow changes in the average
power received (long term fading)
short term fading
long term
fading
t
power
7/16/2013 CSE 4215, Winter 2010 66
Next
Channel effects (e.g. fading), noise
Spread spectrum
Cellular system basics