FUNCTION ALGEBRAS OVER GROUPS

V. MURUGANANDAM

Abstract. One of the primary aspects of harmonic analysis is

the study of functions on a homogenous space by means of suitable
group actions. The other end of this thread is to introduce various
classes of functions on groups and study their properties vis-a-vis
the underlying groups. In this compact course, we focus on this
concept with particular reference to the most useful and widely
studied notion in harmonic analysis namely Amenability. We
aim to  look beyond the amenability at the end of the course.

1. Preliminaries
Denition 1.1. A topological space G is said to be a topological group
if it is a group and the map (x, y) → xy−1 is continuous from G × G
into G.
Let us give some important classes of locally compact Hausdor
groups.

Examples 1.2. (i) Rn is a locally compact group.

(ii) For every n ≥ 1, Tn is a compact group.
(iii) For every xed n, let GL(n, R) be the group consisting of all
n × n invertible matrices with real entries. Then GL(n, R) is a locally
compact group as it is an open subset of Rn2 .
(iv) SL(n, R) = {x ∈ GL(n, R) : det(x) = 1} and O(n) consisting of
orthogonal matrices are also locally compact groups as they form closed
subsets of GL
 (n, R).  
a b
(v) S = x = 0 1 : a > 0, b ∈ R .
(vi) If G is the Heisenberg group given by
   
 1 x z 
g=  0 1 y  : x, y, z ∈ R
 0 0 1 

0This notes is based on a series of lectures given in the Workshop and a centenary
conference on Analysis and Applications, IISc Mathematics Initiative (IMI), I.I.Sc,
Bangalore, from May, 14-23, 2009. The author thanks R. Lakshmi Lavanya for
writing down the notes.
1
2 V. MURUGANANDAM

then G is noncompact and nonabelian.

(vii) Let F2 denote the free group generated by a, b, with ab 6= ba. It
is a nonabelian discrete group. Arbitrary element of this group is of the
form am bn ak · · · where m, n, k belong to Z.
Let Cc (G) and Cb (G) denote the space of all continuous functions
with compact support and continuous bounded functions on G, respec-
tively.
Let Clu (G), Cru (G) and Cu (G) denote the space of all left uniformly
continuous functions, right uniformly continuous functions and uni-
formly continuous functions on G.

1.1. Measure algebra.

Denition 1.3. Let X be a locally compact space. A Borel measure µ
is said to be regular if
(1) µ(K) < ∞, for every compact set K.
(2) For every Borel set E , µ(E) = inf{ µ(U ) : U is open and E ⊆
U }.
If E is any Borel set and
µ(E) < ∞, then µ(E) = sup µ(K) :

(3)
K is compact, K ⊆ E .
Denition 1.4. A Banach space A over C is called a Banach algebra
if A is an algebra satisfying
kxyk ≤ kxkkyk, ∀ x, y ∈ A
and is called Banach? -algebra if it admits an involution x → x? on A
such that kx? k = kxk for all x in A.
Let G be a locally compact Hausdor group. If M (G) denotes the
space of complex Borel measures on G, then it forms a Banach Space.
In what follows, we briey show that the underlying group structure
gives rise to two additional structures on M (G), with respect to which
M (G) forms an Banach ? µ, ν are in M (G), then
algebra. If dene
Z Z Z
φ(x) d(µ ∗ ν)(x) = φ(xy) dµ(x) dν(y).

µ∗ν is called the convolution of the measures. For every µ and ν , µ ∗ ν

belongs to M (G) and kµ ∗ νk ≤ kµk kνk .
Recall that if x belongs to G, then δx denotes the Dirac measure at
x. If x, y are in G, then
Z Z Z Z
φ d(δx ∗ δy ) = φ(uv) dδx (u) dδy (v) = φ(xy) = φ dδxy .
 3

Therefore, δx ∗ δy = δxy . See that δe is the multiplicative identity of

M (G). The involution µ → µ? on M (G) is dened by
Z Z
φ dµ = φ(x−1 ) dµ(x).
?

It is easy to see that δe is the identity for M (G).

1.2. Group algebra. One of the milestones in the history of abstract
Harmonic analysis was the existence of left invariant measure on a
general locally compact Hausdor group that reads as follows. A Borel
measure m on G is said to be left invariant if m(xE) = m(E) for every
Borel set E, and for all x in G.

Theorem 1.5. (Haar, Von Neumann) Let G be a locally compact

Hausdor group. There exists a non-zero, positive, left invariant, regu-
lar Borel measure on G. Moreover, it is unique up to a positive constant.
Such a measure is called Haar measure and the corresponding in-
tegral is called Haar integral. We refer to the books by A. Weil[18],
Loomis[11] for a proof. Let dx always denote the Haar integral.
Let us see some examples of Haar measures.

(1) For any subset E of a discrete group, if m(E) is dened to be

the number of elements in E, then it is a Haar measure called
counting measure.
(2) The Lebesgue measure is the Haar measure for the group Rn ,
as it is translation invaraint.
1
R 2π
(3) For the Torus T,
2π 0
f (eıx )dx is the Haar integral.
1
(4) If G = GL(n, R) then verify that
(det g)n
dg11 dg12 · · · dgnn denes
a Haar measure.
1
(5) If G denotes the group given in 1.2(v) then 2 dadb is the Haar
a
measure.
(6) The Lebesgue measure

dg = dxdydz
is the Haar measure for the Heisenberg group given in 1.2(v).

Let Lp (G), 1 ≤ p < ∞ denote as usual, the Banach space consisting

f such that G |f (x)|p dx is nite. Similarly
R
of all measurable functions
∞
one denes L (G).

Theorem 1.6. (Lusin). For every p, 1 ≤ p < ∞, Cc (G) is dense in

Lp (G).
Proposition 1.7. If f in Lp (G), 1 ≤ p < ∞ is xed then the map
x →x f from G into Lp (G) is continuous.
4 V. MURUGANANDAM

Proof. Let us assume thatf ∈ Cc (G). Then, f is uniformly continuous.

Let K be the support of f. Let  > 0 be given. Since G is locally
compact, there exists a neighborhood W of identity e such that W is
compact. Choose a neighborhood U of e such that U ⊆ W and if x, y ∈
G are such that x ∈ U y then


r
|f (x) − f (y)| < ,
µ(KW )
µ being the xed Haar measure.
Then for every x, y ∈ G such that x ∈ Uy , we have ||x f −y f ||p < .
Use Lusin's theorem to show that the result holds for arbitrary ele-
p
ment of L (G). 

A Haar measure need not be right invariant. In fact, for a xed

R x
if we dene dmx by h f, dmx i = G f (yx)dy then one can see that
it is left integral. Therefore, there exists a function x → ∆(x) called
modular function satisfying the following:
Z Z
−1
f (yx)dy = ∆(x ) f (y)dy
G G

The modular function of G can easily be seen to be a homomorphism

+
from G into R . By Proposition 1.7, we see that ∆ is continuous.
A group G is called Unimodular if
∆(x) = 1 ∀x ∈ G.
It is trivial that any abelian group or discrete group is unimodular. As
∆ is a continuous homomorphism, any compact group is unimodular.
In fact all groups enumerated in 1.2 except the group
  S in example (v)
a b
are unimodular. ∆(x) = a−1 , if x=x= .
0 1
Recall that by Radon-Nikodym theorem we can view L1 (G) as a
closed subspace ofM (G) consisting of all measures which are absolutely
1
continuous with respect to Haar measure. We show that L (G) is a
Banach ? subalgebra of M (G).
1
For every f, g ∈ L (G), since
Z Z Z
φ(x)d(f ∗ g)(x) dx = φ(xy)f (x)g(y) dx dy
G G G
Z Z
= φ(x)f (y)g(y −1 x) dy dx,
G G
 5

we have Z
f ∗ g(x) = f (y)g(y −1 x) dy. (1.1)

G
Similarly, the involution of M (G), restricted to L1 (G), is given by

f ? (x) dx = f (x−1 ) d(x−1 ).

That is,

f ? (x) = ∆(x−1 )f (x−1 ). (1.2)

Summarizing we observe that with the convolution product (1.1) and

L1 (G) forms an Banach ?-algebra called
the involution (1.2), group
algebra. Moreover it is a two-sided ideal in M (G) and closed under
involution. In fact
Z
µ ∗ g(x) = g(y −1 x) dµ(y).
G
Z
f ∗ µ(x) = ∆(y −1 )f (xy −1 ) dµ(y).
G
1
One can easily see that if G is commutative then L (G) is a com-
?
mutative Banach -algebra. With a little more eort, one can prove the
1
converse also. That is, if L (G) is commutative with the convolution
product then the underlying group is commutative.
Let us also remark that if G is discrete then δe is the identity for
L (G). We recall that the converse also holds. That is L1 (G) has iden-
1

tity if and only if G is discrete.

But nevertheless, the group algebra of a general locally compact
group, has bounded approximate identity. We briey construct one
such as follows.
Let {Vα }α∈ I be a neighbourhood system consisting of compact neigh-
bourhoods at e. Set
gα
fα = , (1.3)
µ(Vα )
where µ is the Haar measure and gα is in Cc (G) with support of gα is
contained in Vα . Then {fα }α∈I is a bounded approximate identity for
1
L (G).
Proposition 1.8. If f belongs to Lp (G), 1 ≤ p < ∞ then
lim kfα ∗ f − f kp = 0 = lim kf ∗ fα − f kp
α α

Proof. For any f Cc (G) one can prove using Proposition 1.7 and the
in
general case follows by Lusin's theorem. 
6 V. MURUGANANDAM

Let us end our discussion about the group algebra by recalling some
important properties of group algebras of commutative groups.
We assume that G is commutative. A continuous group homomor-
phism from G intoT, is called a character. The set of all characters
of G is denoted by G
b. It can be seen that G b forms a locally com-
pact abelian group under pointwise multiplication and compact - open
1
topology and is called as dual group of G. Let ∆(L (G)) denote the set
1
of all non-zero complex homomorphisms of L (G).

Theorem 1.9. The map χ to τχ from Gb in to ∆(L1 (G)) given by

Z
τχ (f ) = f (x)χ(x)dx ∀f ∈ L1 (G), (1.4)
G

denes a homeomorphism from Gb into ∆(L1 (G)), with Gelfand topol-

ogy.
Denition 1.10. For every f ∈ L1 (G) the Fourier transform of f is
dened to be a function on Gb given by
Z
fˆ(γ) = f (x)h x, γ i dx. (1.5)
G

Proposition 1.11. The Fourier transform is a injective homomor-

phism from L1 (G) to C0 (G)
b and its range is dense in C0 (G)
b .

Theorem 1.12 (Fourier Inversion formula). Let G be a locally compact

abelian group. Then there exists a Haar measure dγ on Gb satisfying
the following.
If f ∈ L1 (G) and fb ∈ L1 (G)
b , then
Z
f (x) = fb(γ)γ(x) dγ a. e (1.6)

G
b

Theorem 1.13. [Plancherel theorem] Let G be a locally compact abelian

group. If f ∈ L1 (G) ∩ L2 (G) then
kf kL2 (G) = kfˆkL2 (G)
b .

The Fourier transform extends to a unitary operator from L2 (G) onto

2
L (G).
b

For the proofs and more details we refer to Loomis[11] and the recent
book Folland [7]
 7

1.3. Representation theory.

Denition 1.14. A representation of G on a Hilbert space H is a
homomorphism π from G into GL(H), the group consisting of all in-
vertible operators in BL(H), such that the map
x× → π(x)ξ
from G → H is continuous for every ξ in H..
Here H is called the representation space. We say that the represen-
tation π is unitary if π(x) is unitary for every x in G. That is,

h π(ξ)u, π(x)η i = h ξ, η i ∀x ∈ G ∀ ξ, η ∈ H.
A representation (π, H) is said to be an irreducible representation of
G, if H does not have any non-trivial closedG-invariant subspace.
A representation (π, H) is said to be cyclic with a cyclic vector ξ if
the linear span of {π(x)ξ : x ∈ G} is a dense subspace of H. Any two
(unitary) representations (π1 , H1 ) and (π2 , H2 ) are said to be (unitarily)
equivalent if there exists an invertible bounded (unitary) operator T :
H1 → H2 such that
T ◦ π1 (g) = π2 (g) ◦ T, ∀ g ∈ G.
On any Hilbert space one can have trivial representation. That is,
for every x in G, dene π(x) = IH . But this apart, there is a built-in
representation for every group, given as follows.
For any x in G, if λ(x) denotes the operator on L2 (G) given by

λ(x)f (y) = f (x−1 y) ∀y ∈ G and ∀f ∈ L2 (G),

then λ(x) is unitary as Haar measure is left invariant. Moreover, the
map x → λ(x)f denes a unitary representation of G and is known as
left regular representation of G.
Notation Let Gb be the set of equivalence classes of irreducible unitary
representation of G and let G
e be the set of equivalence classes of unitary
representation of G.

Remark 1.15. 1. If H is a Hilbert space let H denote the conjugate

Hilbert space. If (π, H) is a representation dene π̄, H by π̄(x) = π(x).
It is called conjugate representation.
2. Let (πi , Hi ), i = 1, 2 be two unitary representations of a group
G. Let H = H1 ⊕ H2 be the direct sum of Hilbert spaces. If we dene
π(x)(ξ1 , ξ2 ) = (π1 (x)ξ1 , π2 (x)ξ2 ), then it forms a unitary representation
called the direct sum of (π1 , H1 ) and (π2 , H2 ).
8 V. MURUGANANDAM

3. Let H be the tensor product H1 ⊗H ˆ 2 of H1 and H2 obtained by

completing the algebraic tensor product H1 ⊗ H2 by dening the inner
product
h ξ1 ⊗ ξ2 , η1 ⊗ η2 i = h ξ1 , η1 ih ξ2 , η2 i.
Recall that if T1 and T2 are bounded linear maps on H1 and H2 re-
spectively then there exists a bounded linear map T1 ⊗ T2 such that
T1 ⊗ T2 (ξ1 ⊗ ξ2 ) = T1 (x)ξ1 ⊗ T2 (x)ξ2 , and kT1 ⊗ T2 k = kT1 k kT2 k .
If π1 and π2 are two unitary representations of G then π1 ⊗ π2 on
ˆ 2 given by
H1 ⊗H
π1 ⊗ π2 (x) = π1 (x) ⊗ π2 (x)
denes a unitary representation on G. It is called tensor product of π1
and π2 and is denoted by (π1 ⊗ π2 , H1 ⊗H ˆ 2 ).
Denition 1.16. Let
n o
B(G) = πξ, η : ξ, η ∈ H, π ∈ G̃ .

By the above remark, we observe that B(G) is a subalgebra of Cb (G)

closed under complex conjugation having identity. This space is going
to be an important object of study throughout this course.

Denition 1.17. Let A be a Banach ?- algebra. Any ? -homomorphism

π of A into BL(H) for some Hilbert space H is called ? -representation
of A.
Remark 1.18. Let us recall that if A be a Banach ?- algebra and B is
a C ? -algebra and if φ : A → B is a ? -homomorphism then
kφ(x)k ≤ kxk
for every x ∈ A. (see Takesakai [17] for a proof.) In particular any ?
representation of L1 (G) is norm decreasing.
Any ? representation π is said to be non-degenerate if the closure
of the subspace spanned by [π(A)(H)] H. Similarly, we can
is equal to
dene irreducibility and equivalence among the ?-representations of
A.
A ?-representation (π, H) of L1 (G) is non-degenerate if and only if
the following holds. For any bounded approximate identity {fα } in
L1 (G), π(fα ) → I in strong operator topology.
Theorem 1.19. Suppose (π, H) is a unitary representation of G. For
every f in L1 (G) if we dene π̃(f ) on H by
Z
h π̃(f )(ξ) η i = f (x)h π(x)ξ, η idx,
G
 9

then f → π̃(f ) denes a non-degenerate ?-representation of L1 (G).

Moreover the correspondence π → π̃ is bijective from the equivalence
classes of all unitary representations of G and the equivalence classes
of all non-degenerate ? -representations of L1 (G).
Proof. Suppose that π is a unitary representation of G. If we dene π̃
by
Z
h π̃(f ) = f (x)π(x)dx, (1.7)
G
that is, for every ξ, η in H, if
Z
h π̃(f )(ξ) η i = f (x)h π(x)ξ, η idx,
G

then it can be easily seen to be a ?-homomorphism.

Let {fα } be the bounded approximate identity given in (1.3). Fix
ξ in H and  > 0 Since x → π(x)ξ is continuous at e there exists Vα0
such that, x ∈ Vα0 ⇒ kπ(x)ξ − ξk < . For every α > α0 ,
Z
kπ̃(fα )ξ − ξk = fα (x)π(x)ξ dx − ξ

ZG
≤ |fα (x)| kπ(x)ξ − ξk dx
Vα
Z
< . |fα (x)| dx.
Vα
= .
Hence π̃(fα ) → I in strong operator topology and so π̃|L1 (G) is non-
degenerate.
1
Conversely suppose that ρ : L (G) → BL(H) is a non-degenerate
? 1
-representation of L (G).
1
Set K = [ρ(L (G)(H)]. Then K is dense in H. Dene

π(x)(ρ(f )ξ) = ρ(δx ∗ f )(ξ).

Since δx ∗ fα ∗ f → δx ∗ f, for all f ∈ L1 (G), we have

π(x)(ρ(f )ξ) = lim kρ(δx ∗ fα )kkρ(f )(ξ)k

α
≤ kρ(f )(ξ)k.
Therefore by 1.18, π(x) is bounded on K. Hence π(x) gets extended
as an operator on H. It is easy to see that π(xy) = π(x) ◦ π(y). Since
10 V. MURUGANANDAM

kξk = kπ(x−1 )π(x)(ξ)k ≤ kπ(x)ξk ≤ kξk, π is unitary. Since for every

f, g in L1 (G),
ρ(f ) ◦ ρ(g) = ρ(f ∗ g)(ξ)
Z
= f (y)ρ(δy ∗ g)
G
Z
= f (y)π(y)(ρ(g))dy
G
= π̃(f )(ρ(g))
we have ρ(f ) = π̃(f ). 
Remark 1.20. For example λ̃, corresponding to λ is given by left con-
volution operators, since
Z Z
λ̃(f )(g)(x) = λ(y)(g)(x)f (y)dy = g(y −1 x)f (y)dy = f ∗ g(x).
G G

This representation is faithful in the sense that if λ̃(f ) = 0 then f = 0

in L1 (G).
2. Positive definite functions
Denition 2.1. A function φ : G → C is said to be positive denite if
for all c1 , c2 , ..., cn ∈ C and x1 , x2 , ..., xn ∈ G,
n
X
ci c̄j φ(x−1
j xi ) ≥ 0.
i,j=1

Example 2.2. If (π, H) is any unitary representation of G then for

any ξ H function φ = πξ,ξ is positive denite since for any choice of xi
and ci as in the denition
n
X
ci c̄j φ(x−1
j xi ) = h η, η i
i,j=1

where η =
P
i ci π(xi )(ξ).

Note that, taking n=1 and c1 = 1 in Denition 2.1, we have φ(e) ≥ 0.

Proposition 2.3. Let φ be a positive denite function. Then
(1) φ(x−1 ) = φ(x)
(2) |φ(x)| ≤ φ(e), ∀ x ∈ G.
Proof. By hypothesis, the matrix
 (φ(x−1
i xj ))1≤i,j≤n is positive semi de-
φ(e) φ(x)
nite. Consider A= . Since A = A? , and det(A) ≥ 0,
φ(x−1 ) φ(e)
the result follows.
 11


Theorem 2.4. Let φ be a continuous function on G. Then the following
are equivalent
(1) φ is positive denite.
(2) φ is bounded and h φ, f ∗ f i ≥ 0, ∀ f ∈ Cc (G).
?

(3) h φ, µ? ∗ µ i ≥ 0, ∀ µ ∈ M (G).
n
Proof.
P
If µ is a measure with nite support, that is if µ = α i δx i ,
i=1
observe that
n
X
?
h φ, µ ∗ µ i = ci c̄j φ(x−1
j xi ).
i,j=1

Assume that φ h φ, µ? ∗ µ i ≥ 0.
is positive denite. Then
Let f belong to Cc (G). Then there exists {µα } of measures with
nite support such that µα converges to f (y)dy in the weak?-topology.
Therefore, (1) implies (2).
Let us prove (2) implies (3). Let us suppose that µ has compact
support. Then for any f in Cc (G) the function µ ∗ f belongs to Cc (G).
If {fα } is a bounded approximate identity such that each fα belongs
to Cc (G), then µ ∗ fα belongs to Cc (G) and it converges to µ in the
weak ?-topology. Therefore (3) is true in this case.
If µ belongs to M (G), then there exists {µα } in M (G) with com-
pact support such that {µα } converges to µ in the weak ?- topology.
Therefore (2) implies (3).
It is trivial that (3) implies (1). 

Notation: Let P (G) denote the set of all continuous positive denite
functions on G. If φ belongs to P (G) then observe that φ̄ belongs to
P (G).
Remark 2.5. In Example 2.2 we have seen that any matrix coe-
cient belonging to a unitary representation is positive denite. Now we
shall show that these are the only positive denite functions. In other
words, we show that if φ belongs to P (G), then there exists a cyclic
representation (π, H) with cyclic vector ξ such that φ(x) = πξ, ξ .
2.1. GNS construction.
Theorem 2.6. Let φ be any continuous positive denite function on G.
Then there exists a cyclic representation (π, H) with the cyclic vector
ξ such that φ(x) = h πφ (x)u, u i locally almost everywhere.
12 V. MURUGANANDAM

Proof. Dene h ·, · iφ on L1 (G) by

Z
h f, g iφ = h g ∗ f i = ? ¯ (y)dxdy.
φ(x−1 y)g(x)f
G
1
It is easy to see that it denes a sesquilinear form on L (G). If N =
1
{f ∈ L (G) : h f, f iφ = 0} , one can see by Cauchy Schwarz inequality
1 1
one can see that N = {f ∈ L (G) : h f, g iφ = 0∀g ∈ L (G)} . There-
1
fore it forms a closed subspace of L (G).
Moreover, since

h x f,x g iφ = h f, g iφ (2.1)

we see that N
is invariant under left translation.
1
Let H0 denote the quotient space L (G)/N . Complete it to get a
Hilbert space H. We shall dene a representation π on H as follows. If
f˜ belongs to L1 (G)/N take
π(x)(f˜) = xg
−1 f = ˜
x−1 f

Then π extends to a unitary representation of G.

Let us show that (π, H) is cyclic. If {fα } is a bounded approximate
identity of L (G) then take a subnet if necessary to conclude that f˜α
1

converges to a vector ξ weakly in H. Then

Z
h f˜, ξ iφ = limh f˜, f˜α iφ = limh fα? ∗ f, φ i = f (x)φ(x)dx. (2.2)
α α G

Since h g̃, f˜ iφ =
R R ¯
φ(x−1 y)f (x)g(y)dxdy and
G G
Z Z
φ(x−1 y)g(y)dy = φ(y)g(xy)dy = h π(x−1 )g̃, ξ iφ = h g̃, π(x)ξ i
G G

we see by (2.2) that

Z
h g̃, f˜ iφ = ¯ g̃, π(x)ξ i
f (x)h
G
= h g̃, π(f )(ξ) iφ . (2.3)

Hence [π(L1 (G))ξ] is total in H and so the representation is cyclic.

Finally,

h ξ, f˜ i = limh f˜α f˜ i, = limh f˜α , π(f )ξ i = h ξ, π(f )(ξ) i

α α
R
Therefore, by (2.2),
G
f (x)φ(x)dx = h π(f )(ξ), ξ i 
Remark 2.7. Using the preceding theorem, we conclude that the vector
space B(G) dened in 1.16 is in fact linear span of continuous positive
denite functions.
 13

3. C? algebras of groups
Denition 3.1. An Banach ?- algebra A is said to be C ? -algebra if the
involution of A satises the additional condition
kx? xk = kxk2 , x ∈ A.
Remark 1. Let X be a compact Hausdor space. The space C(X) of
continuous complex valued functions on X is a unital Banach algebra
with the uniform norm. The map f → f¯ is an involution that makes
C(X) into a C ? -algebra. Similarly if X is a locally compact noncompact
Hausdor space then C0 (X) consists of continuous functions which
?
vanish at innity forms a C -algebra without identity.
∞ ?
2. L (X, dµ) for any measure µ, is a C -algebra.
3. Let H be a Hilbert space. Then the unital Banach algebra BL(H) is
?
a C algebra with the operator norm and the involution given by the
?
map T → T . In general any norm closed ?-subalgebra of BL(H) is a
?
C -algebra.
Theorem 3.2. If k·k0 is dened on L1 (G) by
kf k0 = sup {kπ(f )k : π is any non-degenerate ? -representation} (3.1)
then it denes a norm on L1 (G). Moreover, the completion of L1 (G)
with respect to this norm is a C ? -algebra.
Proof. Clearly,
kλf + gk0 ≤ |λ| kf k0 + kgk0
Suppose that kf k0 = 0. Then λ(f ) = 0 where λ : L1 (G) → BL(L2 (G))
is the left regular representation. As λ is a faithful representation, we
0
have f = 0. Therefore k.k is indeed a norm. 
Denition 3.3. The C ? -algebra obtained above is called full C ? -algebra
of G and is denoted by C ? (G).
The following theorem gives yet another way to realize C ? (G). Let
us rst recall

Theorem 3.4. A C ? -algebra has suciently many irreducible repre-

sentations to separate points of A.
That is, for every x ∈ A, x 6= 0 there exists an irreducible represen-
tation π of A such that π(x) 6= 0.
Theorem 3.5. let A denote the C ? (G) n -algebra obtainedo by completing
L (G) with k · k where kf k = sup kπ(f )k : π ∈ G . Then C ? (G)
1 00 00 b
and A are isometrically ? isomorphic
14 V. MURUGANANDAM

Proof. Ψ : (L1 (G), k.k0 ) → (A, k.k00 ) . Then kΨ(f )k ≤ kf k0 . So Ψ

Dene
? ?
extended into a -homomorphism from C (G) into A. We claim that Ψ
?
is injective. Suppose Ψ(f ) = 0, ∀ f ∈ C (G). Then π(f ) = 0, ∀ π ∈ G. b
By the preceding Gelfand-Raikov Theorem, f = 0. Therefore Ψ is
?
injective. Since an injective ?-homomorphism between C -algebras is
an isometry, we have

kΨ(f )k = kf k, ∀ f ∈ C ? (G).
?
Therefore, Ψ(C (G)) is closed in A. Thus Ψ(C ? (G)) = A. Hence A is
C ? -completion of (L1 (G), k.k00 )

Proposition 3.6. Suppose that the group G is abelian. Then the full
C ? -algebra of G is identied with C0 (Ĝ).
Proof. If (π, H) is a unitary irreducible representation of G then by
Schur's lemma it is given by one-dimensional representation. That is,
there exists a character χπ such that π(x)ξ = χπ (x), for every x ∈ G.
π going to χπ identies Ĝ with the dual group given in Section 1.
Now
Z Z
π(f ) = f (x)π(x) dx. = f (x)χπ (x) dx. = fb(χ̌π ),
G G

where χ̌π = χπ (x−1 ). Therefore,

kf k0 = sup kπ(f )k = sup kfb(χ̌π )k = kf k∞ , since χ̌ ∈ G.

b
π∈ G
b χ∈ G
b

SinceC ? (G) is the completion of (L1 (G), k.k0 ) and ∆(L1 (G)) = G,
b
?
we have C (G) is the completion of {fb ∈ C0 (G) b : k.k∞ − norm}. Since
b is dense in L1 (G), we have C ? (G) = C0 (G).
{f : fb ∈ Cc (G)} b 
Remarks 3.7. 1. If ρ is any ? -representation of L1 (G), then ρ gets
extension to a ? -representation of C ? (G).
2. If ρ1 and ρ2 are two non-degenerate representations of L1 (G) then
they are equivalent if and only if their extensions to C ? (G) are equiva-
lent.
3. Summarizing by we observe by Theorem 1.19 and the preceding the-
orem that there is a bijective correspondence between the unitary rep-
resentations of G and non-degenerate ? -representations of C ? (G) such
that irreducible ones go into irreducible ones. Moreover this identica-
tion respects equivalence relation among the representations.
 15

From the proof of Theorem 3.2 we observe that instead of taking all
unitary representations in the equation (3.1), if we take the left regular
?
representation alone, we get another C -algebra.

Denition 3.8. The closure of ? -subalgebra λ(L1 (G)) in BL(L2 (G))

is a C ? -algebra and is called reduced C ? -algebra of G.
We denote this C ? -algebra by Cλ? (G).
 
ˆ 
We recall that if G is abelian then f (γ) ≤ kλ(f )k for every f in
0
L1 (G) and for every γ in Ĝ. So kf k = kλ(f )k for every f in L1 (G), so
that C (G) ∼
?
= Cλ? (G).
Similarly if G is compact, by Peter-Weyl theory we observe that
kπ(f )k ≤ kλ(f )k for every π in Ĝ and so C ? (G) ∼
= Cλ? (G).
?
The question that for which groups, these two C -algebras are iso-
metrically ?-isomorphic gives rise to a class of groups called amenable
groups, which are to be discussed below.

3.1. Weak containment:

Denition 3.9. Suppose that G is a locally compact group. Let Σ ⊆
e π ∈ G.
G, e We say that π is said to be weakly contained in Σ if the
corresponding ? -representation π of C ? (G) is weakly contained in cor-
responding Σ. We denote it by π  Σ.
We recall that if π is a representation of A and Σ is a collection of
representations of A then π is weakly contained in Σ denoted by π  Σ
if any of the equivalent conditions in the following theorem is satised.

Theorem 3.10.
T
(1) ker(π) ⊇ ker(ρ)
ρ∈Σ
n o
(2) kπ(x)k ≤ sup kρ(x)k : ρ ∈ G e .
(3) For every ξ ∈ Hπ , there exists a net {φα } consisting of the
matrix coecients belonging the representations in Σ such that
{φα } converges to πξ, ξ in the weak? topology. In fact Every
positive form πξ,ξ associated to π is weak? limit of linear sum of
positive linear form associated to Σ.
(4) Every state of A associated with π is a weakstar limit of states
which are sums of positive forms associated with Σ.
See Theorem 3.4.4 of Diximier [4].For more details regarding the
?
weak containment among the representations of a C -algebra we refer
to Section 3.4 of Diximier [4].
If we take Σ = {λ} then we observe by the preceding discussion
? ?
and Theorem 3.5, that C (G) and Cλ (G) are isometrically isomorphic
16 V. MURUGANANDAM

if and only if every irreducible unitary representation of G is weakly

contained in λ.
The following theorem is useful in understanding the weak contain-
ment among the representations of G.
Theorem 3.11. Let P1 (G) = {ψ ∈ P (G) : kψk = ψ(1) = 1} . On P1 (G)
the weak? topology and the topology of uniformly convergence on com-
pact sets are equivalent.
See Theorem 13.5.2. of Diximer [4].

Theorem 3.12. Let G be a locally compact group and π belong to G̃

and Σ ⊆ G̃. Then the following are equivalent:
(1) π  Σ.
(2)Every positive denite function ψ associated to π is limit of sum
of positive denite functions associated to Σ with respect to the
topology of uniformly convergence on compact sets.
If π is further assumed to be irreducible, then the above if equivalent
to the following.
3. If πξ,ξ for some ξ in H, is the limit of sum of positive denite
functions associated to Σ with respect to the topology of uniformly con-
vergence on compact sets.
Proof. The proof follows by Theorem 3.10, Theorem 3.11.


3.2. Fourier and Fourier Stieltjes algebra.

Theorem 3.13. Let G be a locally compact group. Let C ? (G) denote
the C ? -algebra of G. The Banach space dual [C ? (G)]? of C ? (G) is given
by
{πξ,η : ξ, η ∈ Hπ , π is a unitary representation of G} . (3.2)

We shall rst prove the following lemma.

Lemma 3.14. If φ is a positive linear form L1 (G), then φ gets extended

to a positive linear form φ0 on C ? (G). The map φ → φ0 is bijective and
kφk = kφ0 k.
Proof. Let τ : L1 (G) → C ? (G) denote the imbedding. As every pos-
itive form on a Banach ?-algebra with
bounded approximate identity
1
is continuous (See [1, p396]). Therefore any positive form on L (G)
0 ? 0 ?
gets extended to φ on C (G) such that, φ = φ ◦ τ. Let x ∈ C (G).
0 1 0
We need to see that kφk = kφ k. If f ∈ L (G) then |φ(f )| = |φ (f )| ≤
 17

1/2
|φ0 (e)|1/2 kf ? ∗ f kC ? (G) ≤ kφ0 kkf k1 . Therefore kφk ≤ kφ0 k. Let x ∈ A.
Then,

|φ0 (x)| = |φ(x)|

≤ kφk1/2 (φ(x? x))1/2 .
≤ kφk1/2 kφ0 k1/2 kx? xkC ? (G)
≤ kφk1/2 kφ0 k1/2 kxk2 .
e Therefore, kφ0 k ≤ kφk1/2 kφ0 k1/2 ⇒ kφ0 k1/2 ≤ kφk1/2 ⇒ kφ0 k ≤ kφk.
Hence kφk = kφ0 k as claimed.

Let us prove the theorem.

Proof. Let us recall Jordan Decomposition Theorem for C ? -algebras.

(see Theeorem (3.2.5) of Pederson [13]). For each hermitean functional
φ on C ? -algebra A, there exist positive elements φ+ and φ− such that
φ = φ+ −φ− and kφk = kφ+ k+kφ− k. By GNS construction theorem for
C ? -algebras we see that if φ is any positive linear form, then there exists
a unique (up to unitary equivalence) cyclic ?-representation (π, H, ξ)
with the cyclic vector ξ, satisfying

φ(x) = h π(x)(ξ), ξ i ∀ x ∈ A.
Therefore, we observe that any element in the dual of a C ? -algebra is
a linear combination of positive linear forms. By the preceding lemma,
and Remark 3.7 the result follows. 
Remark 3.15. The vector space B(G) is identied with the Banach
space dual [C ? (G)]? of the C ? -algebra of G and is called Fourier-Stieltjes
algebra of G.
In particular, if G is abelian then B(G) w [C0 (Ĝ)]? = M (Ĝ). In fact
the identication is given by the inverse Fourier-Stieltjes transform.
That is

B(G) = {φ = µ̂ : for some µ ∈ M (Ĝ)}, with kφkB(G) = kµk ,

where the inverse Fourier-Stieltjes transform is given by
Z
µ̂(γ) = γ(x)dµ(x).
Ĝ
But then this is precisely Fourier stieltjes algebra on G. Refer the clas-
sical book by Rudin [15] for more details on harmonic analysis over
abelian groups. The result that it forms a Banach algebra when G is
18 V. MURUGANANDAM

abelian was extended to all non-abelian groups by Eymard [6]. The

following theorem is due to Eymard.

Theorem 3.16. B(G) forms a Banach algebra with unity under point-
wise product.
Proof. We have already seen that B(G) forms an algebra with unity
under pointwise product. By the preceding remark it forms a Banach
space. In order to show that the norm satises Banach algebra condi-
tion we need the following fact due to Eymard.
If φ belongs to B(G) then

kφk = inf{kξkkηk : φ = πξ,η }, (3.3)

where the inrmum is taken over all πξ,η such that φ = πξ,η . (In fact
the minimum is attained.)
Using the above equation it is easy to show that kφ · ψk ≤ kφk kψk ,
for all φ, ψ in B(G). 
Denition 3.17. Let G be locally compact group. The closure of the
ideal B(G)∩Cc (G) in B(G) is called the Fourier algebra and is denoted
by A(G).
When G is abelian, recall that Fourier algebra

A(G) = {fˇ : f ∈ L1 (G)}

b
fˇ denote fˇ

where the the inverse Fourier transform of f and
A(G)
=
kf kL1 (Ĝ) . It is one of the classical results of abelian harmonic analysis
that whose proof can be found in Rudin [15].
Again, when G is abelian, one can arrive at the following character-
ization of A(G) using Plancherel theorem.

f, g ∈ L2 (G) ,

A(G) = f ∗ g̃,
where g̃(y) = g(y −1 ). This result was extended to all locally compact
groups by Eymard.

Theorem 3.18 (Eymand) . Let G be a locally compact group. Then

A(G) = λf,g : f, g ∈ L2 (G) ,


where λf,g is the matrix coecient associated to the left regular repre-
sentation λ of G.
1. A(G) has identity if and only if A(G) = B(G) since A(G) is a
two sided ideal in B(G). Equivalently, A(G) = B(G) if and only if G
is compact.
2. A(G) is a commutative regular, semi simple Tauberian Banach
algebra.
 19

3. The canonical embedding of G in ∆(A(G)) namely, x into τx given

by τx (φ) = φ(x) is a bijective homeomorphism.
For the proofs of all these results we refer to Eymard [6].

4. Amenable groups
Denition 4.1. A linear map m : L∞ (G) → C is said to be a mean on
L∞ (G), if m(f ) ≥ 0 for all f ≥ 0 in L∞ (G) and m(1) = 1. Moreover,
a mean is said to be a left invariant mean if
m(x f ) = m(f ) ∀f ∈ L∞ (G), ∀x ∈ G.
Denition 4.2. A locally compact group G is said to be amenable if
L∞ (G) has a left invariant mean.
Amenable groups were rst introduced by John von Neumann in
1929 in his study of Banach-Tarski paradox. (See a fairly recent book
by Runde[16] for a discussion on Banach-Tarski paradox.) But it was
M.M. Day [2], who baptized the name. As we are going to see below,
amenable groups form a vast collection of groups, which include for
instance abelian groups, solvable groups and compact groups.
Any compact group is amenable. In fact the normalized Haar mea-
R
sure is the required left invariant mean. That is, if h f, m i = G
f (x)dx
then m is easily seen to be a left invariant mean.
1
We shall use Markov- Kakutani xed point theorem to show that
any abelian group is amenable.
∞
If K
denotes the set of all means on L (G), then it forms a nonempty
?
convex set. Moreover, it is a weak -compact set as it is a subset of the
∞
unit ball of the dual of L (G).
∞ ? ∞ ?
For all x ∈ G, dene ρ(x) : L (G) → L (G) by

h f, ρ(x)(F ) i = h x−1 f, F i ∀F ∈ L∞ (G)? .

Then it is easy to see that ρ(x) is continuous, linear on L∞ (G)? and
leaves K invariant. Since ρ(xy) = ρ(x) ◦ ρ(y), for all x, y in G and G
is abelian, {ρ(x)}x∈G forms a commuting family. If m is a xed point,
then m is left invariant.
The following theorem is useful. We refer to Runde [16] for the proof.

Theorem 4.3. Let G be a locally compact group. Then the following

are equivalent,
(1) G is amenable.

1Markov- Kakutani xed point theorem: If K is a compact convex subset of

a topological vector space and if F is a commuting family of continuous linear
mappings which map K into itself, then there exists a point p in K such that
T (p) = p for all T in F. (See Dunford and Scwartz[5, Theorem V.10.6] for a proof.)
20 V. MURUGANANDAM

(2) Cu (G) has a left invariant mean.

(3) Cb (G) has a left invariant mean.
Corollary 4.4. Let Gd denote G with discrete topology. Then if Gd is
amenable then G is amenable.
Proof. Suppose Gd is amenable. Then l∞ (G) has left invariant mean,
say m. Observe that Cb (G) ⊆ l∞ (G). Then m|Cb (G) is left invariant
mean on Cb (G). Therefore G is amenable. 
The following properties of amenable groups are useful to generate
more examples of amenable groups and nonamenable groups.

Lemma 4.5. Let H be a locally compact group, and let φ : G → H

be a continuous, open homomorphism with φ(G) is dense in H. If G is
amenable then H is amenable.
Proof. Let m denote a left invariant mean on Cb (G).
Dene a continuous homomorphism φ? : Cb (H) → Cb (G) by

?
φ (f )(g) = f (φ(g)), g ∈ G.
If we dene m̃ on Cb (H) by

h f, m̃ i = h φ? (f ), m i,
then it is easy to see that m̃ is left invariant mean on Cb (H).

Corollary 4.6. Let G be amenable, and let N be a closed normal
subgroup of G. Then G/N is amenable.
Proposition 4.7. Let H be a closed subgroup of G. Then there is a
Bruhat function for H. That is, there exists a function β : G → C
associated to H, called Bruhat function satisfying the following:
(1) β - is continuous and positive.
(2) For all compact set K, support of (β|KH ) is compact.
(3) For all g ∈ G,
R
β(gh) dh = 1.
H

Theorem 4.8. Let H be a closed subgroup of G. If G is amenable,

then H is also amenable.
Proof. If β denotes the Bruhat function associated to H, dene T :
Cb (H) → l∞ (G) by
Z
T φ(g) = β(g −1 h)φ(h) dmH (h), g ∈ G.
G
 21

We show that T Cb (H) into Cb (G) mapping

is a contraction from
the constant function 1H into 1G .
Let φ belongs to Cb (G). Then we rst show that T (φ) is a continuous
function on G.
Fix g0 ∈ G. If V is a compact neighbourhood V of g0 , then by con-
dition (2) of the preceding proposition, β|V H is uniformly continuous.
There exists a neighbourhood W of e such that

| β|V H (g) − β|V H (h)| < .

for all h in gW. In particular if g ∈ g0 W, then g ∈ V H and
 −1
β(g h) − β(g0−1 h) <
 
.
mH (support of (β|V H ))kφk∞
Now it can be seen that | T φ(g) − T φ(g0 ) |≤ . If m is a left invariant
mean on Cb (G), dene m̃ on Cb (H) by h φ, m̃ i = h T φ, m i. It is routine
to check that m̃ is left invariant mean.

Theorem 4.9. Let N be a closed normal subgroup such that both N
and G/N are amenable. Then G is amenable.
Proof. Let mN be the left invariant mean on Cb (N ). Dene T : Cb (G) →
Cb (G) by
T φ(g) = h ( g−1 φ)|N , mN i.
Then T (φ) is continuous, and kT φk∞ ≤ kφk∞ , mapping the constant
function 1G into itself. Use the left invariance of mN to conclude that
T φ(gh) = T φ(g), for all g in G, and h in H.
Therefore T φ induces a function say T fφ on G/N by

Tfφ(g̃) = T φ(g).
Now if m̃ is a left invariant mean on Cb (G/N ) then dene m on Cb (G)
by

h φ, m i = h Tfφ, m̃ i.
One can verify that m denes a left invariant mean on Cb (G).

For a detailed proof of these theorems, we refer to Greenleaf [8] and
Runde [16].

Remark 4.10. Any solvable group is solvable.

Since any abelian group is amenable, we infer by preceding theorem,
that Gd is amenable and so by Corollary 4.4, G is amenable.
Now let us give some examples which are not amenable.
22 V. MURUGANANDAM

Theorem 4.11 (Von-Neumann) . F2 is not amenable.

Proof. Suppose on the contrary that there exists a left invariant mean
m L∞ (G).
on
Let W (x) = {w ∈ F2 : w starts with x} . Then F2 = {e} ∪ W (a) ∪
W (a−1 ) ∪ W (b) ∪ W (b−1 ) and the union is disjoint.
−1 −1
If w belongs to F2 \ W (a), then a w belongs to W (a ). That is,
w belongs to aW (a−1 ). Therefore, F2 = W (a) ∪ aW (a−1 ). Similarly
F2 = W (b) ∪ bW (b−1 ).
Now, if χE denotes the characteristic function of a set E, then

1 = m(1)
= m({e}) + m(χW (a) ) + m(χW (a−1 ) ) + m(χW (b) ) + m(χW (b−1 ) )
≥ m(χW (a) ) + m(χaW (a−1 ) ) + m(χW (b) ) + m(χbW (b−1 ) )
= m(χW (a)∪aW (a−1 ) ) + m(χW (b)∪bW (b−1 ) )
= m(χF2 ) + m(χF2 ) = 2.

So, m cannot be a left invariant mean. That is, F2 is not amenable. 

Using Theorem 4.8 and the preceding theorem, we conclude that

Corollary 4.12. Any locally compact group that contains F2 as a closed

subgroup, is not amenable.
For instance, SL(2, R) is not
 amenable
 since the the closed subgroup
 
1 2 1 0
generated by elements a = and b = is isomorphic
0 1 2 1
with F2 .
Similarly we see that SL(n, R) is not amenable for all n > 2, be-
cause SL(n, R) contains SL(2, R) as closed subgroup. With the same
reason GL(n, R) is seen to be not amenable. In fact, any connected
noncompact semisimple Lie group is not amenable.
From the above we learn that a locally compact group containing
F2 is not amenable. It is worthwhile to know whether there exist dis-
crete groups which are non-amenable groups and do not contain F2 . We
wish to point out that the existence of such groups remained a funda-
mental open problem (sometimes called von Neumann problem) until
Olshanskii[12] established such groups in 1980. There exists another
class of innite discrete groups (à la Gromov) with Kazdhan property
T, (much stronger than non-amenability), yet not having any free sub-
group.
 23

5. Some characterizations of Amenable groups

Theorem 5.1. Let G be a locally compact group. Then the following
are equivalent:
(1) G is amenable.
(2) There exists a net {gi } in S(G) such that {h ∗ gi − gi } → 0 in
the weak? topology of (L∞ (G))? , ∀ h ∈ S(G).
(3) There exists a net {gi } in S(G) such that, lim kh ∗ gi − gi k1 =
i
0, ∀ h ∈ S(G).
(4) For given  > 0, for every compact set K, there exists g ∈ S(G)
such that kλ(x)g − gk1 < , ∀ x ∈ K.
Remark 5.2. Condition (iv) of the preceding theorem is called P1 -
property. More generally,

Denition 5.3. We say that a locally compact group G is said to have

the property Pp , 1 ≤ p < ∞ if the following holds.
For given  > 0, for every compact set K, there exists g ∈ Lp (G)
such that g is non-negative and kgkp = 1 satisfying

kλ(x)g − gkp < , ∀ x ∈ K.

Theorem 5.4. Let G be a locally compact group. Then G has property

P1 if and only if G has the property Pp , ∀ p such that 1 ≤ p < ∞.

See Reiter [14] and Runde [16] for the proofs of the theorems cited
above.

Theorem 5.5. G is amenable if and only if there is a net {fi } in the

unit sphere of L2 (G) such that {fi ∗ fei } converges to 1 uniformly on
compact subsets of G.
See Pederson [13, Proposition 7.3.8].
In fact we can say something more.

Theorem 5.6. Let G be a locally compact group. Then G has property

P2 if and only if there exists {fi } ⊆ Cc (G) such that kfi k2 = 1 and
fi ∗ f˜i → 1 uniformly on compact subsets of G.

Proof. Let K be a compact subset of G and let  > 0 be given. Choose

f ∈ Cc (G) be such that kf k2 = 1 and |(f ∗ f˜)(x) − 1| < 2 , ∀ x ∈ K.
24 V. MURUGANANDAM

Then we have (f ∗ f˜)(e) = 1. Furthermore,

λ(x)f − f 2 = h λ(x)f − f, λ(x)f − f i

2
 
= h λ(x)f, λ(x)f i + h f, f i − 2Re h λ(x)f, f i
= 2 − 2Re(f ∗ f˜(x))
= 2Re 1 − (f ∗ f˜)(x)

≤ 21 − (f ∗ f˜)(x) < .
 

If we take g = |f | then,

λ(x)g − g 2 = λ(x)f − f 2 < .

2 2
Therefore G has the property P2 .
Conversely, suppose G has the property P2 . Then for given  > 0, for
2
any compact set K, there exists f ∈ L (G) such that kλ(x)f − f k2 <

2
, f ≥ 0 and kf k2 = 1, ∀ x ∈ K. Since Cc (G) is dense in L2 (G), given
 > 0 there exists g ∈ Cc (G) with kgk2 = 1 such that kg − f k < 4 .
Therefore, for any x ∈ K, we have

|g ∗ g̃(x) − 1| ≤ |g ∗ g̃(x) − f ∗ f˜(x)| + |f ∗ f˜(x) − 1|

= g ∗ (g̃ − f˜)(x) + (g − f ) ∗ f˜(x)| + |f ∗ f˜(x) − 1|.


Therefore


|g ∗ g̃(x) − 1| ≤ kg − f k kgk + kf k + kλ(x)f − f k ≤ .
We deduce that there exists {g} in Cc (G) with kgk2 = 1 such that
g ∗ g̃ → 1 uniformly on compact subsets of G. Hence the theorem. 
G be a locally compact group. Then G is amenable if and only if
Let
there exists {fi } ⊆ Cc (G) such that kfi k2 = 1 and fi ∗ f˜i → 1 uniformly
on compact subsets of G. Let us recall an all time important theorem
in the representation theory of groups, namely, Godement's theorem.

Theorem 5.7 (Godement). Let φ be any square-integrable continuous

positive denite function on G. Then there exists a square-integrable
function ψ such that φ = ψ ∗ ψ.
e
Refer Dixmier [4, Theorem 13.8.6] for a proof and more details.

Theorem 5.8 (Hulanicki). Let G be a locally compact group. Then

the following are equivalent.
(1) G is amenable.
(2) Every irreducible unitary representation of G is weakly con-
tained in λ.
(3) The trivial representation G is weakly contained in λ.
 25

Proof. We shall rst show that (1) and (2) are equivalent. Suppose G
is amenable. Then there exists {fi } in Cc (G) such that kfi k = 1 and
fi ∗ f˜i → 1 in topology of uniform convergence on compact sets. That
is, if φi = fi ∗ f˜i then φi → 1 in topology of uniform convergence on
compact sets. Hence 1  λ, by (3) of Theorem 3.12.
Conversely, suppose that if 1  λ. Then by Theorem 3.12 and by
Theorem 5.5 we observe that G is amenable.
Now we shall show that (2) and (3) are equivalent. Of course one
has to show only that (3) implies (2). Let the trivial representation
is weakly contained in λ. By the above paragraph G is amenable.
Therefore by the preceding remark, there exists a net of positive def-
inite functions {ψi } in Cc (G), such that {ψi } → 1 in topology of uni-
formly convergence on compact sets. Let π ∈ Gb and φ = πξ,ξ . Then
{φψi } → φ and φψi belongs to Cc (G). By Godement's theorem, there
2
exists gi ∈ L (G) such that φψi = gi ∗ g̃. Thus gi ∗ g
˜i → φ in topology of
uniform convergence on compact sets. Hence by Theorem 3.12, again
we have that π is weakly contained in λ.

The preceding theorem is due to Hulaniki [9]. Finally,

Corollary 5.9. A group G is amenable if and only if C ? (G) ∼

= Cλ? (G).
Lemma 5.10. If {uα } is a bounded approximate identity in A(G).
Then {uα } → 1 uniformly on compact sets.
Proof. Recall that for every φ = πξ,ξ in B(G),
|φ(x)| = |h π(x)ξ, η i| ≤ kξk kηk.
Therefore
kφk∞ ≤ kφk.
Let K be a compact set. Since A(G) is regular, there exists φ ∈ A(G)
such that φ|K = 1. For every x ∈ K,
|uα (x) − 1| = |(uα .φ(x))(x) − φ(x)| ≤ kuα .φ − φkA(G) .
Hence {uα } → 1 uniformly on compact sets. 
Theorem 5.11 (Leptin). Let G be a locally compact group. If G is
amenable if and only if A(G) has a bounded approximate identity.
Proof. Let G be amenable. Then there exists {fi } ⊆ Cc (G) such that
kfi k2 = 1 and fi ∗ f˜i → 1 uniformly on compact subsets of G. Denote ψi
by fi ∗ f˜i . We claim that ψi is a bounded approximate identity in A(G).
Since Cc (G) ∩ P (G) spans a dense subsets of A(G) and kψi kA(G) ≤
26 V. MURUGANANDAM

kfi k2 kf˜i k2 = 1, it is sucient to show that lim kψi φ−φkA(G) = 0, ∀ φ ∈

i
Cc (G) ∩ P (G). Let φ ∈ Cc (G) ∩ P (G). Take χi = ψi φ. Then χi ∈ P (G).
2
For f ∈ Cc (G), we let ρ(f ) denote the bounded operator on L (G)
given by convolution

ρ(f )g = g ∗ f, f ∈ L2 (G).
By Godement's theorem, ρ(χi ), ρ(φ) are positive and there exists hi , h ∈
L2 (G) such that

χi = hi ∗ h̃i , φ = h ∗ h̃
and

ρ(χi )1/2 (f ) = f ∗ hi , ρ(φ)1/2 (f ) = f ∗ h, ∀ f ∈ Cc (G).

We shall show that lim khi −hk2 = 0. Let S = supp(φ). Then supp(χi ) ⊆
i
S. Since ψi → 1 uniformly on S, we have
lim kχi − φk∞ = 0. (5.1)
i

f ∈ Cc (G), let fy (x) = f (xy −1 ), x ∈ G. Then clearly, kfy k2 =

For any
1/2
∆(y) kf k2 . Therefore for any f ∈ Cc (G), we have

ρ(χi ) − ρ(φ) = f ∗ (χi − φ)
2
Z
χi (y) − φ(y) ∆(y)−1 fy dy


=

2
G
Z !
χi (y) − φ(y) ∆(y)−1/2 dy
 
≤ kf k2
G
Z !
∆(y)−1/2 dy

≤ χi − φ kf k2 .
∞
S

Therefore, by (5.1), we have lim ρ(χi ) − ρ(φ) = 0 and the num-
i √
ber c = sup kρ(χi )k is nite. By approximating the function t with
polynomials uniformly on the interval [0, c] we see that

lim ρ(χi )1/2 − ρ(φ)1/2 = 0.
i

Thus for every f ∈ Cc (G),

lim f ∗ (hi − h) 2 = lim ρ(χi )1/2 − ρ(φ)1/2 (f ) 2 = 0.
i i

Since f ? (x) = ∆(x)−1 f (x−1 ), x ∈ G, we have

limh hi − h, f ∗ g i = limh f ? ∗ (hi − h), g i = 0, ∀ f, g ∈ Cc (G).

i i
 27

Moreover,
Z Z
2 2
hi =
2
| hi (x)| dx = hi (x)hi (x)dx
G G
Z
= hi (x)h̃i (x−1 )dx = (hi ∗ h̃i )(e).
G

Since Cc (G) ∗ Cc (G) is dense in L2 (G) and sup khi k22 = sup χi (e) < ∞,
we have
limh hi , f i = h h, f i, f ∈ L2 (G).
i
Also lim khi k2 = lim χi (e) = φ(e) = khk2 . Therefore,
i i

lim khi − hk22 = 2khk22 − 2 lim Reh hi , h i = 0.

i i
Now,

ψi φ − φ = kχi − φkA(G)
A(G)

= hi ∗ h̃i − h ∗ h̃ A(G)

= hi ∗ (h̃i − h̃) + (hi − h) ∗ h̃kA(G)
≤ khi k2 khi − hk2 + khi − hk2 khk2
 
= khi − hk2 khi k2 + khk2 .

Therefore, lim ψi φ − φ = 0. Similarly we can get lim φψi −
i A(G) i

φ A(G)
= 0. Hence ψi is a bounded approximate identity in A(G) as
claimed.
Conversely, suppose that {uα } is a bounded approximate identity. We
?
claim that A(G) is weak dense in B(G). Let φ ∈ B(G). Consider
?
{φ.uα } is a bounded net in B(G). Any bounded set in B(G) is weak
compact. By Lemma 5.10, uα → 1 uniformly on compact sets. There-
?
fore φ.uα → φ. By Theorem 3.11, φ.uα → φ in weak topology. SinceA(G)
?
is dense in B(G), uα ∈ A(G). Therefore A(G) is weak dense in B(G).
Consider

A(G)+ = {φ ∈ A(G) : φ is positive denite}.

?
We show that A(G)+ is weak dense in B(G)+ = P (G). Since A(G)+
?
is a convex set, there exists T ∈ C (G) such that

h T, u i = 0, ∀ u ∈ A(G)+ .
As A(G) is weak? dense in B(G), T = 0.
?
Since (Cc (G) ∩ A(G))+ is dense in A(G)+ , (Cc (G) ∩ A(G))+ is weak
dense in B(G)+ . As 1 ∈ B(G), there exists φi ∈ Cc (G) ∩ A(G) and
28 V. MURUGANANDAM

?
bounded such that φi → 1 in weak topology. Therefore φi → 1 in
topology of uniform convergence on compact sets. By Godement's
theorem, there exists {fi } in L (G) such that φi = fi ∗ f˜i . Hence G is
2

amenable. This completes the proof of the Theorem 5.11.



The preceding theorem is due to Leptin [10]. But the proof given
here is adopted from what is given in Pederson [13]. See also Appendix
of De Canniere and Haagerup [3].

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10541055.
3. J. DeCannière and U. Haagerup, Multipliers of the Fourier algebra of some
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?
4. J. Dixmier, C -algebras, North-Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam, 1977.
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?
13. Gert K. Pederson, C -algebras and their automorphism groups, London Math.
Society Monographs, no. 14, Academic Press, London-New york, 1979.
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groups, second ed., Oxford University Press, Oxford New York, 2000.
15. W. Rudin, Fourier analysis on groups, Interscience, New York - London, 1962.
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Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 1938.
 29

Department of Mathematics, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry

605 014
E-mail address : vmuruganandam@gmail.com