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 VIDEO TRANSCRIPTS

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are biomolecules that are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms
in the ratio of 1:2:1. We can represent the proportion of these elements within carbohydrate
molecules with the formula CH2O. Most carbohydrates are characterized as either
monosaccharides, disaccharides or polysaccharides. The term “saccharide” is just another word
for sugar. The prefixes mono, di and poly refer to the number of sugars in the molecule.

“Mono” means one, so a monosaccharide is a carbohydrate made of one unit of sugar. The
prefix “di” means two, so a disaccharide is a carbohydrate made of two units of sugar. And “poly”
means many, so a polysaccharide is made of many sugar units bonded together. Let’s talk about
monosaccharides first.

Monosaccharides are the building blocks, or monomers, of all carbohydrates. Common

monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Glucose is by far the most abundant
monosaccharide. It is water soluble, easily transported through an organism, and is the energy
source for cellular respiration and the production of ATP. Fructose is the primary monosaccharide
found in fruits and plants, and galactose is the primary monosaccharide found in milk. All of these
monosaccharides are six carbon sugars with the chemical formula C6H12O6. They can be depicted
chemically as either straight chains or rings.

Disaccharides are formed when monosaccharides are joined together through dehydration
reactions forming glycosidic linkages. Common disaccharides include maltose, which is made up
of two glucose molecules; sucrose (also known as table sugar), which is made up of glucose and
fructose; and lactose (or milk sugar) which contains glucose and galactose.

Polysaccharides are formed when glucose monomers link together to form long chains.
These long chains of glucose units are ideal for storing energy. The chains can be straight or
branched. Plants store energy in the form of amylose, which has straight chains, or amylopectin,
which is branched. Animals differ from plants in that they store energy in the form of glycogen,
which is a highly branched polysaccharide that can be broken down quickly to supply energy to
tissues. Other polysaccharides such as cellulose, chitin and peptidoglycan serve as structural
molecules in organisms. The most abundant polysaccharide is cellulose. Cellulose is a straight
chain polymer of glucose like amylose, but it differs in the configuration of the bonds between the
glucose units. Most organisms are unable to break these bonds and cannot use cellulose as a source
of energy. Instead cellulose is used to add strength to plant cell walls. Chitin is a structural
polysaccharide found in animals and fungi. It makes up the exoskeleton of insects and crustaceans.
Its unique properties are a result of chitin having amino groups attached to its sugar monomers.
Peptidoglycans are complex polysaccharides found in the cell walls of bacteria. The
macromolecule is both flexible and rugged due to its structure. Each monomer of the
polysaccharide has a peptide chain attached to it. Often, we refer to carbohydrates as being either
simple sugars or complex carbohydrates. Monosaccharides and disaccharides are commonly
referred to as simple sugars. The term complex carbohydrates refers to the polysaccharides.

Enzymes

Most of the chemical reactions that occur in your cells do not occur spontaneously. Instead,
cells rely on proteins, called enzymes, to kick start chemical reactions and speed them up, enabling
cells to get the most out of the energy sources available to them. In fact, if it weren't for enzymes,
chemical reactions would proceed too slowly to support life. This graph illustrates how enzymes
speed up chemical reactions. Remember that in a chemical reaction, the reactants interact to form
a product. The chemical reactants for this example are shown on the left, and the and the products
on the right. The wall that separates them represents the activation energy. You can think of this
wall as an energy "speed bump." The larger the bump, the slower the reaction. The yellow speed
bump represents a chemical reaction without an enzyme, and the orange speed bump represents
the same reaction with an enzyme. As you can see, the orange speed bump is a lot lower. This is
because the enzyme acts to physically bring the reactants together. By doing so, it increases the
efficiency of the reaction, and lowers the amount of energy needed for the reaction to occur. Since
less energy is required, the reaction occurs at a faster rate. Notice that the enzyme does not
influence the energy level of the reactants or the products, but only the amount of energy that is
required during the process of the chemical reaction. Without the use of enzymes, many of our
body's processes, such as digestion, and the processing of nerve impulses, would simply occur too
slowly.
Most chemical reactions did not occur spontaneously in a cell instead cells rely on proteins
called enzymes to kick-start chemical reactions and speed them up enabling cells to get the most
of the energy sources available to them enzymes have a unique way of kick-starting reactions they
work by binding to one or more specific molecules called reactants or substrates binding occurs at
a special region on the enzyme called the active site once the substrates bind to the active site they
form what's called an enzyme substrate complex as the enzyme and substrates begin to react some
of the chemical bonds and the substrates begin to weaken causing them to link together eventually
the chemical reactions at the active site lead to the formation of a different molecule this is referred
to as the product once the reaction has occurred the product is released from the active site the
enzyme returns to its original state and is free to react again with another set of substrates
The functional groups (optional)
All living organisms are composed of similar chemical compounds, called biomolecules.
Biomolecules are organic molecules, meaning that they contain carbon to carbon, or carbon to
hydrogen bonds. Methane is one of the simplest organic molecules. Notice that the central carbon
atom, by sharing electrons, has formed chemical bonds with four hydrogen atoms. Carbon is
important for life, because it is a very versatile atom. In addition to hydrogen, carbon can bond
with a number of other atoms, including oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. Carbon can
also bond to itself forming chains, branch chains, and ring structures. It is also possible for carbon
to form double bonds with itself or bond to other elements such as the oxygen, shown here. The
carbon chain of a biomolecule is called its skeleton, or backbone. This terminology makes sense
because, just as your skeleton accounts for your shape, so too does the carbon skeleton of a
biomolecule account for its shape.
The reactivity of a biomolecule is mostly dependent on the functional group that attaches
to its carbon backbone. A functional group is a specific group of bonded atoms that always has the
same chemical properties and always reacts in the same way. The functional group shown here is
a hydroxyl group, and when it attaches to this carbon skeleton, the compound ethanol is
formed. There are many different types of functional groups. In biology, the five that you will
probably come in contact with most are the hydroxyl group, the carboxyl group, the amino
group, the sulfhydryl group, and the phosphate group. In these diagrams, the R refers to where
the functional group attaches to the carbon skeleton. The presence of a functional group changes
the chemical reactivity of the biomolecule. Functional groups therefore help determine the identity
of the biomolecule. For example, when the carboxyl group shown here attaches to this carbon
backbone, a fatty acid biomolecule is formed. When an amino group and a carboxyl group join
with this carbon backbone, an amino acid biomolecule is formed. All biomolecules can be divided
into four classes: proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids.

Protein (optional)

Protein are made from long chains of amino acids. Amino acids all have a similar structure,
with carboxyl and amino functional groups. What makes each amino acid unique, is the presence
of a variable, or R group. The R group gives each amino acid its chemical properties. Amino acids
are linked together by peptide bonds, forming long polypeptide chains. As these chains form, the
polypeptide develops multiple levels of structure, which contributes to its overall shape. These
levels are called the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures. The primary structure
is the order of amino acids in the polypeptide chain. Amino acids can be likened to letters in the
alphabet, just as thousands of words can be constructed by varying the 26 letters in our alphabet,
so too can different proteins be created by varying the number and sequence of just 20 amino acids.
The secondary structure refers to the pleated sheet or helix that a protein chain can form due to
hydrogen bonding and other chemical attractions between the R groups of nearby amino acids.
The overall shape of a polypeptide is called its tertiary structure. This level of structure is created
when the secondary structure folds and twists upon itself. The tertiary structure is held in place by
a variety of bonds and interactions that form between the R groups of the amino acids on the chain.
Once polypeptides have formed a tertiary structure, they are commonly referred to as proteins. In
some cases, proteins can form quaternary structures, which consist of interactions between
multiple proteins. These interactions often result in the formation of large protein complexes.
Examples of proteins that have quaternary structures are hemoglobin and the sodium channels in
the cell membranes.

Lipid (optional)

Lipids are a group of hydrophobic biomolecules that play important roles in living
organisms. While the primary function of lipids is long-term energy storage, lipids are also used
for protection, insulation, and lubrication. They also act as precursors for some hormones, and are
a key component of cell membranes. There are four basic groups of lipids. These are triglycerides,
phospholipids, steroids, and waxes. Although these groups differ in many respects, they all have
one characteristic in common: They are all insoluble in water. You may have noticed that lipids
and water do not mix. For example, notice the yellow colored oil in the beaker of water shown
here? Even if we stirred this for several minutes, or even several hours, the oil would still separate
out from the water. This is because lipids are hydrophobic. From Latin, the prefix “hydro” means
“water” and “phobic” means “fear of”. So when you hear that lipids are “hydrophobic”, this
basically mean that water and lipids do not mix. Let’s take a closer look at the category of lipids
known as triglycerides.
Triglycerides include the fats and oils. Fats (such as lard and butter) are solid at room
temperature and are used by animals for insulation, protection and long-term energy storage. Oils
(such as corn oil and olive oil) are liquid at room temperature and are used by plants for long-term
energy storage. At the molecular level, triglycerides contain two types of subunit
molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. Let’s take a quick look at fatty acids. Let’s take a quick look
at fatty acids.A fatty acid has three main parts: a chain of carbon and hydrogen atoms called the
“hydrocarbon chain,” a methyl group at one end, and an acid group at the other end. Fatty acids
can be either saturated or unsaturated. A fatty acid that has only single carbon to carbon bonds is
known as a saturated fatty acid. This is because the carbon chain is “saturated” with all the
hydrogen atoms it can hold. Unsaturated fatty acids have one to several double bonds. Double
bonds result in kinks in the fatty acid chain which affects the melting point of the fat. Animal fats
have saturated fatty acids and are solid at room temperature while vegetable oils have one or many
double bonds and are liquid at room temperature. A trans-fat is an example of an unsaturated fatty
acid where the hydrogen atoms are on opposite sides of the double-bond. Trans-fats are usually
formed during the production of processed foods and are also common in partially hydrogenated
oils. In order to increase shelf life and melting point of the fat, excess hydrogen atoms are
introduced to a unsaturated oil. This causes the formation of trans-fat bonds in the fatty acid chain.
Unfortunately the consumption of trans fats has been associated with cardiovascular disease and
its use has fallen from favor. Now that you understand a little bit fatty acids, let’s zoom back out
and look at how the triglyceride subunits fit together. fats has been associated with cardiovascular
disease and its use has fallen from favor. Now that you understand a little bit fatty acids, let’s zoom
back out and look at how the triglyceride subunits fit together.
Let’s move on to the next category of lipids, which is phospholipids. Phospholipids are
similar to triglycerides in that they contain glycerol and two fatty acids. What’s different is that a
phosphate group rather than a third fatty is attached to the third carbon of glycerol. Phospholipids
are extremely important, mainly because of their unique properties in regard to water. The
phosphate head of the molecule is hydrophilic (or water-loving).This means that it mixes well with
water. The fatty acid tails, however, are hydrophobic (or water-hating) and do not mix well with
water. Because of these unique properties, phospholipids tend to arrange themselves so that only
the hydrophilic heads interact with a watery environment, and the hydrophobic tails crowd inward
away from the water. This structure is the major component of plasma membranes of the cell.
Steroids are the next category of lipids. Steroids are composed of four fused rings of carbon
to which different functional groups are attached. One well-known steroid molecule is
cholesterol. Cholesterol serves as a precursor for the synthesis of other steroids such as
testosterone, estrogen, vitamin D, and cortisone. Cholesterol is present in plasma membranes
where it stabilizes the embrane. The hormones testosterone and estrogen have small differences in
their functional groups but large differences on their effects on an organism.
Waxes are the final group of lipids. Waxes are non-polar and repel water. They are found
in protective coatings on leaves and on outer surfaces of animals. Wax is produced in the ears of
some animals to protect the eardrum. In addition, bees construct honey combs from wax. Now that
we’ve covered all four categories of lipids, Let’s do a quick recap. The four categories of lipids
are triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids and waxes. All lipids are insoluble in water. While the
primary function of lipids is long-term energy storage, lipids are also used for a multitude of other
purposes, such as protection and insulation, and as key component of hormones and cell
membranes.
Fundamental Biology

Energy and respiration

z

Concept:
Instructor: Le Thi Van Anh Cell as a functional
unit of life
Le-thi-van.anh@usth.edu.vn

1
 Introduction
z

What is the respiration?

CO2
CO2 O2

O2

- Metabolic reactions in cell

- Convert chemical energy
Gas exchange from nutrient to ATP

2
ATP z(Adenosine Triphosphate)
ATP as energy currency

- Store high energy

- Easy to release

3
ATPzas energy currency
I’d like 500g of potato, pls!

Glucose:
ATP:
- high energy Change money
be used immediately
- difficult to use Respiration
immediately

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Definition
z

Process to oxidize the glucose into CO2 and liberate

the energy stored in the ATP molecule

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4 steps to oxidize totally
z

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Glycolysis
z

Definition: the oxidation process of glucose (C6) to pyruvate (C3)

(spliting sugar)

Steps: Glucose (C6) + ATP fructose 1,6 diphosphate (C6)

Fructose 1,6 diphosphate pyruvate (C3) + ATP

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Glycolysis
z

Input: 1 glucose
Output: 2 pyruvates
2ATPs
2 NADH
Take place in cytoplasm

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Krebszcycle: occurring in Mitochondria

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Pyruvate oxidation
Krebsz cycle

Input: 1 Pyruvate
Output: 3 CO2
1 FADH2
4 NADH
1 ATP

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Electron
z
transport chain

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Electron
z
transport chain

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 Transfer electron from high to
low electron energy gradually
z
cause releasing energy. This
energy help pumping proton from
matrix to inter-membrane space

Electron transfer “go down”

according to the increase of
electro-negativity (decrease of
electron energy).

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C6 – C3 – C2 Glycolysis: 1 glucose – 2 pyruvate + 2NADH + 2ATP
Link reaction: Pyruvate – CO2 + Acetyl CoA + NADH
Krebs: Acetyl CoA – 2 CO2 + 1 ATP + 3 NADH + 1 FADH2

C4 C6 ETC: NADH + FADH2 + O2 – ATP + H2O

3 NADH = 3 ATP
1 FADH2 = 2 ATP
CO2
Krebs cycle 2 + 2 + 6 = 10 NADH = 30ATP
C5 2 FADH2 = 4 ATP
ETC: 34 ATP
CO2

C4

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 Respiration without oxygen (anaerobic)
z

Alcoholic fermentation Lactic fermentation

Compare to the aerobic respiration (in present of oxygen)?

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 Respiration without oxygen (anaerobic – kị khí)
z

Glycolysis: 1 glucose – 2 pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH

Pyruvate – Ethanal (C2) + 1CO2
Ethanal + NADH - Ethanol (C2)

Wine:
Alcohol

Fermentation for both: grapes/rice + yeast

Filtre, autoclave = wine
Disolve in water, distillation (chưng cất)

Alcoholic fermentation

Compare to the aerobic hiếu khí respiration (in present of oxygen)?

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 Aerobic Vs Anaerobic respiration
z

Glycolysis: 1 glucose – 2 pyruvate + 2NADH + 2ATP Glycolysis: 1 glucose – 2 pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH
Link reaction: 2Pyruvate – 2CO2 + 2Acetyl CoA + 2NADH 2Pyruvate (C3) – 2Ethanal (C2) + 2CO2
Krebs: 2Acetyl CoA – 4CO2 + 2ATP + 6NADH + 2FADH2 2Ethanal + 2 NADH – 2 Ethanol (C2)
ETC: 10NADH + 2FADH2 + O2 – 34 ATP + H2O

1 glucose + O2 – 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP 1 glucose – 2 CO2 + 2 Ethanol + 2ATP

NADH go to ETC for oxidation, release 34ATP NADH is used as reducing molecule, provide the H+ for
ethanol production

Final product: CO2 – totally oxidized The final product: C2 (organic compound) – partly
oxidized

38 ATP ATP released: 2ATP

Eukaryotic cell (animal, plant) Yeast/ bacteria

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 Respiration without oxygen (anaerobic – kị khí)
z

Glycolysis: 1 glucose – 2 pyruvate + 2ATP + NADH

2Pyruvate + 2NADH – lactate (C2) + 2CO2

Lacto-bacillus bacteria

Lactic fermentation

Compare to the aerobic hiếu khí respiration (in present of oxygen)?

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Adaptations of rice for wet environments
z

Cross section of rice root Cross section of rice stem

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 Summary
z – Take home message
Cell is a basic functional unit of life because:
- Cell produces energy for every activities of the body
- The glucose oxidation in cell is much more efficient than out of cell
- From 1 glucose molecule, energy is produced gradually during 4
steps of cellular respiration.
- Energy produced during cellular respiration is stored in ATP – the
energy currency of every living organism.
- In absence of oxygen, the anaerobic respiration can be replaced,
but liberate less energy.

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 Video transcript

Glycolysis
The initial steps in glycolysis are the additions of two phosphates to the glucose
molecule at the expense of two molecules of ATP. The result is a six carbon sugar di-phosphate
molecule and to low energy adenosine diphosphate molecules or ADP. This six carbon sugar
di-phosphate molecule is then split into two 3-carbon molecules. Each of the three carbon
molecules is converted through a series of steps to pyruvate. During these reactions, electrons
are transferred to the coenzyme NAD+ to form NADH and ATP is formed.

Krebs cycle
During glycolysis glucose is broken down to pyruvate. A two-carbon fragment of
pyruvate is used to form acetyl CoA. the acetyl- CoA enters the Krebs cycle which occurs in
the mitochondrion. During the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl- CoA, carbon dioxide CO2 is
produced and a molecule of NADH is formed. The two carbon acetyl portion of the Acetyl-
CoA is transferred to a four carbon molecule producing a six carbon compound. the CoA carrier
molecule is released. Carbon dioxide is then released from the six carbon molecule forming a
five carbon compound. In this step, hydrogen is removed and transferred to NAD+ to form
NADH. Next a second oxidation and decarboxylation occurs again NADH and carbon dioxide
are produced. In addition, a molecule of ATP is produced. As a result of these reactions, a four
carbon molecule is formed in the Krebs cycle. Finally, the four carbon molecule is further
oxidized and the hydrogen's that are removed are used to form NDAH and FDAH2. These
reactions regenerate the four carbon molecule that initially reacts with acetyl CoA. Each
glucose molecule is broken down into two pyruvate molecules during glycolysis, then each
pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA which enters the Krebs cycle. Thus for each glucose
molecule the Krebs cycle must complete two circuits to completely break down the two
pyruvate molecules.
Cellular respiration
How do you turn the food into a chemical that a cell can recognize and use as energy?
The first step is altering the food into its component chemical compounds and then getting
those molecules into your cell. That process is called cellular respiration. Once inside your cell,
the process of turning that bite of food into useful energy by cellular respiration begins. The
process of digestion results with carbohydrates and other molecules being removed from the
consumed food, and transported into the bloodstream. From there, nutrients, like the
carbohydrate glucose, will leave the bloodstream through a capillary wall and enter a tissue
cell. Once inside the cell, cellular respiration will completely oxidize the glucose molecule,
 READING

Reading 1:
Most plants cannot grow in deep water because their roots do not get enough oxygen. Oxygen is
required for aerobic respiration, which provides ATP as an energy source for active transport and
other energy-consuming processes such as cell division. Nor, if the leaves are submerged, can
photosynthesis take place, because there
is not enough carbon dioxide available. This happens
because gases diffuse much more slowly in water than they do in air. Moreover, the concentrations
of dissolved oxygen and dissolved carbon dioxide in water are much less than they are in air. This
is especially true in rice paddies, where the rich mud in which the rice roots are planted contains
large populations of microorganisms, many of which are aerobic and take oxygen from the water.

Although rice can grow in dry conditions, it is often grown in ‘paddies’ – fields where the ground
is intentionally flooded. Rice can tolerate growing in water, whereas most of the weeds that might
compete with it are not able to do so.

The stems of the rice plants contain loosely packed cells forming a tissue known as aerenchyma.
Gases are able to diffuse through the aerenchyma to other parts of the plant, including those under
the water. This is supplemented by air that is trapped in between the ridges of the underwater
leaves. These leaves have a hydrophobic, corrugated surface that holds a thin layer of air in contact
with the leaf surface.

Nevertheless, the cells in the submerged roots do still have to use alcoholic fermentation at least
some of the time. Ethanol can therefore build up in the tissues. Ethanol is toxic, but the cells in
rice roots can tolerate much higher levels than most plants. They also produce more alcohol
dehydrogenase, which breaks down ethanol. This allows the plants to grow actively even when
oxygen is scarce, using ATP produced by alcoholic fermentation.

1. Why in general plants cannot grow in deep water? .....................................................................

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VOCABULARY
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Reading 2:
In mammalian muscles when deprived of oxygen, pyruvate acts as the hydrogen acceptor and is
converted to lactate by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (named after the reverse reaction, which
it also catalyses). Again, the NAD is released and allows glycolysis to continue in anaerobic
conditions. This pathway, known as lactic fermentation. However, as the products of anaerobic
reaction, lactate is toxic and can cause the pain in the muscle. The lactate pathway can be reversed
in mammals. Lactate is carried by the blood plasma to the liver and converted back to pyruvate.
The liver oxidises some (20%) of the incoming lactate to carbon dioxide and water via aerobic
respiration when oxygen is available again. The remainder of the lactate is converted by the liver
to glycogen
In absent of oxygen, how the mammalian body can solve problem? What is the consequence of
this process?
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VOCABULARY
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releasing high-energy electrons. The overall goal is to make ATP, a storage form of energy for
most cells.
Cellular respiration is a four-stage process, that begins with glycolysis. Glycolysis
literally means splitting sugar and it is the first step of cellular respiration occurring in the
cytoplasm of the cell. Glycolysis consists of two distinct phases, an energy investment phase
and an energy harvesting phase. In the energy investment phase two ATP molecules transfer
energy to the glucose molecule, forming a six-carbon sugar diphosphate molecule. This
molecule splits and the energy harvesting phase begins. During this phase the two three- carbon
molecules are converted to pyruvate and ATP is formed. Glycolysis is a ten step reaction that
involves the activity of multiple enzymes and enzyme assistants. In the process a net of two
molecules of ATP, two molecules of pyruvate and two high energy electron carrying molecules
of NADH are produced. When oxygen is present, the pyruvate molecules and NADH enter the
mitochondria, and the next stage of cellular respiration begins.
The next stage of cellular respiration involves the movement of pyruvate into the
mitochondria, where it undergoes oxidation. Each pyruvate molecule is converted into a
compound called Acetyl-CoA. In the process of pyruvate oxidation, electrons are transferred
to NAD, producing NADH and a carbon is lost, forming carbon dioxide.
The next stage is the citric acid cycle, also called the Krebs cycle. Here acetyl Co-A
will bind with a starting compound called oxaloacetate and through a series of enzymatic redox
reactions, all carbons, hydrogen's and oxygen's in pyruvate ultimately end up as carbon dioxide
and water. The pathway is called a cycle because oxaloacetate is the starting and ending
compound of the pathway. For every glucose that enters glycolysis, the cycle completes twice,
once for each molecule of pyruvate that entered the mitochondria. During pyruvate oxidation
and the citric acid cycle, a net of 8 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP and 6 CO2 are produced for each
glucose molecule. In order to understand how the majority of the energy is produced by aerobic
respiration, we need to follow the NADH and FDAH2 molecules to the next stage the electron
transport chain.
5. The electron transport chain is a series of membrane-bound carriers in the
mitochondria, that pass electrons from one to another. As the electrons are transferred between
the membrane proteins, the cell is able to capture energy and use it to produce ATP molecules.
Proteins in the chain pump hydrogen ions across a membrane. When the hydrogen ions flow
back across the membrane through an ATP synthase complex, ATP is synthesized by the
enzyme ATP synthase. Oxygen acts as the terminal electron acceptor. By accepting electrons,
oxygen is reduced to form water, a byproduct of the electron transport chain. All the high-
energy electron carriers from the previous stages of cellular respiration bring their electrons
into the chain. From this the bulk of ATP from the entirety of cellular respiration is produced.
A net of 32 to 36 ATP.
 In summary we have seen how the four stages of cellular respiration are responsible for
converting the energy found in the glucose molecule into ATP, the energy battery of the cell.
On average thirty-six ATP molecules are produced per glucose molecule that enter the cell. In
the process of producing ATP, oxygen is brought in from the bloodstream to be the final
electron acceptor in the electron transport chain, and the carbon dioxide that is produced as a
by-product is released.
The goal of cellular respiration is to transfer the energy from the food that we eat daily
into ATP that our bodies can use. This process starts with the eating of a snack or meal and
ends with capturing the energy from the complete breakdown of the nutrients into energy and
carbon dioxide.
 Steps where does it occur? Input Output Energy released
Glycolysis

Pyruvate oxidation
(link reaction)

Krebs cycle

ETC
Fundamental Biology

Photosynthesis
z

Concept:
Intructor: Le Thi Van Anh Cell as a functional
unit of life
Le-thi-van.anh@usth.edu.vn

1
z

CO2
+ H 2O

2
 Photosynthesis
= synthesis using light

Carbon dioxide + water Sunlight glucose + oxygen

Absorbed by chlorophyll

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy C6H12O6 + 6O2

3
Introduction
z

Photosynthesis is the processe that plants use the sun light to

manufacture the glucose.

Sunlight
photosynthesis

Glucose
Cellular respiration

ATP
photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Cellular respiration

4
z

5
Sun light
z

The electromagnetic spectrum

6
Sun light
z

The electromagnetic spectrum

7
Lightz absorption

Almost leaves are green in human eyes

8
Chloroplast_
z photosynthesis apparatus

Granum: Seed like structure made of thylakoid membrane

Stroma: gel-like liquid, containing enzymes

9
Two main steps of photosynthesis
z

Light (dependent) reactions: Dark reactions:

- on thylakoid membrane Light (independent) reactions
- produce chemical energy from - in stroma
light - use product of light reactions to
make carbohydrates

10
 Two types of photosystems cooperate in the light reactions
z

Events:
- Absorption of sunlight. e released
- ETC to the last receiver (NADP)
- Oxidation of water

Factories: PSII
PSI

Photon
Worker: photon
ATP
Activity of worker: electron releasing from Chlorophyll mill
Electron transfer through the ETC – H+ pumping
Until the last receiver of e (NADP) Photon

Water-splitting NADPH-producing
Photosystem II photosystem

11
 Light reactions: mechanism
z

Transfer of electron and protons on thylacoid membrane

The transfer of electrons and proton in the thylacoid membrane is carried out
vectoryally by 4 protein complex. Water is oxidized and protons are released in the
lumen by PSII. PSI reduce NADP to NADPH in troma via the action of Fd (feredoxin)
and flavoprotein ferredoxin-NADP reductase (FNR).

Protons are also transported into the lumen by the action of the cytochrome B6f
complex and contribute to the electronchemical

12
 Light reactions: oxidation of water
z

Detail about water oxidation:

13
Summary
z

Input…
- Photon
- Water

th y O c c u
la c r
Light reactions: o id r in g o
me n Output…
- absorption of sunlight mb
- Electron transfer ran
e - Oxygen
- water Photo-oxidation
- NADPH
- ATP

14
Carbon reactions: Calvin-Benson cycle/C3 cycle
z

15
Carbon reactions: Calvin-Benson cycle/C3 cycle
z

6CO2

6C5 6C6

12C3 (COOH)

12C3 (CHO)
ATP,
NADPH
1glucose

16
Summary
z

Input…
- NADPH
- ATP
- CO2 Oc
c
I n u r r in
s tr o g
Dark reactions: ma Output…
- Fixation of CO2 - Glucose
- Reduction
- Regeneration

17
Introduction
z

18
 Summary
z – Take home message
Cell is a basic functional unit of life because:
- Cell synthesize the first organic compounds from CO2 and H2O.
- Photosynthesis is very important because it begin all food chain and
produce the oxygen.
- There are 2 main phases during photosynthesis: light (dependent)
reactions (phase) and dark (light independent) reactions (phase).
- There are the similarities and differences between the ATP
synthesis during photosynthesis and cellular respiration

19
 VIDEO TRANSCRIPT

Introduction
In order for plants grow, they need inputs of carbon-dioxide, water and energy. The
chemical process by which plants use the resources to manufacture glucose, the building block of
plants, is called photosynthesis. In the process, oxygen gas is produced as by product.
Sun light
The energy for photosynthesis originates in the sun and arrives at the earth as sunlight.
This light has both a wave and a particle nature. The particle, or photon, are smallest unit of light.
Photons oscillate along a path, which is measured as wavelength. The light emitted from the sun
contains photons in a wide spectrum of wavelength, called the electromagnetic spectrum.
Photosynthetic organisms use only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, called visible
light. Photosynthetic organisms contain pigments that facilitate the capture of wavelengths of light
range. The colour of the pigment comes from the wavelengths of light reflected. Plants appear
green because they reflect yellow and green wavelengths of light. Red and blue wavelengths of
light are absorbed by these pigments and provide the energy that is used for photosynthesis.
Chloroplast – photosynthesis apparatus
Within eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms, also known as photoautotrophs, the chemical
reactions of photosynthesis occur within plant cells in specialized structures known as Chloroplast.
Photosynthesis consists of 2 sets of reactions - the light dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle
Within the chloroplast are small dish-like structures called Thylakoid, which are surrounded by a
fluid-filled space called Stroma. The reactions the synthesize, the Calvin cycle, occur in the stroma.
The light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid. It is here that conversion of light energy to
chemical energy is initiated.
Light reations
The process of photosynthesis produces ATP from ADP and Pi by using the energy from
light to excite electrons that are passed along an electron transport chain. Couple with the transfer
of electrons is the pumping of hydrogen ions and splitting of water molecules. The following
complexes are found in the photosynthesis electron transport chain: the photosystem II, the
cytochrome b6f, photosystem I, ferredoxin NADP reductase and the complex that make ATP –
ATP synthase. In addition to the complexes, three mobile carriers are also involve: plastoquinone
QB, plastocyanin and ferredoxin. Other key components include photons, chlorophyll molecules,
photon, water, molecule oxygen, NADP and the electron to form NADPH, and ADP and Pi which
combine to form ATP. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast of plants and algae; the process is
also found in single-cell organisms that is cyanobacteria that do not have chloroplast. Like the
mitochondrial counterpart, the chloroplast electron transport chain consists of several protein
complexes and mobile electron carriers. First, the photon of light hits a chlorophyll molecule
surrounding the photosystem II complex, this creates the resonance energy that transfers to the
neighboring chlorophyll molecules. When this energy reaches the reaction center embedded in
photosystem II, an electron is released. The reaction center contains the that can be transferred
when excited. One photon is needed to excite each of electron in this chlorophyll. Once excited,
two electrons are transferred to the plastoquinone Qb, the first mobile carrier. In addition to the
two electrons, Qb also pick up two protons from the stroma. The two electrons lost from the
photosystem II are replaced by splitting of water molecules. Water splitting also releases hydrogen
ions into the lumen. This contributes to the hydrogen ion gradient, similar to the on created by
mitochondrial electron transport. After two water molecules have been split, one molecule of
oxygen is created. Plastoquinone Qb then transfer the two electrons to the cytochrome b6f
complex. The two protons it picks up are released into the lumen. These transfers are couple with
the pumping of two more hydrogen ions into the lumen space by cytochrome b6f. The electron are
next transferred to the plastocyanin, another mobile carrier. Next the electrons are transferred to
the photosystem I complex. It is here that photo again energize each electron and propel their
transfer to ferredoxin. Ferredoxin then transfer the electrons to the ferredoxin NAPD reductase,
also known as FNR. After two electrons are transferred to the FNR, NADPH is madd by adding
the two electrons and hydrogen ions to the NADP. The gradient created by the electron transport
chain is utilized by ATP synthase to create ATP from ADP and Pi. This is similar to the way ATP
is synthesized in the mitochondria. ATP, NADPH and molecular oxygen are the final vital
products of photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis – whole process (optional)
In order for plants grow, they need inputs of carbon-dioxide, water and energy. The
chemical process by which plants use the resources to manufacture glucose, the building block of
plants, is called photosynthesis. In the process, oxygen gas is produced as by product.
The energy for photosynthesis originates in the sun and arrives at the earth as sunlight.
This light has both a wave and a particle nature. The particle, or photon, are smallest unit of light.
Photons oscillate along a path, which is measured as wavelength. The light emitted from the sun
contains photons in a wide spectrum of wavelength, called the electromagnetic spectrum.
Photosynthetic organisms use only a small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, called visible
light. Photosynthetic organisms contain pigments that facilitate the capture of wavelengths of light
range. The colour of the pigment comes from the wavelengths of light reflected. Plants appear
green because they reflect yellow and green wavelengths of light. Red and blue wavelengths of
light are absorbed by these pigments and provide the energy that is used for photosynthesis.
Within eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms, also known as photoautotrophs, the chemical
reactions of photosynthesis occur within plant cells in specialized structures known as Chloroplast.
Photosynthesis consists of 2 sets of reactions - the light dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle
Within the chloroplast are small dish-like structures called Thylakoid, which are surrounded by a
fluid-filled space called Stroma. The reactions the synthesize, the Calvin cycle, occur in the stroma.
The light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid. It is here that conversion of light energy to
chemical energy is initiated.
In most photosynthetic organisms, thylakoids contain pairs of photosystems called
photosystem 1 and photosystem 2 that work in tandem to produce the energy that will later be used
in the stroma to manufacture sugars. The photosystems of the thylakoid consists of a network of
accessory pigment molecules and chlorophyll - the molecules that absorb the photons of light.
Within the pigment molecules, the absorbed light energy excites electrons to a higher state.
Photosystems will channel the excitation energy gathered by the pigment molecules to a reaction
centre chlorophyll molecule which will then pass the electrons to a series of proteins located on
the thylakoid membrane. Photons of light strike photosystems one and two simultaneously. We
will examine what happens with the photons striking photosystem II, first. The energized electrons
are passed from the reaction center of photosystem II to an electron transport chain. The electrons
lost by photosystem II are replaced by a process called photolysis, which involves the oxidation
of a water molecule, producing free electrons and oxygen gas. While this oxygen gas is a by
product of photosynthesis, it is an important input to the cellular respiration pathways. As electrons
pass through the electron transport chain, the energy from the electron is used to pump hydrogen
ions from the stroma to the thylakoid, creating a concentration gradient. This gradient powers a
protein called ATP synthase which phosphorylates ADP to form ATP. The low energy electrons
leaving photosystem 2 are shuttled to photosystem I. Within photosystem 1, low energy electrons
are re-energized and are passed through an electron transport chain, where they are used to reduce
the electron carrier NADP+ to NADPH.
When the chloroplast is receiving, a steady supply of photons NADPH and ATP molecules
are rapidly being provided to the metabolic pathways in the stroma. Therefore, the ATP and
NADPH formed during the light dependent reactions are used in the stroma to fuel the Calvin
cycle reactions. The Calvin cycle consists of a series of reactions that reduce carbon dioxide to
produce the carbohydrate glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. The cycle consists of three steps, the first
of which is carbon fixation. In this step carbon dioxide is attached to ribulose 1,5 bisphosphate
resulting in a six carbon molecule that splits into two three carbon molecules. The second step is
a sequence of reactions using electrons from NADPH and some of the ATP to reduce carbon
dioxide. In the final step ribulose 1-5 bisphosphate is regenerated. For every three turns of the
cycle, five molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate are used to reform three molecules of ribulose
1-5 bisphosphate. The remaining glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is then used to make glucose, fatty
acids or glycerol. It takes two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to make one molecule of
glucose phosphate, thus the Calvin cycle has to run six times to produce one molecule of glucose.
These molecules can remove their phosphate and add fructose to form sucrose - the molecule plants
used to transport carbohydrates throughout their system. Glucose phosphate is also the starting
molecule for the synthesis of starch and cellulose.
Plants produce sugars to use as storage molecules and structural components for their own
benefit by utilizing the energy of the Sun. Along with inputs of water and carbon dioxide, plants
act as glucose factories. Photosynthetic organisms are the primary producers of glucose on the
planet. They also produce oxygen gas as a by-product and thus serve as the foundation of life,
providing food and oxygen for the complex food webs on both land and in the oceans.

READING

Fuel from algae

Despite millions of hours of research, we still have not managed to set up a chemical
manufacturing system that can harvest light energy and use it to make complex chemicals, in the
way that plants and some protoctists do. So, why not just let the cells do it for us?
Figure 13.1
shows a photo-bioreactor – a series of tubes containing the single-celled photosynthetic organism
Chlorella. Provide light, carbon dioxide and minerals, and the cells photosynthesise. Bioreactors
like this are being used around the world to produce biomass for animal feed, and chemicals that
can be used as food additives or in the manufacture of cosmetics. They can also be used to convert
energy from the Sun into ethanol or biodiesel but, so far, the bioreactors cannot produce biomass
cheaply enough to compete with the use of fossil fuels.
 Steps where does it occur? Input Output Energy released
Light reactions

Dark reactions
 Aerobic Respiration (with oxygen) Photosynthesis
Stage Input Output Location Stage Input Output Location
Glucose (C6) 2 pyruvates Cytoplasm Light Light (photon) NADPH, Thylacoid
Glycolysis 2 ATP (dependent) water ATP membrane
2 NADH reactions O2
ADP
link reaction 2 pyruvate (C3) 2 Acetyl CoA Mitochondrion Electron
NADP+
(C2) (matrix) transport chain
Pi
2CO2
2 NADH

Krebs cycle 2 Acetyl CoA (C2) 4 CO2 Mitochondrion

6 NADH (matrix)
2 FADH2
2 ATP
ETC 10 NADH 34 ATP Mitochondrion dark reactions NADPH, Glucose stroma
2 FADH2 H2O (inner membrane) Light ATP
O2 (independent) CO2
reactions
Calvin cycle

C6 – 6C1 Energy in glucose – 4ATP + NADH + FADH2

O2 + 2e = O2- O2- + H+ = H2O

Glucose (glycolysis) + O2 (ETC) – CO2 (link reaction, Krebs cycle) + H2O (ETC) +
38 ATP
ETC – NADPH, ATP – Chemical reactions – Glucose
Chemical reactions -NADH, FADH2- ETC – ATP
high reducing molecule: provide H+ for reducing the CO2 to glucose
high reducing molecule: provide the electron for transportation comes from Chlorophyll + need the activation of sunlight