Bio notes

Matter: physical substance in general, as distinct from mind and spirit; (in physics) that which
occupies space and possesses rest mass

Nucleus: The nucleus has most of the mass of an atom, though it is only a very small part of it.
Almost all of the mass in an atom is made up from the protons and neutrons in the nucleus with
a very small contribution from the orbiting electrons. Neutrons have no charge and protons are
positively charged

Neutrons : with no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. Protons
and neutrons, each with mass approximately one atomic mass unit, constitute the nucleus of an
atom, and they are collectively referred to as nucleons

Protons : with a positive electric charge of +1e elementary charge and mass slightly less than
that of a neutron. Protons and neutrons, each with masses of approximately one atomic mass
unit, are collectively referred to as "nucleons". One or more protons are present in the nucleus
of every atom.

Electron: An electron can be bound to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force. A
system of one or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom. If the number of
electrons is different from the nucleus' electrical charge, such an atom is called an ion.

Atomic mass : the mass of an atom of a chemical element expressed in atomic mass units. It is
approximately equivalent to the number of protons and neutrons in the atom (the mass number)
or to the average number allowing for the relative abundances of different isotopes.

Elements vs compounds: A compound contains atoms of different elements chemically

combined together in a fixed ratio. An element is a pure chemical substance made of same type
of atom. Compounds contain different elements in a fixed ratio arranged in a defined manner
through chemical bonds.

Structure of atom:
Types of carbohydrates bonds:
Carbohydrates are among the most abundant compounds on earth. They are normally broken
down into five major classifications of carbohydrates:

1. Monosaccharides
2. Disaccharides
3. Oligosaccharides
4. Polysaccharides
5. Nucleotides

Glucose is the main sugar metabolized by the body for energy. The D-isomer of glucose
predominates in nature and it is for this reason that the enzymes in our body have adapted to
binding this form only. Since it is an important energy source, the concentration of glucose in the
bloodstream usually falls within a narrow range of 70 to 115mg/100 ml of blood. Sources of
glucose include starch, the major storage form of carbohydrate in plants.

Galactose

Galactose is nearly identical to glucose in structure except for one hydroxyl group on carbon
atom number four of the six-sided sugar. Since it differs in only one position about all six
asymmetric centers in the linear form of the sugar, galactose is known as an epimer of glucose.
Galactose is not normally found in nature in large quantities, however it combines with glucose
to form lactose in milk. After being absorbed by the body, galactose is converted into glucose by
the liver so that it can be used to provide energy for the body. Both galactose and glucose are
very stable in solution because they are able to adopt chair and boat conformations.

Fructose

Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose, meaning it has the same chemical formula but a
completely different three-dimensional structure. The main difference is that fructose is a ketone
in its linear form while glucose is an aldehyde. Through an intramolecular addition reaction with
the C-5 OH group, glucose forms a six-membered ring while fructose forms a five-membered
ring as seen in Figure 1. Upon consumption, fructose is absorbed and converted into glucose by
the liver in the same manner as lactose. Sources of fructose include fruit, honey and high-
fructose corn syrup.

Disaccharides

Disaccharides, meaning "two sugars", are commonly found in nature as sucrose, lactose and
maltose. They are formed by a condensation reaction where one molecule of water condenses
or is released during the joining of two monosaccharides. The type of bond that is formed
between the two sugars is called a glycosidic bond.

Water bonds

Thanks to their polarity, water molecules happily attract each other. The plus end of one—a
hydrogen atom—associates with the minus end of another—an oxygen atom.

These attractions are an example of hydrogen bonds, weak interactions that form between a
hydrogen with a partial positive charge and a more electronegative atom, such as oxygen.

Water molecules are also attracted to other polar molecules and to ions. A charged or polar
substance that interacts with and dissolves in water is said to be hydrophilic: hydro means
"water," and philic means "loving." In contrast, nonpolar molecules like oils and fats do not
interact well with water. They separate from it rather than dissolve in it and are called
hydrophobic: phobic means "fearing."
Polar molecules

Water (H2O) is an example of a polar molecule since it has a slight positive charge on one side
and a slight negative charge on the other

Properties of water

Generally speaking, water is good at dissolving ions and polar molecules, but poor at dissolving
nonpolar molecules.Water also has a high level of surface tension. This means that the
molecules on the surface of the water are not surrounded by similar molecules on all sides, so

Carbohydrates

Simple carbohydrates contain just one or two sugars, such as fructose and galactose. These
single sugars are called monosaccharides. Carbs with two sugars — such as sucrose, lactose
and maltose — are called disaccharides, according to the NIH. Complex carbohydrates
(polysaccharides) have three or more sugars. They are often referred to as starchy foods and
include beans, peas, lentils, peanuts, potatoes, corn, parsnips, whole-grain breads and
cereals.Smathers pointed out that, while all carbohydrates function as relatively quick energy
sources, simple carbs cause bursts of energy much more quickly than complex carbs because
of the quicker rate at which they are digested and absorbed. Simple carbs can lead to spikes in
blood sugar levels and sugar highs, while complex carbs provide more sustained energy.
Lipid

any of a class of organic compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives and are insoluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents. They include many natural oils, waxes, and steroids.he
higher melting points of the saturated fatty acids reflect the uniform rod-like shape of their
molecules. The cis-double bond(s) in the unsaturated fatty acids introduce a kink in their shape,
which makes it more difficult to pack their molecules together in a stable repeating array or
crystalline lattice. The trans-double bond isomer of oleic acid, known as elaidic acid, has a linear
shape and a melting point of 45 ºC (32 ºC higher than its cis isomer)

stearic acid oleic acid

Fat cells
Adipocytes, also known as lipocytes and fat cells, are the cells that primarily compose adipose
tissue, specialized in storing energy as fat.There are two types of adipose tissue, white adipose
tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT), which are also known as white fat and brown fat,
respectively, and comprise two types of fat cells. Most recently, the presence of beige
adipocytes with a gene expression pattern distinct from either white or brown adipocytes has
been described.
Amino acids

a simple organic compound containing both a carboxyl (—COOH) and an amino (—NH2)
group.A large proportion of our cells, muscles and tissue is made up of amino acids, meaning
they carry out many important bodily functions, such as giving cells their structure. They also
play a key role in the transport and the storage of nutrients. Amino acids have an influence on
the function of organs, glands, tendons and arteries. They are furthermore essential for healing
wounds and repairing tissue, especially in the muscles, bones, skin and hair as well as for the
removal of all kinds of waste deposits produced in connection with the metabolism.

Enzymes

are macromolecular biological catalysts. Enzymes accelerate, or catalyze, chemical reactions.

The molecules at the beginning of the process upon which enzymes may act are called
substrates and the enzyme converts these into different molecules, called products.Some
enzymes help break large molecules into smaller pieces that are more easily absorbed by the
body. Other enzymes help bind two molecules together to produce a new molecule. Enzymes
are highly selective catalysts, meaning that each enzyme only speeds up a specific reaction.The
molecules that an enzyme works with are called substrates. The substrates bind to a region on
the enzyme called the active site.

Energy in enzyme activity and purpose

Initial state transition state final state must overcome an energy barrier,An enzyme lowers this
energy barrier, thus speeding up the reaction

Acidic vs basic

The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14.
A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic.

Bonds that hold atoms of a compound together

covalent and ionic/electrovalent bonds. Atoms that share electrons in a chemical bond have
covalent bonds.

Solutions vs suspensions

The difference between a solution and a suspension is in the particle sizes involved. A solution
is a mixture of ions or molecules . Solutionsare transparent, meaning that you can see through
them. A suspension has bigger particle sizes and so it may look cloudy or murky.
Macromolecules and their functions

There are 4 classes of macromolecules: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates may be used for energy storage or for structure. Carbohydrates come in
different sizes. Large carbohydrates (polysaccharides) are long chains of smaller carbohydrates
(monosaccharides).

lipids

Lipids are a diverse group of macromolecules. Most lipids are hydrophobic

Proteins

Proteins are macromolecules consisting of long chains of subunits called amino acids. They do
a number of jobs in organisms, including acting as enzymes, hormones, membrane channels,
and receptors.

Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store and transmit inherited information. DNA and RNA
are two types of nucleic acids. DNA and RNA are long chains of subunits called nucleotides.

Chemicals bounds during chemical reaction

Chemical reactions occur when two or more atoms bond together to form molecules or when
bonded atoms are broken apart. The substances used in the beginning of a chemical reaction
are called the reactants (usually found on the left side of a chemical equation), and the
substances found at the end of the reaction are known as the products (usually found on the
right side of a chemical equation)

How enzymes work

Enzymes are highly selective catalysts, meaning that each enzyme only speeds up a specific
reaction. The molecules that an enzyme works with are called substrates. The substrates bind
to a region on the enzyme called the active site. There are two theories explaining the enzyme-
substrate interaction
Role of substrates

the substrate is a molecule upon which an enzyme acts. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions
involving the substrate(s). In the case of a singlesubstrate, the substrate bonds with the enzyme
active site, and an enzyme-substrate complex is formed.

Three major roles of protein

As enzymes they can increase the rate of a reaction, in the nucleus, histones act to protect
DNA, and in the plasma membrane, ion channels and other transporter proteins help shuttle
nutrients and waste across the membrane.

Cohesion vs adhesion

Adhesion and cohesion are both based on the root word "hesion," which means to stick. They
are nouns that describe a state of molecules sticking together. The difference between them is
that adhesion refers to the clinging of unlike molecules and cohesion refers to the clinging of like
molecules.