Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Course Outline
Basic food molecules pH value Flavors Foams and bubbles Sauces Cakes, bread and cookies Culinary curiosities Kitchen Tools Cleaning
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Reference List
P. Barham, The Science of Cooking, Springer, 2001 P. L. Couteur and J. Burreson, Napoleons Buttons, Jeremy P. Tarcher/ Penguin, 2004 B.G. Osborne , T. Fearn, Near Infrared Spectroscopy in Food Analysis, Longman Scientific & Technical, 1988 H. McGee, The Curious Cook, Wiley Publishing, Inc. , 1990 A. Gardiner , S. Wilson, with the Exploratorium, The Inquisitive Cook, Henry Holt and Company, 1998 R. L. Wolke, What Einstein Told His Cook, W. W. Norton & Company, 2002 R. L. Wolke, What Einstein Told His Cook 2, W. W. Norton & Company, 2002 T. Lister, Kitchen Chemistry, Royal Society of Chemistry, 2005 S. Perkowitz, Universal foam, Walker Publishing Company, Inc., 2000 T. P. Coultate, FoodThe chemistry of its components, Royal Society of Chemistry, 1989 D. Weaire and S. Hutzler, The physics of foams, Oxford University Press, 1999 L. L. Schramm, Emulsions, foams, and suspensions, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA Weinheim, 2005 C. H. Snyder, The extraordinary chemistry of ordinary things, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1998 O. R. Fennema, Food chemistry, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1996 H. McGee, Food and Cooking, Hodder and Stoughton Ltd, 2004 A. Vantal, Book of coffee, Hachette Livre, 1999 A. P. Robert, Book of tea, Hachette Livre, 1999 4
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Water
smallest and simplest of the basic food molecules, just three atoms: H2O, two hydrogens and an oxygen each water molecule is electrically unsymmetrical or polar (has a positive end and a negative end) because
oxygen atom exerts a stronger pull than the hydrogen atoms on the electrons they share hydrogen atoms project from one side of the oxygen to form a kind of V shape: so theres an oxygen end and a hydrogen end to the water molecules, and the oxygen end is more negative than the hydrogen end
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the diagram shows the orientation of the 2 hydrogen atoms and the 2 other pairs of electrons around the central oxygen atom within a water molecule
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each gray spoke radiating out from the oxygen represents a pair of electrons, so oxygen has filled its outer shell by sharing electrons with the 2 hydrogens
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Water
the significance of having 2 hydrogen atoms on one side of a water molecule is that the oxygen is able to pull the electrons shared with the hydrogen towards it the result is an unequal sharing of the electrons this makes a water molecule polar, in that the oxygen end of the molecule has more electrons (a negative charge), while the hydrogen end has a slightly more positive end (as the electrons are found there less frequently)
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Water
the positive end is able to attract negative ions or the negative end of other polar molecules and vise versa because water does this very well, it is able to dissolve many substances, and it is thus called a universal solvent[]
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Water
the molecules in ice and liquid water are participating in 1-4 hydrogen bonds at any given moment hydrogen bonds in liquid water are fleeting[], and are constantly being formed and broken since the motion of the molecules in the liquid is forceful enough to overcome the strength of hydrogen bonds and break them the natural tendency of water molecules to form bonds with each other has a number of effects in life and in the kitchen
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Water
water forms hydrogen bonds not only with itself, but with other substances that have at least some electrical polarity, some unevenness in the distribution of positive and negative electrical charges major food molecules are much larger and more complex than water,
for example, both carbohydrates and proteins have polar regions
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Water
water molecules are attracted to these regions and cluster around them when they do this, they effectively surround the larger molecules and separate them from each other if they do this more or less completely, so that each molecule is mostly surrounded by a cloud of water molecules, then that substance has dissolved in the water
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under normal conditions, water exists in one of three states: solid, liquid, and gas the solid state of water is commonly known as ice pure water at sea level freezes at 0C liquid water is most often used in cooking, and the temperature varies between 0C and 100C water boils at 100 C and becomes steam (the gaseous state) the transition between two states is called a phase transformation 14
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if a cup of water is heated under atmospheric conditions, the heating curve was obtained as shown in previous slide horizontal axis shows time (or more energy added), and the vertical axis is temperature notice that the temperature of water stays constant with added energy during phase transformation this is because all of the energy is used to transform one state to another that no energy is available for heating the water
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Freezing
transitions between solid, liquid, and gaseous phases typically involve large amounts of energy compared to the specific heat if heat were added at a constant rate to an ice to take it through its phase changes to liquid water and then to steam, the energies required to accomplish the phase changes (called the latent heat of fusion and latent heat of vaporization ) would lead to plateaus in the temperature vs time graph
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Boiling
boiling water is one of the most commonly used heat source in cooking boiling water is undergoing liquid-to-gas transition, and because of this it stays at a constant temperature of approximately 100C this provides a convenient standard for us to control the cooking process as liquid water is heated, the molecules become increasingly mobile
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Boiling
some of the molecules acquire enough energy to escape as vapor these molecules exert a force on the atmosphere, called the vapor pressure[] the vapor pressure is opposed by another force (atmospheric pressure[]), created by a column of air pushing down on the pan water begins to boil when the vapor pressure overcomes the atmospheric pressure
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Boiling
this means that the majority of water molecules have become energetic enough to escape the surface the temperature at which water boils is related to the vapor pressure required for boiling, which is equal to the atmospheric pressure the implication of this is that as the atmospheric pressure changes, the boiling point of water changes as well
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Why does water boil at a lower temperature at altitude? Does food cook faster at a higher altitude?
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the result is that a higher temperature is required to achieve the same vapor pressure
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Freezing
water freezes when the molecules have slowed down enough to develop bonds upon collision the rate at which freezing occurs is governed by nucleation and growth nucleation [] is the formation of small solids in a liquid the clusters of solids are called the nuclei the rate at which new nuclei form (number of nuclei per second) is the nucleation rate
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Freezing
once the nuclei have formed, they become the landing sites for other molecules to attach onto The growth rate is the rate at which the radius of a nucleus grows after formation the solidification rate is determined by the combination of nucleation and growth rates the size of crystals formed during solidification is determined by the nucleation/growth processes a solidification process with fast nucleation rate and/or slow growth rate will result in many small crystals forming
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Freezing
larger crystals form from slow nucleation rate most liquids decrease in volume upon solidification; water has a rather unique property of expanding during liquid-to-solid transformation this property comes from the hexagonal structure of ice crystals; water molecules form a hexagonal crystal structure, which actually takes up more volume than if the molecules were freely slipping past one another
Freezing
consequently, ice cubes float in water water has highest density at ~4C the freezing point of water at sea level is 0 C this temperature can be changed, however, by adding impurities in water
Sprinkling salt on road surfaces on an icy day melts the ice by lowering the melting temperature
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water expands when it freezes because of its molecular structure, in tandem with the unusual elasticity of the hydrogen bond and the particular lowest energy hexagonal crystal conformation that 29 it adopts under standard conditions
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Freezing
normally the solid phase of a given substance is denser than the liquid phase as the molecules attraction for each other becomes stronger than their movements, the molecules settle into a compact arrangement determined by their geometry in solid water, however, the molecular packing is dictated by the requirement for even distribution of hydrogen bonds
Freezing
the result is a solid with more space between molecules than the liquid phase has, by a factor of about one-eleventh
because water expends when it freezes that water pipes burst when the heat fails in winter; that bottles of beer put in the freezer for a quick chill and then forgotten will pop open
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Boiling
as water starts to boil (approaching 100C in temperature), you can see little bubbles of vapor form on the bottom where the water is closest to the fire these bubbles of gaseous water, or steam, rise to the surface and erupt into the air more and larger bubbles form until the entire surface of the liquid is rolling at this temperature, the water changes state and leaps from a liquid into a gaseous form liquid water absorbs a lot of heat as it vaporizes into steam 35
Boiling
hydrogen bonding gives water an unusually high latent heat of vaporization[], or the amount of energy that water absorbs without rise in temperature as it changes from a liquid to a gas cooks take the advantage of it when
bake delicate preparations like custards gently by partly immersing the containers in an open water bath oven-roast meats slowly at low temperatures simmer stock in an open pot
in these cases, vaporization removes energy from the food or its surroundings and causes it to cook more gently
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Condensation
Steam releases a lot of heat when it condenses into water when water vapor hits a cool surface and condenses into liquid water, it gives up that same high heat of vaporization this is why steam is such as effective and quick way of cooking foods compared with plain air at the same temperature in bread baking, an initial blast of steam increases the doughs expansion, or oven spring, and produces a lighter loaf
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Evaporation
if you leave water in a pot at room temperature it will gradually all vaporize into the air, leaving the pot empty and dry this process is called evaporation it takes place at any temperature factors affecting the rate of evaporation:
temperature movement of air humidity of surrounding air surface area of the liquid
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates[] have the general formula [CH2O]n they function in
short-term energy storage, such as sugar as intermediate-term energy storage, such as starch for plants and glycogen[] for animals as structural components in cells, such as cellulose[] in the cell walls of plants and many protists[], and chitin[] in the exoskeleton[] of insects and other arthropods[]
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Carbohydrates
sugars are structurally the simplest carbohydrates. they are the structural unit which makes up the other types of carbohydrates Monosaccharides[] are single (mono=one) sugars if several sugar rings are joined together, the resulting molecule is called an oligosaccharide[] (oligo means few in Greek)
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Carbohydrates
Disaccharides
Disaccharides[] are formed when two monosaccharides are chemically bonded together examples are sucrose[]and lactose[]
Common carbohydrates
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Oligosaccharides
oligosccharides are carbohydrate molecules made up of fewer than ten monosaccharide units, and are still generally referred to as sugars rather than starches the three- and four-unit oligosaccharides raffinose[] and stachyose[]are present in beans but are not digestible by humans
Polysaccharides
polysaccharides are large molecules composed of individual monosaccharide units many sugar molecules are joined together to form long strings, e.g. cellulose, amylose[ ]and amylopectin[] a common plant polysaccharide is starch cellulose is the constituent of plant cell walls that gives them stiffness and strength which very few organisms can break and digest in contrast, starch forms a staple food of many plants and animals which possess enzymes that allow them to digest starch
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Sugars
food sugars are made up of rings of 4 or 5 carbon atoms and one oxygen atom, with 1 or 2 more carbon atoms attached on the side of the ring the single ring sugars will generally release more energy than the multiple ring sugars when burnt there are different enzymes for the reduction of different sugars most plants produce sucrose while most mammals tends to produce lactose
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Glucose
Glucose[] is also called dextrose it is a simple sugar, and the most common sugar from which living cells directly extract chemical energy it is found in many fruits and in honey, but always in a mixture with other sugars glucose is the major component of sucrose a chain of two glucoses is called maltose[ ]
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Glucose
it is made up of a single ring and called monosaccharide
it normally exists in a different form other than straight chain formcyclic/ ring structures the ring of glucose consists of five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom There are two versions of glucose-glucose and -glucose
for -glucose, the OH at carbon number 1 is below the ring for -glucose, if the OH at carbon number 1 is above the ring
Glucose
cooks encounter it most often as the sweet substance in corn syrup, which is made by breaking starch down into individual glucose molecules and small glucose chains compared to table sugar, or sucrose, glucose is less sweet, less soluble in water, and produces a thinner solution it melts and begins to caramelize[] at around 150C
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Sucrose
it the scientific name for table sugar it is a composite molecule made of one molecule each of glucose and fructose consist of two rings joined together and called disaccharides green plants produce sucrose in the process of photosynthesis, and we extract it from the stalks of sugar cane and the storage stems of sugar beets
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it is a useful substitute for table sugar in cold drinks, where it can provide the same sweetness with half the concentration and a calories savings approaching 50% in hot coffee, however, its sweetness drops to the level of table sugar 51
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Sucrose
It is composed of two simple monosaccharides
it contains equal amounts of glucose and fructose but not as a mixture of two different molecules The glucose and one fructose are joined together through the removal of a molecule of water between the OH at carbon number 1 of -glucose and the OH on carbon number 2 of -glucose
Sucrose
Removal of a molecule of H2O between glucose and fructose forms sucrose. The fructose molecule has been turned 180 and inverted in these diagrams.
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Sucrose
it is the second sweetest, after fructose, but is alone in having a pleasant taste even at the very high concentrations found in candies and preserves; other sugars can seem harsh it is also the second most soluble sugartwo parts can dissolve in one part of roomtemperature water and it produces the greatest viscosity, or thickness, in a water solution sucrose begins to melt around 160C and caramelizes at around 170C
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Sucrose
when a solution of sucrose is heated in the presence of some acid, it breaks apart into its two subsugars breaking sucrose into glucose and fructose is often referred called invert sugar or invert syrup Inversion refers to a difference in optical properties between sucrose and a mixture of its components parts invert syrups are about 75% glucose and fructose, 25% sucrose
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Sucrose
invert sugar only exists as a syrup, since the fructose component wont fully crystallize in the presence of glucose and sucrose sucrose inversion and invert sugars are useful in candy making because they help in limit the extent of sucrose crystallization
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-galactose has C#4 OH above the ring while -glucose has C#4 OH is below the ring. These two molecules combine to form lactose.
Structure of the lactose molecule Galactose on the left is joined through C#1 to C#4 of glucose on the right.
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Sweetness
a sweet taste indicates that fruit is ripe Sour taste tells us there are still lots of acids present unripe fruit may cause a stomachache bitter taste in plants often indicates the presence of a type of compound, known as an alkaloid, which is often poisonous the relationship between chemical structure and sweetness is complicated
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Sweetness
one simple model, known as the A-H,B Model suggests that a sweet taste depends on an arrangement of a group of atoms within a molecule
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Sweetness
these atoms (A and B in the diagram) have a particular geometry, allowing atom B to be attracted to the hydrogen atom attached to atom A this results in the short-term binding of the sweet molecule to a protein molecule of a taste receptor, causing a generation of a signal (transmitted through nerves) informing the brain, this is sweet
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Sweetness
there are many sweet compounds other than sugar, and not all of them are good to eat, such as
ethylene glycol[]: it has a sweet taste but it is very poisonous glycerol: it has a very similar structure to ethylene glycol and also tastes sweet but it is safe to be consumed in moderate amount
it is used as an additive in many prepared foods because of its viscosity and high water solubility it occurs naturally in wine when you swirl a glass of wine, the legs that form on the glass are due to the presence of glycerol increasing the viscosity and smoothness characteristic of good vintages 64
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Starch
starch is formed by many plants in small granules from a cooking point of view, the amount of protein and its location in the starch granules is crucial
starch granules with a high protein content will absorb a lot of moisture at room temperature while those with low protein contents absorb little water
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Starch
starch consists of molecules of the complex carbohydrates amylose and amylopectin packed into a starch granule when you heat flour in liquid, the starch granules absorb water molecules, swell and soften
when the temperature of the liquid reaches approximately 60C the amylose and amylopectin molecules inside the granules relax and unfold, breaking some of their internal bonds (bonds between atoms on the same molecule) and forming new bonds between atoms on different molecules
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Starch
the result is a network that traps and holds water molecules the starch granules then swell, thickening the liquid
Starch granule
Starch
Starch molecules inside Protein molecules around the outside Aggregated Granules Protein molecules absorb water and expand Stretched aggregate
Swollen granule
if you continue to heat the liquid (or stir it too vigorously), the network will begin to break down, the liquid will leak out of the starch granules, and the sauce will separate
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Cellulose
cellulose is a polymer of glucose it is a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls it forms the fibrous part of the plant cell wall in terms of human diets, cellulose is indigestible, and thus forms an important, easily obtained part of dietary fiber as compared to starch and glycogen, which are each made up of mixtures of - and glucoses, cellulose (and the animal structural polysaccharide chitin) are made up of only glucoses
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Cellulose
the three-dimensional structure of the structural polysaccharides is thus constrained into straight microfibrils by the uniform nature of the glucoses, which resist the actions of enzymes (such as amylase) that breakdown storage polysaccharides (such a starch)
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Cellulose
long cellulose chains pack tightly together, forming the rigid, insoluble fiber of which plant cell walls are constructed cellulose chains lie side by side on bundles the shape of a linkage confers on the structure allows the cellulose chains to pack closely enough to form these bundles which then twist together to form fibers visible to the naked eye
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Cellulose
on the outside of the bundles are the OH groups that have not taken part in the formation of the long cellulose chain, and these OH groups can attract water molecules, thus cellulose can take up water human and all other mammals lack the digestive enzymes needed to break down linkages in these structural polysaccharides so we cannot use them as a food source
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Cellulose
but we do have a digestive enzyme that splits an linkage the configuration is found in the storage polysaccharidesstarch and glycogen storage polysaccharide in plant are amylose and amylopectin storage polysaccharide in animals is glycogen formed mainly in the cells of the liver and skeletal muscle
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Cellulose
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Differences in branching
Cellulose Fibers
The diagram shows different branching in starch compared with glycogen. The greater the branching, the greater the number of chain ends for enzymes to break down the linkages and the faster glucose can be metabolized
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Cooking Sugar
in the kitchen, sugar is a versatile ingredient because sweetness is one of a small handful of basic taste sensations sugar interferes usefully with the coagulation of proteins and so tenderizes the gluten[] network of custards and creams if we heat sugar enough to break its molecules apart, it generates both appealing colors and an increasing complexity of flavor: no longer just sweetness, but acidity, bitterness, and a full, rich aroma
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Honey
honey is largely invert sugar, a mixture of glucose and fructose secondary sources include nectary[] elsewhere on the plant and honeydew, the secretions of a particular group of bugs some nectars are mostly sucrose, some are evenly divided among sucrose, glucose and fructose the most concentrated natural source of sweetness is honey its major ingredient is sugars
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Honey
the stored food of certain species of bees which reaches 80% sugars the principal raw material of honey is the nectar collection from flowers which produce it in order to attract insects and birds the most important sources of nectar [ ]are flowers of plants in the bean family especially clover[] most honey is made from a mixture of nectars from different flowers
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Honey
in the hive[], the bees concentrate the nectar to the point that it will resist bacteria and molds and so keep until it is needed house bees pump the nectar in and out of themselves for 15-20 minutes, repeatedly forming a thin droplet under their proboscises from which water can evaporate until the water content of the nectar has dropped to 50% or 40% the bees then deposit the concentrated nectar in a thin film on the honeycomb which is a waxy network of hexagonal cylinders about 0.2 inch/ 5 mm across 82
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Honey
with the workers keeping the hive air in continuous motion by fanning their wings, the nectar loses more moisture until it is less than 20% water this process is known as ripening[] it takes about three weeks the ripening of honey involves both evaporation and the continuing work of evaporation and the continuing work of bee enzyme
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Honey
Honeycomb, and the anatomy of the worker bee. Worker bees hold freshly gathered nectar in the honey sac, together with enzymes form various glands, until they return to the hive.
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Honey in cooking
with its syrup-like viscosity, glossiness, and range of brown shades, it makes an attractive topping for pastries and other foods it can be substituted for sugar
1 measure of honey equivalent of 1.25-1.5 measures of sugar because it is more hygroscopic or water attracting than table sugar, honey will keep breads and cakes moister than sugar and even absorbing it on humid days
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Honey in cooking
due to its antioxidant[] phenolic[] compounds, it slows the development of stale flavors in baked goods and warmedover flavors in meats bakers can use its acidity to react with baking soda and leaven quickbreads its reactive reducing sugars accelerate desirable browning reactions and the development of flavor and color in the crusts of baked goods in marinades and glazes and other preparations
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Honey in cooking
honey has not been refined the way table sugar and is chemically complex its vitamin content is negligible since the bees get most of theirs from the pollen its antibacterial properties which led early physicians to use it to dress wounds, are due largely to hydrogen peroxide, one of the products of glucose-oxidizing enzyme
Honey in cooking
honey should not be fed to children less than a year old since it often carries the seed-like dormant spores of the botulism bacterium which are able to germinate in immature digestive systems and infant botulism[ ] can cause difficulty in breathing and paralysis
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Making sugar
the cane stalks were first crushed and pressed, and the resulting juice was cleared of many organic impurities by heating it with lime and a substance such as egg white which would coagulate and trap the coarse impurities in a scum, that could be skimmed off the remaining liquid was then boiled down in a series of shallow pans until it had lost nearly all of its water, and poured into cone-shaped clay molds then it was cooled, stirred, and allowed to crystallize into raw sugar, a dense mass of sucrose crystals coated with a thin layer of syrup 89
Making sugar
the clay cones were left to stand inverted for a few days, during which time the syrup film would run off through a small hole in the tip in the final phase, a fine wet clay was packed over the wide end of the cone, and its moisture was allowed to percolate through the solid block of sugar crystals for eight to ten days the resulting sugar was generally yellowish
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Making sugar
the sucrose is whitened by the technique of decolorization[], in which granular carbona material like activated charcoal [ ]that can absorb undesirable molecules on its large surface areais added to the centrifuged, redissolved sugar after it absorbs the last remaining impurities, the charcoal is filtered out the final crystallization process is carefully controlled to give individual sugar crystals of uniform size table sugar consists of purely 99.85% sucrose
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Making Sugar
Sugar cane Refined sugar 1. wash 2. dissolve Cane juice 1. heat, clarify 2. heat under vacuum, evaporate water and concentrate Dark brown syrup 1. crystallize 2. centrifuge
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1. wash, mill
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Sugar
Caramelization
Caramelization[] is the chemical reactions that occur when any sugar is heated to the point that its molecules begin to break apart this destruction triggers a remarkable cascade of chemical creation the more the sugar is cooked, the less sugar and sweetness remain, and the darker and more bitter is gets
Under a microscope, you can see that sugar crystals arent cubes, exactly, but oblong and slanted at both ends.
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Jam
sugar helps set preserves by interacting with pectin, a carbohydrate that forms an invisible network that sets jams and jellies without sufficient sugar, pectin molecules would be more likely to bond with water than with each other but sugars affinity for moisture takes some water out of circulation, leaving pectin[] molecules free to reach each other
Jam
the successful setting of jams and jellies depends on a balance between pectin, acid, and sugar if you want a low-calorie jam, try low-sugar pectin
they gel differently as pectin combines with calcium and very little sugar less sugar means jams and jellies spoil more easily, so consider making your low-calorie jam the freezer variety, or process it in a hot water bath
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the considerable amount of sugar in regular jams also acts as a preservative, to keep microorganisms from growing 96
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Proteins
Protein[] is a special class of polymers made up by joining together amino acids[ ] there are more than 20 different amino acids and each amino acid is made up of about 20 atoms possible to select from the almost infinite range of possible protein molecules ones that have particular shapes and perform specific tasks
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Proteins
the shape of the proteins gives them particular biological function,
e.g. the protein haemoglobin is designed to carry oxygen around in the blood
the shapes of protein molecule is determined both by the sequence of amino acids along its length and by internal bonds between different amino acids there are several types of internal bonds that can form links between the amino acids in proteinsdisulphide bridge or hydrogen bond
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Proteins
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Denaturation
Denaturation[] is the process that the internal bonds of the proteins are broken and thus their shape changes from that in the natural state heat in cooking is a cause of denaturation all molecules vibrate all the time amplitude of these vibrations increases as the temperature is increased if the vibrations are strong enough, the molecules can literally shake itself free of its internal bondsuse this property of proteins to fight infection
viruses are complex molecules which can be very sensitive to heating
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Denaturation
most proteins are denatured at temperatures around 40C when the proteins are heated to higher temperatures, they start to undergo chemical reactions that can cause them to break up or to join together into even larger molecules
e.g. when cooking an egg, the egg proteins denature once the temperature is above 40C and they start to react together to cook the egg once the temperature is above about 75C which makes the egg changes from liquid solution of proteins into solid mass
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Gluten
the wheat kernel contains several proteins, including gliadin[] and glutenin[ ] when you mix flour with water, gliadin and glutenin clump together in a sticky mass kneading the dough relaxes the long gliadin and glutenin molecules, breaking internal bonds between individual atoms in each gliadin and glutenin molecule and allowing the molecules to unfold and form new bonds between atoms in different molecules the result is a network structure made of a new gliadin-glutenin compound called gluten
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Gluten
gluten is very elastic the gluten network can stretch to accommodate the gas (carbon dioxide) formed when you add yeast to bread dough or heat a cake batter made with baking powder or baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), trapping the gas and making the bread dough or cake batter rise when you bake the dough or batter, the gluten network hardens and the bread or cake assumes its finished shape
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Gluten
glutenin gliadin
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d e
prepare a baked custard mixture, pour it into individual serving dishes, and place all except one in a shallow pan with hot water halfway up the sides of the custard on the oven rack beside the water bath, and bake all the custards the same length of time compare this custard to one cooked in the water bath when they are cooled, turn each onto a plate and examine it carefully
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Cooking egg
the proteins of egg white are globular proteinstake shapes similar to the micelles that soap and detergents form in water
as a result they move around easily in the blood and other fluids, available to do their chemical work where they are needed enzymes are examples of globular proteins
the hydrogen bonds of egg whites proteins hold the long protein molecules in their globular form, giving the white its characteristic consistency and transparency
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Cooking egg
heating an egg white, as we do when we cook the egg, overcomes the hydrogen bonds that hold the protein in its higher structures and allows the molecule to unravel it comes in contact with other protein molecules which have also unraveled from their globular shapes it is a way to denature the native proteins of an egg white the heat breaks the hydrogen bonds that hold its molecules in their native secondary and higher structures
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Cooking egg
the proteins then regroup on other ways that produce the texture and appearance of the cooked egg another way to denature proteins is by stretching the molecules
happens when liquid is accelerating, all the liquid becomes stretched out, provided that the flow is fast enough, the proteins dissolved in it can be extended in a static solution, the proteins are in the natural state and they are tight coils in the flow, the proteins can stretch out and become long strings
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Fats
all fats produced by plants and animals are used to store energy energy is released by a process called oxidation which is the reaction of fat with oxygen this reaction generates a lot of heat fats consist a short strings of carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms most fat encountered in cooking have three strings all joined together at one end (about 10 to 20 carbon atoms in each string)
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Fatty acids
every molecule of fat incorporates their molecules of fatty acids the fatty acids may be either saturated or unsaturated, and they thereby impart those qualities to the fat as a whole fatty acids are generally bad-tasting and foul-smelling chemicals they are tamed by being chemically fastened to a chemical called glycerol, in the ratio of three fatty acid molecules to each glycerol molecule
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Fatty acids
three fatty acid molecules tied to a glycerol molecule constitute one molecule of fat fatty acids are the acids that are found as components of fats they are members of a larger family that chemists call carboxylic acids they are very weak acids a fatty acid molecule consists of a ling chain of as many as 16-18 carbon atoms, each one of which carries a pair of hydrogen atoms
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Fatty acids
if the chain contains its full complement of hydrogen atoms, the fatty acid is said to be saturated[] but if somewhere along the chain one pair of hydrogen atoms is missing, the fatty acid is said to be monounsaturated if two or more pairs of hydrogen atoms are missing, it is said to be polyunsaturated some common fatty acids are stearic acid (saturated), oleric acid (monounsaturated) and linoleic and linolenic acids (polyunsaturated)
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Saturated fats
saturated fats have the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon atoms each carbon atom in the chain is attached to two hydrogen atoms and two carbon atoms carbon atoms are joined by single bonds
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Unsaturated fat
unsaturated fats have two or more of the carbon atoms joined together by a double bond and have only one hydrogen attached
Mono-unsaturated fatstwo carbons are joined by a double bond Poly-unsaturated fatsseveral pairs of carbons are joined by double bonds
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in physiology, EFAs are named by the position of the first double bond from the omega end
they form lipid rafts (affecting cellular signaling) they act on DNA (activating or inhibiting transcription factors for NFB, a pro-inflammatory cytokine) 127
For example, the term omega-3 signifies that the first double bond exists as the third carboncarbon bond from the terminal CH3 end of the carbon chain
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Essential Oils
essential
in the sense of being indispensable means simply that the substance is the aromatic essence
they can be obtained in pure form by steam distillation, or by extraction into cold fat, hot fat, or volatile organic solvents that can be evaporated away many essential oils are terpenes, a class of unsaturated hydrocarbons
e.g. menthol in oil of peppermint, limonene in orange and lemon oil, and zingerone
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Olive Oils
Olive Oils
There are five retail grades for olive oils[] :
Extra-virgin olive oil comes from the first pressing of the olives, contains no more than 0.8% acidity, and is judged to have a superior taste. There can be no refined oil in extra-virgin olive oil. Virgin olive oil with an acidity less than 2%, and judged to have a good taste. There can be no refined oil in virgin olive oil. Olive oil is a blend of virgin oil and refined virgin oil, containing at most 1% acidity. It commonly lacks a strong flavor. Olive-pomace oil is a blend of refined pomace olive oil and possibly some virgin oil. It is fit for consumption, but it may not be called olive oil. Olive-pomace oil is rarely found in a grocery store; it is often used for certain kinds of cooking in restaurants. Lampante oil is olive oil not used for consumption; lampante comes from olive oil's ancient use as fuel in oil-burning lamps. Lampante oil is mostly used in the industrial market.
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among food oils, olive oil is unique for being extracted not from a dry grain or nut, but from a fleshy fruit, and for carrying the prominent flavors of that fruit quality is judged by its overall flavor and by its content of free fatty acids, or fatty carbon chains that should be bound up in intact oil molecules but instead are floating free
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pH scale
the acidity of fruits, vegetables, and other ingredients can be measured using a scale called pH the pH of a solution is a measure of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution and as such is a measure of the acidity or basicity of the solution the letters pH stand for "power of hydrogen" the pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration expressed in mole per liter
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pH scale
the logarithm of a number is the exponent, or power, to which 10 must be raised in order to obtain the number each increment of 1 in pH signifies an increase or decrease in portion concentration by a factor of 10 so there are 1000 times the number of hydrogen ions in a solution of pH 5 as there are in a solution of pH 8
pH scale
the usual range of pH values encountered is between 0 and 14 the pH of neutral, pure water, with equal numbers of protons and OH ions, is set at 7 a pH lower than 7 indicates a greater concentration of protons and so an acidic solution, while a pH above 7 indicates a greater prevalence of protons-accepting groups, and so a basic solution
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pH scale
acidic fruits and vegetables, such as lemons and tomatoes, have a pH of less than 7 foods like egg white and baking soda, with a pH greater than 7, are bases, or alkaline
pH scale
note that most foods you eat are acidic even bland vegetables, such as potatoes, are slightly on the acidic side it is a hidden partner in cookingcapable of exerting a strong influence on color, texture and flavor larger concentrations are described by smaller negative exponents, so a more acidic solution will have a pH lower than 7, and a less acidic, more basic solution will have a pH higher than 7
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pH scale
pure water may contain other combinations of oxygen and hydrogen water tends to dissociate to a slight extent, with a hydrogen occasionally breaking off from one molecule and rebonding to a nearby interact water molecule this leaves one negatively charged OH combination, and a positively charged H3O
pH scale
under normal conditions, a very small number of molecules exist in the dissociated state the number is small but is significant because the presence of relatively mobile hydrogen ions, which are the basic units of positive charge, can have drastic effects on other molecules in solution humans have a specialized taste sensation to estimate proton concentrationsourness
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pH scale
the term used for the class of chemical compounds that release protons into solutions, acids, derives from the Latin, meaning to taste sour the complementary chemical group that accepts protons and neutralizes them are called bases or alkalis the standard measure of proton activity in solutions is pH
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Vitamin C
is an organic acid with antioxidant[] properties the L-enantiomer of ascorbic acid is commonly known as vitamin C. the word vitamin comes from a contraction of two wordsvital (necessary) and amine (a nitrogen-containing organic compound) the C in vitamin C indicates that it was the third vitamin ever identified
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Structure of vitamin C
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Vitamin C
the RDA (recommended daily allowance) of vitamin C for an adult is generally given as sixty mg per day, about that found in a small orange an excess vitamin C is eliminated through the kidneys swallowing a seventy-milligram ascorbic acid pill may not produce quite the same benefits as the seventy milligrams of vitamin C obtained from eating an average-sized orange
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Vitamin C
the main commercial use of vitamin C today is as a food preservative ascorbic acid can be used as
antioxidant: used in home canning of fruit to prevent browning Antimicrobial[] agent: the acidity is increased and can protect against botulism which is the name given to the food poisoning resulting from the toxin produced by the microbe
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Fruits
fruits are unique in the way that they progress from inedibility to deliciousness there are two different styles of ripening among fruits:
dramatic undramatic
Fruits
Dramatic:
when triggered by ethylene, the fruit stimulates itself by producing more ethylene[], and begins to respireto use up oxygen and produce carbon dioxide its flavor, texture, and color change rapidly, and afterwards they often decline rapidly as well such fruits can be harvested while mature but still green, and will ripen well on their own e.g. bananas, pears and tomatoes
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Fruits
Undramatic:
Nonclimacteric fruits dont respond to ethylene with their own escalating ethylene production they ripen gradually and usually dont store sugar as starch once harvested, they get no sweeter, though other enzyme actions may continue to soften cell walls and generate aroma molecules e.g. pineapples, citrus fruits and melons
Fruits
Fruits dont ripen after picking (nonclimacteric) Cherry Citrus fruits (orange, lemon, lime, grapefruit) Cucumber Grape Pineapple Soft berries (blackberry, raspberry, strawberry) Watermelon Fruits continue to ripen after picking (climacteric) Apple Banana Mango Papaya Peach Pear Tomato kiwifruit
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Fruits
these basic styles of ripening determine how fruits are handled in the kitchen using a process called chromatography[ ], scientists can determine what chemical compounds a food contains, producing a display called a chromatogram in chromatograms, showing the flavorproducing compounds of a tree-ripened peach and an artificially ripened one, the difference are striking
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Fruits
the tree-ripened fruit has about twice as many different volatile flavor-producing compoundsand much, much more of each compound Each spike in these chromatograms represents a different flavor compound
Tree-ripened peach Artificially ripened peach
An artificially ripened peach has fewer flavor compounds and less of each compound than a tree-ripened peach
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Fruits
Sugar Content (% of fresh weight) Guava Apricot Peach Pear Cherry Black Currant Grape Orange Pineapple Banana 7 9 9 10 14 10 16 11 13 17 Acid Content (% of fresh weight) 0.4 1.7 0.4 0.1 0.5 3.2 0.2 1.2 1.1 0.3 Ratio of sugar content to acid content 18 5 23 100 28 3 80 9 12 57
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Fruits
as fruits ripen, their sugars accumulate, aromatic compounds form, and the pectin that cements their cells together changes to a more soluble form, so their texture softens fresh fruits do not generally keep well as the ripening process continues in the picked fruits, texture becomes more mushy and flavor deteriorates refrigeration is the key to keep fresh fruits longer as the enzymes that cause ripening work more slowly in the cold
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Fruits
Esters
many fruits owe their characteristic aroma to chemicals called esters an ester molecule is a combination of two other molecules, an acid and an alcohol
some produce of tropical origin, such as cucumbers, tomatoes, eggplants, bananas, snap beans, peppers, winter squash, and sweet potatoes, however, is subject to injury if its stored at temperatures below 10C, thus they are best stored at cool, but not cold, temperatures
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Esters
a typical plant cell contains many different kinds of acids, and several different kinds of alcohol the alcohols are usually by-products of cell metabolism fruits have enzymes that join these basic cell materials into aromatic esters a single fruit will emit many esters, but one or two account for most of its characteristic aroma
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Color change of vegetables when cooking chlorophyll has a porphyrin ring system with an Mg2+ ion in its centre during cooking, this magnesium ion can be replaced by two H+ ions to give a compound called phenophytin this is brown and is responsible for the color of overcooked vegetables
chlorophyll molecule
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Color change of vegetables when cooking the replacement of Mg2+ by two H+ ions takes place most readily in acidic conditions and this is the reason why some cooks add sodium hydrogencarbonate (bicarbonate of soda) when cooking vegetables sodium hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3, is the salt of a strong alkali and a weak acid and is therefore alkaline in solution because of its interaction with water this keeps the cooking water alkaline and minimizes replacement of magnesium ions thus maintaining the green color
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Color change of vegetables when cooking unfortunately, alkalis catalyze the oxidation of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) to dehydroascorbic acid so addition of sodium hydrogencarbonate is not ideal as it accelerates the loss of this vitamin factors that do affect the color of green vegetables during cooking are
the acidity or alkalinity of the water the hardness of the water
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Color change of vegetables when cooking the longer a green vegetable cooks, the more the nature of its chlorophyll changes cooking green vegetables as quickly as possible lessens the damage using tin or iron cooking pans also changes the color of chlorophyll to a dull brown as these metals alter chlorophylls molecular configuration
Color change of vegetables when cooking chlorophyll is equally sensitive to acids not only the acids that you add in cooking like lemon juice, but also the plant acids within the vegetables themselves that escape as the tissues soften in cooking leaving the lid ajar on the saucepan for the first few minutes allows some of the volatile acids to escape, diminishing their effect on the chlorophyll keeping cooking to a minimum also limits chlorophylls exposure to acids
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raw fruits and vegetables turn brown sometimes after you peel and slice them it happens when compounds called phenols react with oxygen in the presence of plant enzymes to form brown pigments or melanin it contributes to the natural coloring of raisins, prunes, dates, and figs
Texture change of Vegetables When Cooking pectins, which are polysaccharides, are present in vegetables, and form waterretaining gels that help to give vegetables their structure during cooking, pectins become soluble and are extracted into the cooking water making the vegetable go mushy
Texture change of Vegetables When Cooking calcium ions, Ca2+, found in hard water, can form cross links between pectin molecules, making them less soluble and keeping the vegetable tough In some countries, the water is relatively hard so:
people cook vegetables in bottled water to reduce this effect and shorten cooking times one of the taps is fitted with a water softener to reduce the level of Ca2+ ions in the water
Texture change of Vegetables When Cooking since most vegetables require some softening during cooking, cooking in hard water means that longer is needed to achieve the optimum softening during this longer cooking time, more chlorophyll is converted to phenophytin and the color of green vegetables becomes browner
the calcium ion content of water can affect the color of cooked vegetables as well as their texture, but indirectly, by its effect on pectin molecules
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Salts
salts in its mineral form is known as halite, formed from the elements sodium and chlorine salts can be used
to add flavor to food to preserve food, such as curing meats and pickling
salty surroundings discourage the growth of microorganisms responsible for food spoilage and food poisoning as they lose water by osmosis in a salty environment
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only the acidity and calcium content of the water affect the color of the beans adding the amount of salt used by cooks does increase the boiling point of water but only by about 0.1 C not enough to make any detectable difference to the speed of cooking vegetables will go soggy if cooked for too long whether salt is added or not very little salt is actually absorbed onto the surface of a bean during cookingtypically 1/10000g of salt per bean which is too little to be tasted by most people
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Chapter 3 Flavors
through chemical reactions, you intensify the flavor of foods by producing volatile compounds that are not present in the uncooked foods chemical reactions that cause food to brown is known as browning reactions browning reactions are responsible for the distinctive flavors of roasted coffee beans, maple syrup, toasted bread, nuts, coconut, dry roasted spices, etc.
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molecules responsible for flavor in vegetables are normally trapped inside the cell walls during cooking, the cell walls are damaged for two reasons:
chemical damage occurs as the cell walls, which are made of cellulose, break down physical damage occurs as water inside the cells boils forming steam, and the cell walls break
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these are natural chemical reactions that affect the food there are many different enzymes that are present in different foods all foods contain enzymes which control biochemical reactions essential for the life of the organism
the reactions can continue once the organisms are being used as food
e.g. ripening of fruit, setting of cheese, and breaking down of proteins in the ageing of meat
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Caramelisation
if the temperature is increased to a sufficient temperature that sugars melt, then more complex reactions occur which start to oxidize the sugar, these are called caramelisation[] reactions caramelisation is the name for the browning that takes place when sugar is heated this is how toffee is made caramelisation begins with the conversion of sucrose to glucose and fructose
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many disaccharide and oligosaccharide sugars will undergo a process known as hydrolysis when heated with some water the water reacts with the oxygen atom joining the sugar rings and breaks the conversion of sucrose to a mixture of fructose and glucose which occurs during the preparation of boiled sweets if sugars are heated further, then additional reactions take place and the rings will open up to form new moleculesthese reactions are generally called degradation reactions degraded sugars form acids 13
Caramelisation
the ring structures of these smaller sugars are then broken open through degradation reactions and these smaller molecules recombine to form chain-like molecules as the complex reactions progress, the color of the system changes from a clear liquid through yellow to dark brown during caramelisation, a whole range of new small flavor molecules are formed many of these molecules have been identified as a range of organic acids that are formed along with the brown colored polymers
Caramelisation
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Caramelisation
as the reaction proceeds, so the new molecules that form tend to be more like the alkaloids [] and have increasingly bitter tastes sugars, with general formula Cn(H2O)n, are decomposed into carbon and water (in the form of steam)
Cn(H2O)n nC + n(H2O)
Cooking Meat
reasons for cooking meat:
to produce browning on the outside
this improves the appearance and also produces flavor and aroma molecules at temperatures of above 140 C a group of chemical reactions called Maillard reactions occurs these take place between carbohydrates and molecules with NH2 groups they make the meat brown and also volatile flavor molecules that give the aroma and taste of roast meat
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Cooking Meat
to decompose molecules of collagen that form the connective tissue of meat
Cooking Meat
other undesirable changes may take place during the cooking of meat, e.g. other protein molecules begin to denature at about 40C and cause the meat to harden meat with a high collagen content (large amounts of connective tissue) will have to be cooked at above 60C to break down the collagen, while meat with little connective tissue would be better cooked at 50C or less to prevent hardening
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connective tissue is the thin translucent film that separates layers of muscle it holds muscles together and attaches muscle to bone too much of it makes the meat tough collagen is a protein in the form of a triple spiral at temperatures above 60C the spiral begins to unwind and the collagen softens, eventually turning into gelatine a soft material that is a constituent of jellies
Cooking Meat
the Maillard reactions do not take place below 140C, which would be far too high a temperature for cooking one way round this is for cooks to use a blow torch to heat the surface of the meat to over 140C for a few moments enough for Maillard browning to occur on the surface but not long enough for this temperature to occur in the bulk of the meat
Cooking Meat
the size of the piece of meat is also important meat is a relatively poor conductor of heat so the temperature inside the meat will lag behind that of the surface this is obvious when you carve a joint that has been roasted in the oven the centre of the joint could be relatively raw and red while the surface is brown
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Maillard reactions
they occur between sugars and amino acids the amino acids can come from any proteins and the sugars from any carbohydrates in the first stage of the reactions, the proteins and the sugar from any carbohydrates are degraded into smaller sugars and amino acids then the sugar rings open, the resulting aldehydes and acids react with the amino acids to produce a wide range of chemicals
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Maillard reactions
the reactions occur between the carbonyl group of a sugar molecule (in the chain form) and an NH2 group to eliminate a molecule of water the NH2 group may be part of an amino acid molecule (that was originally part of a protein molecule) or an amino acid that is still part of a protein chain
in the latter case, it must be an amino acid that has an NH2 group as part of its side chain this side chain is different for each amino acid
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Maillard reactions
products of the Maillard reactions include polymers that are responsible for the brown color of roast meat and small molecules such as maltol that are responsible for aromas
Enzymic Browning
enzymic browning is responsible for the browning of fruit such as apples and bananas once they have been cut or bruised it is not considered to improve the food because the browned fruit is thought to be unattractive in appearance and the reaction does not result in any aroma molecules this browning is caused by the oxidation of compounds related to phenols[](hydroxybenzenes) that are found inside plant cells
Uncooked meat
The Maillard reactions are evident in the appearance of the meat after 25 cooking
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Enzymic Browning
the oxidation occurs when the cells are damaged by cutting or bruising and become exposed to oxygen in the air and enzymes that catalyse the oxidation the product molecule then polymerises to form the brown pigment
Natural Flavor
it is defined as a substance extracted, distilled, or otherwise obtained from plant or animal matter, either directly from the matter itself or after it has been roasted, heated, or fermented a natural flavor does not have to come from the food it is flavoring
e.g. a natural flavor chemical derived from chicken which neednt necessarily taste like chicken, it can be used to flavor a can of beef ravioli
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Artificial Flavor
it is defined by the FDA as any substance that does not fit the definition of a natural flavor synthetic flavoring chemicals are acceptable in all restrictive diets from vegan to kosher, because they are neither animal nor vegetable most of the chemical compounds in both artificial and natural flavors are not recognized as food by our digestive systems and are not metabolized thats why you wont find them listed in the Nutrition Facts chart; they are not nutrients and are at any rate present in only trace amounts 33
Artificial Flavor
each peak represents a different component the height of each peak is related to the amount of that component two identical components would have the same retention time
Gas chromatograms of the volatile components from Coca Cola and Pepsi Cola
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Sugar
sugar combines several useful qualities in one ingredient:
Sugar
the second is high-intensity sweeteners: molecules that provide the sensation of sweetness without supplying many calories, usually because they are hundreds or thousands of times sweeter than sugar, and are used in tiny quantities nonnutritive and low-calorie sweeteners encompass a broad group of substances that evoke a sweet taste or enhance the perception of sweet tastes
there are two main kinds of sugar substitutes the first includes various carbohydrates that provide bulk without being digestible as the sugars
they therefore dont raise blood sugar level as quickly , and supply fewer calories
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Artificial Sweeteners
artificial sweeteners, is also called sugar substitutes, must be approved by the FDA before they can be marketed as well as the geometry of sugars, allowing it to fit and bind to the sweetness receptor, an artificial sweetener needs to be water soluble and nontoxic and not metabolized in the human body these substances are usually hundreds of times sweeter than sugar no artificial sweeteners are free of problems
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Artificial Sweeteners
Ingredient Polydextrose Corn syrup Xylitol Sucrose Fructose crystals Cyclamate Glycyrrhizin Aspartame Acesulfame K Saccharin Sucralose Relative sweetness 0 40 100 100 120-170 3,000 5,000-10,000 18,000 20,000 30,000 60,000 Original source Glucose Starch Fruits, vegetables Sugar cane & beet Fruits, honey Synthetic Licorice root Amino acids Synthetic Synthetic Sucrose + chlorine
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the sweetness of table sugar is represented as 100, a sweetness of 50 means the substance is half as sweet as table sugar
Artificial Sweeteners
some artificial sweeteners decompose on heating and so can be used only in soft drinks or cold foods; some are not particularly soluble; and other have a detectable side taste along with their sweetness, such as aspartame natural nonsugar sweeteners are now being sought from plant sources containing highpotency sweetenerscompounds that can be as much as a thousand times sweeter than sucrose, e.g. Stevia rebaudiana (South American herb), Glycyrrhiza glabra (roots of the licorice plant)
Artificial Sweeteners
artificial sweeteners can be deleterious to health if ingested in very large doses the four that are currently approved for a variety of food uses are aspartame[ ], saccharin[], acesulfame potassium, and sucralose
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Aspartame
aspartame is 100-200 times sweeter than sucrose, is the main ingredient in NutraSweet and Equal It is a combination of two proteins, aspartic acid[] and phenylalanine[ ], and therefore contains the same four calories per gram as any protein and, for that matter, the same four calories per gram as sugar but since its so much sweeter than sucrose, only a tiny amount does the trick
Saccharin
Saccharin[] is the first of the modern artificial sweeteners to be developed (more than 120 years) it has been known for and is about 300 times sweeter than sucrose, is artificial sweetening agent in sweetn Low FDA proposed banning saccharin because of a Canadian study indicating that it causes bladder cancer in humans
Structure of aspartame
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Structure of saccharin
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Saccharin
it is a fine powder it is so sweet that only a very small amount triggers the sweetness response it is non-nutritive it is originally intended as a replacement for sugar in the diet of diabetic patients, it quickly became an accepted sugar substitute for the general population it exhibits a bitter, metallic aftertaste, especially to some individuals, and this effect becomes more evident with increasing concentration
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Acesulfame Potassium
Structure of acesulfame postassium
acesulfame potassium is 130-200 times sweeter than sucrose, is the sweetening ingredient in Sunett and Sweet One is used in combination with other sweeteners in thousands of products worldwide while approved by the FDA, it has been under attack by consumer watchdogs because it is chemically similar to saccharin
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Sucralose
sucralose is 600 times sweeter than sucrose and was approved by the FDA as a general-purpose sweetener for all foods its trade name is splenda it is a chlorinated derivative of sucrose itself, but it doesn't break down significantly in the body
Structure of sucralose
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these products are either potassium chloride (KCl) or mixtures of sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride LoSalt is an example, it contains 66% KCl, 33.3% NaCl, MgCO3 anti-caking agent 46
Flavor Enhancers
Flavor enhancers contribute a delicious or umami taste to foods when used at levels in excess of their independent detection threshold, and they simply enhance flavors at levels below their independent detection thresholds their effects are prominent and desirable in the flavors of vegetables, diary products, meats, poultry, fish and other seafoods They intensify or magnify certain flavors that are already present the best known members of this group are the 5-ribonucleotides and monosodium Lglutamate (MSG) (XII) 47
Glutamic acid
glutamic acid[] or glutamate[ ], which is one of the most common amino acids found in nature, is a umamitaste compound when glutamic acid is not bound together with other amino acids in proteins, it gives food the distinctive umami taste unbound or free glutamic acid is responsible, in part, for the flavorenhancing characteristics of tomatoes, certain cheeses, soy sauce, and other fermented protein products
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MSG
monosodium glutamate[](MSG) is the sodium salt of glutamic acid, and adding MSG to foods increases their glutamate content when added to meat broth, MSG increases the overall taste intensity and makes the broth taste meatier humans and other animals do have a specific taste receptor for MSG Chinese Restaurant Syndrome may result after the consumption of MSG and cause headaches and burning sensations 49
Astringency
astringency is often noticed as a dry, puckery feeling in the mucous membranes lining the mouth, caused by the reaction between compounds called tannins or polyphenols with the protein in your saliva It is perceived as a dry feeling in the mouth along with a coarse puckering of the oral tissue
it usually involves the association of tannins of polyphenols with proteins in the saliva to form precipitates or aggregates sparingly soluble proteins such as those found in certain dry milk powders also combine with proteins and mucopolysaccharides of saliva and cause astringency
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Astringency
astringency may be a desirable flavor property, such as tea
adding milk or cream to tea removes astringency through binding of polyphenols with milk proteins red wine is a good example of a beverage that exhibits both astringency and bitterness cause by polyphenols
astringency is often associated with bitterness, as many polyphenols and tannins also create bitter taste sensations astringent properties can be unpleasant, as they are in unripe bananas or poor wine
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spices generally lack chlorophyll, and include rhizomes or roots (ginger), barks (cinnamon), flower buds (cloves), fruits (pepper) and seeds (nutmeg, mustard)
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zingerone
found in the underground stem of the ginger plant called Zingiber officinale also has an aromatic ring with the same HO and H3C-O groups attached as in capsaicin but with no nitrogen atom
they are small and light enough to evaporate from their source and fly through the air it allows them to rise with our breath into the nose, where we can detect them
high temperatures make volatile chemicals more volatile, so heating herbs and spices liberates more of their aroma molecules and fills the air with their odor
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the sole difference in these two compounds is the double bond position (is arrowed)
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Pungency
strong pungency diminishes our sensitivity to true tastes and aroma
because it usurps some of the attention our brains would normally pay to these other sensations
Pungency
pungency relates to the characteristic hot, sharp, and stinging sensations found in chili peppers, fresh garlic, black pepper and ginger compounds found in several spices and vegetables cause characteristic hot, sharp and stinging sensation sometimes volatile aromatic compounds warn us of a pungent flavor
when you chop a clove of garlic, the aroma that assaults your nose gives warning that youre in for blockbuster flavor
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our sensitivity to pungent flavorings declines with exposure to it and that desensitization lasts for 2-4 days
this is the reason that regular chili-eaters can tolerate hotter dishes than people who enjoy pungent food only occasionally
Pungency
other pungent foods, such as ginger, black pepper, and chili peppers, have very few volatile compounds as a result your nose gets no hint of what to come and these foods catch you by surprise as you take that first unsuspecting bite The whole mouth is assaulted by the searing heat of capsaicinoids (found in chilis), gingerols (found in fresh young ginger and transformed into even more potent compounds as ginger ages), or piperine (found in peppercorns) 69
Pungency
neither a taste nor a smell, but a general feeling of irritation that verges on pain which is caused by two general groups of chemicals:
thiocyanates
are formed in mustard plants and their relatives, horseradish and wasabi, when the plant cells are damaged are usually small, light, water-repelling molecules that readily escape from the food into the air in our mouth, and up our nasal passages stimulate nerve endings that then send a pain message to the brain
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Pungency
alkyl-amides
Pungency
Pungent compound piperine gingerol shogaol zingerone paradol capsaicin
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are found pre-formed in a number of unrelated plants, including the chili, black pepper, ginger, and Sichuan pepper are larger and heavier and therefore less prone to escape the food and get up our nose mostly affect the mouth bind to particular receptors on certain sensory nerves and essentially cause those nerves to become hypersensitive[] to ordinary sensations and thus to register the sensation of irritation or pain
Spice black pepper ginger, fresh ginger ginger grains of paradise chili
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Scovile Scale
Scoville scale is a measure of the hotness of a chilli pepper the greater the number of Scoville units, the hotter the pepper. however, being a natural product, the heat can vary from pepper to pepper, so this scale is just a guide
Scovile Scale
Pepper Bell, Sweet Italian Peperocini New Mexico Ancho, Passila, Poblano Sandia, Rocotillo Jalapeno, Chilpolte Serrano de Arbol Piquin, Aji, Cayenne Habenero, Scotch Bonnet HOTTEST RECORDED*
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Pungency (Scoville) 0 100-500 500-1,000 1,000-1,500 1,500-2,500 2,500-5,000 5,000-23,000 15,000-30,000 30,000-50,000 80,000-300,000+ 577,000
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Capsaicin
Capsaicin[] is the active component of chili peppers, which are plants belonging to the genus Capsicum it is an irritant for mammals including humans and produces a sensation of burning in the mouth capsaicin and several related compounds are called capsaicinoids[] and are produced as a secondary metabolite by chili peppers, probably as deterrents against herbivores
Structure of capsaicin
Capsaicin
pure capsaicin is a lipophilic[] colorless odorless crystalline to waxy compound capsaicin is the main capsaicinoid in chili peppers, followed by dihydrocapsaicin these two compounds are also about twice as hot as the minor capsaicinoids nordihydrocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, and homocapsaicin dilute solutions of pure capsaicinoids produced different types of pungency
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Capsaicin
because of the burning sensation caused by capsaicin when it comes in contact with human flesh, it is commonly used in food products to give them added spice or heat capsaicin is obtained by using chili peppers as the source another common source is hot sauces which may contain pure capsaicin or chili peppers
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Capsaicin
the most effective ways to relieve the burning sensation is to cool the mouth and throat with cool food or cool beverages like yogurt, ice cream, or milk, or something sugary, like juice, sugar, or candy pure capsaicin is poorly soluble in water, but good in fat, oils, and pure alcohol, an oftenheard advice is to eat fatty foods like buttered bread or beverages like whole milk or whipped cream
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Gingerol
Structure of gingerol
Gingerol
ginger is a spice derived from the rhizome of a tuberous perennial, which possesses pungent principles as well as some volatile aroma constituents the pungency of fresh ginger is caused by a group of phenylalkyl ketones gingerol varies in chain length (C5-C9) external to the hydroxyl substituted C atom
Gingerol[] is the active constituent of fresh ginger It is a relative of capsaicin, the compound that gives chili peppers their spiciness it is normally found as a pungent yellow oil, but also can form a low-melting crystalline solid cooking ginger transforms gingerol into zingerone, which is less pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma
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Piperine
Piperine[] is primarily found in the fruit of the pepper vine, piper nigrum on five millimeter spikes known as peppercorns[] it gives peppercorns their hot, biting, and very pungent taste it makes up about 5-7% of the peppercorns it can also be found in other vegetables and spices such as the famous hot jalapeno peppers
Piperine
it is a member of the Lipids family it is an alkaloid found naturally in plants belonging to the Piperaceae family, such as Piper nigrum L, commonly known as black pepper, and Piper longum L, commonly known as long pepper it is naturally a more yellowish powder, while after synthesis it has a stronger green tint to it it is soluble in alcohol, chloroform, ether, benzene and water
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Structure of piperine
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Piperine
it is a weak base that is tasteless at first, but leaves a burning aftertaste it has no taste unless it is dissolved (fully or partially) in a solution the oil in the peppercorns reacts with piperine to give it its flavor when piperine loses its characteristic flavor it becomes known as Chavicine, which has the same molecular formula but a different structure when boiled with alcoholic, caustic potash piperic acid is produced
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Piperine
piperine may enhance the absorption of betacarotene, vitamin B6, Vitamin C and Lselenomethionine found in certain foods brandy is known for having a bit of a pinch in it that pinch is also called piperine the piperine in that spicy food has a habit of stimulating perspiration, which in effect causes a cooling of the body while piperine may sound like a pleasant spice, it can also be a deadly killer piperine can be found in most insecticides, particularly those that kill the common housefly
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Sweetness
Sweetness
sugar makes sour foods seem less sour
the tartness of lemon is offset with sugar in many refreshing desserts and hot weather thirst quenchers
many amino acids, some metallic salts, and unrelated compounds, such as chloroform (CHCL3) and saccharin are sweet receptors recognise hydroxyl (OH) groups on organic molecules including sugars and alcohols the flavor of sugar is unique in that it imparts pure sweetness without aftertaste, but alcohols, their related aldehydes, some amino acids, and glycerol also add sweetness to food 85
small amounts of sugar added to salty solutions have been found to reduce the salty taste a touch of sweetness can also enhance our flavors
a sprinkling of sugar added to the cooking water for corn, carrots, or peas flavors of young vegetables
the presence of natural sugars in fruits and vegetables enhances their aroma
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Sweetness
saporous unit is common to all compounds that cause a sweet sensation
it is a combination of a covalently bound H-binding proton and an electronegative orbital positioned at a distance of about 3 from the proton(1=10-10 m) vicinal electronegative atoms on a molecule are essential for sweetness one of the atoms must possess a hydrogen bonding proton
Saltiness
salty taste is represented by sodium chloride, and is also given by lithium chloride salts have complex tastes, consisting of psychological mixtures of sweet, bitter, sour, and salty perception components receptors respond to ionic solutions dominated by positive ions, such as sodium. Many sodium salts are salty, but saltiness also depends on size of an accompanying anion the saltiness of table salt is attributed to sodium; the chloride portion of the salt molecule has no apparent taste of its own
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hydroxyl-group oxygen atoms can serve either the AH or B function in a molecule simple AH/B relationships can be shown in chloroform, saccharin, and glucose 87
Saltiness
salts and acids enhance each other at moderate concentrations however, at higher concentrations, such as in pickles, they appear to suppress each other salt has also been found to increase perceptions of sweetness sodium salts suppress bitter flavors in addition to drawing forth water from bitter eggplants or cucumbers, salty tastes mask the bitter ones
add a little salt to coffee grounds before the coffee brews can reduce bitterness
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Sourness
receptors[] respond to hydrogen ions and the metal ions in salts, such as sodium ions in table salt sour sensations are associated with acids, which are present in ingredients like vinegar and wine, and in acid salts, like cream of tartar many organic acids contribute to the distinctive flavors of fruits and vegetables they can be broken down during cooking and change to other acids
this may be why cooked apples are less tart than raw apples
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Sourness
some volatile acids evaporate with the steam of cooking; other remain in the cooking water the degree of sourness of a solution does not necessarily correspond to its acidity the juice of a white grapefruit has the same acidity as that of a ruby red grapefruit, but ruby red juice tastes much sweeter citric acid and sugar (sucrose) help reduce the burn of hot peppers and the pungency of black pepper
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Bitterness
bitter molecules appear to have a requirement for only one polar group and a hydrophobic group the orientation of AH/B units within specific receptor sites which are located on the flat bottom of receptor cavities, provides that discrimination between sweetness and bitterness for molecules possessing the required molecular features
molecules that fit into sites that were oriented for bitter compounds give a bitter response; those fitting the orientation of sweetness elicit a sweet response if the geometry of a molecule were such that it could orient in either direction, it would give bitter-sweet responses 92
Bitterness
bitter compounds are part of natures repertoire of protective devices, designed to keep predators away examples of bitter compounds:
caffeine and theobromine which are found in tea, coffee, cocoa, and cola liminin and naringen which are constituents in grapefruit and oranges
Bitterness
sometimes bitterness is caused by the breakdown of molecules, such as the particular proteins in cheese that can lend cured cheeses an undesirable tone bitterness resembles sweetness because of its dependence on the stereochemistry of stimulus molecules, and the two sensations are triggered by similar features in molecules, causing some molecules to yield both bitter and sweet sensations
occasionally, bitter notes appear in avocados, and the particular chemicals contributing to this characteristic have been isolated by scientists in the seed, fresh, and skin of the immature fruit
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Bitterness
Caffeine[] (VII) is moderately bitter at 150-200ppm in water, and occurs in coffee, tea and cola nuts Theobromine[] (VIII) is very similar to caffeine and is present most notably in cocoa, where it contributes to bitterness caffeine is added in concentrations up to 200ppm to soft cola beverages and it is obtained from extractions of green coffee beans 95
Tartar Cream
tartaric acid[] is a brownish-red acid powder (potassium bitartrate) that is precipitated onto the walls of casks used to age wine. It can be refined into a white acid powder, called the tartar cream Tartar cream is an acid powder Tartar cream
makes baking powder when combined with baking soda gives a creamier texture to sugary things like candy and frosting stabilizes and increases the volume of beaten egg whites
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Temperature
the temperature of a food is one important taste sensation frozen foods often require a higher level of seasoning, both because the volatile compounds responsible for aroma are more sluggish at cold temperatures, and because very cold substances can anesthetize the taste buds, dulling your sense of taste
for example, sherbet tastes sweeter in its melted form than in its frozen state
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Temperature
salted foods taste saltier when cold
if the cooking food is planned to be served cold, dont adjust the salt levels while its still hot
taste sensations are reduced if the temperature of the food is above 30C
bitterness of coffee becomes more noticeable when it cools
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Alkaloids
many of the earliest isolated pure compounds with biological activity were alkaloids due to the ease of isolation the nitrogen generally makes the compound basic and the compound exists in the plant as a salt they are often extracted with water or mild acid and then recovered as crystalline material by treatment with base most famous alkaloids are the Solanaceae or tropane alkaloids
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Alkaloids
examples of alkaloids:
Cocaine[]
cocaine
is a central nervous system stimulant, and has been used as a topical anesthetic in ophthalmology is also a drug of abuse was found in very small amounts in the original CocaCola formula
Caffeine[]
acts as a natural pesticide in plants that paralyzes and kills many insects feeding upon them is a central nervous system stimulant, having the effect of warding off drowsiness and restoring alertness
caffeine
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Polyphenols
Polyphenols[] are a group of chemical substances found in plants, characterized by the presence of more than one phenol group per molecule they are responsible for the coloring of some plants, such as the color of leaves in the autumn a class of polyphenols has antioxidant characteristics with potential health benefits and may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease[] and cancer
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Polyphenols
sources of polyphenols include peanuts, green tea, white tea, red wine, olive oil, dark chocolate, and pomegranates green tea contains polyphenolic compounds, which include flavanols, flavandiols, flavonoids, and phenolic most of the polyphenols in green tea are flavanols, commonly known as catechins; the major catechins in green tea are (-)epicatechin, (-)-epicatechin-3-gallate, (-)epigallocatechin, and (-)-epigallocatechin3-gallate (EGCG) in black teas, the major polyphenols are theaflavin and thearubigin 102
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Polyphenols
Tannins
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tannins are astringent, bitter-tasting plant polyphenols that bind and precipitate proteins "Tanning" (waterproofing and preserving) was used to describe the process of transforming animal hides into leather by using plant extracts from different plant parts of different plant species they are divided into hydrolyzable[] tannins and condensed[] tannins 104
Tannins
they can have a large influence on the nutritive value of many foods eaten by humans and feedstuff eaten by animals they are common in fruits, such as grapes, persimmon, blueberry, in tea and in chocolate plant parts containing tannins include bark, wood, fruit, fruitpods, leaves, roots, and plant galls examples of plant species used to obtain tannins for tanning purposes: wattle, oak, eucalyptus, birch, willow, pine, quebracho
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Tannins
they can complex with proteins, starch, cellulose, minerals they are composed of a very diverse group of oligomers and polymers they are common both in Gymnosperms and Angiosperms they are located mainly in the vacuoles or surface wax of the plants where they do not interfere with plant metabolism hydrolyzable tannins are hydrolyzed by weak acids or weak bases to produce carbohydrate and phenolic acids
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Tea
tea plant is an example of a plant with a naturally high tannin content green tea leaves are a major plant source of tannins when any type of tea leaf is steeped in hot water for an excessively long time period it brews a "tart" (astringent) flavor that is characteristic of tannins
Tea
if ingested in excessive quantities, tannins inhibit the absorption of minerals, such as iron, into the body
because tannins are metal ion chelators[], and tannin-chelated metal ions are not bioavailable
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Colorant
color refers to human perception of colored materialsred, green, blue, etc a colorant is any chemical, either natural or synthetic, that imparts color foods have color because of their ability to reflect or emit different quantities of energy at wavelengths able to simulate the retina in the eye the energy range to which the eye is sensitive to as visible light
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Colorant
Pigments[] are natural substances in cells and tissues of plants and animals that impart color dyes are any substances that lend color to materials specific colors of fruits are often associated with maturity
while redness of raw meat is associated with freshness a green apple may be judged immature
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Colorant
substances such as -carotene or riboflavin are not only colorants but nutrients as well many food pigments are unstable during processing and storage prevention of undesirable changes is usually difficult or impossible depending on pigment, stability is impacted by factors such as the presence or absence of light, oxygen, heavy metals, oxidizing or reducing agents; temperature and water activity; and pH
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Colorant
because of the instability of pigments, colorants are sometimes added to food carbon monoxide is sometimes used as color retention of fish
for example, tuna is eaten raw as sashimi, and the desirable colour is red. However, with storage over time and continued exposure to oxygen, the red colour of the meat gradually changes to brown due to oxidation and the conversion of oxymyoglobin to a brown pigment metmyoglobin. Carbon monoxide has been used to treat tuna meat in order to retain its 'fresh' red colour for a longer period of time by converting brown colour to desirable red colour
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Chlorophylls
Chlorophylls[] are the green pigments of leafy vegetables they give the green color to the skin of apples and other fruit, particularly when it is unripe they are the functional pigments of photosynthesis in all green plants they occur in the membranes of the chloroplasts, the organelles which carry out photosynthesis in plant cells
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Chlorophylls
the pigments of the chloroplast are intimately associated with other lipophilic components of the membranes, such as phospholipids, as well as the membrane proteins they are lost naturally from leaves at the end of their active life on the plant this breakdown accompanies a general breakdown of the chloroplast membranes, but the carotenoids are rather more stable so that autumn leaves and vegetables that are no longer fresh have a residual yellow color
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Chlorophylls
when green vegetables are heated, when they are blanched prior to freezing, or during canning, there is evidence for the loss of the phytol[] side chain to give the corresponding chlorophyllide[ ], but the most important event is the loss of the magnesium this occurs most readily in acid conditions, the Mg2+ ion being replaced by protons, to give pheophytins[] pheophytins have a dirty brown color and will be familiar as the dominant pigments in green vegetables such as cabbage that have been overcooked
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Chlorophylls
the acidity of the contents of plant cell vacuoles makes it difficult to avoid phenophytin formation, especially during the rigorous heating involved in canning peas This can be solved by keeping the cooking water slightly alkaline by the addition of a small quantity of sodium bicarbonate but the alkaline conditions have an unhappy effect on the texture and flavor and losses of vitamin C are enhanced
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Chlorophylls
in the canning of peas chlorophyll loss is inevitable and artificial color has to be added organic dyes are universally used, a mixture of tartrazine and Green S being most popular copper salts were identified as having this application, albeit toxic, when it was realized that the bright-green color of pickled vegetables, cooked in vinegar, was owed to the Cu2+ ions leached from the copper cooking vessels
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Carotenoids
Carotenoid[] pigments are responsible for most of the yellow and orange colors of fruits and vegetables they are classed as terpenoids, substances derived in nature from the metabolic intermediate mevalonic acid, which provides the basic structural unit, the isoprene units they occur in all photosynthetic plant issues as components of chloroplasts
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Carotenoids
they are divided into two principal groups:
carotenes, which are strictly hydrocarbons xanthophylls, which contain oxygen
Carotenoids
in tomato, lycopene[] is the major carotenoid orange juice contains varying proportions of cryptoxanthin[], lutein[], antheraxanthin[] and violaxanthin[] together with traces of their carotene precursors egg yolk owes its color to the two xanthophylls[ ], lutein and zeaxanthin, with only a small proportion of -carotene
they are only freely soluble in non-polar organic solvents the absorption spectra bear out the observation that xanthophylls are the dominant pigment in yellow tissues whereas carotenes tend to give an orange color
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Carotenoids
these carotenoids, and the smaller amount that give the fat of animals its yellowish shade, are derived from the vegetable material in the diet the dark greenish-purple pigment of lobster carapace is a complex of protein with astaxanthin[] when lobster is boiled, the protein is denatured and the color reverts to the more typical reddish shade of a carotenoid astaxanthin is also the source of the pink color of salmon flesh
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Anthocyanins
the pink, red, mauve, violet, and blue colors of flowers, fruit, and vegetables are caused by the presence of anthocyanins[] anthocyanins occur in nature as glycosides, these are flavanoids[], i.e. substances based on the flavan[] nucleus a single plant species will also contain considerable numbers of different anthocyanins
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Anthocyanins
cyanidin is the anthocyanidin of red cabbage, pelargonidin occurs in radishes and red-seeded varieties of beans, and delphinidin occurs in aubergines the pH and the presence of other substances have a much greater influence on their color than the nature of the ring substituents
the basic anthocyanidin structure in the flavylium cation form that predominates at low pH values as the pH is raised, a proton is lost, a water molecule is acquired, and the carbinol pseudobase is formed
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Anthocyanins
in most food-processing operations the anthocyanins are quite stable, especially when the low pH of the fruit is maintained however, the ascorbic acid can cause problems
in the presence of iron and copper ions and oxygen the oxidation of ascorbic acid to dehydroascorbic acid is accopanied by hydrogen peroxide formation this will oxidize anthocyanins to colorless malvones, a reaction implicated in the loss of color by canned strawberries
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Melanins
Melanins[] are not regarded as desirable pigments in fruits and vegetables but melanin-type pigments that arise when plant tissues are damaged pale-colored fruit and vegetables, such as apples, bananas, and potatoes, quickly turn brown if air is allowed access to a cut tissue damage caused by slicing or peeling, fungal attack, or bruising will bring enzyme and substrates together
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Melanins
the enzyme, phenolase, occurs in most plant tissues, and a related enzyme, tyrosinase, is found inmammalian skin phenolase is an enzyme in that it catalyses two quite different types of reaction the most important substrate for phenolase in apples, pears, and tomatoes is chlorogenic acid and in onions protocatechuic acid
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Melanins
during fruit and vegetable processing we try to prevent phenolase action, such as
making sure that the fruit and vegetables are blanched as soon as possible after any tissuedamaging operations will reduce phenolase action to a minimum reducing contact with air by immersion in water is also common practice
Melanins
ascorbic acid is not only valued as a vitamin but it is also a good chelating agent and antioxidant it interacts directly with the quinones to prevent browning and, if sufficient is used, will mop up the oxygen in closed containers such as cans the enzymic oxidation of polyphenolic substances is a highly desirable feature of tea
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Soft Matter
solid, liquids and gases are combined in foams[], in emulsions[], where bubbles of one liquid float in another without mixing tiny specks of a solid substance are distributed throughout another material, typically a liquid, the inclusions are arranged randomly in the surrounding medium thats why these materials tend to have freeform shapes that are easily transformed foam and the other combined systems are called soft matter, which is neither flowing freely like a true liquid nor taking on the hard definite shape of a rigid solid
Soft Matter
Soapsuds[]:
it is neither fully liquid nor completely gaseous it flows differently from the first and does not dissipate like gaseous its components are stable, yet it lives only a short while it is made from clear air and water, yet it is opaque while neither air nor water sticks to the hand in any great quantity, if you scoop soapsuds onto the palm of your hand, and turn the hand over, the suds remain in place in most ways, a foam is totally unlike the substances that make it up
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Foams
a foam is defined as a gas dispersed in a liquid where the gas bubbles are the discrete phase there are many food foams including whipped creams, ice cream, carbonated soft drinks, mousses, meringues, and the head of a beer a foam is likewise unstable and needs a stabilizing agent to form the gas bubble membrane it is evident that bubble diameter is so large as to exclude foam bubbles from realm of colloids
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Foams
large diameters, combined with large density difference, cause foam bubbles to cream faster than emulsion droplets by several orders of magnitude foams can be formed within solids, such as the bubbles within risen bread, generally begin as liquid foams foams contain bubbles of various sizes, yet most are tiny a wet foam means it is more liquid than gas
Foams
if you put the bottle down, and wait, the foam changes slowly, the proportion of liquid decreases as the water between bubbles drains downwards under the pull of gravity it is easy to see that it is happening, because a layer of clear water appears and gradually deepens beneath the foam as drainage continues, the wet foam becomes something more complex: a dry foam, with more gas than liquid
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Foams
the walls between adjoining bubble become very thin and bubbles press against each other in some places, the wall is breached, and two bubbles join into one also smaller bubbles contain air at higher pressure, which moves through their walls into the larger bubbles both processes coarsen the foam, giving it more big bubbles as it ages the shape of bubbles also changes
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Foams
rainbows of color shown in the bubble come from the interference of light waves within the films to make a foam, a surfactant is needed, but not all surfactants are suitable to make a stable foam
a fairly low concentration of surfactant suffices
Foams
there are various ways to make foams:
by generating gas within a liquid, as when the bubbles are put into champagne[]; by allowing gas that was held under pressure within a liquid to flow out, as when soda spurts from an opened can by mixing gas or vapor into a liquid, as when air is beaten into egg whites to make a meringue[ ], or hissing steam froths milk for a cappuccino
for most surfactants, Ostwald ripening will be substantial even during foam formation, implying that very small bubbles will soon disappear and the bubble size distribution will become narrow as soon as beating stops, bubbles rise rapidly and form a foam layer
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Foams
hissing steam froths milk for a cappuccino
bubbles stream from the nozzle and float upward like hot-air balloons, eventually reaching the surface to form densely packed layers on the top of the milk while foam grows, it also begins to decay, as its oldest bubbles die
Supersaturation
a gas, usually CO2 or N2O, because of their high solubility, is dissolved in the liquid at high pressure when the pressure is released, gas bubbles form they do not form by nucleation a spontaneously formed gas bubble would have a radius of, say, 2nm, which would imply a Laplace pressure of about 108 Pa
most foams are short-lived and must be examined on the fly even in a long-lived foam, it is difficult to register all the bubbles as they change foams can be made in two ways, by supersaturation or mechanically
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Supersatuation
to give an example, if a pressurized bottle of a carbonate liquid is opened, the overpressure is released, CO2 becomes supersaturated, and it diffuses toward small air pockets in the bottle wall these grow, and become dislodged when large enough, leaving a remnant from which another bubble can grow the bubbles rise while growing further, and a foam is formed these bubbles always are fairly large, say 1mm
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Supersatuation
another example is the formation of CO2 in a leavened dough excess CO2 collects at sites of tiny entrapped small air bubbles, and these sites grow in size some of them grow to form visible gas cells, creating a macroscopic foam structure
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Food Foams
a gas stream can be led through narrow openings into the aqueous phase; this causes bubbles to form, but they are fairly large smaller bubbles can be made by beating air into the liquid at first, large bubbles form, and these are broken up into progressively smaller ones
Food Foams
shear forces are typically too weak to obtain small bubbles and the breakup mechanism presumably involves pressure fluctuations in a turbulent field, as is true during formation of o/w emulsions bubbles of about 0.1 mm can be obtained in this way, which is the method of choice in industrial processing the method also enables the amount of air incorporated to be controlled this is often expressed as percent overrun, the relative increase in volume
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Food Foams
many liquid foams are made up in kitchen by beating or whipping
egg white, whose constituent proteins provide good surfactants egg yolk has fat particles which act as antifoams cream of tartar acts as a stabilizing agent
Ostwald Ripening
Ostwald Ripening happens most rapidly at the top of foam layer, because the air can diffuse directly to the atmosphere and the layer of water between bubbles and atmosphere is very thin it occurs also inside a foam at a significant rate within minutes after formation, noticeable coarsening of the bubble size distribution often occurs it happens most rapidly at the top of foam layer, because the air can diffuse directly to the atmosphere and the layer of water between bubbles and atmosphere is very thin
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Surface Tension
the geometry of a foam is sculpted by natural forces when water sits motionless in a beaker, all of its molecules are in constant motion these molecules attract each other, and that the fact goes far in explaining how water supports bubbles and foam they form because of the force called surface tension which is due to molecular attraction
Surface Tension
if your tweezers close around a target deep within the water, that molecule can be easily pulled loose
the reason is that all the neighboring molecules attract the target they surround it in three dimensionsabove and below, left and right, front and back all their pulls average out to zero
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Surface Tension
no molecular force opposes the downward pull, which you feel as resistance to your efforts this is the surface tension[], which pulls molecules on the open surface of a liquid toward the interior of the liquid, making a drop of water behave as if it were coated with a taut elastic skin surface tension appears throughout nature and is responsible for the formation of drops of water and bubbles of gas within water
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Edible Foams
there are many edible foams that could make a tasty and satisfying meal, such as a frothy soup, a cheese souffl and chocolate mousse, ice cream, marshmallows, milk shakes, cappuccino edible foams begins as gas mixed into liquid for some, the gas is a by-product; for others, it is deliberately added
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Edible Foams
in bread and beer, the liquid is water, laden with complex molecules that behave as surfactants, and the gas carbon dioxide this gas is a bonus from the process of fermentation, in which yeast turns sugar into alcohol in both bread and beer in most foamy foods the liquid foam is cooked or baked (whipped cream is an exception), which alters its flavor and makes it firmer
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Beers
there is a huge range in beers depending on the variations in
starting materials flavoring agents processing procedures
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Beers
along with resin[]-containing compounds from the hops[], polysaccharides make beer viscous as they drain slowly out of any foam that forms, making the foam last longer beers made with cereal adjuncts contain proteins that are more likely to link together and enhance the foam foam affects the taste of beer, because it traps some of the compounds that define the aroma of beer
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Beers
if these compounds are prevented from entering your mouth and reaching the smell receptors in your nose, the flavor of the beer youre drinking is diminished, because smell is an essential component of taste therefore the head on a beer can seriously affect the perception of its flavor the head can be controlled
it depends on the height, speed, and angle of pouring, and the shape of the glass into which the beer is pouring
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Beers
the head on a beer is also sensitive to any hint of oil or fat, which diminishes the foam, beer glasses should be well washed they also must be free of any trace of soap, which also reduces the head beer that has smaller bubbles of uniform size tends to have a more stable foam beer foam stability can be increased by increasing concentrations of malt proteins, metal cations[], and hop iso--acids, whereas it is generally reduced by increasing amounts of lipids, protein modification, and ethanol 29
Beers
in unpasteurized[] beer, enzymes such as proteinase A reduce beer foam stability interactions between beer components also have an effect on foam stability, such as the cross-linking of malt proteins with polypeptides other influences on beer foam stability include the addition of artificial foam stabilizers, and the nature of the packaging natural proteins are the surfactants in beer dissolved nitrogen has been found to be helpful in creating a fine, stable foam, and it is nitrogen which is injected into beer from a plastic inset
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Soda
people drank sparkling water because they enjoyed its fizz and its slightly sour flavor
the fizzing action comes because carbon dioxide in water yields highly diluted carbonic acid
Soda
the production of carbonated soda in beverage company involves :
the basic Coca-Cola syrup is blended with water then the mixture is chilled to a few degrees above freezing, which makes it easier for it to take up carbon dioxide and reduces the tendency to foam the gas is added in stainless steel tanks filled with carbon dioxide, after the liquid has been vaporized in diffusers, which makes it more permeable to the gas
the fizzing action and perhaps the acidity affect the taste buds so they are more sensitive to food flavors
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different brands of soda have different degrees of carbonation, which is controlled by varying the pressure in the tank 32
Champagne
the opposite end of the luxury spectrum from soda is champagne, a unique sparkling wine that uses the carbon dioxide created during fermentation the height and stability of foam depends on proteins in the wine and the polysaccharides that thicken the wine the presence of iron in the base wine contributes to the foam
because the iron bonds with proteins can make a stronger surfactant than the proteins alone
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Champagne
the height and durability of the foam are affected by the type of grape and the blending and aging of the wines wine aged for 9 months gave the tallest foams, whereas wine aged for 18 months gave the most stable ones foaming capability and foam stability obtained from sparkling wines is usually tested by a dynamic foam stability method the proteins and polysaccharides from the grapes used for wine-making are an important factor in foam formation and stability
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Champagne
Espresso
the word espresso means pressed out a foam layer helps trap coffee aromas, providing a more gradual release espresso is rich brew of sugars, fats, proteins, and carbohydrates, including polysaccharides the proteins are the surfactants that make the crema, and the polysaccharides help by increasing the viscosity of the coffee so that it drains slowly from the foam
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the variety of grape used could also have an effect on foam formation due to differences in the concentrations and types of proteins and other species it also appears that the extent on the foaminess even a certain amount of iron appears to contribute to the foam stability
Espresso
the crema slows down the release of volatile compounds that carry aroma golden-brown crema signifies a well-made cup of espresso
crema is produced as the water is pushed through and past the close-packed grains of coffee espresso is made by quickly forcing hot water under high pressure through finely ground roasted coffee compacted into a dense mass the appearance of a substantial crema shows that water mixes well with coffee it is important not only because of its pleasing look, but also the flavor
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Espresso
there is also the hot foamed milk that is added to espresso to make a latte or a cuppuccino unlike the making of espresso, this foaming is still done by steam a pipe delivers steam deep inside a pitcher of milk, where it produces multitudes of bubbles
these bubbles survive as a foam because milk contains proteins that act as surfactants
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Milk
milk is mostly water, looks white and opaque for the same reason foam does
as it is full of inclusions and small globules of fat that scatter light
Milk
the result is a froth that persists even after removal from the steam
this explains why foamed milk is hard to refoam once it has collapsed and each time milk is foamed, its proteins lose some capacity to strengthen foam
contains several kinds of proteins made of amino acids held together by internal bonds heating milk under the baristas steam wand denatures the proteins, that is, breaks the bonds so that a spherical protein, for instance, unravels into long coil-shaped molecules, which bond with each other in new ways that do not re-create the original 39 molecules, but form a network
the quality of the foam depends on the brand and type of milk and its temperature
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Milk
warm skim milk is less frothy than the cold variety, and whole milk at room temperature or warmer hardly foams at all
therefore cold skim milk is the best choice
the degree of foaming has been found to increase with the degree of roast and the amount of protein in the coffee the stability of the produced foam has been related to the amounts of galactomannan[] and arabinogalactan[]
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first, as small force drags some of the liquid with them, and create a pulling force that unfolds the compacted protein molecules second, because water and air are very different physical environments, the simple mixing of air into the whites creates an imbalance of forces that also tugs the proteins out of their usual folded shape
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the protein network begins to collapse when too many of these bonds accumulate and the proteins cluster together too tightly fortunately, there are simple ways for the cook to limit the accumulation of bonds and prevent the collapse of albumen foams
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cooks usually mix sugar and whites at the outset in order to obtain a very firm and dense foam
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Egg White
egg white is nearly a perfect agent for strong and fluffy foams in nature it is water that contains dissolved solids, mostly proteins, whereas egg yolk has a large proportion of fat and other constituents when egg whites are whisked, air is included at the same time, the twisted protein spiral unfolds and stretches capturing and surrounding the air in a stable foam
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Egg White
egg white protein is elastic, enabling captured air to expand with heat without damaging the foam for maximum foaming, it is important to use a clean glass or porcelain bowl and a clean egg whisk the egg yolk and white must be separated carefully, because a drop of yolk will lessen the foaming ability of the egg white
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Egg White
when heated, the protein coagulates to light crisp[] texture when egg and sugar are whipped over water, the volume of the foam increases whisked egg white is added to souffls or mixtures for baking, to include more air the air expands with heat and thus acts as a raising agent
Egg White
Meringue[] is a mixture of egg whites and sugar thoroughly beaten together with air, then baked until it is dry and turns brown on top structure that makes the meringue stiff and upstanding comes from certain proteins in the egg whites; these proteins become denatured as vigorous beating mixes them with air, and they recombine into delicate network this traps air that the beating has forced into egg whites, making the basic foamy structure
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Egg White
the heat of baking denatures other proteins into coil-shaped elements that coagulate to strengthen the structure, and the heat also expands the trapped air to make the meringue puff up not even a drop of egg yolk can be allowed into the egg whites, or the volume of the beaten foam is dramatically reduced the reason is in the fat in the yolk
fats and oils reduce surface tension egg whites tainted by fat cannot rise high into a fluffy meringue
Egg White
it is better to use a copper bowl for beating egg whites
copper has the useful tendency to form extremely tight bonds with reactive sulfur groups, so tight that the sulphur is essentially prevented from reacting with anything else the presence of copper in foaming egg white essentially eliminates the strongest kind of protein bond that can form, and makes it harder for the proteins to embrace each other too tightly if you whip egg whites in a copper bowl, the foam stays glossy and never develops grains
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the older thin white drains from the foam more easily the old eggs are more likely to leave traces of yolk in the white
fresh eggs are less alkaline and so make a more stable foam
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EggEgg-Liquid Mixtures
eggs are mixed with other liquids across a tremendous[] range of proportions
one tablespoon of cream will enrich a scrambled egg one beaten egg will slightly thicken a pint of milk into an eggnog at around 250ml to 2 eggs will make the custards and creams, dishes in which the egg proteins give substantial body to otherwise thin liquids
so supplement the yolk with liquid, and the whipping with careful cooking, and the mixture will rise to four or more times its original volume
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EggEgg-Liquid Mixtures
Examples:
custard: dish prepared and serve, a solid gel creams: auxiliary preparations, same mix as custard, but stirred continuously during stovetop cooking to produce a thickened mass sabayon: made by beating egg yolks with a liquid over simmering water until thickened and increased in volume; may be sweet or savoury and usually served as a sauce or used in making gratins
EggEgg-Liquid Mixtures
there are two broad classes of creams
the pourable creams
they have the consistency of heavy cream at serving temperature they contain the standard eggs, milk, and sugar, and are cooked only until they just begin to thicken they are meant to stay put a dish and hold their shape they are stiffened with a substantial dose of flour or cornstarch
egg yolks contains a starch-digesting enzyme, amylase, that is remarkably resistant to heat
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EggEgg-Liquid Mixtures
unless a sharch-egg mix is brought to a full boil, the yolk amylase will survive, digest the starch, and turn the stiff cream into a pourable one creams should be protected against the formation of the leathery skin that results from evaporation which concentrates and toughens the surface layer of protein and starch
to press waxed paper or buttered parchment directly onto the cream
Physical Agitation
physical agitation normally breaks down and destroys structure with a single dense, sticky egg white, work with a whisk, and in a few minutes, you have a cupful of snowy white foam, a cohesive structure that clings to the bowl when you turn it upside down, and holds its own when mixed and cooked like the head on a beer or a cappucino, an egg foam is a white liquid filled with air in such a way that mixture of liquid and gas keeps its shape, like a solid
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Ice cream
ice cream consists mainly of ice, fat, sugar, air egg yolk and other ingredients are added to give it flavor and color to make ice-cream conventionally, mix egg yolks and milk and stir in sugar along with flavoring, such as vanillia
stirring at this stage helps to prevent lactose molecules, which is the main sugar found in milk, forming crystals which could give the ice cream a gritty[] texture
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Ice cream
then heat the mixture, while stirring, but to no more than 65C
above this temperature, the protein molecules in the egg begin to denature and coagulate into lumpseffectively the same process that occurs when making scrambled egg
Ice cream
during the cooking process, stirring is essential
because ice crystals form during cooling if they are not broken up by stirring, these crystals can grow large and give the icecream a gritty texture over a vastly larger time scale, when magma cools slowly it forms granite rock with large crystals while more rapid cooling forms basalt, which has smaller crystals
the product at this stage is in effect a custard and has to be frozen to make it into ice cream this was traditionally done by cooling the custard in a container in freezing mixture
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one way to make ice cream crystals quickly is to cool the custard by adding liquid nitrogen
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Ice cream
this liquid is at -196C and is constantly in the process of boiling if liquid nitrogen is poured into an ice-cream custard, it cools within seconds and a smooth ice cream with very tiny ice crystals is formed the nitrogen boils away forming harmless nitrogen gas and the ice cream is quite safe to eat once it has warmed up to about 0C
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Ice cream
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since the artificial sweeteners aspartame is somewhat unstable and loses its sweetness over time
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Put ice cream in glass first, then pour soda over it, the glass will fill with much foam. But put the soda in first, then hardly get any foam at all! WHY?
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You can see above the increased amount of shape retention and slowness of melt that comes from the added emulsifiers, particularly polysorbate 80.
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Emulsions
Chapter 5 Sauces
an emulsion[] is an integrated mixture of two liquids that wouldn't ordinarily mix together - such as oil and water in most emulsions, the dispersed phase is very finely divided, forming droplets which may be as small as 1m or less two immiscible liquids form a cellular structure, stabilised by a surface-active agent, which may be called an emulsifier
emulsion
Emulsions
extremely fine emulsions, known as microemulsions, constitute a rich field of physics for two reasons:
the idealised model in which two fluids are separated by an interface with a constant surface energy, is inadequate when the surface curvature approaches the reciprocal of the size of molecules additional energy contributions arise, which involve this curvature
Emulsions
emulsion droplets are spherical and deformable, and their interface is fluid emulsion droplets behave like solid spheres, unless stirring is extremely vigorous or droplets are very large emulsions are dispersions of one liquid in another
the small scale of the structure allows thermal fluctuations to play a role, and this may result in ordered structures
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Emulsions
Type: oil-in-water (o/w) or water-in-oil (w/o)
this determines what liquid the emulsion can be diluted the o/w emulsions are most common, e.g. milk and milk products, sauces, dressings, flavor emulsions, meat emulsions, cream liqueur and soups butter and margarine are w/o emulsions
Emulsions
Droplet size distribution
this has an important bearing on physical stability smaller drops generally gives more stable emulsions the energy and the amount of emulsifier needed to produce the emulsion depend on the droplet size desired because of the great dependence of stability on droplet size, the width of the size distribution is also important
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Emulsions
Volume fraction of dispersed phase ()
In most foods, is between 0.001 and 0.4 for mayonnaise[], it may be 0.8, which is above the value for maximum packing of rigid spheres, roughly 0.7; this means that the oil droplets are distorted
Emulsions
Composition of the continuous phase
this determines solvent conditions for the surfactant and thereby colloidal interactions the viscosity of the continuous phase has a pronounced effect on creaming
Composition and thickness of the surface of the surface layer around the droplets
this determines interfacial tension, colloidal interaction forces
Emulsifiers
food is a complicated mixture of carbohydrate protein, oil and fat, water, and air, as well as a variety of other minute components such as minerals, vitamins, and flavors food processing subjects this mixture to a wide range of:
thermal treatments, e.g. baking, boiling, steaming, freezing mechanical treatments, e.g. kneading, mixing, extruding
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Emulsifiers
each component of food (carbohydrate, protein, oil and fat, water, air, etc.) has its own unique properties which sometimes come into conflict with other components, for example, oil and water thus a third substance is necessary to increase the compatibility of the contact surfaces of the two components, that is, to serve as an interface between two mutually exclusive materials the substance which is used to improve the quality of food and its processing is called a food emulsifier
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Emulsion Formation
to make an emulsion, one needs oil, water, an emulsifier, and energy making drops is easy, but to break them up into small droplets mostly is difficult drops resist deformation and thereby break up because of their Laplace pressure, which becomes larger as droplet size decreases this necessitates a large input of energy the energy needed can be reduced if the interfacial tension
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Emulsion Formation
hence Laplace pressure is reduced by adding an emulsifier the energy needed to deform and break up droplets is generally provided by intense agitation agitation can cause sufficiently strong shear forces if the continuous phase is very viscous this is common when making w/o emulsions, resulting in droplets with diameters down to a few micrometers
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Emulsion Formation
in o/w emulsions, the viscosity of the continuous phase tends to be low, and to break up droplets inertial forces are needed these are produced by the rapid, intensive pressure fluctuations occurring in turbulent flow if air is beaten in an o/w emulsion, this may lead to adsorption of droplets onto air bubbles the droplets may then be disrupted into smaller ones, due to spreading of oil over the o/w interface
Emulsion Formation
if the droplets contain crystalline fat, clumping may occur; beating in air thus promotes partial coalescence[] this is what happens during churning of cream to make butter and also during whipping of cream in the latter case, the clumped, partially solid droplets form a continuous network that encapsulates and stabilizes the air bubbles and lends stiffness to the foam
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Emulsion Formation
a way to prevent or retard all changes except Ostwald ripening is to cause the continuous phase to gel, e.g. butter and margarine
the water droplets are immobilized by a network of fat crystals some crystals become oriented at the o/w interface the droplets cannot closely encounter each other if the product is heated to melt the crystals, the aqueous droplets readily coalesce often, a suitable surfactant is added to margarine to prevent rapid coalescence during heating which would cause undesirable spattering
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Emulsion in Food
egg yolk contains an emulsifying agent, lecithin, which acts as a stabilizing emulsion between oil and water
this prevents oil and water mixtures from separation Lecithin[] attracts oil and water particles and forms a thin layer around them to keep them from dispersing
when making mayonnaise, the egg lecithin surrounds the oil particles, preventing them from joining and discharging oil
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Emulsion in Food
butter sauces, such as Hollandaise sauce[ ], are an emulsion of butter in combination with water or vinegar, stabilized with egg licithin in cakes prepared by using the creaming method, the emulsifying quality of eggs is essential to ensure a light texture
when whipped egg is added to creamed butter and sugar, the sugar dissolves in the egg and the egg lecithin stabilizes the butter and water emulsion air is trapped in this emulsion when heated, the air expands to give a lighter texture when baking
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Emulsion in Food
an emulsified sauce is a sauce that is made from these two types of otherwise unblendable []ingredients an example of an emulsified sauce is mayonnaise one of the most popular mother sauces, Hollandaise, which is an emulsified sauce made with butter, egg yolks and seasonings emulsifiers are used to provide both flavors and to enhance textures
they might be egg yolks, egg whites, gelatin, skim milk, or fine powders
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Emulsion in Food
three components are needed to make an emulsion:
a liquid, such as oil, that can be broken up into millions of tiny droplets a water-type liquid that will stay around between the tiny droplets to keep them separate an emulsifier that keeps the oil-type liquid and the water-type liquid from joining back together into big drops first, obtaining the required flavor second, ensuring the sauce has the right thickness and mouth-feel
Emulsion in Food
the most difficult area is to understand what makes a sauce thick or thin The viscosity affects the thickness
the viscosity of liquid can be defined as the ratio of the rate at which it flows through a pipe, to the pressure applied to the liquid to make it flow If we dissolve some large molecules in the water, then they can increase the viscosity and hence thicken the sauce the viscosity of water can be increased by adding small molecules, such as sugar
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Emulsion in Food
It is more difficult to push a large molecule out of the way and it is more difficult to slide easily past an irregularly shaped molecule
liquids made up from larger and more irregular shaped molecules have higher viscosities
Emulsion in Food
two main methods are used to thicken sauces:
in the first, starch granules are swollen in hot water and in the second, proteins are crosslinked[]to form large networks which can in turn form gels
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both methods are used in all sorts of sauces, both sweet and savoury starches and proteins are used as thickening agents in a variety of different sauces the starch comes in the form of granules that swell up in hot water 22
Emulsion in Food
so it can be the swollen granules themselves rather than the starch inside them that thickens the sauce many proteins are a lot smaller than starch molecules
helpful to make them into larger molecules by heating them until they react together and form a network molecule that can be many hundreds of times larger than a single protein such large molecular aggregates can have as much as a thousand fold greater effect on the viscosity than the separate proteins before they coagulated[]
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the free starch contributes to the general thickening also, by forming a sort of entangled network of long molecules that penetrates throughout the sauce, they impart a shear thinning property to the sauce, which will allow it to be poured, while it will also not flow too much on the plate
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cooks create sauces that form the basis of an amazing array of dishes each of the starches used for thickening has its own special properties:
the way it reflects light the temperature at which it thickened its thickening power when cold or boiled or frozen
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Gelation
Gelation[] is an orderly aggregation of proteins, which may or may not be denatured, forming a three-dimensional network polymer-polymer and polymer-solvent interactions, as well as attractive and repulsive forces, are balanced such that a well-ordered matrix can be formed the gel may be turbid or translucent; in the latter case, the gel may be thermoreversible []
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Gelation
the term gelation is also used in another context with respect to egg-yolk proteins the phenomenon of egg-yolk gelation refers to the formation of an irreversibly gelled product upon freezing of the yolk the classic explanation of heat induced aggregation of protein molecules is the following two-step process:
Gelation
Coagulation (congealing) is the change in state from a solution (having the characteristics of a liquid), to a gel (having the characteristics of a solid)
it is a physio-chemical change which takes place when protein is converted from a fluid to a semisolid or solid state it is caused by heat, salt, acid, alkali and whipping this occurs in liquid foods which contain proteins because the shape of the globular polypeptide molecules change when the liquid is heated
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Native protein -> denatured protein (long chains) -> aggregated protein (associated network) the first step is considered a denaturation process and the second step an aggregation process
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Gelation
the energy supplied to the molecules by the heat causes the bonds which link different parts of the chain to break, resulting in a change in the protein structures other bonds then form as a second process called coagulation occurs - the protein eventually becomes a three-dimensional network of molecules within which water is trapped at this stage the food has solid characteristics: it has coagulated
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Gelation
egg white coagulates at 60C, egg yolk at 65C and whole egg at 63 - 65C it is also important when binding ingredients, e.g. fish or pumpkin[]cakes, for glazing when baking, to clarify fluids, to thicken sauces like custard sauce and to set tart fillings and baked custard
Pumpkin cake
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Gelation
Protein Concentration affects aggregation
about 80% of the protein heats at 75C for 5 min aggregates a higher protein concentration is probably needed to allow a closer association of molecules for aggregate formation at the lower temperatures proteins with higher percentages of hydrophobic amino acids are classified as coagulation-type proteins and concentration dependent proteins with a lower percentage are gelationtype proteins and concentration independent further heating causes egg albumin to polymerize by intermolecular sulfhydryl-disulfide, exchange, forming a network
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Colloidal Sauces
in scientific terms, a suspension of fatty droplets in another liquid is called a colloid essentially, to make a colloid you need to form very finely dispersed drops of the fat and coat these with some surfactant molecules that stabilize them in the water based medium surfactants are molecules one end of which likes to be in the fatty environment and the other end of which likes to be in the watery environment of the bulk and does not like to be in the fatty droplets
colloid
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Colloidal Sauces
there are many examples of such molecules that can be used in making colloidal saucesprobably the most important are the lipids[] found in egg yolks adding egg yolks to a mixture of oils and water and then vigorously stirring the mixture will create a stable colloidal suspension of oil drops in the water and make a thick and creamy sauce
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Colloids
Colloids[] is defined as a dispersion containing particles that are clearly larger than small molecules, yet too small to be visible their size ranges from about 10nm to almost 1mm there are two types of colloids: reversible (lyophilic) and irreversible (lyophobic) a reversible colloid forms by dissolving a material in a suitable solvent
e.g. macromolecules, like polysaccharides, proteins and association colloids are formed from amphiphilic molecules, like soaps
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Colloids
these have a fairly long hydrophobic tail and a smaller, very polar (hydrophilic) head in an aqueous environment, the molecules tend to associate in such a way that the tails are close to each other and the heads are in contact with water micelles or liquid crystalline structures are formed Colloidal interactions between particles forces act that originate from material properties of the particles and the interstitial 41 fluid
Colloids
these colloidal interaction forces act in a direction perpendicular to the particle surface, contrary to the surface forces, which act in the direction of the surface colloidal interaction has important consequences:
it determines whether particles will aggregate and may determine further physical instability aggregating particles may form a network and rheological[] properties and the stability of systems containing networks it may greatly affect susceptibility of emulsion 42 droplets to coalescence
Colloids
Types Examples
Emulsions(O/W) Milk, ice cream, creams, coffee creamers, cream liqueurs, soft drink syrups, mayonnaise, sauces (e.g. hollandaise, barnaise), sausages, whippable toppings, some salad dressings, some fruit drinks Emulsions(W/O) Butter, margarine, spreads, processed cheese, some salad dressings Foams Ice cream, whipped cream and toppings, barnaise, souffles, mousses, aerated icing
Gels
a gel[] is a material that exhibits a yield stress, has viscoelastic properties and has a moderate modulus many foods are soft solids and often said to be gels or gel-like when a small stress acts on the material, it behaves elastically:
it keeps the shape obtained as long as the stress acts it returns instantaneously to its original shape as soon as the stress is removed
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Products made Bread, cakes, meringue, marshmallow from foams Suspensions Ice ream, vegetable shortening, chocolate drinks, water ice
Gels
for greater stress, the material may show viscoelastic behavior:
it first deforms elastically but then starts to flow after removal of the stress it only partly regains its original shape
Gels
the behavior of a viscoelastic material greatly depends on the time scale of the deformation at very short time scales, a gel is almost purely elastic, and at very long time scales almost purely viscous from a structural point of view, a gel has a continuous matrix of interconnected material with much interstitial solvent gels may be formed in various ways, according to the kind of gelling material 46
strain () means relative deformation, and strain rate is its change with time (d/dt)
the strain at fracture (fr) may be called shortness and brittleness, and they are closely related to 1/ fr the strain at fracture may vary widely; for gelatin fr may be 3, and for some polysaccharide gels only 0.1
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Gels
the mechanical properties of various gels differ greatly
for most gels, proportionality of stress and strain is only observed at very small strains, and at larger strains the quotient may be called an apparent modulus the strength of the material is the stress at fracture[] (fr)
this gives the solution some elasticity gelation is caused by formation of intermolecular cross-linksthis can be covalent bonds, salt bridges, or microcrystalline regions
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Micelle
a micelle[] is an aggregate of surfactant molecules dispersed in a liquid colloid it forms a roughly spherical or globular aggregate with the hydrophilic "head" regions in contact with surrounding solvent, sequestering the hydrophobic tail regions in the micelle center micelles are often globular and roughly spherical in shape, but ellipsoids, cylinders, 54 and bilayers are also possible
Micelle
the shape of a micelle is a function of the molecular geometry of its surfactant molecules and solution conditions such as surfactant concentration, temperature, pH, and ionic strength the process of forming micelles is known as micellization
Micelle
when surfactants are present above the critical micelle concentration (CMC), they can act as emulsifiers that will solubilize a compound normally insoluble in the solvent being used this occurs because the insoluble species can be incorporated into the micelle core, which is itself solubilized in the bulk solvent by virtue of the head groups' favorable interactions with solvent species
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Micelle
the most common example of this phenomenon is detergents, which clean poorly soluble hydrophobic material (such as oil, grease, or dirt) that cannot be cleaned by water alone detergent also helps clean by lowering the surface tension of water, making it easier to remove dirt from a surface the emulsifying ability of surfactants is also the basis for emulsion polymerization
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Texture
while it is the viscosity, or thickness, that largely determines the texture of a sauce, there are several other factors that can be important as far as sauces are concerned, you may be interested in smoothness, lumpiness, creaminess, acidity or sharpness, as well as the persistence of the texture and flavor
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Creaminess
the sensation of creaminess comes largely from the tendency of thick creamy foods to coat the mouth and not to dissolve very quickly so providing a taste sensation that persists for some time it comes from a combination of the viscosity (thickness) and the solubility of the fats in the sauce it can be achieved most easily by the addition of some thick cream
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Creaminess
the fat in the cream is at best poorly soluble in the mouth and being very thick it can readily coat the inside of the mouth creamy texture is the reason why many recipes call for the finishing of a sauce with the addition of a little cream at the last minute
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Why a sauce thickened with cornstarch is clear, while one thickened with flour is cloudy?
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this property is often used in fruit pies, because its transparency shows off the color of fruits well
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Cakes
cakes normally combine
some kind of wheat byproduct a sweetening agent (commonly sugar) a binding agent (generally egg) fats (usually butter or margarine) a liquid (mostly milk or water) flavors
Cakes
methods to combine cake ingredients:
creaming method: butter and sugar are creamed together before the rest of the ingredients are gradually added melt-and-mix method: dry ingredients are mixed together and then melted butter and other liquids are added to complete the cake All-in-together method: the dry ingredients and shortening are placed in the food processor and liquid is gradually added sponge-making method: eggs and sugar are whipped to a froth and flour is carefully mixed in, no raising agent or fat is used in this method and it takes great skill to make a light sponge
Cakes
when all the cake ingredients are mixed, the mixture is called cake batter or mix then the cake batter is poured into the baking pan most cakes are baked in an oven at low temperature refrigeration is usually used to set and stay firm
Cakes
Cakes
the bubbles in a freshly cooked sponge are closed so that no air can get in or out as the cake cools, so the steam inside the bubbles condenses and changes back to water imagine all the tiny bubbles starting to deflate and getting smaller and smaller the cake will start to collapse 5
the cake is stiffer around the edges and supported by the tin so it is not likely to collapse too much there however, it will collapse in the middle unless you can change the structure so that air can come back into the bubbles to replace the condensed steam
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Bread Making
once the dough is mixed and kneading[ ] begins, the elasticity develops in flour so the dough becomes strong enough to hold the carbon dioxide as it is slowly produced by the yeast as the volume of gas increases, the dough stretches and lifts once the dough is satiny smooth and you can feel it resisting as you knead, it is left to rise at warm temperatures
once baked, such a fragile framework tends to compress by turning the pan upside down when the cake is baked, the air cells stay stretched until the structure solidifies as it cools 7
Bread Making
yeast grows best at the temperature of a pleasant summer day, about 27C, but it works slowly a long, slow rise at slightly lower temperatures develops a fuller flavor in the finished loaf this is called fermentation[] fermentation allows yeast to get on with its life processes as yeast ferments, it also makes dough easier to handle, and the alcohols and organic acids it produces create new aromas and flavors
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Bread Making
during fermentation, yeast converts the complex carbohydrates in flour into simple sugars that it feeds on it starts to release carbon dioxide and alcohol, all very important by-products in bread making fermentation can be quickened by warm rising temperatures, 2430C or slowed by cool ones, such as in a refrigerator
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Bread Making
it is important to realize that yeast, although needing warmth, can be killed if it becomes too hot, above 60C when yeast ferments, the carbon dioxide gas released by it is trapped in the tiny air cells in the bread's strong and elastic gluten[]strands[] initially, dough rises slowly, but it picks up momentum as fermentation proceeds a second or final rising period always takes less time than the first
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Bread Making
punching the dough down after its initial rising
breaks up large pockets of gas so the dough becomes evenly inflated redistributes the yeast and its food, and equalizes temperature differences throughout the dough
as yeast bread bakes, leavening gases are trapped in the dough moisture turns to steam, a natural leaven also helps add volume
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Bread Making
as water evaporates from the dough, the structure of the loaf solidifies heat eventually kills the yeast and inactivates its enzymes smell the alcohol as it evaporates during baking
Fermentation Time
some bread recipes require less fermentation time than others because of the type of flour used recipes with rye[] flour require less than those containing only wheat flour
rye flour is more fermentative than wheat flour because it contains a larger percentage of natural sugars, diastase and protease enzymes rye flour is slightly higher in natural acidity than wheat flour these factors have an acceleration effect on gas production and gas retention
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Baking Soda
baking soda[] is a single chemical, pure sodium bicarbonate it releases carbon dioxide gas as soon as it comes in contact with any acidic liquid, such as buttermilk, sour cream
both baking soda and baking powder are used for leavening
making baked goods rise by producing millions of tiny bubbles of carbon dioxide gas the gas bubbles are released within the wet batter, after which the heat of the oven expands them until the heat firms up the batter and traps them in place
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Baking Powder
baking powder is baking soda combined with one or more acid salts, such as monocalcium phosphate monohydrate it is used when a recipe contains no other acid ingredients as soon as the powder gets wet, the two chemicals begin to dissolve and react with each other to produce carbon dioxide
Baking Powder
to keep them from going off prematurely, they have to be protected from atmospheric moisture by being kept in a tightly closed container many food products such as bread, sponge cakes and buns have a honeycomb structure which contains many bubbles during cooking these bubbles are formed by a gas, and the mixture rises
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Baking Powder
the gas is air which is whipped into the mixture before cooking and which expands during cooking carbon dioxide can be formed either from the fermentation of sugar aided by yeast (as in making bread) or by chemicals that react to
the most common chemical used for this purpose is sodium hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3
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Baking Powder
carbon dioxide can be formed in two ways:
on heating: 2NaHCO3(s)Na2CO3(s)+CO2(g) + H2O(l) on reacting with an acid, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl): NaHCO3(s)+ HCl (aq) NaCl(aq)+ CO2(g)+ H2O(l)
the gaseous product of the reaction is carbon dioxide a weak acid potassium hydrogentartrate is used in cooking
a solid which is possible to mix it with the sodium hydrogencarbonate without the two reacting they only react in the presence of water
Baking Powder
one problem with the use of potassium hydrogentartrate is that it is very soluble in water
Baking Powder
potassium hydrogentartrate dissolves and reacts almost immediately which makes the dish rise on mixing calcium dihydrogendiphosphate is slower to dissolve and will not react until the mixture is in the oven and the gas bubbles are trapped by the cake as it bakes
as soon as it becomes wet, e.g. when milk is added, it dissolves and reacts this risks all the gas escaping while the cake mix is still liquid and before it goes in the oven
along with the sodium hydrogencarbonate, they use a mixture of potassium hydrogentartrate and calcium dihydrogendiphosphate (CaH2P2O6), which is also a solid acid
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Baking Powder
self-raising flour is plain flour with baking powder added to it when the cake mixture is cooking in the oven the baking powder gives off carbon dioxide gas this carbon dioxide gas makes the cake rise, so when the cake is cooked it is light and fluffy
Flour
Flour[] is made up from small starch granules each starch granule is in turn composed of a mixture of starch molecules Amylosep[](a linear molecule) and amylopectin[] (a heavily branched
molecule) also contain some proteins the actual amount of protein depending on the source of the starch granules
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Flour
the arrangement of the different molecules and their proportions determine
the type of flour, e.g. hard or soft, bread or cake how the flour will behave when used in baking
Flour
this process of absorbing water is technically referred to as hydration these hydrated protein molecules then begin to stick together, and so bind the granules to one another if these bound granules are then moved apart the proteins between them become stretched when they are stretched, the proteins change their shape and interact with each other in different ways
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for bread making, the most important aspect of the flour is the formation of gluten sheets as the wet dough is kneaded when water is added to the flour, the proteins on the outside of the starch granules rapidly absorb the moisture and become very sticky
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Flour
the new interactions between the starch granule proteins lead to the formation of gluten to make good bread, you need gluten sheets to be robust enough not to break as the carbon dioxide is formed and plentiful enough to capture the gas in very small bubbles large bubbles would lead to holes in the final loaf
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Flour
there are many different types of flour
the first difference between flours is the type of grain they are milled from
all flours start life as cereal grains, these are then ground down to a fine powder grains commonly used for flour are wheat, rice, corn, barley, and several types of bean including soya[ ], chickpea[] and fava[]
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Flour
there are many strains of wheat with different proportions of starch and protein in the grains depending on the climate and soil conditions where it is grown there are two very different types of flour available
plain, or all purpose flours, having no additives self raising flours, having raising agents such as baking powder added to them
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Flour
plain wheat flours are characterised by the amount of protein in the flour
flours with high protein contents, above 12%, are particularly useful for bread making and are often called bread flours or hard flours flours with a low protein content are termed cake or soft flours
for general baking, you need a moderate protein content of around 7-10% by weight it is generally better to have a flour with a protein content at the lower end of this range for pastry
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Flour
for breads, where the generation of gluten is essential, you need a higher protein content, over 10%, so special flours are essential some flours are sold as wholemeal, brown, or whole wheat, etc different types of wheat have similar components, the variety, planting times, soil conditions, and climate
e.g. durum, ideal for pastas e.g. red spring, more useful in flours for baking
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Flour
whole wheat flour uses all parts of kernel[
this may mean grinding the whole kernel or adding back bran and germ to milled flour in their original proportions
because the oils in wheat germ can go rancid, whole wheat flour spoils more easily then other flours
Flour
one way to reduce gluten formation is to coat the starch granules with fat before adding any water and are unable to swell and interact, i.e. the first stage in gluten formation is prevented, or significantly reduced the technique used in pastry making is to rub the fat into the flour before adding any liquids thus it should be apparent that, in bread making, where we want to ensure a good deal of gluten formation, the fat should not be rubbed into the flour, but should be mixed in along with the liquids 37
Gluten
gluten is a protein found combined with starch in the endosperm of some cereals, notably wheat, rye, and barley it is formed when two different protein molecules, gliadin[] and glutenin[], are made to interact with each other by the kneading of a wet dough, to form a super protein or protein complex it constitutes about 80% of the proteins contained in wheat, and is composed of the proteins gliadin and glutenin
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Gluten
it is a highly elastic material
it develops formed from that behave rather like rubber balloons
Gluten
a simple dough of flour and water is rinsed with plain water and kneaded until the rinsing water remains clear and free from starch and bran the remaining lump of gluten[]should have a stringy, sticky texture
in bread, these balloons formed from the gluten sheets become blown up by carbon dioxide gas generated by the yeast as the bread leavens, and thus make the bread rise it is responsible for the elasticity of kneaded dough, which allows it to be leavened, as well as the "chewiness" of baked products
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Gluten in Bread
gluten is created when wheat flour and moisture, e.g. water, are mixed and two proteins contained in the flour, gliadin and glutenin when the dough is mixed the gluten fibers become parallel and cross-bond to form the elastic but strong structure, like rubber-bands once flour and water are mixed together, any further working of the dough, such as kneading or handling, allows more proteins and water to find each other and link together, further creating and developing the 41 gluten into a web
Gluten in Bread
the gluten gives the bread dough structure and the elasticity it needs to stretch as carbon dioxide is released from the yeast the gluten structure must also be strong enough to trap and hold the leavening gases released slowly by yeast over a period of several hours
that is why bread flour with a high gluten-forming potential is typically used in bread recipes
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Gluten in Bread
as more and more tiny air cells fill with carbon dioxide, they begin to inflate the cells causing the bread dough to rise good bread texture depends to some extent upon the uniform distribution of the gluten done through the mixing and kneading, as well as rising steps a dough that is mixed properly and develops the gluten in the flour, will yield a lighter loaf of bread; too much flour or gluten, results in bread that it is dry and dense
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Gluten in Bread
cooked gluten becomes firm to the bite and soaks up a certain amount of the surrounding broth and its taste it is commonly used in vegetarian cuisine, one variety is called seitan[] in baking, gluten is responsible for keeping the fermentation gases in the dough, allowing it to rise after baking, the coagulated gluten ensures that the final product keeps its shape although starch is also essential for structural integrity
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Gluten in Bread
recently, gluten has also been implicated as being at least partially responsible for bread staling the wheat gluten proteins correspond to the major storage proteins that are deposited in the starchy endosperm cells of the developing grain these form a continuous proteinaceous[ ] matrix in the cells of the mature dry grain and are brought together to form a continuous viscoelastic[] network when flour is mixed with water to form dough
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Gluten in Bread
these viscoelastic properties underpin the utilization of wheat to give bread and other processed foods one group of gluten proteins, the HMM subunits of glutenin, is particularly important in conferring high levels of elasticity, i.e. dough strength
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Sugar
the sugar provides some food for the yeast there are some sugars in the flour that the yeasts can metabolize[] it provides a boost for the yeast to allow it to get to work making carbon dioxide gas to make the dough rise quickly
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Baking
for bread, once grain had been pounded into flour and mixed with water, airborne natural yeast might have settled on the result and initiated fermentation in both baking and brewing, the first steps is to change starch, a main component of wheat and barley, into sugar, which is then fermented to make alcohol and carbon dioxide in bread, the alcohol produced by fermentation evaporates during baking
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Baking
the carbon dioxide would also escape gluten is primarily made of proteins, which are large, complex molecules composed of thousands of atoms of nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen formed into specific combinations called amino acids proteins are essential to living things, forming a large part of muscle and other types of tissue and enhancing metabolic processes
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Baking
the proteins in gluten link together in long chains, forming a network that holds the carbon dioxide within individual cells, which expand along with the gas during baking the heat of baking induces other chemical processes that join molecules of starch, and binds the gluten to the starch, to firm up the malleable dough the size and distributed of the cells indicate how completely the dough has been kneadedthat is, pushed and pulled to thoroughly combine with the yeast for the complete fermentation
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Baking
baking powder and baking soda produce carbon dioxide by chemical reaction in the sourdough process, leaven is produced in the dough itself some baking techniques use no leaven at all: batter mixed vigorously with air and egg whites, or even with steam, produces fluffy baked goods like angel food cake
The honeycomb structure of bread is caused by gas bubbles
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9 use a large amount of dough for each cookie and leave it mounded on the cookie sheet 9 use an ungreased cookie sheet
so cookies dont spread as much
9 grease the cookies sheet to encourage spreading 9 use sugar delays setting
it allows more time for the cookies to spread larger spread makes a crisper cookie
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Garlic
Garlic[] is the most pungent member in the lily family, others in this family are onions[], chives[], and shallots[] inside the cells of each clove of garlic, theres an odorless molecule called alliin[ ] in the spaces between the cells, there is an enzyme called alliinase [] cutting a garlic clove throws the two together, creating a series of reactions that result in the familiar intense flavor and odor 2
Garlic
the more finely you mince or chop fresh garlic, the greater the contact, and the stronger the flavor to bring out this more affable side, bake them slowly, or cool them in lots of water, and allow their pungent compounds to evaporate when cooked whole, garlic mellows as its odoriferous molecules are broken down by heat
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Garlic
methods to eliminate the broken down of garlic mellows:
when you roast garlic, use the whole head peel away the papery outer covering, but leave each clove, covered by its skin, still firmly attached to the base lightly brush the surface of the garlic with olive oil and place in a baking dish add 3 tablespoons chicken stock bake for one hour at 180C, basting frequently
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Garlic
just before serving, sprinkle with coarse salt pinch each clove and it pops right out of its skin You will notice how gentle and delicately aromatic garlic becomes, once tamed by cooking
Onions
Why do raw onions make you cry?
when you slice through an onion, you break open a number of onion cells some of these cells have enzymes inside of them, and when they are sliced open, the enzymes escape the enzymes then decompose some of the other substances that have escaped from sliced cells, e.g. amino acid sulfoxides, form sulfenic acids[], quickly rearrange themselves into a volatile gas the gas reaches your eyes and reacts with the water that keeps them moist
Onions
this changes the chemical's form again, producing, among other things, a mild sulfuric acid, which irritates the eyes the nerve endings in your eyes are very sensitive and so they pick up on this irritation the brain reacts by telling your tear ducts to produce more water, to dilute the irritating acid so the eyes are protected your other reaction is probably to rub your eyes, but this will actually make the irritation a lot worse, of course, if you have onion juices all over your hands
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Onions
there are lots of ways to avoid your eyes watering when chopping onions, such as
peeling the onion and then chilling it in the refrigerator before you slice it
because it will minimize the release of gas as the change in temperature alters the compounds in the onion
moving your head as far away from the onion as you can
so the gas will mostly disperse before it reaches your eyes
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Onions
wearing goggles cooking an onion before you slice it cutting the onion under water or running the tap over it as you slice it
cold running water carries away sulphur compounds during peeling
Jelly
why cant you make jelly out of fresh pineapple, kiwi, or papaya? jellies are based on gelatin[], which is derived from the protein collagen[]
collagen is based on three intertwined -helices
when these are treated with hot water, the helices unravel and a three-dimensional partly cross-linked structure is formed which is gelatin
when a warm, aqueous solution of gelatin sets, it forms a three-dimensional matrix that traps water and becomes the jelly
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Jelly
fresh pineapple contains several active proteindigesting enzymes, especially a protease enzyme called bromelain, that catalyzes the breakdown of collagen so that adding fresh pineapple to the jelly solution prevents it from setting cooking foods sufficiently will denature and inactivate any enzymes they may contain pineapples and certain other fruits contain an enzyme that breaks proteins down into small fragments if raw pineapple is combined with gelatin to make a jelly, the enzyme digests the gelatin molecules and liquefies the jelly
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Jelly
tinned pineapple has, like all tinned foods, been heated to a high temperature to destroy microorganisms
this denatures the enzyme so the jelly will set normally if tinned pineapple is added
freezing process does not denature the enzyme interestingly, fresh pineapple jellies can be made to set by adding chili[]the chili (capsicum) contains a chemical that destroys the enzyme that prevents the jelly setting
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Jelly
pineapple for gelatin-based desserts must be cooked first, to inactivate the enzyme if incorporated into a mixture containing milk or cream, bromelain[] will break down the casein proteins and produce bitter-tasting protein fragments the proteolytic enzyme found in pineapple is called bromelain, that found in papaya is called papain[] and that in kiwi fruit is actinidin
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Jelly
papain breaks protein chains at glycine [ ] molecules
it is used to tenderise meat by breaking down collagen and also to remove cloudiness from beer, which may also be caused by collagen
both papain and bromelin are used commercially to tenderise[] tough cuts of meat and some recipes call for the tenderising of meat by injecting it with pineapple juice
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Apples
why do apples float?
20-25% of an apples volume is air which is much more than in most fruits the cells in apple tissue fit imperfectly together air sits in the in the spaces between the cells, not only making apple buoyant, but making a justpicked apply crack as you take that first bite
Popcorn
what puts the pop in popcorn?
the key to popping corn is a moisture level of between 11 and 14% and a strong, airtight casing varieties are carefully engineered to create these crucial factors the kernels are sealed in airtight packages when you heat popping kernels, their tiny starch granules swell with moisture, but theyre trapped inside the popcorns hard shell
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Popcorn
as the temperature inside the kernel rises beyond the boiling point, water vaporizes and turns to steam in gaseous form, steam occupies more space than water, so each kernel becomes a tiny pressure cooker when the pressure gets too great for the kernels tough overcoat, it explodes and the starch granules instantly expand into a light and fluffy mass
when substances freeze, usually the molecules come closer together water freezes below 0C but when temperatures fall to 4C, water starts to expand and as a result the density is lower when two substances are mixed but do not dissolve in one another, the substance with the lowest density floats on the other substance in this case that substance is ice, due to the increased density of water
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brine is a salt-water solution which has a temperature that is lower than the freezing point of ice cream mixture
Cooking Oils
the highest practical cooking temperature for an oil is limited not by a boiling point but by the temperature at which the oil begins to smoke the approximate smoke-point ranges of some common cooking oils are:
safflower oil: 163-177C corn oil: 204-213C peanut oil: 216-221C soybean oils: 227-232C olive oils: 210-238C
putting ice cream into ones mouth serves only to cool the mouth in calculations, melting a one-inch -18C ice cube in the mouth would absorb only 1.3 calories of heat it distributed over the entire body, that amount of heat loss would lower the temperature of a 150 pound person by 0.004C
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Cooking Oils
121C 149C 177C 204C The approximate smoke point ranges of cooking oils
232C
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Salt Hotel
the largest salar, or saltpan, in the world is the Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia, where tourists can stay at a nearby hotel made entirely form salt
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Shaking Soda
why do bubbles foam over when you open a soda can that was shaken?
you can also soften the sugar in a conventional oven at 250C for 10-20 minutes
shaking the can before opening it releases some of the dissolved carbon dioxide gas into the space above the liquid when the can is opened, even more of the gas is suddenly released because the pressure inside the can is relieved by opening it the result is a gush of foam and a mess because the carbon dioxide dissolves even better if the soda is cold, doing the same thing with a warm can of soda will make an even bigger mess
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Shaking Soda
soda is a supersaturated solution of carbon dioxide it is made with a high pressure of carbon dioxide that gives it a greater than its solubility than carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure when the can is popped open especially if it is shaken and warm the excess dissolved carbon dioxide is released from the soda soda also contains some ingredients that cause the released carbon dioxide to form a froth if those ingredients were not there, the soda would appear to "boil" without the formation of the "head" of foam
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the oil resides in the germ of the grain in corn, the germ makes up only about 8% of the kernel and only about half of that is oil
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steam cooking opens up the pores of the product vitamins and minerals immediately begin to escape and your good wholesome vegetables lose their valuable nutritional elements for a vegetable to be green, it must contain chlorophyll, and when chlorophyll is cooked, carbon dioxide is created when you steam vegetables the pan must be kept covered to prevent the steam from escaping, the carbon dioxide, trapped inside, turns the chlorophyll dark the vegetables become grey and drab
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WaterWater-Soluble Substances
polarity determines if a substance is watersoluble a polar substance is a substance that has two kinds of 'poles' when another substance is polar also, the poles of the substances attract each other and as a result the substances mix, a substance then dissolves in water
oil is not a polar substance, which is why oil does not dissolve in water, so it floats on water, just like ice, due to its smaller density
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To Reduce Astringency
heat makes the astringency of the persimmon[] more apparent it is always good to add one-half teaspoonful of baking soda to each cupful of persimmon pulp in all recipes where the fruit is subjected to heat
Cheesecakes
changes that might make the texture of cheesecake more delicate:
add air by:
Whipping the cream Beating egg yolks and sugar together well Beating egg whites until stiff and folding them
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bake at 160C maximum warp base of pan in aluminum foil and bake in a water bath serve cool but not cold
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Cheesecakes
Changes that might improve the appearance of cheesecake:
reduce baking time to avoid cracking run knife around edges as soon as cheesecake is removed form the oven, so the cake doesnt stick to the pan as it contracts cool away from drafts so the cake cools gradually and evenly
Cracking of Eggs
although eggs are always less prone to cracking if you bring them to room temperature before cooking, it does seem that some eggs are more resistant to cracking than others some eggshells have larger pores that allow air to escape more easily watch an egg carefully as it warms in the cooking water and you may see a little stream of air bubbles escaping from the large end
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Cracking of Eggs
this is air that has expanded as the egg heats and has found its way out through the tiny pores in the shell if pressure builds faster than the air can escape, the shell cracks try making a pinhole in the air space at the large end of the egg this facilitates a quick exit of air, reducing the pressure that builds inside the eggshell
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Cracking of Eggs
the pinhole also has another advantage when the air leaves while the egg is still liquid, the egg white fills the air pocket, and youll end up with a perfectly oval hardcooked egg, rather than one with a dent[ ] in the fat end
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over time, these alkaline substances seep through the shell and acts on the proteins in the egg white, reconfiguring their molecules similarly to what cooking them would do some of the normal chemical changes take place and produce chemical products such as aldehydes[] and ketones[], which are responsible for the sharpest of the flavors
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White Chocolate
Mashed Potatoes
What causes gooey[] mashed potatoes[]?
if you cook starchy potatoes in too much water for too long, or beat them too vigorously after they are cooked starch granules rupture spilling out trapped water and starch they give a pasty, unpleasant texture
Mashed Potatoes
How to make mashed potatoes?
cut the potatoes into 1-inch pieces and precook for about 10 minutes at a simmer, not a full boil this gives the starch grains a chance to swell without rupturing then drain the potatoes and let them cool which allows the swollen starch granules to firm up when you are almost ready to mash, simmer the potatoes the rest of the way until theyre barely tender, not mashy drain them very well and mash them with a potato masher or ricer the firmed-up starch granules wont release their gooey as easily as they would have without the precooking and cooling steps
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Chefs Secrets
How To Make?
c prick the outside a few times with a fork d add a few drops of olive oil, then rub it all over the skin e after that, rub in some crushed salt to make the skin nice and crunchy
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Lumpless Sauce
How To Make?
c use boiling liquid and add slowly to the roux d cook between each addition and stir in well e whisk whenever possible and if in real trouble, pass through a sieve
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Lumpless Sauce
Science Explanations:
Roux[] is a type of batter, made from butter and flour, used to thicken sauces when liquid is added to flour, the starch granules inside the flour begin to swell when they reach 64C heating the mixture further makes them rupture the flour starch is released into the liquid and starts to thicken it this is known as 'gelatinisation[]'
Lumpless Sauce
when flour is mixed with hot liquid, the exterior portion of the starch granules become gelatinised and sticky bind around the dry starch granules, forming pockets of dry flour trapped inside a sticky ball - or 'lumps' adding liquid to the roux gradually whilst stirring, ensures that the starch granules heat up evenly, so they swell in unison this results in a smooth, lumpless sauce
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Perfect Pasta
How To Make?
c cook the pasta in plenty of boiling water d the pan must be large enough for the water to remain at a good rolling boil, so the pasta moves around as it cooks, preventing it from sticking together
Perfect Pasta
Science explanations:
pasta is a starchy food made from egg and wheat uncooked pasta contains rigid starch granules when plunged into boiling water, these granules begin to absorb water and swell
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Perfect Pasta
some of the starch granules leak out of the pasta into the water these leaked granules also start to swell, thickening the water if there isn't enough water in the pan, it becomes thick and gloopy and the pasta starts sticking together
Fluffy Rice
How To Make?
c if you cover the rice with about 2.5cm of water it should always cook properly without sticking d after boiling for 5 minutes, turn the heat down very low, cover with a lid and steam for the rest of the cooking time, without stirring
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Fluffy Rice
Science Explanations:
starch is the main component of rice, like pasta but unlike pasta, rice must be cooked in little water rather than plenty the liquid absorbed by the starch must be just enough to be completely absorbed in the amount of time it takes for the rice to be perfectly cooked and makes it 'fluffy pasta is left slightly under-cooked or 'al dente', so the water doesn't need to be measured as accurately 63
Fluffy Rice
when the rice is boiling in the water, the heat is being transferred by the moving water molecules through convection once the water is absorbed, the heat is in danger of being transferred to the rice by conduction directly through the bottom of the pan after boiling for 5 minutes, it is important to turn the heat down low and continue convectional steaming the lid helps promote these convection currents by letting the air cool at the top and fall back down, rather than escape 64
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most cooking containers are metal or ceramic[], due to their ability to withstand high temperatures common metals are aluminum, copper, tin, stainless steel, and cast iron ceramics include glass, porcelain, earthenware, and stoneware non-stick coatings and enamel coatings may be used on the surfaces to improve the properties
2
where k is the thermal conductivity, is the density, and cp is the specific heat
heat conduction in a solid proceeds either by the movement of energetic electrons, or by vibration in crystal structures a material whose electrons are mobile enough to conduct heat well is also likely to give up those electrons to other atoms at its surface
good conductors like metals are usually chemically reactive
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Ceramics
ceramics are stable, unreactive mixture mixtures of compounds, e.g. magnesium and aluminum oxides, silicon dioxide, whose covalent bonds hold electrons tightly they are very resistant to corrosion and are non-toxic glass is a particular variety of ceramic whose composition is more regular, and usually includes a preponderance[] of silicon dioxide
Ceramics
they transmit heat slowly by means of inefficient vibrations due to their ability to retain heat, dishes made of thick ceramic materials will keep foods warm longer than metallic serving dishes of comparable shape and size a common problem with most ceramics is their tendency to crack due to thermal stress since they are such poor conductors of heat, there may be a large temperature difference between one side of the pan and the other
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Ceramics
hot areas expand while cooler areas do not, mechanical stresses build up, causing the pan to crack
they are seldom used on stovetops for this reason
Ceramics
kitchen utensils naturally covered with a very thin layer of ceramic material metallic electrons are mobile, and oxygen has high electron affinity[] when metal is exposed to the air, the surface atoms undergo a spontaneous reaction with atmospheric oxygen to form a very stable metal oxide compound these oxide films are both uncreative and fairly tough
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ovens allow even heating from all sides, preventing large thermal gradients this is why ceramics are generally used only in the oven, where they encounter only moderate and diffuse heat, or they are applied in thin coatings on the surface of metals, so that the metals can do the job of distributing the heat evenly
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Ceramics
aluminum oxide, when it occurs in crystals rather than on pan, makes up the abrasive []called corundum, and is also the principal material or rubies[] and sapphires[] the problem is that these natural coatings are only a few molecules thick, and are easily scratched through or worn away during cooking
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Ceramics
ceramics have poor conductivity so they have an advantage in keeping food hot
good conductors like copper and aluminum quickly give up heat to their surroundings, while ceramics retain it well
ovens with ceramic walls are unparalleled for the evenness of their heating
The walls slowly absorb and store large quantities of energy while the oven is heated up, and then release it when the food is placed inside
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Copper
copper is the first metal to be used in tool making it has the highest conductivity among all common cooking materials unmatched conductivity which makes fast and even heating a simple matter it is relatively expensive since its conductivity has made it the preferred material for electrical circuitry
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Copper
it is troublesome to keep polished because it has a high affinity for oxygen and sulfur, and forms a greenish coating when exposed to air copper cookware can be harmful
its oxide coating is sometimes porous and powdery copper ions are easily leached into food solutions
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Copper
copper ions can have useful effects:
they stabilize foamed egg whites the green color of cooked vegetables is improved by their presence
Aluminum
aluminum has the second highest thermal conductivity it is available at much lower cost it has a low density that makes it lightweight and easily handled it is non-toxic and non-reactive It can be used to make the foil wrappings, beer and soft drink cans in cookware, it is usually alloyed with small amounts of manganese and sometimes copper
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Aluminum
anodized aluminum has a thin coating of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) on the surface aluminum oxide forms as a result of aluminum reacting with oxygen at high temperature, and is a very hard ceramic suitable for protection from scratches
Aluminum
most aluminum utensils are either given a nonstick coating or are anodized[]
anodization is a process that involves making the metal the positive pole in a solution of sulfuric acid, and so forcing the oxidation of its surface to make a thick protective oxide layer
because unanodized aluminum develops only a thin oxide layer, reactive food molecules, such as acids, alkalis, the hydrogen sulfide evolved by cooked eggs will easily penetrate to the metal surface, and a variety of aluminum oxide and hydroxide complexes, some of them gray or black, are formed these can ruin light-colored foods
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carbon steel contains less carbon, and is heat-treated to obtain a less brittle, tougher alloy that can be formed into thinner pans
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since it is denser than aluminum, a cast iron pan will absorb more heat and hold at longer than a similar aluminum pan
thick cast iron pans provide steady and even heat
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Tin
tin was probably first used in combination with copper to make the mechanically tougher alloy called bronze it is found only as a nontoxic, unreactive lining in copper utensils it has two inconvenient properties:
a low melting point, 230C, that can be reached in some cooking procedures a softness that makes the metal very susceptible to wear
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most good quality stainless steel pans are made with a sandwich construction
with an inner layer of copper thin outer layers of stainless steel with the good thermal conductivity of copper
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sticking is caused by chemical bonds forming between the food and the material of the pan, usually metal
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protein-rich foods are particularly prone to sticking because the proteins can form complexes with metal atoms, e.g. iron in the pan
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the oil fills in the valleys and caves of the pan surface and when it gets hot it reacts with the metal atoms of the pan and forms a coating called a patina[] any liquid would do that, but water wouldnt last long enough in a hot pan to do much good unless you use lots of it this leaves few free metal atoms to react with the food this coating can easily be removed by detergents, however, so it has to be reapplied before each use of the pan
the molecules of Teflon are unique in that they wont form bonds to anything
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it is made up of only two kinds of atoms, carbon and fluorine, in a ratio of four fluorine atoms to every two carbon backbones with fluorine atoms bristling out like the spikes on a woolly caterpillar
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Conduction
the hot air molecules are moving faster than the cooler food molecules, and when they collide with the foods molecules they kick them up to a faster speed, like a cue ball scattering a rack of billiard balls it can be quite efficient between two solids in contact, such as your hand on a hot frying-pan handle, but not between hot air and anything else
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Conduction
you can put your hand in 93C oven for several seconds without fear
because the rate of conduction of heat from the air into your skin is so extraordinarily slow
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Convection
variable conditions inside the oven, e.g. inevitably uneven temperatures between one spot and another, make the air move
because hotter pieces of air rise, while cooler pieces fall, creating a kind of circulation thats called convection, or convection currents
Convection
temperature distribution can be improved by using a fan, located inside the oven, to create forced convection currents the forced convection currents efficiently mix the air inside an oven, creating uniform temperatures even in the presence of large pans the increased airflow results in a higher convection coefficient, which reduces cooking time
thats why it is a good practice to lower the temperature by 14C when using a convection oven rather than a standard one
this circulation oven boosts the efficiency of heat transfer between the air and the food
because it increases the amount of contact between the food and the hot air molecules in the enclosure
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Radiation
hot things radiate infrared radiation[] all materials at all temperatures are emitting some of their energy as infrared radiation a given object, the hotter it is, the more infrared radiation it is emitting when the infrared radiation coming from the hot oven walls and the hot air hits the food, the food molecules absorb it and move with increased energy, i.e. they become hotter
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Radiation
infrared radiation is not heat it is electromagnetic radiation like microwaves infrared radiation is emitted by hot matter and travels through space, it is not transformed back into heat until it is absorbed by other matter a dark surface absorbs more of this radiation than a light-colored or shiny surface does
thus a cake should cook faster in a dark pan than in a light one
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Cooking Methods
as simple an operation as heating a pan of water on the stove involves
radiation and conduction from an electrical element conduction through the pan convection in the water
Cooking Methods
cooking methods can be characterized into two main types: dry heat cooking and moist heat cooking
dry heat cooking heats foods in the absence of water, and includes methods such as baking, grilling, broiling, frying, and deep frying moist heat cooking uses water to heat food, and includes boiling, simmering, braising, and steaming
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Baking
baking relies on a combination of radiation form the walls and hot-air convection to heat the food it easily dehydrates[()] the surface of foods, and so will brown them well provided the oven temperature is high enough typical baking temperatures are well above the boiling point, from 150-250C
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Baking
a potato can be boiled in less time than it takes to be baked at a much hotter temperature this is so because neither radiation nor air convection at 260C transfers heat very rapidly to food oven air is less than a thousandth as dense as water, so the collisions between hot molecules and food are much less frequent in the oven than in the pot
Baking
thats why we can reach into a hot oven without immediately burning our hand
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electric ovens use two heating coils, located at the top and bottom of the oven the bottom coil is used for baking and roasting; the top is used for broiling the heating coils are simply resistive elements which are heated by passing an electric current through them
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Baking
in traditional ovens, when bottom coil is heated, the air inside the oven is heated primarily by conduction and natural convection the heat is then transferred to the food, which is heated by the natural convection current convection ovens increase the rate of heat transfer by using fans to force more air movement, and significantly reduce baking times
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Baking
the heat transfer is enhanced by the use of a fan
the fan creates forced convection within the oven, which not only heats the food faster but also encourages even distribution of heat
heat transfer inside an oven is actually more complicated than simply conduction and convection the heating element emits a considerable amount of radiation which also contributes to the heating of the food in addition, the walls of the oven become heated as well, emitting their own radiation 58
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the trick in frying is to prevent the outside from overcooking before the inside is done
Deep Frying
deep frying [] differs from pan frying by employing enough oil to immerse the food altogether resembles boiling more than pan frying, with the essential difference that the oil is heated for above the boiling point of water, and so will dehydrate the food surface and brown it
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Steaming
steam is less dense than liquid water and so makes less frequent contact with the food, steam compensates for this loss in efficiency with a gain in energy it takes a large amount of energy to turn liquid water into a gas gaseous water releases that same large amount of energy when it condenses onto a cooler object this means that steaming does an especially quick job of bringing the surface of the food up to the boiling point, and an effective job of keeping it there
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Pressure cooking
the use of pressure cooking reduces cooking times by trapping the steam that escapes from boiling water, thereby increasing the pressure on the liquid, and so raising its boiling point at normal atmospheric pressure, 100kPa, water boils at 100C, but at twice this pressure it boils at about 125C
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Pressure cooking
pressure cooker has a sealed lid with a valve to ensure that the pressure does not get too high the temperature at which a liquid boils increases as the external pressure increases this is because boiling occurs when the vapor pressure of water is equal to the external pressure which means that bubbles can form in the body of the liquid
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Pressure cooking
as the water boils, steam is produced and this raises the pressure inside the pan and increases the boiling point of the water most pressure cookers are set to operate at 100kPa above atmospheric pressure, i.e. at double the atmospheric pressure as the pressure inside the pot increases, the boiling point rises, and a higher temperature can be achieved for cooking
Pressure cooking
when you consider that water usually boils at 100 C and the food inside a pressure cooker is at much hotter temperatures than normal simmering[] will allow, it is not surprising that food cooks quickly steam penetrates food easily under pressure
so connective tissues in cubes of beef for soups or stews soften in 15 minutes or less, and a pot roast will be medium-rare in 30 minutes
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Microwaving
the electromagnetic spectrum consists of various types of radiation, characterized by wavelength () and frequency () Microwave radiation refers to the region of the spectrum with frequencies between 109 Hz to 1011 Hz cooking power of a microwave oven, and hence how fast it will do its chores, depends on the number of watts of microwaves there are per cubic foot of space in the box
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Microwaving
microwaving heats food by agitating the water molecules most foods we consume contain over 70% water by weight, making this an effective way for heating foods however, the negative side is that food with low water contents take longer to heat in a microwave
frozen foods take longer to heat because the water molecules are not moved as much as in liquid water
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Microwaving
foods heated in a microwave cannot become hotter than the boiling point of water
this is why foods cannot be browned in a microwave, and pies reheated in a microwave do not have a crisp crust like a freshly baked pie would have
Microwaving
One often hears the statement, "microwaves cook foods from inside"
because foods heated in a microwave tend to heat most rapidly in the center, they cook much faster than what we intuitively believe from conduction of heat from outside in fact not entirely true:
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microwave radiation simply has the ability to penetrate several inches into the food it penetrates into food several inches down, it can heat foods quicker than if it were being heated through conduction by boiling water on the outer surface if the food were larger than several inches, the middle of the food still needs to be heated by conduction 78
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Microwaving
How microwave heating works?
the O-H bond in a water molecule has a dipole O--H+ because the electronegativity of oxygen is significantly greater than that of hydrogen the alignment and the charges on the atoms are such that the hydrogen side of the molecule has a positive (+) charge, and the oxygen side has a negative (-) charge
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Microwaving
because of its angular shape, the water molecule has an overall dipole moment[] microwave radiation consists of oscillating electric and magnetic fields microwave radiation used in ovens are specially tuned to the natural frequency of water molecules to maximize this interaction the water molecule flips back and forth 5 billion times a second 80
Microwaving
dipoles try to line up with electric fields with their - ends towards the positive and their + ends towards the negative end water molecules try to flip their direction to keep up with the changes in the electric field; this makes the water molecules rotate the rotating water molecules collide with other molecules and this makes them move from place to place this movement is what we call heat
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Microwaving
Microwaving
Why does the food have to be rotated while cooking?
It is hard to design a microwave oven in which the intensity of the microwaves is completely uniform throughout the entire volume of the box as that food in all locations will be subjected to the same heating power the solution is to keep the food moving, so that it averages out non-uniformities in microwave intensity
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Microwaving
Why mustnt one put metal into a microwave oven?
if you put in the oven reflects too many microwaves back instead of absorbing them, the magnetron tube[]can be damaged therefore there must always be something in the oven to absorb microwaves microwaves set up electrical currents in metals, and if the metal object is too thin, it may not be able to support the current and will turn red hot and melt
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Microwaving
How can microwaves defrost frozen food?
hydrogen bonding between the water molecules leads to a lattice structure in which each oxygen atom has two covalent bonds to hydrogen atoms within the water molecule and two hydrogen bonds to hydrogen atoms in other water molecules each oxygen atom is surrounded tetrahedrally by four hydrogens and the overall structure resembles that of diamond
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Microwaving
the water molecules in ice are not free to rotate and the ice does not heat up when subjected to microwave radiation when you defrost frozen food in your microwave oven, you are heating mostly the other, non-ice parts of the food, and the resulting heat then flows into the ice crystals and melts them
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Light Oven
the so-called light oven makes heat in pretty much the same way your electric range does: through the electrical resistanceheating of metal it contains backs of specially designed, long-life 1500-watt halogen lamps that are not vastly different from the halogen lamps in many modern light fixtures only 10% of a household halogen lamps energy output is visible light; 70% is infrared radiation and the remaining 20% is heat
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Light Oven
ovens halogen lamps produce a secret mixture of visible light, various infrared wavelengths and heat the light ovens visible and near-visible light do indeed penetrate meat to some extent and deposit all their energy directly into the solid portions of the food some of the wavelengths put out by the halogen lamps can penetrate foods up to three-four-tenths of an inch
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Light Oven
longer-wavelength infrared radiations and the heat are being absorbed in the foods surface, browning and crisping which microwave ovens cant do ordinary ovens take a long time to brown food
because only some of their heat gets to the food by infrared radiation the rest has to get there through the air, which is a poor conductor of heat
the light ovens infrared radiation heats the foods surface directly to a higher temperature than an ordinary oven can, so 89 the browning is faster
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Experiment
h hold the frying pan a few centimetres above the flames of the gas burner
a)make sure all parts of the paper that are near the flames have some of the egg covering them b)do not allow any parts of the paper that are not covered above with any egg to come into contact with the flames
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i keep moving the frying pan from side to side and up and down as the egg cooks j after a minute or two, the egg should be fried and you can slide it from the pan onto 92 a plate using the spatula
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Minimizing Principle
Chapter 9 Cleaning
the minimizing principle applies to all surfactants[] it is the reason that drops of water and bubbles take on their particular shapes it takes energy to maintain a drop of water
the larger its surface area, the more energy
Minimizing Principle
water dripping slowly from a tap forms a more complete sphere , although elongated by gravity[ ], before it breaks free and falls the ideas of surface tension and minimizing principle apply equally well to gas bubbles inside a liquid, which consists of an elastic skin enclosing a volume a gas, like balloon
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Minimizing Principle
surface tension provides the skin, but something else is needed to make the bubble truly robust; such a material is called a surfactant e.g. soap its molecules, which are released when soap dissolves in water, act to modify surface tension as it can vary across the curvature of a bubble allow the bubbles to adjust to gravity or other forces that would otherwise destroy it
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Surface Tension
the surface of any liquid behaves a little differently from the bulk of its interior above the surface, there exist only occasional molecules of the gas of the atmosphere and the very few water molecules that have escaped by evaporation the only nearby water molecules are below and to the sides of those at the surface
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Surface Tension
at the surface, the forces of attraction become forced toward the sides and downward this particularly strong attraction of the surface molecules for each other and for the molecules immediately below them results in the cohesion of the surface we call it surface tension and it keeps bugs and tacks and other dense but lightweight things from sinking
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Contact Angle
when two fluids are in contact with a solid and with each other, there is a contact line between the three phases the contact angle is taken in the densest fluid phase it is determined by the interactions across the three interfaces
Soaps
soap is one of class of chemical compounds formed by the action of an alkali on a fat molecules that like water are called hydrophilic[], while those that dislike water are termed hydrophobic[] soaps have one (hydrophilic) end that wants to be surrounded by water and one (hydrophobic) end that wants to get out of the water
the hydrophobic ends will coat any dirt, e.g. oils, fats while the hydrophilic ends remain in the water
Soaps
the dirt is broken up into small particles each of which is surrounded by a layer of detergent molecules with their hydrophobic ends firmly stuck to the oily dirt surface the dirt particles are encapsulated in firmly stuck to the oily dirt surface dirt particles are encapsulated in the water surface tension is lowered so that the water carrying the micelles can get to the dirt
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Soaps
when the soap micelles reach the embedded dirt, the soap molecules that form these micelles[] once again find themselves at a surface the surface between the water and the grease that makes up most of the dirt hydrophilic heads of the soap molecules remain surrounded by water molecules the soap micelles break up and the hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails, which has remained in the interior of the spherical micelles, become embedded in the grease
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Soaps
with the hydrophilic heads embedded in the water, the soap molecules effectively connect these two phases together Agitation[] now breaks the grease into micelles whose surfaces are covered by the negatively charged carboxylate groups, the hydrophilic groups of the embedded soap molecules
Soaps
with a coating of negative electrical charges enveloping the entire surface of each micelle, the grease droplets repel each other and remain suspended in the wash water instead of coalescing[] and re-depositing on the material being cleaned in the end, the suspending droplets go down the drain with the wash water
Grease micelles with embedded soap molecules
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Soaps
in clean water, there is nowhere for the hydrophobic ends soap molecules form thin films where the hydrophobic groups are all together and keep the water out these membranes can be quite strong themselves; it any air is introduced, the membranes can become curved and make bubbles to make a membrane bend, some force is required, the more curved a membrane becomes, the more force is needed
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Soaps
in conclusion, soaps clean by:
decreasing waters surface tension, making it a better wetting agent converting greasy and oily dirt into micelles that become dispersed in the soapy water keeping the grease micelles in suspension, thereby preventing them from coalescing back to large globules of grease that could be redeposited on a clean surface
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Detergents
deterge means to wipe off or to clean detergent is anything that cleans, especially if it removes oily or greasy dirt soaps are detergents in the sense that they help clean oily and greasy dirt from fabrics, metals, our skin and hair soaps make up a very narrow class of detergents all detergent molecules, like those of soaps, consist of a hydrophilic portion and a hydrophobic portion
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Detergents
when they enter water, detergent molecules head for the single location where both tendencies can be accommodated the hydrophilic end of the molecule becomes comfortably embedded among the water molecules that make up the surface while the hydrophobic tail sticks up, away from the water molecules the detergent molecules become interspersed among the molecules at the waters surface
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Detergents
in disrupting this tightly knit layer of molecules, the detergent interferes with the strong attractive forces that the surface water molecules normally exert on each other and so lowers the surface tension soaps, detergents, and any other substances that accumulate at surfaces and change their properties sharply, especially by lowing the surface tension, are surface-active agents, surfactants
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Surfactants
surfactants come in two types, polymers and soap-like substances soap-like substances:
they are fairly small amphiphilic[ ]molecules the hydrophobic (lipohilic) part being typically an aliphatic chain the hydrophilic part can vary widely, in common soap, it is an ionized carboxyl group most amphiphilic substances are not highly soluble either in water or oil they feel the least repulsive interaction from these solvents when they are partly in a hydrophilic environment, e.g. water, and partly in 18 a hydrophobic one, e.g. oil
Surfactants
small-molecule surfactants are categorized as nonionic, anionic and cationic, according to the nature of the hydrophilic part distinction is made between natural surfactants (e.g. soaps, monoacylglycerols, phospholipids) and synthetic ones
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Proteins as Surfactants
proteins often are the surfactants of choice, especially for foams and o/w emulsions because of their water solubility, but they are not suitable for w/o emulsions the mode of adsorption of proteins varies there always is a change of conformation most enzymes completely lose their activity after adsorption at an oil-water interface due to conformational change
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Proteins as Surfactants
some enzymes retain part of their activity after adsorption at an air-water interface proteins with little secondary structure, like gelatin and caseins, tend to absorb more like a linear polymer it is apparent that proteins, like synthetic high polymers, are much more surface active than soap-like surfactants
Functions of Surfactants
The presence of surfactants:
affects the contact angle, which is important for wetting and dispersion events
it determines whether a particle can adsorb on a fluid interface and to what extent it then sticks out in either fluid phase it is an important bearing on stability of some emulsions and foams
causes the interfacial free energy to decrease, then slow the Ostwald ripening[ ]
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Functions of Surfactants
allows the creation of surface-tension gradients, which is essential for formation and stability of emulsions and foams may greatly modify (colloidal) interparticle forces, mostly enhancing repulsion and thereby stability may undergo specific interactions with macromolecules, such as proteins, thereby materially altering macromolecules' properties
Dishwasher Detergents
most dishwasher detergents contain the highly alkaline compound sodium carbonate alkaline chemicals are needed in the dishwasher because they gobble up grease, transforming it into soap aluminum is an unusual metal in that it is attacked by both acids and alkalis
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Dishwasher Detergents
the alkaline sodium carbonate in the detergent does indeed attack aluminum, at the very least eating deeply enough into the surface to make it dull and pewter gray with aluminum compounds
most manufacturers of quality aluminum cookware advise against putting it in the dishwasher
Dishwasher Detergents
there is a second aluminum-damaging phenomenon going on in the dishwasher if the aluminum utensil happens to be touching another metal, which will most likely be stainless steel
whenever any two different metals, in this case aluminum and what is essentially iron, are in contact while immersed in an electrically conducting liquid, an electrical reaction takes place that attacks one of the two metals, in this case the aluminum, corroding its surface and dulling it
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this will loosen the goo[] zapped onto your microwave and now you can wipe it off easily
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it can also clean you hands of any stains left from fruits, like blueberries or raspberries
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Coffee
coffee begins as a seed coffee beans are the seeds of two species of a tropical relative of the gardenia[]
it stimulates the central nervous system, relieves drowsiness and fatigue, and quickens reaction times it also increases energy production in muscles and so their capacity for work less desirably, in high doses it causes restlessness, nervousness, and insomnia reaches its maximum levels in the blood between 15 minutes and two hours after consumption, and its levels are reduced by half within three to 3 seven hours
Coffee Beans
when the flowers fall off the fruits starts to forma process that takes up to 6-7 months once it is ripe, the fruit greatly resembles a cherry: the same round or ovoid shape, the same size and the same color, gradually turning from green to yellow, then to orange and finally to red the skin surrounds a thick, viscous pulp inside that, a husk (pale yellow in color but known as the silver skin) protects the two green coffee beans (each marked by a long, deep furrow) nestling in the heart of the fruit
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Coffee Beans
these are tucked together with their convex sides facing outwards and their flat sides facing each other every species of coffee tree produces its own beans, which differ in size and color once these beans have had their silver skin removed and been dried and roasted, they will serve to make around 40 cups of coffee the seeds cleaned of the fruit pulp by one of two basic methods:
wet method dry method
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Civet Coffee
Civet coffee (Kopi Luwak) is coffee made from coffee berries which have been eaten by and passed through the digestive tract of the Common Palm Civet the raw, red coffee berries are part of its normal diet, along with insects, small mammals, and other fruits it is believed that enzymes in the stomach of the civet add to the coffee's flavor by breaking down the proteins that give coffee its bitter taste the animals gorge on the ripe berries, and 14 the undigested beans are excreted
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Civet Coffee
Civet Coffee
the beans are excreted still covered in some inner layers of the cherry the beans are washed, and given only a light roast so as to not destroy the complex flavors which develop through the whole process since these dropping are rare to find, in the whole world, only 500 kg of this coffee is produced every year, making it the "rarest" and the "costliest" coffee in the world civet coffee is the most expensive coffee in the world, selling at $75 USD per quarter pound
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civet
Tea
it begins as a new, actively growing leaf it is rich in enzymes it is carefully captured and preserved by minimal heat and drying
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White Tea
white tea bears the seal of special quality with their silvery white leaves coated with white down it is only withered after picking, before being dried in another process with their fresh taste and delicate aroma, they outrival all other teas
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Green Tea
it preserves some of the original qualities of the fresh leaf, while heightening them and rounding them out it is made by cooking the fresh or briefly withered leaves to inactivate their enzymes, then pressing them to release their moisture, and drying them in hot air or on a hot pan
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Oolong Tea
oolong tea[] is made by allowing some modest enzyme transformation of leaf juices the leaves are withered until they become significantly wilted and weakened they are lightly agitated to bruise the leaf edges after that, they are allowed to rest for a few hours until enzyme action has turned the bruised edges red, then they are pan-fired at a high temperature, rolled, and finally dried gently, at temperatures just below 100C 21
Oolong Tea
they undergo only a brief fermentation period (incomplete fermentation) the long leaves are kept whole and then rolled oolong tea brews to a light amber color oolong tea have a distinctive, fruity flavor, rich in nuances, together with a distinctive fruity aroma
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Black Tea
black tea is made by allowing a profound enzymatic transformation of the leaf fluids the leaves are withered for hours, then are allowed to rest for between one and four hours during which enzyme action turns them a coppery brown and causes them to emit the aroma of apples finally, the leaves are air-dried at temperatures around 100C, and become quite dark
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One transformation is the liberation of large range of aroma compounds, which in the intact leaf are bound up with sugars and so cant escape into the air
when
the cells are crushed, enzymes break the aroma-sugar complex apart this liberation makes the aroma of oolong and black teas fuller and richer than the aroma of green teas
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small molecules are the tea leafs abundant supply of three-ring phenolic compounds, which are astringent, bitter, and colorless the leafs browning enzyme, polyphenoloxidase, uses oxygen from the air to join the small phenolic molecules together into larger complexes
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Earl Grey
the best known of these teas is Earl Grey, flavored with bergamot bergamot is an essential ingredient of Earl Grey tea, the tea itself can be black, green or oolong more recent innovations include honey, caramel and chocolate teas, sometimes spiced up with alcohol, such as rum, maraschino or whisky
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Fresh tea leaf (bitter not astringent) Bruised or rolled tea leaf (very bitter and astringent) More extensive enzyme action produces a compound (less bitter and astringent)
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