Chemical and Functional

Properties of Food Components

 FOOD COMPONENTS
• Components in food raw materials and product:
ü Foods: plants, carcasses of animals, and single-cell
organisms.
ü Their main components: water, saccharides,
proteins, lipids, and minerals.
ü The non-protein nitrogenous compounds, vitamins,
colorants, flavor compounds, and functional
additives
Typical Products as Rich Sources of the Main
Food Components
• The protein content in foods is present mainly as
crude protein (i.e., as N x 6.25).

• The nitrogen-to-protein conversion factor (N:P) of

6.25 has been recommended for most plant and
animal food products under the assumption that
the N content in their proteins is 16%, and they do
not contain non-protein N.
 The Nitrogen to Protein
Conversion Factors in Foods
 FACTORS AFFECTING
FOOD COMPOSITION
• The content of different components in food raw
materials depends on:
ü the species and variety of the animal or plant crop;

ü the conditions of cultivation and time of harvesting of

the plants;
ü the feeding, conditions of life, and age of the farm
animals or the fishing season for fish and marine
invertebrates;
ü and on postharvest changes that take place in the crop
during storage.
 FACTORS AFFECTING
FOOD COMPOSITION
• The composition of processed foods depends on
the recipe applied and on changes taking place due
to processing and storage.

• These changes are mainly brought about by

endogenous and microbial enzymes, active forms
of oxygen, heating, chemical treatment, and
processing at low or high pH.
 FACTORS AFFECTING
FOOD COMPOSITION
• Examples of such changes:
1. Leaching of soluble, desirable and undesirable
components, such as vitamins, minerals, and toxins during
washing, blanching, and cooking
2. Dripping after thawing or due to cooking.
3. Loss of moisture and volatiles due to evaporation and
sublimation
4. Absorption of desirable or harmful compounds during
salting, pickling, seasoning, frying, or smoking
 FACTORS AFFECTING
FOOD COMPOSITION
5. Formation of desirable or harmful compounds due to enzyme
activity, such as the development of typical flavor in cheese or
decarboxylation of amino acids in fish marinades.

6. Generation of desirable or objectionable products due to

interactions of reactive groups induced by heating or chemical
treatment, such as flavors or carcinogenic compounds in roasted
meats, or trans -fatty acids in hydrogenated fats
7. Formation of different products of oxidation of food
components, mainly of lipids, pigments, and vitamins.
8. Loss of nutrients and deterioration of dried fish due to attacks
by flies, mites, and beetles
 THE ROLE OF FOOD
COMPONENTS
• The indigenous water that is immobilized in the
plant and animal tissues by the structural elements
and various solutes contributes to buttressing the
conformation of the polymers, serves as a solvent
for different constituents, and interacts in metabolic
processes.
 THE ROLE OF FOOD
COMPONENTS
• Polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids serve as the
building material of different structures of the plant
and animal tissues used for food.

• The structures made of these materials are

responsible for the form and tensile strength of the
tissues, and create the necessary conditions for
metabolic processes to occur.
 THE ROLE OF FOOD
COMPONENTS
• Many saccharides, proteins, and lipids are stored for reserve
purposes.
ü Polysaccharides are present in plants as starch in the form of
granules and in muscles as glycogen.
ü Other saccharides are dissolved in tissue fluids or perform
different biological functions, such as in free nucleotides or as
components of nucleic acids, or in being bound to proteins and
lipids.
ü Proteins also play crucial metabolic roles in plants and animals
as enzymes and enzyme inhibitors, participate in the transport
and binding of oxygen and metal ions, and perform
immunological functions.
 THE ROLE OF FOOD
COMPONENTS
• The distribution of lipids in food raw materials
depends on their role in the living animal and plant
organisms.
o In an animal body, lipids occur primarily as an energy
rich store of neutral fat in the subcutaneous adipose
tissue.

• The lipids contained in the food raw materials in low

quantities serve mainly as components of protein-
phospholipid membranes and have metabolic
functions.
 THE ROLE OF FOOD
COMPONENTS
• Many of the minor components originally present
in the raw materials are nutritionally essential, such
as vitamins.

• A variety of compounds are added intentionally

during processing, to be used as preservatives,
antioxidants, colorants, flavorings, sweeteners, and
emulsifying agents, or to fulfill other technological
purposes.
 Chemical Composition
and Structure of Foods
• A base the dominant nutritional component, food
products may be divided into four groups:
1. Protein food products
2. Saccharide food products
3. Edible fats
4. Fruits and vegetables
 Water and Food Quality
Although a water molecule is electrically neutral
as a whole, it has a dipolar character.

Water molecule as an electric dipole

 Water: Hydrogen bond

The nearly tetrahedral arrangement of

the orbital about the oxygen atom
allows each water molecule to form
hydrogen bonds with four of its
neighbors.

Tetrahedral hydrogen bonding of five water

molecules
 Water: Hydrogen bond

• An individual, isolated hydrogen bond is very labile. It is

longer and weaker than a covalent O-H bond.

• The hydrogen bond’s energy, that is, the energy required to

break the bond, is about 20 kJ/mol.

• These bonds are intermediate between those of weak van

der Waals interactions (about 1.2 kJ/mol) and those of
covalent bonds (460 kJ/mol).
 Water: Hydrogen bond

Two water molecules connected by hydrogen bonds

 Water: Hydrogen bond
Hydrogen bonds are highly directional; they are stronger when
the hydrogen atom and the two atoms that share it are in a
straight line.
 Water: Hydrogen bond
• Hydrogen bonds are not unique to water.

• They are formed between water and different chemical

structures, as well as between other molecules
(intermolecular) or even within a molecule
(intramolecular).

• They are formed wherever an electronegative atom

(oxygen or nitrogen) comes in close proximity to a
hydrogen atom covalently bonded to another
electronegative atom.
Water: Hydrogen bond

Some hydrogen bonds of biological importance

Properties of bulk water
• In the crystal of ordinary
hexagonal ice, each molecule
forms four hydrogen bonds with
its nearest neighbors.
• Each HOH acts as a hydrogen
donor to two of the four water
molecules, and as a hydrogen
acceptor from the remaining two.

Structure of ice
 Properties of bulk water
• The crystal lattice of ice occupies more space than the same
number of H2O molecules in liquid water.

• The density of solid water is thus less than that of liquid

water, whereas simple logic would have the more tightly
bound solid structure more dense than its liquid.

• As the temperature of liquid water increases, the

intermolecular distances also increase, giving a lower
density.
• The fact that liquid water has a maximum density at a
temperature of 4oC.
 Properties of bulk water
• At 100oC liquid water still contains a significant number of
hydrogen bonds, and even in water vapor there is strong
attraction between water molecules.
• The very large number of hydrogen bonds between
molecules confers great internal cohesion on liquid water.
This feature provides a logical explanation for many of its
unusual properties.

• For example, its large values for heat capacity, melting

point, boiling point, surface tension, and heat of various
phase transitions are all related to the extra energy needed
to break intermolecular hydrogen bonds.
 Properties of bulk water
• Many models have been proposed, but none has adequately
explained all properties of liquid water.

• Two types of structure can be distinguished: high-density

water and low-density water.

• In the high-density water, the bent, relatively weak hydrogen

bonds predominate over straight, stronger ones.

• Low-density water has many icelike straight hydrogen bonds.

Although hydrogen bonding is still continuous through the
liquid, the weakness of the bonds allows the structure to be
disrupted by thermal energy extremely rapidly.
 Properties of bulk water
• High-density water is extremely reactive and more
liquid, whereas low-density water is inert and more
viscous.

• The strength of water–water hydrogen bonding, which

is the source of water density and reactivity, has great
functional significance; this explains water’s solvent
properties and its role in many biological events.
 Thermal Properties of water
• The unusually high melting point of ice, as well as the heat of
water vaporization and specific heat, is related to the ability of
water molecules to form hydrogen bonds and the strength of these
bonds.
• A large amount of energy, in the form of heat, is required to
disrupt the hydrogen bonded lattice of ice.
• In the common form of ice, each water molecule participates in
four hydrogen bonds. When ice melts, most of the hydrogen
bonds are retained by liquid water, but the pattern of hydrogen
bonding is irregular, due to the frequent fluctuation.
• The average energy required to break each hydrogen bond in ice
has been estimated to be 23 kJ/mol, while the energy to break
each hydrogen bond in water is less than 20 kJ/mol
 Water as a Solvent
• The polar nature of the water molecule and the ability to
form hydrogen bonds determine its properties as a solvent.

• Water is a good solvent for charged or polar compounds

and a relatively poor solvent for hydrocarbons.

• Hydrophilic compounds interact strongly with water by an

ion–dipole or dipole–dipole mechanism, causing changes
in water structure and mobility and in the structure and
reactivity of the solutes.
• The interaction of water with various solutes is referred to
as hydration.
 Water as a Solvent
• Water dissolves dissociable solutes readily because the polar
water molecules orient themselves around ions and partially
neutralize ionic charges.
• As a result, the positive and negative ions can exist as
separate entities in a dilute aqueous solution without
forming ion pairs.

• Sodium chloride is an example where the electrostatic

attraction of Na+ and Cl– is overcome by the attraction of
Na+ with the negative charge on the oxygen and Cl– with
the positive charge on the hydrogen ions.
Classification of Water States
in Foods
 Sorption Isotherms and Water Activity

• Sorption isotherms at different temperatures can be

calculated using the Clausius–Clapeyron equation from
classical thermodynamics:
 Sorption Isotherms and Water Activity

• A complication arises from one of the methods of measuring

sorption isotherms for a food.

• A food that has previously been dried and then is rehydrated

will have a different sorption isotherm (adsorption isotherm)
from that which is in the process of drying (desorption
isotherm).

• This difference is due to a change in the water binding

capacity in foods that have been previously dried.
Sorption Isotherms and Water Activity

A typical sorption
isotherm for a food
 Water activity and Shelf life of Foods

• Many of the chemical and biological processes that

cause deterioration of foods, and ultimately spoilage,
are water dependent.

• Microbial growth is directly linked to water activity. No

microbes can multiply at a water activity below 0.6.
Water activity and Shelf life of Foods
Water activity and Shelf life of Foods
 Water Structure Science

http://www1.lsbu.ac.uk/water/water_structure_science.html
 Mineral Components
• Minerals represent from 0.2% to 0.3% of the total intake of
all nutrients in the diet.
• They are so potent and so important that without them the
organism would not be able to utilize all the other food
components.
• These nutrients participate in a multitude of
biochemical and physiological processes important for
health.
• Because of their broad biochemical activity, many of
these compounds are intentionally used as functional
agents in a variety of foods.
 Mineral Components
The Contents of Selected Minerals in Some Foods
RDA: Recommended
Dietary Allowances
SAI: Safe and Adequate
daily intakes
 Saccharides
• Nature commonly utilizes saccharides as a source of
energy, structure-forming material, water-
maintaining hydrocolloids, and even sex attractants.
• Frequently, saccharides exist in naturally
derivatized forms, including aminated forms, as in
chitin and chitosan; esterified; alkylated as in
glycosides; oxidized; reduced; or linked to proteins,
lipids, and other structures, such as glycoproteins.
 Saccharides

• Carbohydrate Structure
• Carbohydrate Reactivity
Functional Properties of Carbohydrates

1. Taste
2. Colorants
3. Flavor and aroma
4. Texture
5. Encapsulation
6. Polysaccharide containing biodegradable materials
Functional Properties of Carbohydrates
Taste

Saccharides are usually associated with sweet

taste, although some among them are bitter and
nonsweet saccharides.
Functional Properties of Carbohydrates
Colorants

• Sugars are utilized for generation of caramel, a brown

colorant for food.

• There is a concern about harm from the free radical

character of caramels. However, they were proven to be
nonmutagenic.

• Thermal processing of saccharide- and polysaccharide-

containing foodstuffs results in development of brown color;
it originates from caramelization and, in the case of the
polysaccharides, dextrinization.
Functional Properties of Carbohydrates
Flavor and Aroma
• Burning of sugar in noncatalyzed processes results in the
formation of particularly high amounts of furan-2-aldehyde
and its derivatives.
• They constitute the flavor and aroma typical of caramel.
Many foodstuffs (meat, fish, bakery products, potato, cocoa,
coffee, and tobacco) on thermal treatment (baking, roasting,
frying) develop specific aromas.

• They are volatile derivatives of pyrazine, pyrrole, and

pyridine formed on thermal reactions of saccharides and
proteins, nucleotides, and amino acids.
Functional Properties of Carbohydrates
Texture
• Concentrated aqueous solutions of carbohydrates form
viscous liquids that most commonly utilized in practice
for texturizing foodstuffs.

• Blending of various saccharides and polysaccharides

can result in the formation of numerous edible glues
and adhesives. Such interactions are commonly utilized
in texturization of puddings, jellies, and foams.
Functional Properties of Carbohydrates
Texture
• The texturizing effect of a given saccharide or polysaccharide
and its various blends is developed as a function of the time
necessary for the formation of a gel network (a physical
cross-linking).

• A starch sulfate ester is used as a thickener and emulsion

stabilizer. It is a typical anionic starch used as a component
of anionic starch–protein complexes constituting meat
substitutes
Functional Properties of Carbohydrates
Texture
• The replacement of saccharide sweeteners (first of all,
sucrose) in food with various natural and synthetic
sweeteners of very high RS (currently, mainly saccharin,
aspartame, and cyclamates) is a task.
• It is also demanded by consumers looking for low-calorie
foods.
• Diabetics are also looking for food free of insulin-requiring
saccharides and polysaccharides.
• Following such demands, problems are encountered in
providing the anticipated texture of sweet products
manufactured without saccharides
Functional Properties of Carbohydrates
Encapsulation
Definition Bioactive compounds (core materials) are
enveloped within a secondary wall

Two different types of microcapsule structures

 Wall material

ü Different wall materials have different physical & chemical characteristics

ü A good wall material should possess the following properties:
• low viscosity & non-hygroscopic
• inherent film-forming
• blank in flavour/tasteless
• stabilisation of core material
• non-reactivity with core material
• soluble in aqueous solutions or solvents
• inexpensive
• food-grade
• flexible, hard, thin & pliable
 Important molecular characteristics of common wall materials

Name Source Main structure type Major monomer

Alginate Algal Linear β-D-Mannuronic acid

Beet pectin Sugar beet pulp Branched coil with Glucuronate (backbone)
protein
Carrageenan Algal Linear/helical Sulfated galactan
Gelatin animal or fish Linear Amino acid
collagen
Gum arabic Acacia sap Branched coil domains on Galactose
protein scaffold
Methyl cellulose Wool pulp Linear Methylated glucose

Pectin Plant cell walls Highly branched coil Glucuronate (backbone)

Whey protein Milk Globular α- & β- lactoglobulin
 Cyclodextrins

The chemical & toroidal structures of cyclodextrin

(n = 1, 2 & 3 corresponds to α, β & ϒ-cyclodextrins, respectively)
 Functional Properties of Carbohydrates
Polysaccharide-containing biodegradable materials

• There is a growing concern about fully biodegradable

plastics-packing and wrapping foils, containers, equipment of
fast-food restaurants, disposable bags, and superabsorbents.

• Currently, several products made of polyethylene modified

into biodegradable material are in use throughout the world.
Biodegradability of such materials is afforded by admixture
of 6 to 15 natural components, such as starch, cellulose,
wood, or proteins into polyethylene.
 Protein

• Chemical structure
• Conformation

• Proteins are linear condensation products of various α -L-

amino acids (a.a.), which differ in molecular weight, charge,
and polar character, bound by transpeptide linkages.
Functional properties of protein displayed in
interactions with different food constituents
Functional Properties of Protein

ü Solubility

ü Water holding capacity

ü Gelling and film formation

ü Emulsifying properties

ü Foaming properties
• What are your take-home messages?