Atomic Nucleus → Protons + Neutrons → Atomic Mass → units – Dalton or AMU

Mass of Neutron + Proton → 1 Dalton Mass of an electron → 1/2000th of a Neutron

Atomic Mass = Protons + Neutrons

Atomic Number = # of Protons

So # of neutrons = Atomic Mass – Atomic Number

4
2 He means -> Atomic number is 2 and mass is 4

# of Electrons Vs Stability

The number of Electrons in an atom determines the Valence electron of an atom, ie the
number of electrons in the outermost level (valence shell) of an atom. Atoms are most stable if they have a filled
valence shell of electrons (each level has varying numbers 2,8,8,18…) or else they are more susceptible to react
affecting the stability of the atom

Difference between Covalent bond and Polar Covalent Bond.

Covalent bond can either be polar or non-polar and either have electronic charge separation or not whereas the
Polar covalent bond will only be polar and have slight electronic charge separation.
Why is Water is Polar Molecule.

• Water is polar because it has a bent geometry that places the positively-charged
hydrogen atoms on one side of the molecule and the negatively-charged oxygen
atom on the other side of the molecule.
• The net effect is a partial dipole, where the hydrogens have a partial positive charge
and the oxygen atom has a partial negative charge.
• The reason water is bent is because the oxygen atom still has two lone pairs of
electrons after it bonds with hydrogen. These electrons repel each other, bending
the O-H bond away from the linear angle.

How ionic bonds are formed?

•An Ionic bond is the bond formed by the complete transfer of valence electron to attain
stability.
• This type of bonding leads to the formation of two oppositely charged ions – positive
ions known as cations and negative ions known as anions.
• The presence of two oppositely charged ions results in a strong attractive force
between them. This force is an ionic or electrovalent bond.
Example NaCl
• For example, when a sodium atom meets a chlorine atom, the sodium donates
one valence electron to the chlorine. This creates a positively-charged sodium
ion and a negatively-charged chlorine ion. The electrostatic attraction
between them forms an ionic bond, resulting in a stable ionic compound
called sodium chloride (AKA table salt).

Why is carbon such a good molecule to build backbone of biomolecules?

Carbon is a such a versatile element because it can form four covalent bonds. Carbon skeletons
can vary in length, branching, and ring structure.
Isomers

Isomer is a term for each of two or more compounds with the same formula but a different
arrangement of atoms in the molecule and different properties.
5 Properties of Water

1. Its attraction to polar molecules

a) Cohesion
b) Adhesion
2. High-specific heat
3. High heat of vaporization
4. The lower density of ice
5. High polarity

Order Strong to weak bonds

Ionic – strongest
Covalent,
Hydrogen – weakest

In chemistry, to dissolve is to cause a solute to pass into a solution. Dissolving is also called dissolution.
Typically, this involves a solid going into a liquid phase, but dissolution can involve other transformations
as well
 Buffer
A solution whose pH is not altered to any great extent by the addition of small
quantities of either an acid or base is called buffer solution

Weak Acid -> Acetic acid -→ dissociated products -→ acetate and hydronium
ions

Six Elements
NCHOPS -→ phosporous, sulphur etc…

Lewis Dot Structure of Hydrogen Peroxide

Functional groups of different types of biomolecules are specific groups (moieties) of atoms within
molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules.
The basic functional groups of biomolecules include such groups as hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl,
amino, sulfhydryl, and phosphate groups.
Many biomolecules have more than one functional group.
Each functional group is able to modify the chemical properties of the macromolecules to which it
bonds.

Hydroxyl functional group

Hydroxyl functional group is the group of alcohols. It adds polarity to biological molecules.
One example of alcohols is glycerol, also commonly known as glycerine. Glycerol is a polyalcohol
and an important part of triglycerides and phospholipids.

Carbonyl functional group

Carbonyl functional groups of aldehydes and ketones generally also increase polarity and
reactivity of biological molecules.
Biomolecules containing carbonyls tend to be volatile and stimulate senses with both pleasant and
unpleasant odors.

Carboxyl functional group

A carboxyl functional functional group of carboxylic acids contains both a carbonyl functional
group and a hydroxyl functional group, bonded to the same carbon atom.
Biological macromolecules containing carboxyl groups are often highly polar and reactive.
Common biomolecules, containing the carboxyl functional groups, are fatty acids and amino acids.

Amino functional group

Amino functional groups also increase polarity and reactivity of a biological macromolecule.
They readily form hydrogen bonds with other polar molecules and water. Amines are weakly basic.
Amino and carboxyl functional groups of amino acids react to each other to form peptide bonds
of proteins.

Phosphate functional group

Phosphate functional groups are highly acidic and reactive. Phosphates are essential to the
metabolic processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
A transfer of a phosphate group from one molecule to another delivers energy to chemical
reactions.

Sulfhydryl functional group

The sulfhydryl functional group (–SH) is essential to protein stabilization.
Amino acids with sulfhydryl functional groups form bonds called disulfide bridges (S–S bonds) that
help protein molecules to take on and maintain a specific shape.

4 types of biomolecules and their monomers

 Building blocks of
Natural Polymer biomolecule - Functions of macromolecule
Monomer

energy storage, component of plant cell

Carbohydrates Monosaccharides walls, outer skeleton of insects and
related groups

Proteins Amino acids catalysis, support and structure

Nucleic
Nucleotides encoding of hereditary information
acids (DNA, RNA)

energy storage, component of cell

Lipids "None" membranes, message transmission
(hormones), pigments in photosynthesis

Dehydration and Hydrolysis

Dehydration synthesis reactions build molecules up and generally require energy, while
hydrolysis reactions break molecules down and generally release energy. Carbohydrates,
proteins, and nucleic acids are built up and broken down via these types of reactions, although
the monomers involved are different in each case
Both reactions are occurred in presence of water

Four Parts of Amino Acid Structure

Four Categories/groups of Amino Acids

Saturated Fats
Saturated fats have a chemical nature in which the carbon atoms are
saturated with hydrogen atoms and do not contain double bonds between
carbon atoms. Saturated fats are classically solid at room temperature.

Saturated fats can be found in a variety of foods, including:

• Animal meat including beef, poultry, pork.

• Certain plant oils such as palm kernel or coconut oil.

• Dairy products including cheese, butter, and milk.

• Processed meats including bologna, sausages, hot dogs, and bacon.

• Pre-packaged snacks including crackers, chips, cookies, and pastries.

Unsaturated Fats
Unsaturated fats have a chemical nature that contains one or more double or
triple bonds between the carbon atoms. These fats are liquid at room
temperature in oil form. They also occur in solid foods. These are further divided
into monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats.

Foods Containing Unsaturated Fats include:

• Nuts

• Plant oils such as canola, vegetable, or plant oil

• Certain fish like salmon, tuna, and anchovy, which contain omega-3
unsaturated fatty acids

• Olives

• Avocados

• Monounsaturated Fats
Consisting of one carbon-to-carbon double bond, monounsaturated fats
can aid in controlling blood sugar and insulin levels, as well as lowering
your cholesterol levels to decrease your risk of cardiovascular ailments.
 They can help in the reduction of LDL (bad) cholesterol levels. Cholesterol
is a waxy, sticky substance that can clog or restrict blood vessels (blood
vessels). Maintaining a healthy LDL level lowers your risk of heart disease
and stroke.

Monounsaturated fatty acids support cell growth and maintenance.

Doctors recommend replacing as many saturated fats as possible with
monounsaturated fats, which can be found in foods like peanut oil, canola
oil, olive oil, nuts, seeds, and avocados.

• Polyunsaturated Fats
Containing two or more double bonds in their chemical structures,
polyunsaturated fats are important to regular body functions such as
covering nerves, building cell membranes, blood clotting, inflammation,
and muscle movement — but your body cannot make these fats itself, so
it is recommended that you obtain your polyunsaturated fats from your
diet. LDL (bad) cholesterol can be reduced by eating polyunsaturated fats.
Cholesterol is a waxy, squishy material that can cause arteries to clog or
block (blood vessels). Low LDL cholesterol lowers your chances of
developing heart disease.

In addition to helping your body perform vital functions, these types of

unsaturated fats lower harmful triglycerides, reduce blood pressure and
increase the right kind of cholesterol. They also prevent heart conditions
and lessen the effect of other health conditions like dementia and
rheumatoid arthritis. You can find polyunsaturated fats in foods like fatty
fish, walnuts, flaxseeds, canola oil, sunflower oil, safflower oil, corn oil,
soybean oil, chia, and hemp seeds and walnut oil.

• Trans Fat
Trans fat can be made from vegetable oils through a process called
hydrogenation. Trans fat is naturally found in small amounts in some
animal products such as meat, whole milk, and milk products. Natural trans
fats, also known as ruminant trans fats, are found in the meat and dairy of
ruminant animals including cattle, sheep, and goats. When
microorganisms in the intestines of these animals eat grass, they form
 spontaneously. These forms of fat account for 2–6% of the fat in dairy
products and 3–9% of the fat in beef and lamb cuts.

Difference between Saturated and Unsaturated Fats

Saturated and unsaturated fats vary greatly in their properties. Let us explore
more in detail about the differences between these two types of fat taking
account of their importance, the effect on our body, and their main sources.

Saturated Fats Unsaturated Fats

They contain a single bond. They contain at least one double bond.

They should not consume more than They should not consume more than
10 percent of total calories per day. 30 percent of total calories per day.

Unsaturated fats are good for

Excessive consumption of saturated
consumption, but excessive intake
fats leads to heart diseases.
may increase cholesterol.

They have a high melting point. They have a low melting point.

They increase High-density lipoprotein

They Increase low- density
(HDL), which is commonly known as
lipoproteins (LDL), which is called
good cholesterol and also reduce low-
bad cholesterol.
density lipoproteins (LDL).

Food sources of saturated fats are Food sources of unsaturated fats are
whole milk, butter, cheese, walnuts, flax, avocado, sunflower oil,
margarine, coconut oil, vegetable soybean oil, fish oil, canola oil, red
oil, meat, peanut, fried foods, etc. meat, etc.
These are usually found in the solid These are usually found in the liquid
state in room temperature state at room temperature.

They do not spoil quickly. They spoil quickly.

Structure of Fatty Acid.

where are nonpolar and polar amino acids found in a folded protein?
non-polar = interior
polar = exterior

What are enzymes?

An enzyme is a substance that acts as a catalyst in living organisms, regulating the rate at which
chemical reactions proceed without itself being altered in the process. The biological processes that
occur within all living organisms are chemical reactions, and most are regulated by enzymes.

Difference Competitive Inhibition Vs Allosteric:

Competitive Allosteric

1The inhibitor binds to the active site The inhibitor attaches to an area
of enzyme. other than the active site.
 2. It does not change conformation of 2. Conformation of enzyme is
enzyme. changed.

3. The active Site is swamped by 3. Conformation of active site is

inhibitor. changed so that substrate cannot
combine with it.

4. The inhibitor resembles the 4. The inhibitor has no structural

substrate in its broad structure. similarity with the substrate.

5. The inhibitor is not connected by 5. Inhibitor is a product or

metabolic pathway catalysed by the intermediate of the metabolic
enzyme pathway connected with that
enzyme.

6. It does not have a regulatory 6. Allosteric inhibition has a

function regulatory function as it stops the
excess formation of a product

Gibbs free energy, also known as the Gibbs function, Gibbs energy, or free enthalpy, is a quantity
that is used to measure the maximum amount of work done in a thermodynamic system when
the temperature and pressure are kept constant. Gibbs free energy is denoted by the symbol ‘G’.
Its value is usually expressed in Joules or Kilojoules. Gibbs free energy can be defined as the
maximum amount of work that can be extracted from a closed system.

homeostasis, any self-regulating process by which biological systems tend to

maintain stability while adjusting to conditions that are optimal for survival.
If homeostasis is successful, life continues; if unsuccessful, disaster or death ensues.
The stability attained is actually a dynamic equilibrium, in which continuous change
occurs yet relatively uniform conditions prevail

How does enzymes help maintain homeostasis reaction

Enzyme inhibitors maintain homeostasis in the body by stopping or slowing down processes
that no longer need to take place. An example of this is the allosteric inhibition of hexokinase
which is inhibited by the product of the reaction it catalyzes glucose-6- phosphate.

What happens when enzymes are heated or cooled

Heat can break hydrogen and ionic bonds, which disrupts the shape of the enzyme and will
change the shape of the active site. Cold temperatures do not denature enzymes because cold
does not cause chemical bonds to break. Enzymes are suited to function best within a certain
temperature, pH, and salt concentration range.