Introduction to E.L.T.

:The Learner Variable In Language Teaching

The Process of Learning a Second Language

Language Policy and Language Teaching

The learner variable: what the learner does

The learning process: How the learner learns a second language

Recall
The Learning Process: Second Language Acquisition

L2 and L1 can be acquired

Successively (or one after the other) Simultaneously (or at the same time)

Age of learning

Environment for learning

Childhood Adolescence Adulthood

Classroom

Natural

Theories of Language Acquisition

According to children learn language through habit Behaviourists formation. When they imitate the language they hear, practice the sounds they learn and get positive feedback from adults, they develop the habit of using the language correctly. According to Innatists children learn language through their in-built Language Acquisition Device. This processes the input or language that they hear and helps them to develop the grammar rules of the language.

According to children learn language through interaction with Social adult caregivers. The adults speak in a way that Interactionists.. helps the child to understand the meanings of words and helps them learn how to use language to communicate their needs.

Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

Second language acquisition is the process of learning a second language (L2) after learning the first language (L1) or native language. This learning may take place in a natural or a classroom setting. Understanding the process of L1 learning helps us to understand the process of L2 learning. Understanding SLA is important to help us understand how to teach a second or foreign language.

Stephen Krashens L2 Acquisition Theory

In the 1980s, a psychologist named Stephen Krashen transformed language teaching by proposing some new theories about how second languages are learnt and taught. He had been developing his ideas over a number of years, but several books he published during this period were widely accepted.

Krashen is well-known for his theory of second language acquisition, which consists of five main hypotheses*:

The Acquisition Learning hypothesis The Monitor hypothesis, The Natural Order hypothesis, The Input hypothesis, and The Affective Filter hypothesis

*A hypothesis is an idea or explanation for something which needs to be tested out.

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

Acquisition

Learning

A subconscious process of picking up a second language through natural exposure

A conscious process of studying a second language in a classroom setting

The Acquisition Learning Distinction

Acquisition
Sub-conscious: through environment (Ex: games, movies, TV) Picking up words

SLA

Learning

Conscious: through instruction Correction of errors

Knowing about grammar rules

Pedagogical implications: The teacher should not focus on teaching grammar rules alone but should also create a natural language learning situation in the classroom to help language acquisition.

Reflection Do you think that everything you know about English has been taught or consciously learnt? Do you think that there are situations in which you simply pick up elements of language (words, phrases etc.) through the environment? Give an example from your personal experience.

The Monitor hypothesis

The Monitor hypothesis explains the role of Learning. The rules of grammar that are learned function as a monitor and help the learner to correct language errors. When the Monitor is not used, errors naturally occur. Pedagogical implications: Correction by the teacher strengthens the monitor but makes it more difficult for the learner to speak fluently because if the learner is worried about getting the grammar, pronunciation etc. correct, he cannot focus on meaning. The monitor should be used at times when it does not interfere with natural communication, such as during a writing activity.

Reflection Do you agree that sometimes if you think too much about what the correct rule is you are not able to speak spontaneously or fluently? Think about an example from your own experience. While writing, do you think of the rules of grammar that you have learnt when you are constructing your sentences or when you are checking your work after completing it? Are you more likely to have several language mistakes if you do not focus on the rules during the writing process?

The Natural Order Hypothesis

Research shows that many elements of grammar are acquired in a certain order or sequence no matter when they are taught. This order can be predicted but cannot be changed. Adults learning a second language and children learning the same second language show a similar order of acquisition. Pedagogical implication: Teachers can probably speed up the process of acquisition but cannot change the order of acquisition. This means that they cannot force learners to learn those elements of language for which they are not ready.

English morphemes acquired early: -ing: Verb ending John is going to work. -/s/: Plural Two cats are fighting.
English morphemes acquired late: -/s/: Possessive We saw Janes house. -/s/: Third person singular Roy rides Trigger.

The Comprehensible Input Hypothesis

Learners acquire language only when they receive language input containing some new words or structures which are a little beyond the words and structures that they know at the present moment. The new language should be meaningful and the learner should be able to understand it with the help of the context, gestures, facial expressions and other clues. Pedagogical implication: The teacher should make an effort to provide exposure to language that is new but is both meaningful and comprehensible and can be easily understood from clues in the context.

Reflection Think of an example from your own experience of learning English when you have understood a new word or phrase from the situation or from other clues in the context.

The Affective Filter Hypothesis

Language acquisition is affected by affective factors or factors that relate to the emotional state of the learner. These are: Motivation Self-confidence

Anxiety
Affective Filter
Language Input Language Acquisition Device Language Competence

 Low motivation, low self-esteem, and severe anxiety can combine to 'raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' or an imaginary wall that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, selfconfidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are more likely to succeed in second language acquisition. When a student is nervous or worried in the language class, a filter or a kind of barrier goes up that prevents the input from getting through. Pedagogical implication: The teacher should make the classroom anxiety-free and motivating so that the learners feel comfortable and language acquisition is encouraged.

Reflection Try to recall if you have ever had an English teacher who made you stressed or nervous. Why did this happen? Do you think this had an impact on your learning of English at that stage? Think of an English teacher in whose class you felt happy and comfortable. What impact did this have on your learning of English?

Recall

Views about Teaching Learning Conditions

Silence is no longer consider golden in a language classroom. Interaction leads to learning. Learner activity and participation is considered crucial for language development. Relaxed, anxiety-free and encouraging classroom atmosphere aids language learning.

Reflection Which of these new ideas do you think have been influenced by Krashens theories?/ which of these ideas can you relate to Krashens theories?

Learning Goals
Focus away from direct teaching of grammar Developing communication skills in the language given importance.

Reflection Which of these new ideas do you think have been influenced by Krashens theories?/ which of these ideas can you relate to Krashens theories?

Michael Longs L2 Acquisition Theory

Learners learn new forms in a language through the negotiation around meaning that occurs when they engage in communication and communicative learning activities. - Michael Long

Longs Interaction Hypothesis

Michael Long (1985-1996) extends Krashens theory. He proposed what has come to be called the Interaction Hypothesis. According to this hypothesis, comprehensive input is the result of modified interaction. According to this hypothesis, SL acquisition takes place through conversational interaction. When learners interact with more proficient L2 speakers, the speakers have to modify or adapt what they are saying until the learner understands. Michael Long's views are based on his observation of interactions between learners and native speakers.

Interactional modifications: Example 1

T: Its rectangular S: Rectangular? T: Yeah it's in the shape of a rectangle you know a rectangle has two long sides and two short sides. S: Rectangle? T: Yes, rectangle - it's like a squareyou know a square? S: Yes. T: So a square has four equal sides but a rectangle has two sides that are much longer and two sides that are much shorter. S: OK - so thats a rectangle.
This kind of interaction and the modification of input that occurs provides learning opportunities and makes it possible for a learner to understand and pick up new words and structures.

Interactional modifications: Example 2

S: The windows are crozed. T: The windows are what? S: Crossed? T: Crossed? I'm not sure what you're saying there S: Windows are clossed T: Oh you mean the windows are closed - oh OK sorry S: Yes, the windows are closed. Here the interaction that occurs provides feedback to the learner and makes it possible for him to learn the correct form of the word he is struggling with. These kind of modifications are only possible if the interaction is natural.

How Language Input is made comprehensible

Interaction between native speakers or teachers and L2 learners

Interactional modification

Comprehensible input

Interactional modification (language modified or adapted during interaction) leads to comprehensible input. According to Krashen, comprehensible input promotes acquisition. Therefore, interactional modification promotes acquisition.

Activities

Classroom Scenario
Hong is a 8-year old child who has been learning English for one year. He demonstrates some comprehension of oral English by responding to a few general classroom commands (e.g. Stand up. Sit down. Take out a sheet of paper). However, he does not give oral responses to questions and may even begin to cry if asked to do so.

Reflect 1.How would you describe Hongs problem using one of Krashens hypotheses? 2.How do you think the teacher can best help Hong to settle into the English classes at this stage?

Classroom Scenario
Savithri teaches English to a class of 6-year old children. At the beginning of the year, she puts labels with the English names for as many objects in the class as possible. Whenever possible she points to an object, reads out the name on the label and gets the students to repeat the name after her.

Reflect 1. What do you think the teacher tries to do in this class? Explain in terms of one of Krashens Hypotheses. 2. In what way do you think the children would benefit from this class?

What do you think is happening to this student in terms of Krashen's Hypotheses? Explain your answers.

Discuss what you think these quotes from Krashen mean in terms of language teaching? Do you agree with the ideas? Why/why not?

Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill. "Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and understanding." "The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input' in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to hear. These methods do not force early production in the second language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready', recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production."