Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2009-2010
Introduction
The structure of materials can be described on dimensional scales
1. The molecular level 2. Materials structural level 3. The engineering level
Smallest scale (atoms, molecules or aggregation of molecules) Realm of materials science Particle sizes: 10-7 10-3 mm Examples: crystal structure of metals, cellulose molecules in timber, calcium silicate hydrates in hardened cement paste, variety of polymers
o o
Atomic models used for description of the forms of physical structure (regular or disordered) Chemical and physical factors determine material properties o Chemical composition and/or the rate of chemical reactions determine material properties such as porosity, strength, durability, etc. Mathematical and geometrical models are employed to deduce the way materials behave
Examples: Entities within the Cells in timber material structure Grains in metals Concrete Deliberate mixing of Asphalt disparate parts Fiber composites Masonry - regular composition Concrete Asphalt
particles such as aggregates distributed in a matrix such as hydrated cement or bitumen
o Particle sizes : 5x10-3 mm (wood cell) - 225 mm (brick length) o Individual phases of the material can be recognized independently o More general information can be derived from examination of the individual phases of the material (Multiphase models allow prediction of material behavior)
c) Interfacial effects: Existence of interfaces between phases may introduce additional modes of behavior. (strength: failure of material being controlled by band strength at an interface)
Representative cell: minimum volume of the material that represents the entire material system Dimensions for cells: 10-3 mm for metals 100 mm for concrete 1000 mm for masonry Isotropic material: properties same for all directions unit cell is a cube Anisotropic material: properties change with dimensions unit cell is a parallel pipe Technical information on materials used in practice comes from tests on specimens of the total material Strength and failure tests Deformation tests Durability tests provide technical information used in practice
CONCRETE
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CONCRETE
A composite of mineral particles (aggregates) distributed in a matrix of hardened cement paste (mixture of powder cement and water at the beginning) Versatile, comparatively cheap and energy efficient Great importance for all types of construction throughout the world Concrete is fresh and plastic at the beginning (throughout some time after mixing of constituent materials) Final properties of the hardened state of concrete have been gained slowly through time Properties change with time 50-60 % of ultimate strength is developed in 7 days, 8085 % in 28 days Increases in strength have been found in 30 year old concrete
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History of concrete
History of concrete is very old Mixtures of lime, sand and gravels have been found in Eastern Europe, in Egypt and in Ancient Greek and Roman times This dates from about 5000 BC
Romans; first concrete with a hydraulic cement (lime + volcanic ash from near Pozzuoli) Active silica and alumina in ash reacts chemically with lime Similar materials still known as pozzolona
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In 1790, James Parker Patented Roman cement from calcareous clay burnt in a kiln and ground to a powder In 1824, Joseph Aspdin Patented portland cement an artificial mixture of lime and clay bearing materials used in repairs of Thames Tunnel in 1828 In 1890s improvement in kiln technology reduced the cost of Portland cement production. Then widespread production and use started worldwide
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20C
Drying
250C
650C
950C
1250C
1500C
Clinker
Fig. The processes taking place in a Portland cement kiln in the wet process
Burning or clinkering combination of oxides to produce calcium silicates, calcium aluminates and calcium aluminoferrites
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At 600C, CaCO3 in chalk decomposes to give quicklime (CaO) and gaseous CO2 Fusion reactions start at 1200C Calcium silicates, 2CaOSiO2 or 3CaOSiO2 Form as a result of these reactions Calcium aluminates, 3CaOAl2O3 Other oxides act as a flux Clinker particles (a few mm) emerge from kiln After cooling, 3-4% gypsum (CaSO42H2O) is added to clinker Mixture is ground to powder (2-80m size), (300m2/kg specific
surface)
www.cement.org/tech/cct_port_cem_prod_tech.asp
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Composition;
Principle oxides in cement CaO (lime):C SiO2 (silica): S Al2O3 (alumina): A Fe2O3 (iron oxide): F Four main compounds (phases) formed in fusion process: Tricalcium silicate: 3CaO.SiO2 (C3S) Dicalcium silicate: 2CaO.SiO2 (C2S) Tricalcium aluminate: 3CaOAl2O3 (C3A) Tetracalcium aluminoferrite: 4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3 (C4AF)
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Each cement grain consists of an intimate mixture of these compounds. Direct chemical analysis is not possible to determine the amounts. Instead BOGUE formulas are used that were calculated from the results of oxide analysis.
% C4 AF = 3.04 F
If A/F 0.64
C3 S = 4.07C 7.60S 4.48A 2.86F 2.85S
C2 S = 2.87S 0.754C3S
C2 F + C4 AF = 2.1A + 1.70F
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The approximate range of oxide composition that can be expected for Portland Cements
Compositions of Portland Cements Oxides (% by wt) CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 Na2O + K2O MgO Free CaO SO3 Range 60-67 17-25 3-8 0.5 6.0 0.2 1.3 0.1 4.0 02 13
3 to 1by wt. 75 80 % by wt.
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Principle oxides: CaO & SiO2 Principle oxides: C3S & C2S
Composition of cement depends on quality and proportions of raw materials (limestone and clay) Relatively small variations in oxide composition result in considerable changes in compound composition
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Typical Portland Cements Oxides (% by wt) CaO SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 Free CaO SO3 A 66 21 7 3 1 2 B 67 21 5 3 1 2 C 64 22 7 4 1 2 D 64 23 4 5 1 2
Potential compound composition (% by wt) C3S C2S C3A C4AF 48 24 13 9 65 11 8 9 31 40 12 12 42 34 2 15 Sulphate Resisting P.C
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Granle Yksek Frn Crufu Doal Puzolan Endstriyel Puzolan Silisli Uucu Kl
P Q V
Kireli Uucu Kl
T L
Silis Duman
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II
6-20 21-35
III IV V
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Table cont.
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Cl (%)
* CEM III/C %4.5e kadar SO3 ierebilir. t CEM III % 0.1in stnde Cl- ierebilir. Bu durumda Cl- miktar belirtilir.
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Hydration
(Cement + Water) paste mixture initially fluid Fluidity or consistency remains constant for an initial period after mixing Initial set (2-4 hours after mixing): Mix starts to stiffer, fluidity is lost at a faster rate Final set (max 10 hours after mixing): Mix is completely stiff, hardening and strength gain starts Rate of strength gain is fast for the first 1-2 days . It continues with a decreasing rate in time
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Hydration reactions are exothermic A: High but very short peak lasts only a few minutes Dormant period: cement is inactive (2-3 hours) B: Broad peak after final set C: Sharp peak (seldom) after one or two days
B C
Dormant period
0.1
1.0
10
100
Heat of Hydration
Rate of Heat Evolution
Final set hydrolysis C3S reacts
nucleation dissolution
III
IV
diffusion control
II
Initial set
Time
Rapid Heat Evolution Dormant Period Accelerating Stage Deceleration Stage Steady State Important for transportation Begins with initial set No longer workable
Vicat apparatus
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Hydration compounds involve all four main compounds simultaneously. Processes are extremely complex and not fully understood. Simplified description consider the chemical reactions of each of the compounds individually 1) Initial peak A is due to: Rehydration of calcium sulphate hemihydrate
2 C S 0 .5 H + 3 H 2 C S H
__ __ 2
(H = H2O)
2) Initial reaction of aluminate phases Very rapid reaction of C3A with water results in a flash set in a few minutes
C 3 A + 6 H C 3 AH 6
Retarding is provided by addition of gypsum which reacts with C3A to form calcium sulphoaluminate (ettringite)
C 3 A + 3C S H 2 + 26 H C 3 A3C S H 32
__
__
Relatively slow reaction. Gypsum added (3-4%) used up to after first 24 hours after mixing. Then C3A hydration reaction taken over and ettringite transform into monosulphate form ( C 3 ACS H 16 ). This occurs as peak C in cements with C3A>12%
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3) C4AF reacts similarly over same time scales Reaction products are similar to C3A products (has little effect on the overall cement behavior) 4) C3S and C2S react to form bulk of hydrated material after these initial reactions are completed. They are responsible for most of properties of hardened cement
2C 3 S + 6 H C 3 S 2 H 3 + 3CH
2C 2 S + 4 H C 3S 2 H 3 + CH
Most of the main peak B is due to this reaction (Reaction of C3S - slower)
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FLY ASH
(cured for 5 years)
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FLY ASH
(cured for 5 years)
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Fracture surface of 24 hour old cement paste, showing C-S-H and ettringite
aggregate
Transition zone Bulk cement paste
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Calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) is responsible for strength and other properties
Increasing temperature accelerates reactions of hydration. Reactions stop completely below -10C
Initial set
Mature paste
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C-S-H occupy about 75 % of volume of HCP C-S-H govern mechanical properties C-S-H structure: from poorly crystalline fibers to crumpled sheet-like network of colloidal scale Extremely high specific surface: 100-700 m2/g (~ 103 times higher than cement particles) Spaces between C-S-H particles: gel pores: ~ 0.5-5nm ~ 27 % of C-S-H weight Note: Dont confuse gel pores with capillary pores (on the average about 2 orders of magnitude larger)
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Gel occupies (including the pores) a space about 1.8 times that of unhydrated cement For too small a space, hydration stops when products grow to fill this space (complete hydration never occurs) For too large a space, 100% hydration doesnt fill the space (capillary pore) For hcp in water: at w/c = 0.38 100% hydration fills space completely and no capillaries form
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(a)
(b)
Composition of hydrated cement paste at the final stage of hydration after prolonged storage a) in water, b) sealed
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For sealed hcp, self-desiccation occurs at low w/c because of insufficiency of water, hydration stops before it is affected by lack of space for gel. Break-even point for w/c is 0.44. The curves show the final stage (100% hydration) which is rarely achieved. Therefore, hcp contains less cement gel and more unhydrated cement and capillaries than those shown in the figures Unhydrated cement, not detrimental to strength, results in self-healing property.
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Water vapour: in partially filled larger voids Capillary water:: in capillary pores; bulk water free from attractive forces of solid surfaces. In voids > 50nm (large capilleries) It is free water, and removal does not cause shrinkage In voids < 50nm (small capillaries) capillary tension forces dominate and removal of water may result in shrinkage Adsorbed water: On solid surfaces under influence of surface attractive forces up to 5 molecular layers (~ thickness of 1.3 nm) Lost on drying to 30% RH and this contributes mainly to shrinkage Interlayer water: In gel pores < 2.6nm under influence of two surfaces very strongly held. Lost on drying at elevated temperatures and/or to 10% of RH. Causes in considerable shrinkage (Van der Waals forces pull solid surfaces closer together) Chemically combined water: combined with fresh cement in hydration reactions. Not lost on drying. Heating to very high temperatures evolves this water through decomposition of paste.
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ADMIXTURES
Chemicals added immediately before or during mixing Significantly change fresh, early age or hardened properties to advantage Used in small quantities (1-2 % by wt of cement)
Plasticizers
workability
Workability aids; fluidity or workability of concrete at same w/c Water reducers; w/c and thus strength and durability at same
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1) 2)
Normal plasticizers; based on lignosulphonates or hydroxycarboxylic acids Superplasticizers; modified lignosulphonates or based on sulphonated melamine or naphtalene formaldehydes
Great increases in workability (flowing concrete) (segregation occurs if used with high doses of normal plasticizers or high water contents) Great decreases in w/c (down to 0.2 at normal fluidity) and thus very large increases in strength (high-strength or highperformance concrete)
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Plasticizers adsorbe on cement particle surfaces, giving slight negative charges to the surface and thus particles repel each other, breaking up any flocs and causing a better dispersion and wetting of particles This results in increased fluidity and slight increase in strength at same w/c ratio Plasticizers may cause retardation of setting time and also may entrain 1-2% air into concrete
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Accelerators Increased rate of hardening and enhanced early strength May allow early removal of formwork May reduce curing time for concrete placed in cold weather CaCl2 is a popular accelerator. It may cause increased creep and shrinkage Prohibited in R.C and P.S.C due to corrosion of steel in presence of chloride ions
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Typical effects of calcium chloride admixture on (a) setting times, and (b) early strength of concrete
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Retarders Delay setting time Counteracts accelerating effect of hot weather (especially for long transportation distances) Avoids cold joints and discontinuities by controlling setting in large pours Sucrase and citric acid and calcium lignosulphonate are examples
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Air entrainment is done for providing freeze-thaw resistance to concrete In winter time, water in capillary pores expands on freezing resulting in disruptive internal stresses. Successive cycles of freezing and thawing may lead to progressive deterioration. Entrained air, uniformly dispersed in hcp with a spacing factor of not more than 0.2mm, provide a reservoir for water to expand Entrained air volumes of 4-7% by vol. of concrete is required to provide effective protection.
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Secondary effects Increase in workability due to lubricating affect of small air bubbles About 6% decrease in strength for each 1% of air. However, improvement in workability may allow to partially offset the loss in strength by reducing water content and thus w/c ratios
Air bubble
hydrophilic
Organic substances reduce surface tension of water and bubbles form during mixing Long chain molecules have hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends They align themselves radially on surface of air bubble with hydrophilic ends in water and hydrophobic ends in air. Thus they provide air stability
hydrophobic
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Pozzolanic behavior A pozzolanic material is one which contains active silica (SiO2) and is not cementitious in itself but will, in a finely divided form and in presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form cementitious compounds Pozzolanic reaction (Secondary reaction) S + CH + H C - S - H
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4. 5. 6.
Dictionary definitions: Pulverize; to reduce to dust or powder, as by pounding or grinding Smelt ; to melt or fuse (ores) in order to separate the metallic constituents. Husk; the dry external covering of certain fruits or seeds
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High lime fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag are not true pozzolanas. They have certain self-cementing due to high CaO content. They may be used at high substitution rates (up to 90%) Low lime fly ash is used at most 40% replacement Silica fume is used at most 25% replacement (needs superplasticizer to maintain workability) Particles of artificial pozzolanas are smooth surfaced and spherical (Thus they improve workability)
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Compressive Strength (N/mm2)
100% P.C
Age (days)
Pozzolanic reaction and then early strength development is slow With silica fume, delay is much less due to high surface area and active silica content At later ages concretes with cement replacement materials exceed strength of Portland cement only concretes Slower pozzolanic reaction reduces porosity Pozzolanic reaction enhances transition zone between aggregate and cement paste
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Aggregates
Disadvantages of hardened cement paste (hcp); 1. Dimensional instability (high creep and shrinkage) 2. High cost Remedy to disadvantages; Put aggregates into cement paste Produce concrete Aggregates occupy about 70-80% of total concrete volume
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Objective; Use as much aggregate as possible Use largest possible aggregate size Use a continuous grading of particle sizes from sand to coarse stones Thus; Void content of aggregate mixture Amount of hcp required Coarse agg. Minimized Fine agg.
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Types of aggregates
1. According to origin 2. Accroding to size 3. According to density or specific gravity 1. According to origin; a) Natural aggregates from natural sand and gravel deposits and crushed rocks b) Specifically manufactured aggregates such as fly ash pellets, granulated blast furnace slag 2. According to size; a) Fine aggregate; Particle size from 0 to 4 mm Ex; natural sand and crushed sand b) Coarse aggregate; Particle size from 4 to 16 or 32 mm Ex; gravel, crushed limestone
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3. According to density or specific gravity; a) Normal density aggregates; natural aggregates, Examples; gravels, igneous rocks (basalt, granite), sedimentary rocks (limestone, sandstone) Mineral composition is not that important Specific gravities; 2.55 2.75 gr/cm3 Concrete density; 2250 - 2450 kg/m3 Gravels from deposits in river valleys or shallow coastal waters are directly used after washing and grading, particles are round Bulk rock sources (granite, basalt, limestone) require crushing giving angular and sharp particles
Dictionary definitions: Igneous; produced under conditions involving intense heat, as rocks of volcanic origin or rocks crystallized from molten magma Sediment; mineral or organic matter deposited by water, air, or ice. 74
b) Lightweight aggregates; pumice (a naturally occurring volcanic rock), artificial lightweight aggregates (sintered fly ash, expanded clay or shale, foamed slag) To produce lower density concretes (less than 2000 kg/m3) advantages; reduced self-weight, better thermal insulation Reduced specific gravity (less than 2.0 gr/cm3) due to voids in particles Reduced strength of concrete due to increased porosity c) Heavyweight aggregates; minerals like barytes to barium sulphate ore and steel shots To produce high density concrete (3500 to 4500 kg/m3) (For nuclear radiation shielding)
Dictionary definition: Sintering; to form a coherent mass by heating without melting. Barytes; a white or colorless mineral (BaSO4); the main source of barium Ore; a mineral or natural product serving as a source of some nonmetallic substance
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Properties of aggregates
Grading or particle size distribution (Why do we need that?) Overall objective
To calculate suitable grading for good workability and stability (continuous grading low void content)
How much sand? How much crushed stone?
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Aggregate samples dried, weighed and passed through a stack of the sieves Sieve sizes in mm (0.25, 0.50, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 31.5) Weight of aggregate retained on each sieve measured and converted to percentage retained and then to cumulative Then plotted against the sieve size to obtain grading curve
0.25
0.5
16
31.5
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Grading curves
Standards for aggregate define limits inside which the grading curves for coarse and fine aggregate must fall
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
0.25
0.5
16
31.5
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C16
A32 100 62 38 23 14 8 2
C32 100 89 77 65 53 42 15
100 88 74 62 49 18
A63 100 61 46 30 19 11 6 2
C63 100 90 80 70 59 49 39 14
4.00 Freeze and Thaw (DIN 4226) Organic Impurities: The aggregate may give yellow or lighter color in a 3% solution of, NaOH, but not dark colors
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Example problem
Determine mix proportions of sand and crushed stone such that fineness modulu of mixture will be 4.30.
Sieve size (mm) Material Passed (%) Sand (%) Crushed stone (%)
0.25 0.50 18 0 23 0
1 28 0
2 48 0
4 60 5
8 90 40
16 100 60
Fineness modulus; Sum of the cumulative percentages retained on the sieves of the standard series Fineness modulus coarser material
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Sieve size (mm) 0.25 Material Passed (%) Sand (0.63) 11.3 Crushed stone (0.37) 0 Mixture 11
0.50 14.5 0 15
1 17.6 0 18
2 30.2 0 30
4 37.8 1.9 40
8 56.7 14.8 72
16 63 22.2 85
31.5 63 37 100
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0.25
0.5
16
31.5
83
0.25
0.5
16
31.5
84
0.25
0.5
16
31.5
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Pi1 a + Pi 2 b + Pi 3 c = Pi m
Can be extended to as many equation as number of size fractions which provides full conformity to the desired grading curve
di di +4 Pi = 20 D Dmax max
Fuller parabola
where; Pi = % passing from ith sieve di = opening size of ith sieve Dmax= Max particle size (sieve size through which 100% of aggregate passes)
di Pi = 100 Di
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Saturated surface dry Saturated or wet excess water All pores full but no excess water Possible only in lab. conditions No absorbtion and no addition Field conditions Add to mix water in fresh concrete
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Amount of water available for cement hydration, i.e. non-absorbed or free water is of prime importance Therefore, to ensure the required free water/cement ratio, it is necessary to allow for the aggregate moisture condition When calculating the amount of mix water;
If aggregate is drier than SSD, extra water must be added If it is wetter, then less mix water is required
2) Elastic properties and strength Elastic properties of aggregates have major influence on elastic properties of concrete Strength of normal weight aggregates are higher than hcp and do not have major influence on strength of normal strength concrete In high-strength concrete (greater than 70-80 MPa), strength of aggregates and effect of transition zone between aggregate and hcp become seriously important
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3) Surface characteristics Surface texture have greater influence on the flexural strength than on the compressive strength of the concrete (rougher texture results in a better adhesion) Surface cleanliness is also important for adhesion (surface should be kept clear of the materials such as mud, clay etc.) Better adhesion stronger interface between aggregate and hcp Stronger interface zone higher mechanical performance
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Main properties of fresh concrete during mixing, transporting, placing and compacting
Fluidity or consistency: capability of being handled and of flowing into formwork and around any reinforcement, with assistance of compacting equipment Compactability: air entrapped during mixing and handling should be easily removed by compaction equipment, such as poker vibrators Stability or cohesiveness: fresh concrete should remain homogenous and uniform. No segregation of cement paste from aggregates (especially coarse ones)
Fluidity & compactability known as workability Higher workability concretes are easier to place and handle but obtaining higher workability by increasing water content decreases strength and durability
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Compaction of concrete
Finishing of concrete
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Fill concrete into frustum of Hand tap concrete a steel cone in three layers In each layer
True
Shear
Collapse
Recommended method of compaction Mechanical compaction like vibration Mechanical or hand compaction (rodding, tampering) Hand compaction or no compaction No compaction
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2. Mini-slump test
Used for workability testing of cement pastes Mini slump cone is a small version of slump cone The cone is placed in the center of a piece of glass, paste is cast into cone and then the cone is lifted to measure the average spread of paste.
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Lower hopper
approx. 1m
Cylinder
Compacting factor =
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4. Vebe test
1. A slump test is performed in a container 2. A clear perspex disc, free to move vertically, is lowered onto the concrete surface 3. Vibration at a standard rate is applied Vebe time is defined as the time taken to complete covering of the underside of the disc with concretecontainer
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Some degree of correlation between the results exist, however the correlation is quite broad since each tests measures the response to different conditions
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BLEEDING A layer of water (~ 2 % or more of total depth of concrete) accumulates on surface, later this water evaporates or re-absorbed into concrete
Surface laitance
Other effects of bleeding; Surface laitance; water rich concrete layer hydrating to a weak structure (not good for floor slabs that need to have hard wearing surface) Water-rich pockets; upward migrating water can be trapped under coarser aggregate particles causing loss of strength and local weakening in transition zone
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2. Plastic settlement Cracks Horizontal reinforcing bars may put restraint to overall settlement of concrete Then plastic settlement cracking can occur Vertical cracks form along line of the bars, penetrating from surface to bars Plan Reinforcing bars
Section
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3. Plastic shrinkage
On an unprotected surface, bleed water evaporates. If rate of evaporation > rate of bleeding, then surface dries (water content reduces on surface) and plastic shrinkage (drying shrinkage in fresh concrete) will occur Restraint of walls of concrete causes tensile strains in near surface region Fresh concrete has almost zero tensile strength, thus, plastic shrinkage cracking results cracking is in fairly regular crazing form Plastic shrinkage cracking will be increased by greater evaporation rates of the surface water which occurs, i.e. with higher concrete or ambient temperatures, or if the concrete is exposed to wind
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CAUSES OF BLEEDNG
REMEDIES
Poorly graded aggregate with a lack of fine material with particle size < 300m
1. ncrease sand content 2. Air entrain concrete as substitute for fine materials
Provide high workability with superplasticizers rather than high water contents
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Apply good curing that stops moisture loss from surface as soon as after placing is possible and for first few days of hardening
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B) Curing
Curing; proctection of concrete from moisture loss from as soon after placing as possible, and for the first few days of hardening
Curing methods
Spraying or ponding surface of concrete with water Protecting exposed surfaces from wind and sun by windbreaks and sunshades Covering surfaces with wet hessian and/or polythene sheets Applying a curing membrane, a spray-applied resin seal, to the exposed surface to prevent moisture loss
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Maturity = t. (T + 10)
T= -10 C is datum line At T= -10 C, hydration reactions stop, no maturity developed t (hours), T (C ) Useful in estimating strength of concrete in a structure from strength of laboratory samples cured at different temperatures
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DEFORMATION OF CONCRETE
Causes of deformation of concrete 1) Environmental effects e.g. moisture movement and heat 2) Applied stresses e.g. short and long term
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Strain (contraction)
Creep strain
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I before t1 net contraction in volume known as shrinkage due to drying, t1 stress is applied and held constant, t2 stress is removed (without stress it follows dotted extension beyond t1,difference between solid and dotted curves shows effect of loading) II on loading immediate strain response (proportional to stress for low stress level) III Compressive strain increases at a decreasing rate, this increase, after allowing for shrinkage represents creep strain IV Upon unloading, immediate strain recovery is less than immediate strain on loading. V Time-dependent creep recovery
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1) Drying shrinkage
Loss of capillary water, adsorbed water and interlayer water results in a net volumetric contraction called shrinkage Shrinkage is expressed as a linear strain through determination of length change
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swelling
drying
reversible shrinkage
Time
Maximum shrinkage occurs on first drying, considerable part of this is irreversible There is a continuous but small swelling of the hcp on continuous immersion in water As the strength of the hcp increases less shrinkage and swelling Low w/c; high degree of hydration; age - decreases porosity - increases strength - decreases shrinkage
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Free water surfaces in capillary pores will be in surface tension and upon drying due to drop in ambient vapor pressure free surface becomes more concave and surface tension increases
Kelvins equation
p0, (r = ) p, r
2T P ln( ) = R r P0
P0: vapor pressure over a plane surface T : surface tension of liquid R : gas constant : absolute temperature : density of the liquid r : the radius of curvature
p1, r = d/2
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p0, (r = ) p, r
Tension within water near meniscus = 2T/r which must be balanced by compressive stresses in surrounding solid. If evaporation compressive stresses shrinkage Exposing hcp to a steadily decreasing vapor pressure, pores gradually empty starting with the widest first Higher w/c pastes will shrink more
p1, r = d/2
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3) Disjoining pressure
Adsorbed water layer Capillary water
Capillary tension
Water inside gel pores is under influence of surface forces 5 molecules (1.3nm) thick adsorbed water forms on solid surface at saturation which is under pressure from the surface attractive forces. In regions narrower than twice this thickness (~ 2.6nm) interlayer water will be in hindered adsorption resulting in development of swelling or disjoining pressure which is balanced by tension in interparticle bond On drying, thickness of adsorbed water layer drops and reduces disjoining pressure. This results in an overall shrinkage
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Opinion is divided on the relative importance of the above mechanisms and their relative contribution to the total shrinkage
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Aggregate dimensionally stable Aggregates put restraint to shrinkage deformation of hcp in concrete Degree of restraint depends on; aggregate volume concentration modulus of elasticity of aggregate In hcp; unhydrated cement grains also act as a restraint
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Influence of aggregate content in concrete on the ratio of the shrinkage of concrete to that of neat cement paste
Normal concretes have a shrinkage of 10-30 % of that of neat paste
Shrinkage ratio
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Normal density aggregates have higher stiffness (higher E modulus) They give more restraint to concrete Lightweight aggregate concretes tend to have higher shrinkage
Lightweight concrete
Normal-weight concrete
c = p (1 g ) n
sh sh
n=
= 1. 2 1. 7
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2) Autogenous shrinkage
Continued hydration with an adequate supply leads to slight swelling of cement paste Conversely, with no moisture movement to or from the cement paste, self desiccation leads to removal of water from the capillary pores and Its magnitude is an order of magnitude less than that of drying shrinkage More pronounced in concretes with low water-to-cement ratios
autogenous shrinkage
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3) Carbonation shrinkage
Carbonation shrinkage is not a result of loss of water, its cause is chemical
Explanation; Ca(OH)2 is dissolved from stressed region resulting in shrinkage CaCO3 crystallizes in pores reducing permeability and increasing strength Max carbonation at 25-50 % RH If saturated, H2CO3 can not penetrate concrete If dry H2CO3 can not form
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Thermal Expansion
Cement paste and concrete expand on heating
Thermal expansion coefficient is needed in two main situations; 1. To calculate stresses due to thermal gradients arising from heat of hydration 2. To calculate overall dimensional changes in structures
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Stress-strain behavior
Elasticity; hcp has a near linear compressive stress-strain relationship, modulus of elasticity can be determined from stressstrain data
E p = E g (1 - p c )3
E p = modulus of elasticity of paste E g = modulus of elasticity when Pc = 0
(represents the modulus of elasticity of the gel)
pc = capillary porosity
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30
20
Age (days) 60 28 14 7 3
10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
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Hansens models;
Model I
Matrix Aggregate
Matrix (hcp) and distributed phase (aggregates) arranged parallel with direction of loading. Phases undergo same strain Known as; Parallel-phase model Equal strain model
Strain compatibility; c = a = p Equilibrium; Total force = force on each phase Expressed in terms of stresses and area .1= a.Va + p.(1-Va)
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c = c Ec
a = a Ea
p = p Ep
c E c = a E aVa + p E p (1 Va )
E c = E aVa + E p (1 Va )
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Model II
Matrix (hcp) and distributed phase (aggregates) arranged in series with direction of loading Phases are subjected to same stress g Known as; Series - phase model Equal stress model
c =
Equilibrium;
a
Strains; Total displacement = displacements in each of the phases expressed in terms of strain c = a.Va + p. (1-Va)
Substituting from constitutive and equilibrium equations and rearranging gives
1 Va (1 Va ) = + Ec E a Ep
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Countos model;
Aggregate set within hcp complying with volume requirements Greater resemblance to concrete Combination of Hansens two models
(1 Va ) Va 1 = + Ec Ep Ea Va + E p (1 Va )
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The effect of volume concentration of aggregate on elastic modulus of concrete calculated from simple two-phase models
All paste
All aggregate
Ec Model A C B Ep 0 0.5
Ea
Models A & B give upper and lower boundaries to concrete modulus of elasticity. Model C gives intermediate values.
1.0
137
Prediction of elastic modulus of concrete (Ec) from the modulus of the cement paste (Ep) and the aggregate (Ea) for 50 % volume concentration of aggregate
5 4 3 2
Model A C
Ec/Ep
B
1
Ea/Ep
10
138
Stress, N/m2
30 20 10
Stress-strain behavior of both aggregates and cement paste is substantially linear almost up to maximum Composite concrete with intermediate stiffness is markedly non-linear
1000
2000
3000
Strain (s) Stress-strain relationships for cement paste, aggregates and concrete typical behavior of hcp, aggregate and concrete
139
Unloading/loading cycles show substantial ,but diminishing hysteresis loops. Explanation lies in contribution of microcracking to overall concrete strains Transition zone is a region of weakness and ever before loading some microcracks occur in this zone. Bleeding, drying and thermal shrinkage determine the number and width of these cracks. As stress level increases, these cracks increase in number, length and width, causing progressively increasing nonlinear behavior
Stress
Strain
Stress-strain relationships for cement paste, aggregates and concrete typical short term behavior of concrete
140
Different definitions for elastic modulus, -A: slope of tangent to the curve at any point (tangent modulus) -B: initial tangent modulus -C: slope of the line between the origin and a point on the curve (Secant modulus) According to the testing method, - static modulus of elasticity - dynamic modulus of elasticity
Strain
141
Static modulus of elasticity: secant modulus is calculated from readings of strain at a stress at 40% of ultimate strength. Cylindrical or prismatic specimens are used and loaded longitudinally with a static load Dynamic modulus of elasticity: dynamic test is applied to a prismatic specimen and dynamic elastic modulus is calculated as 2 2 n: fundamental resonant frequency d l: length of specimen
E = 4n l
: density of concrete
Dynamic modulus of elasticity approximates to the initial tangent modulus (line B). It is higher than secant modulus
142
Modulus of elasticity increases with age and decreasing w/c. Thus, increasing compressive strength of concrete results in increased modulus of elasticity
Ed = 31 + 0.16 f cu Ec = 20 + 0.2 f cu
f cu ( MPa),
E (GPa)
Ed= dynamic modulus of elasticity Ec= static modulus of elasticity fcu= ultimate compressive strength (28 day strength)
143
Poissons ratio
for water-saturated cement paste, 0.25 0.30 on drying it reduces to 0.2 is largely is dependent of w/c, age and strength Anson proposed the relation;
c = p (1 Va )
for
p = 0.22, n = 0.42
144
Creep
Magnitude of creep strains is as great or greater than elastic strains on loading. Therefore, they have a significant influence on structural behavior Creep and shrinkage are interdependent, creep is higher while the concrete is simultaneously drying
145
Strain
sh
bc: basic creep under loading with no bc dc: drying creep under loading and
(b)
dc (drying creep) bc sh
Time
cr
Total strain
(c)
146
147
Mechanisms of creep
1) Moisture diffusion: applied stress changes internal stresses and upsets the thermodynamic equilibrium in hcp. Moisture then moves from smaller to larger pores, resulting a. Pressure drop in capillary pores b. Adsorbed water gradually moving from zones of hindered adsorption c. Interlayer water diffusing slowly out of the gel pores Structural adjustment: stress concentrations in hcp may cause consolidation due to a. Viscous flow with adjacent particles sliding past each other b. Local bond breakage followed by reconnection nearby Microcracking: defects and cracks existing in concrete before loading propagate and form new cracks and this contributes to creep strains Delayed elastic strain: active creeping component (water in capillary or gel pores) act parallel with elastically deforming component (unhydrated cement particles, gel particles, calcium hydroxide crystalls) Load will be transferred to inert material which then deforms elastically
2)
3) 4)
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Overall Outline
Introduction Concrete Bituminous materials Masonry Polymers and polymer composites Cement-based fiber composites Metals Timber
149
Chapter Outline
CONCRETE Cement Admixtures Aggregates Strength and failure of concrete Durability of concrete Statistical quality control in the production of concrete Property composition relations for concrete and concrete mix design
150
2)
3)
Effect of age Effect of humidity Effect of aggregate properties, size and volume concentration Cracking and fracture in concrete
151
Also, strength is related to: elastic modulus, durability (permeability) Different types of loading in structures result in different modes of failure Relevant strengths: Compressive, tensile, torsional (shear), fatigue, impact, strength under multiaxial loading
http://www.ame-geolab.com/CRIB%20MATERIAL%20PHOTOGRAPHS%20testing%20013.jpg
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1. Strength tests
a) Compressive strength test: Cubes (100x100x100 mm or 150x150x150 mm) Cylinder: (D= 100mm, H= 200mm or D=150mm, H= 300mm) Steel moulds are used, concrete compacted top surface smoothed
Steel Platens
1. Cubes or cylinder are placed between steel platens of loading machine 2. Load is increased to its ultimate value in a few minutes
- Cubes are loaded on two parallel smooth steel moulded surfaces - Cylinders are loaded on top and bottom surfaces. Top surface is a trowelled surface. Therefore it must be capped either with plaster paste or with molten sulfur
153
Cube (H/D=1) Cylinder (H/D=2) Cracking parallel to loads away from ends
Cracking pattern of cubes and cylinders show that CUBES are not in uniaxial loading This is due to end restraint because of friction between loading platens and concrete surface. This induces lateral tensile stress in both platen and concrete due to Poisson effect. Concrete is in a triaxial stress state with consequent higher strength compared to uniaxial stress case IN CYLINDERS, there is a centre portion not affected from end restraint. Thus, this central zone is in uniaxial stress state. Therefore,
154
1.8 1.6
Slenderness ratio (h/d) affects strength Avoid h/d < 1 for test specimens h/d = 1 for cubes, h/d = 2 for cylinders
Height
1.0 0.8 0
Height/diameter ratio
General relationship between height/diameter ration and compressive strength of a concrete cylinder, (Gonnerman, 1925) 155
b. Tensile tests
Tensile behavior of concrete can be evaluated by; i. Direct tension test ii. Flexural test iii. Splitting tensile test
i. Direct tension test Results are not very dependable (due to eccentric loading and failure at grips) not very much used
fd = P/A
fb
+
Stress distribution
PL Modulus of rupture = f b = bd 2
Load is applied at third points Failure occurs when flexural tensile crack at bottom of beam propagates upwards throughout beam Modulus of rupture > direct tensile strength
157
fs =
2P dl
Stress distribution
Cylinder specimen (150mm, height 300mm) Placed on its side in a compression testing machine and loaded across its vertical diameter Stress distribution on a plane of vertical diameter is a near uniform tension Failure occurs by split or crack along this plane
For the same compressive strength: Modulus of rupture > cylinder splitting >
direct tension
158
8 6 4 2
Direct tension Modulus of rupture Cylinder splitting
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
159
2)
3)
Effect of age Effect of humidity Effect of aggregate properties, size and volume concentration Cracking and fracture in concrete
160
hcp Aggregate
Transition zone (~50m wide) is the weakest phase, cracking and failure initiate in this zone Due to drying shrinkage, cracks are present before loading As loading increases in compression or tension, cracks in this zone start propagating into hcp, resulting in paths through concrete
b) Water/cement ratio: Strength of concrete depends on; Strength of hcp Strength of aggregates Strength of transition zone Strength of hcp is governed by Porosity (indirectly depending on w/c) degree of hydration Strength of transition zone is dependent on; w/c
162
Abrams; f c =
k1 k2W / C
when w/c (by wt) k1 & k2 empirical constants depending on age, curing regime, type of cement, entrained air, test method, aggregate type and size where fcc = compressive strength of cement KG = empirical constant related to testing condition KG = 4-8, average = 6
Graf;
f cc fc = KG (W / C ) 2
163
Feret;
c fc = K F ( )2 c+w+v
when c, w, v volumes of cement, water, and air voids in 1cm3 of concrete KF = empirical constant depending on age, type and amount of cement KF = 80 300 MPa for 7 days strength KF = 150 MPa for 28 days strength KF = 180 MPa
Bolomey;
C fc = K B ( k `) W +v
where c, w weights of cement and water v volume of air voids KB = empirical constant depending on age, type and amount of cement KB = 7 35 MPa for 7 days strength KB = 15 MPa for 28 days strength KB = 19 MPa k`=0.5
164
Mix design methods use one of these formulas or curves or tables based on these equations to estimate w/c required for a given strength To achieve a homogenous, cohesive concrete without significant segregation w/c < 1 0.4 < w/c < 0.7 produce concretes of normal to medium strength (20-50 MPa) w/c 0.20 0.30 high or very high strength concretes are produced (70 - 150 MPa) By using superplasticizer to achieve adequate workability By incorporating silica fume at 5-10 % cement replacement to improve properties of transition zone while also increasing strength of cement paste to a limited degree By selecting aggregate having high inherent strength and good bond characteristics With this approach, at w/c 0.26, compressive strengths > 130 MPa are achieved and placed with conventional mixing, transporting and compaction methods, but with extreme care given to high standards of site practice and supervision and quality control
165
c) Effect of age
Hydration reaction continues in time with decreasing rate Thus even after years, in presence of moisture, there will be some strength increase
d) Effect of humidity
Curing in water results in higher strength compared to air curing Moisture all through the life of concrete provides higher strengths
166
167
Stress strain behavior of concrete under compressive loading: a) from Glucklich (1965); b) From Newman (1966).
168
2)
3)
Effect of age Effect of humidity Effect of aggregate properties, size and volume concentration Cracking and fracture in concrete
169
Stage 1: Below 30% of ultimate load transition zone cracks remain stable, stress-strain curve is approximately linear Stage 2: Between 30-50% of ultimate load. Cracks increase in length, width and number. However, they still remain stable, nonlinearity is observed. Stage 3: Above 50% of ultimate load, cracks start to spread into matrix, towards 75% of ultimate load, cracks become unstable and curve further deviates from linearity Stage 4: Unstable crack growth and propagation is frequent, leading to high strains. Transverse strains start increasing faster than longitudinal strains resulting in an overall increase in volume
170
Coarse aggregate
hcp
Stress
Mortar
Concrete
Strain
Typical stress-strain characteristics of aggregate, hardened cement paste, mortar and concrete under compressive loading
171
Chapter Outline
CONCRETE Cement Admixtures Aggregates Strength and failure of concrete Durability of concrete Statistical quality control in the production of concrete Property composition relations for concrete and concrete mix design
172
173
Durability of concrete
Durability: ability of a material to remain serviceable for at least the required lifetime of the structure Concrete is not inherently of high durability Degradation of concrete arises from;
Environment to which concrete is exposed Internal causes within concrete
Most important factor is the rate at which moisture, air or other aggressive agents can penetrate the concrete
174
Hcp and concrete contains pores of varying types and sizes. Rate of flow (permeability) depends on not only porosity but the degree of continuity of pores and their size
175
with increasing humidity; adsorption is completed. Flow is taking place through the pore as a direct vapor movement due to pressure gradient
Vapour flow
Liquid flow
Adsorbed phase
176
At humidity sufficient for water condensation: vapor flow is enclosed through a shorter path
At increasing humidity: condensed water zone extend and flow is augmented by transfer in adsorbed layer
177
At increasing humidity: liquid flow under pressure gradient in incompletely saturated state
Finally at high humidities: liquid flow under pressure gradient in completely saturated state
178
Flow processes
Movement of a fluid under a pressure differential i.e. permeation Movement of ions, atoms or molecules under a concentration gradient, i.e. diffusion Capillary attraction of a liquid into empty or partially empty pores, i.e. sorption
179
Flow processes
1) Flow or movement of a fluid under a pressure differential
Darcys law
h ux = K x h x
180
2) Movement of ions, atoms or molecules under concentration gradient, process of diffusion governed by Ficks law
c P = D x
For flow in x direction, P = transfer rate of substance per unit area normal to x-direction
c = concentration gradient x
D=diffusivity (m2/sec)
181
3) Adsorption and absorption of a liquid into empty or partially empty pores by capillary attraction
x = St 1 / 2
where, x = depth of penetration S= sorptivity (mm/sec1/2) t = time (sec)
182
Primary transport mechanisms in the various exposure zones of a concrete offshore structure
Primary transport mechanisms Gas diffusion Water vapour diffusion Water vapour diffusion ionic diffusion Water vapour diffusion Water absorption ionic diffusion
Submerged
183
10-6
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 10 20 30 40
Coefficient of permeability
10-8
10-10
10-12 0 10 20 30
Age (days) The effect of hydration on the permeability of cement paste (w/c =0.7)
Capillary porosity (%) The relationship between permeability and capillary porosity of hardened cement paste 184
0.3
The relationship between permeability and water/cement ratio of mature cement paste (% 93 hydrated)
185
Degradation of Concrete
1) Durability against freezing and thawing (important in cold climates)
Damage occurs due to;
freezing and thawing cycles of water in capillary pores and entrapped air voids of the cement paste water in the pores of aggregates may also freeze and affect the durability of concrete against frost action water in the gel pores is adsorbed on CSH surfaces and does not freeze until temperature drops to about -78 C. After capillary water has frozen, it posses a lower thermodynamic energy than still-liquid gel water, which therefore tends to migrate to supplement capillary water and thus increase disruption
Water cement ratio is a controlling factor of durability of concrete against freezing and thawing cycles because its magnitude determines the amount and size of the capillary pores in the cement paste. For this reason, water-cement ratio is limited in specifications for durability of concrete against frost action
186
187
Air-entrainment into concrete increases the durability of concrete against freezing and thawing. Optimum percentage of air-entrainment is about 4-6 % by volume. Air entrainment is achieved through some chemical admixtures and thus use of air-entraining admixtures has been a rule for concretes subjected to severe climatic action Freezing of the water in the pores of the aggregates may also damage concrete via damaging aggregate particles. Durability of aggregate against frost action depends upon its pore characteristics and saturation degree. Indirect or direct tests of freezing and thawing are used to measure durability of aggregates
188
4000
0.4
0.8
The effect of air entrainment and water/cement ratio on the frost resistance of concrete moist-cured for 28 days (US Bureau of Reclamation, 1955) 189
Concrete should be tested for durability against frost action Prismatic specimens are subjected to 300 cycles of freezing at -17 C and thawing at + 4 C, a cycle completed in 4 hours. Specimens are tested non-destructively from time to time by measuring dynamic modulus of elasticity through resonance frequency testing. Decrease in Ed with respect to control concrete indicates the degree of durability against frost action
190
191
192
Reactions of other forms of sulphates can occur with CH in hcp forming gypsum again with an increase in volume;
C3A content Higher cement content and lower water-cement ratio. WHY?? Cement replacement materials decreases permeability and improves resistance to sulphates
194
195
196
197
198
On the other hand, aluminous cement is very profitable for refractory concrete
199
http://cce.oregonstate.edu/structural/images/corrosion_1.JPG
200
Fe++
2OH1/2O2 H2O
Metal
Fe
Anodic area
2e-
Cathodic area
Anode reaction; 2Fe 2Fe++ +4eCathode reaction; 4e + O2 + 2H2O 4OH at some distance from surface 2Fe++ + 4OH - 2Fe (OH)2 (Ferrous hydroxide (black rust)) Followed by 4Fe(OH)2 + O2 2Fe2O3H2O + H2O (Ferric hydroxide (red rust))
201
Electrolyte is the pore water in contact with steel Normally highly alkaline (pH = 12-13) due to Ca(OH)2 from the cement hydration and the small amounts of Na2O and K2O in cement In such a solution, anodic reaction gives out Fe3O4 instead of Fe++. Fe3O4 is deposited at metal surface as tightly adherent thin film and stops any further corrosion (Steel is said to be passive) Concrete passivation may be broken by; A loss of alkalinity by carbonation Chloride ions
202
cracking
spalling
lamination
corner effects
203
Corrosion
t0 = time for depassivating agents to reach steel and initiate corrosion t1 = time for corrosion to reach critical levels, sufficient to crack concrete
t0
t1
age
204
x = k t 1/ 2
High quality, well cured concrete is subjected to limited carbonation (only 20 30mm after years)
205
First two enter into concrete during mixing and steel may never be passivated (t0=0) Last two have to penetrate the concrete cover sufficiently to depassivate the steel (t0=fin Transport mechanisms are permeability, diffusivity, sorptivity
206
Use corrosion inhibiting admixture (calcium nitrate) Use corrosion resistant stainless steel bars or epoxy coated bars Cover concrete surface by a protector Apply cathodic protection
207
Chapter Outline
CONCRETE Cement Admixtures Aggregates Strength and failure of concrete Durability of concrete Statistical quality control in the production of concrete Property composition relations for concrete and concrete mix design
208
209
210
TS 500:
Requirements for design and construction of reinforced concrete structures revised on Feb., 2000, April 2002
TS EN 206-1: Concrete, Ready - Mixed concrete obligatory standard is adopted to accord with EU countries (March, 2004) TS 11222: Ready - Mixed concrete Revised on Feb., 2001
Problem; Different conformity conditions and rules are defined by above standards
TS 500 (2000) (Design principles for reinforced concrete buildings) Presents concrete design strengths (fcd) as; C14, C16, C20, C25, C30, C35, C40, C45, C50 C14
28 day compressive strengths of concrete cylinder specimens in MPa (D=15cm, H=30cm).
TS500 specifies that these strength values are lower limits with confidence degree of 90%. That is, only 10% of the specimens taken from the produced concrete may have compressive strengths below these design strengths
212
Calculation of aim strength (given by TS 500 (1984)) (not included in TS 500 (2000))
Considering test variation in conrete strength obeys normal probabilistic distribution law, the standard deviation () for the concrete production plant should be known for this purpose t
fcd
fca
213
TS 500 (1984)
Confidence limits in normal distribution Confidence Degree of Degree of parameter risk reliability (t) (r) (1-r) 0.00 0.50 0.50 0.67 0.25 0.75 1.00 0.16 0.84 1.28 0.10 0.90 1.65 0.05 0.95 1.96 0.025 0.975 2.33 0.01 0.99 3.00 0.001 0.999
214
If standard deviation () is not known, then aimed strength is obtained by increasing the design strength by f as given
for BS14 & BS16 f = 4MPa for BS18 - BS30 f = 6MPa for BS35 - BS50 f = 8MPa Ex; for a design strength (fcd) of BS25, strength to be aimed in mix design is calculated as: fca = 25+6 = 31MPa
215
3 test specimen for 1 unit (1 unit = 100m3 of concrete or 450m2 of area ) 3 specimens 1 group 3 groups 1 party P (G1, G2, G3)
Compressive strengths of these specimens at 28 days after standard curing are evaluated statistically and arithmetical mean (fcm) is determined for the sample space.
for acceptance fcm fcd + 1.0 (MPa) (mean value of each party) fcmin fcd 3.0 (MPa) (Minimum arithmetical mean calculated from groups of each party)
216
TS EN 206-1
Concrete design strengths C8-C100 (16 concrete classes are defined) Strengths are given as C20/25
C 20 / 25
28 day compressive strengths of concrete cylinder specimens in MPa (D=15cm, H=30cm). 28 day compressive strengths of concrete cube specimens in MPa (a=15cm).
Lightweight concrete design strengths LC8 LC80 (14 concrete classes are defined)
LC 8 / 9
28 day compressive strengths of concrete cylinder specimens in MPa (D=15cm, H=30cm). 28 day compressive strengths of concrete cube specimens in MPa (a=15cm).
217
Initial (until at 3 samples least 35 test results are obtained) 1/400 m3 or 1/production Continuous b (when at least 35 week results are available) a Sampling shall be distributed throughout the production and should not be more than 1 sample within each 25 m3 b Where the standard deviation of the last 15 test results exceeds 1,37, the sampling rate shall be increased to that required for initial production for the next 35 test results
Minimum rate of sampling Subsequent to first 50m3 of production a Concrete with production Concrete without production control certification control certification 3 1/200 m or 2/production 1/150 m3 or week 1/production day
218
TS EN 206-1
Initial Continuous
219
Two definitons are given for concrete; 1) Designed concrete; concrete for which the required properties and additional characteristics are specified to the producer who is responsible for providing a concrete conforming to the required properties and additional characteristics 2) Prescribed concrete; concrete for which the composition of the concrete and the constituent materials to be used are specified to the producer who is responsible for providing a concrete with the specified composition
220
TS 500 vs. TS EN 206-1 TS EN 206-1 is more specific by means of durability regulations than TS 500. Limit values and conformity criterions are given for properties other than strength The number of samples to be tested is smaller in TS EN 206-1. This can be a disadvantage.
Ref; Seluk Trkel, Kamile Tosun, The evaluation of TS EN 206-1, TS 500 and TS 11222 standards from the view point of concrete
221
Chapter Outline
CONCRETE Cement Admixtures Aggregates Strength and failure of concrete Durability of concrete Statistical quality control in the production of concrete Property composition relations for concrete and concrete mix design
222
Property composition relations for concrete mix design OUTLINE Workability Concrete mix design calculations a) Preliminary design b) Trial batch production and measurement
223
224
225
Workability
Empirical equation that relate the mix water to workability
W = (10 m)
where, W = amount of mixing water, dm3/m3 = coefficient depending on consistency & type of aggregate m = fineness modulus of the aggregate mixture
Natural sand Natural sand & Sea sand & & gravel crushed stone crushed stone 28-30 31-33 36-40 33 37 43 37 40 47
226
ave
a+c+ w+v =
+ v = 1m3 = 1000dm3
227
Strength requirement;
Abrams Graf Feret Bolomey
fc = k1 k2
W /C
(taken by weight)
f cc fc = K G (W / C ) 2
(taken by weight)
fc = K F (
c )2 c+ w+v
(taken by volume)
C fc = K B ( k `) W +v
(taken by weight)
228
Constraint on air content; Assumption for volume of entrapped air voids 2-3 % for stiff consistency 1-2 % for plastic consistency 0-1 % for fluid consistency Solve for C, A, W, V where C+A+W = th
229
design. Only water requirement is adjusted till required workability is obtained This is done by adding mix water incrementally to the mixture of dry ingredients (cement + aggregates) in the mixer
Workability is tested by slump test throughout incremental addition of mix
water. Unit weight of the trial batch is measured (m). Strength specimen (cylinders or cubes) are cast from the trial batch with desired workability. Specimens are tested at 28 days to check whether strength requirement is satisfied or not. If not mix proportions are altered.
230
Summary Determine w, c, a, v considering given requirements Calculate theoretical weight (th) Cast trial batch Measure actual unit weight (ac) Calculate actual proportions using th, ac
231
0.25 8 1
0.50 23 3
1 45 7
2 60 12
4 100 20
8 100 55
16 100 100
2.60 2.65
Desired properties: Fresh concrete: plastic consistency Hardened concrete: BS16 Restrictions: For the aggregate mixture, m=4.07 Assume v=1% Cmin=300kg/m3
232
Overall Outline
Introduction Concrete Bituminous materials Masonry Polymers and polymer composites Cement-based fiber composites Metals Timber
233
Chapter Outline
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Introduction Sources of bitumen Chemistry and Molecular structure Types of bitumen Aggregates Strength and Failure Modes of breakdown Evaluation of road condition Viscosity of bitumen Factors affecting deformation of bituminous mixes Property composition relations for bituminous mixes
234
BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Bituminous materials include all materials consisting of aggregate bound with either bitumen or tar. Mineral dust called filler is also used. Bituminous materials are used in highway engineering to construct flexible pavements. Factors determining the type of bituminous mixtures Bitumen content Bitumen grade Aggregate grading Aggregate size
picture: www.saocl.com
235
SOURCES of BITUMEN
1) Natural deposits (types of deposit range from almost pure bitumen to bitumen-impregnated rocks and bituminuous sands with only a few per cent bitumen) Rock asphalt (Porous limestone or sandstone impregnated with bitumen with 10% content, Val de Travers, Switzerland, Tar sands of North America) Lake asphalt (Bitumen lake with mineral matter dispersed throughout the bitumen, Trinidad lake (55 % bitumen, 35 % mineral matter, 10 % organic matter) Refinery bitumen
2)
236
2) Refinery bitumen: residual material left after the fractional distillation of crude oil
Crude petroleum
Products of distillation
Petrol
Kerosene
Diesel oil
Lubricating oil
Bitumen
Fluxing/blending
Cutback bitumen
237
238
Types of bitumen 1) Penetration grade bitumen: refinery bitumen with a range of viscosities Penetration test classifies the bitumen according to hardness. For road bitumen penetration grades is from 15 to 450. Softening point, on the other hand, specifies the viscosity 2) Oxidized bitumens: air is introduced into bitumen under pressure Oxygen(from air) reacts with some compounds to result in more asphaltene with higher molecular weight. Thus, hardness of bitumen is increased with reduced ductility and temperature dependence. Mostly used for industrial applications such as roofing and pipe coatings
239
3) Cutbacks: penetration grade bitumens for which the viscosity is temporarily reduced by dilation in a volatile oil. After application, oil evaporates and bitumen turns to its former viscosity Curing time defines
Slow curing Medium curing Rapid curing Cutbacks
240
4) Emulsions: two-phase system made up of two immiscible liquids, bitumen being dispersed as fine globules in water. Emulsifier provides dispersal of bitumen globules. Emulsifier in a hydrocarbon chain with cationic and anionic functional group. Hydrocarbon chain has affinity for bitumen where as ionic part has affinity for water. Each droplet carries a like charge, depending on charge of ionic part of emulsifier. Cationic emulsions are positively charged. Anionic emulsions are negatively charged. Cationic emulsions aid adhesion of bitumen on negatively charged aggregate surfaces.
241
Aggregates
Aggregates make up about 92 % of bituminous materials Coarse aggregates retained on 2.36mm sieve, Fine aggregates passes 2.36mm sieve but is retained on 75m sieve. Filler passes 75m sieve
Open textured aggregate mixtures: Grading is continuous and provides a dense packing of particles. Strength and resistance to deformation are largely determined by aggregate grading with bitumen acting as adhesive Dense graded aggregate mixtures: Aggregate grading is still important but properties are determined largely by the matrix of fines and bitumen Aggregate particles must have sufficient strength for surfacing materials, they must be resistant to abrasion and polishing. Shape and surface texture are also important.
242
243
Modes of breakdown
Case I
Nearside wheel track rut depth
Case II
Bituminous material
Granular material
z ,
Subgrade soil
Permanent deformation
244
245
It is accepted that if cracking is visible at surface, road is regarded as being at critical condition or as having failed. For no visible cracking, if rut depth reaches 20mm, road is regarded as having failed
246
Viscosity of bitumen
Viscosity of a liquid is the property that retards flow so that when a force is applied to the liquid, the higher the viscosity, the slower will be the movement of the liquid. The viscosity of bitumen is dependent upon both its chemical composition and its structure. There are two most common measures of viscosity Softening point: Temperature at which a bitumen reaches a specified level of viscosity Standard tar viscometer: (used to measure the viscosity of tars) time taken for 50ml of the tar to run out of a cup through a standard orifice
247
224
Another test to evaluate viscosity Penetration test: commonly applied to bitumen for material characterization. The test measures the hardness of bitumen which is related to viscosity. It measures depth to which a needle penetrates a sample of bitumen under a load of 100 gr over a period of 5 sec at a temperature of 25C
Bitumen is viscoelastic; therefore, the penetration will depend on the elastic deformation and viscosity Bitumens are thermoplastic materials so that they soften as the temperature rises but become hard again when the temperature drops. Susceptibility of bitumen to temperature is determined from the penetration value and softening point temperature
Viscoelasticity describes materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics when undergoing plastic deformation
248
249
250
In lab., some tests have been done to determine the optimum bitumen content
Compression test Stability test (Marshall test, Hubbard-Field test, Hveem test) Triaxial test
251
Asphalt sample
deformability (flow)
Required properties are 1) minimum stability of 225kg (2207N), 2)a maximum flow of 0.5cm, 3) air voids (3-5%) and 4) degree of saturation of aggregate voids with bitumen (75-85%).
Test is repeated with mixes of different bitumen contents and bitumen content fulfilling all requirements is determined as OPTIMUM BITUMEN CONTENT
252
Analysis of mix design data from the Marshall test In compacted bituminous mixture
Unit weight Existing unit weight
d=
Air voids
Gm =
Marshall stability
Pbit
bit
+
i
V=
5 6 7 8
Gm d x100 Gm
Example
Properties and mix proportions of materials used for a bituminous mixture are as follows
Material Asphalt Crushed stone Density () 1.04 kg/dm3 2.70 kg/dm3 Mix proportions (P) 10 % by wt 90 % by wt
Following data are obtained from a lab. specimen made using this mix: weight in air = 111.95 gr weight in water = 61.16 gr
254
Calculate unit weight of the lab. specimen Calculate the theoretical maximum unit wt. of the mix Calculate volume percentage of voids in the lab. specimen This mix is placed on the road and consolidated under a roller. After consolidation a core sample is taken and the unit wt. of this core sample is determined to be 2.13kg/dm3. The specified degree of compaction for this pavement being at least 95% of the compaction of a laboratory specimen, indicate if this bituminous pavement is acceptable?
255
Solution:
a) d=
b)
Gm =
c)
v =
d)
256
Overall Outline
Introduction Concrete Bituminous materials Masonry Polymers and polymer composites Cement-based fiber composites Metals Timber
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258
These are four main techniques for achieving stable masonry a) b) c) d) Dry stone walls: Irregularly shaped laminar pieces are placed by hand in an interlocking mass Ashlar: Medium to large blocks are made to a few sizes and assembled to a basic grid pattern either without or with mortar having very thin joints Normal brickwork: Small to medium units of different sizes are assembled to a basic grid pattern and mortar is used as a packing material Random rubble walls: Irregularly shaped and sized pieces are bonded together with adherent mortar
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
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Materials
Sand: particles with sizes from about 10mm diameter down to 75m diameter obtained from riverbeds, sea beaches, older deposits from alluvial and glacial action. Most common sands are based on silica (SiO2) Sand should be free of clay particles Mortar sand should have particles smaller than 5mm, Good range of particle size distribution is also needed (for good packing) Naturally occurring sands should be sieved and washed Very flaky and vary absorbent sand particles are not desired
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Aggregates: Natural aggregates, sintered fly ash pellets, expanded clay and foamed slag Binds mixtures of sands, aggregates, fillers to make Binders: mortar for masonry Organic plasticizers: For improving plasticity or workability of mortars. These plasticizers also entrain air as small bubbles Latex additives: Synthetic copolymer plastics may be produced in the form of a latex, a finely divided dispersion of the plastic in water usually stabilized by a surfactant such as a synthetic detergent. Solid content is ~ 50% of dispersion. They increase adhesion of mortar to all substrate. They increase tensile strength and durability
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Mortar Mortars are composed of cementing material, sand and water. There are three types depending on type of binder: 1) Cement mortar 2) Mixed mortar 3) Lime mortar
The sand to be used in mortar must be free of mud, clay, organic matter. It must have a good grading in size range of 0 - 4mm. The composition of the mortar is chosen in such a way to obtain a good workability. For this purpose, all the voids of the aggregate must be filled with the paste of the cementing material and all the sand particles must be surrounded by a film of this paste. Existence of smaller particles in the sand is advantageous because; they fill the voids between larger particles and reduce the need for cementing material If the water content of the paste is high, then the strength of the mortar will be lowered, if the cementing material is in excessive, the mortar is said to be too rich, and it tends to crack due to shrinkage. Taking all these factors into account, certain mortar compositions have been accepted as a result of many years of experience.
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Class of Mortar
Type of Mortar
Cement Cement Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Cement Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed Lime
Sand
3 4 4 4 4 7-9 5 5 6-8 6-8 2-3 3
Cement
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -
A B
C D E
2 0.5
The last column shows the expected minimum compressive strength of the mortar at the age of 28 days
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Rocks from magnetic, volcanic, sedimentary or metamorphic origin make up the natural building units for masonry. Magnetic and volcanic origin stones, being crystalline, give good quality materials. Examples are: granite, diorite, rhyolite, basalt, andesite, trechite, etc. However, care should be taken for mica, feldspar and other nondurable minerals contained in these rocks
Natural stones;
Sedimentary rocks are not crystalline but layered. They may contain voids and
fossils. Examples are: conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, shale, limestone, chert. Sandstones and limestones make good stones for masonry.
Metamorphic rocks are those who experienced a change in their structure. Good
quality stones are gneiss, quartzite and marble. However, slate and shale are of poor quality.
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241
Water absorption (%) by wt. 0.5 2.0 0.6 0.2 0.2 2.0 0.4 2.4
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267
Unit wt (max) (kg/dm3) 1.80 1.80 1.80 1.20 1.20 1.20 0.8 0.50 1.80 1.80
kcal mh D C
0.75
Solid Brick (DOT/20) Solid Brick (DOT/12) Solid Brick (DOT/8) Brick with vertical holes (DDT/15) Brick with vertical holes (DDT/10) Brick with vertical holes (DDT/6) Brick with horizontal holes (YDT/3.6) Brick with horizontal holes (YDT/2.4) Solid clinker brick (DOK/30) Clinker brick with holes (DEK/30)
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Concrete Units
Used in building partition in houses since 1920s Concrete unit is poured into a mould and vibrated and demoulded after setting. It is a labor demanding and slow process Concrete is filled into a mould (die) and a dynamic presshead compacts the concrete into the die. Then, green concrete is ejected on to a conveyer system and taken away to cure either in air or after in stream Thus solid and hollow bricks and blocks are produced either in dense concrete or as a porous open structure by using gap-graded aggregates and not compacting fully Block sizes are 200x200x40 (mm), 150x200x400 (mm) They contain usually two large vertical holes. TS 406 classifies them into strength levels of 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 and 15 MPa. Maximum unit weight is not to exceed 1.60 kg/dm3
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Masonry construction
Basic method of construction; units are laid one on top of another in such a way that they form an interlocking mass in at least the two horizontal dimensions Mortar needs to be firmly dry for dense low absorption units. While high absorption units need a sloppy wet mortar Walls and columns are built by laying out a plan at foundation level and masonry rises up layer by layer The foundation layers are horizontal It is essential to maintain the verticality Thickness of mortar joints must be kept constant Joint color and shape influence the appearance
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Reinforced pocket wall Pockets formed as built, shuttered then filled with concrete to bond in the reinforcement
(a)
(b)
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Ties at 5/m2
Bars either bonded in with mortar as the brickwork is rasied or grouted in with concrete in lifts
(c)
(d)
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Bond patterns
Bond (interlocking) between units is achieved as Stretcher bond or half bond Third quarter bond Soldier course
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274
275
c) Heading
d) Rat-trap 276
Structural behavior
Unreinforced masonry is; good at resisting compression forces, moderate to bad at resisting shear forces very poor when subjected to direct tension However, reinforced masonry is good also at resisting tension forces Any masonry under compressive stress also resists bending since the compressive prestress in the wall must be overcome before any tensile strain can occur Most of small masonry structures are still designed using experiencebased design rules. Strength of masonry elements are predicted from strength and/or other characteristics of materials used in masonry construction Then check is made against worst loading conditions obtained from past data. A factor of safety is applied to allow for statistical uncertainty in the material characteristics and loads. Relatively high (3-5) safety factors are used due to high variability and brittle failure mode
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Forces on walls
Compressive
Tensile
Lateral (flexural) Shear (in plane)
Shear (normal)
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Restoring force Generated by mass acting at centre of gravity Generated by tension stresses in the bed joints
Crack
Gravity mechanism
Compressive loading
Masonry is most effective under compressive load If a load or force is put on a wall at a point, it would logically spread or toward from the point of application in a stretcher bonded wall since each unit is supported by the two units below it.
Such a compressive force causes elastic shortening (strain) of the masonry. As a result of Poissons ratio effects, a tension strain and hence a stress is generated normal to the applied stress.
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281
Brocker formula
max
mortar unit 4 + 10 = h 16 + 3( ) d
+e
: in kgf/cm2 e : + 10 for good workmanship 0 for medium workmanship - 5 for poor workmanship
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Brick Walls
Allowable stresses in this table are acceptable for h/d 10. If 10 < h/d 20, reduced allowable stresses for slender walls should be used (Table b). Slender walls with h/d > 20 are not permitted for masonry.
283
284
285
Example; A masonry wall of 190 mm thickness (1 brick length) and 3.04 m height will be built of solid bricks DOT/12 according to TS705 and mixed mortar C-3 according to TS2348. Determine the maximum load that could be permitted on a 1m length of this wall.
Solution;
Slenderness ratio =
from Table a all= 0.9 MPa (for brick = 7.5 10 for mixed mortar) from Table b all= 0.3 MPa (for all = 0.9 MPa for unslender wall and h/d=16) Mixed load on 1m length of wall
h 304 = = 16 > 10 d 19
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Overall Outline
Introduction Concrete Bituminous materials Masonry Polymers and polymer composites Cement-based fiber composites Metals Timber
287
1) Glass fibers
Manufactured by drawing molten glass from an electric furnace through platinum bushings at high speed. Filaments cool from liquid state at about 1200C to room temperature in 10-5 seconds.
Strands
Four types of glass are used for fibers - E-glass of low alkali content (most used one in composites in construction industry) - A-glass of high alkali content (previously used in aircraft industry) - Z-glass developed for reinforcing cement-based materials because of its high resistance to alkali attack - S2-glass fiber used for extra high strength and high modulus applications in aerospace
290
2) Carbon fibers Previously produced from pitch obtained by destructive distillation of coal Synthetic fiber polyacrylonitrile is spun and concurrently stretched so that molecular chains are aligned parallel to the fiber axis. Fiber is then heated under tension to 250C in oxygen environment where it gains strength. Carbonization starts when polymer is heated in inert atmosphere. Higher stiffness is obtained through greater heat energy given to carbon filament
3) Aramid fibers (Tradename - Kevlar) Most successful commercial organic fiber developed by DuPont Comp. Poly-parabenzamide fibers E=130GPa 2 forms of Kevlar fiber Kevlar 29: high strength and intermediate modulus Kevlar 49: high modulus and same strength as Kevlar 29 (preferred for high-performance composite materials)
291
Mechanical properties
Polymer properties
Mechanical properties are highly dependent on network of molecular units and on the lengths of cross-link chains. Curing process determines the length of cross-linked chains. Composites are heat cured to maximize mechanical properties Mechanical properties of thermoplastics arise from properties of monomer units and high molecular weight
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293
Fiber properties
Composite materials have high specific strength and high specific stiffness achieved by the use of low-density fibers with high strength and modulus values
Specific weight Carbon fiber Type I Type II Type III E Glass S2 Glass fiber Kevlar fibers 29 49 1.92 1.75 1.70 2.55 2.47 1.44 1.45 Ultimate tensile strength (GPa) 2.00 2.41 2.21 2.40 4.6 2.65 2.65 Modulus of elasticity in tension, (GPa) 345 241 200 72.4 88.0 64 127
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Polymer composites
Mechanical properties of polymers can be greatly enhanced by incorporating fillers and/or fibers into resin formulations For structural applications, such composites should 1) Consist of two or more phases 2) Be manufactured by combining separate phases such that dispersion of one material in the other achieves optimum properties of the resulting material 3) Have enhanced properties composed with those of individual components
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In fiber-reinforced polymer materials, primary phase (the fiber) uses plastic flow of secondary phase (the polymer) to transfer load to fiber. This results in a high-strength, high-modulus composite. High strength and high modulus properties of fibers are associated with very fine fibers with diameters of 7-15m. Fibers are usually brittle. Polymers may be ductile or brittle and generally have low strength and stiffness By combining two components a bulk material is produced with a strength and stiffness dependent on fiber volume fraction and fiber orientation. Interface between fiber and matrix plays a major role in physical and mechanical properties of composite material Load is transferred from fiber to fiber through the interface and the matrix
296
Properties of interface region are very important for fracture toughness of the material
Weak interface low strength and stiffness high resistance to fracture (ductile) Strong interface high strength and stiffness low fracture toughness (very brittle)
297
E22, 22 2
E11, 11 1
Basic laminate
298
1) Longitudinal stiffness
The orthotropic layer has three mutually perpendicular plane of property symmetry, characterized elastically by four independent elastic constants. E11= modulus of elasticity along fiber direction E22= modulus of elasticity in the transverse direction 12 = Poissons ratio i.e. strains produced in direction 2 when specimen is loaded in direction 1. G12= longitudinal shear modulus 21 = Poissons ratio, i.e. obtained from E11 21 = E22 12 If line of action of a tensile or compressive force is applied parallel to fibers of a unidirectional lamina, m = f provided bond is perfect As both fiber and matrix behave elastically then f = Ef f and m = Em m where f = m
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As Ef > Em, stress in fiber must be greater than stress in matrix Thus fibers carry major part of applied load Composite load Pc = Pm + Pf c Ac = m Am + f Af 3 c = m V m + f Vf where A = area of the phase V = volume fraction of the phase 2 Vc = volume of composite = 1 for perfect bond 11 1 c = m = f From above equation Ec c = Em c Vm = Ef c Vf Ec = Em Vm = Ef Vf
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2) Transverse stiffness
Applied load transverse to fibers acts equally on fiber and matrix; therefore, 3 f = m f = 22/Ef and m = 22/Em 22 = Vf f + Vm m or 22 = Vf 22/Ef + Vm 22/Em (substitute 22= E2222) E22 = Ef Em / [ Ef (1-Vf) + EmVf ] 1 to take into account of Poisson contraction effects
22 2
301
302
Diagrammatic representation of the deformation field around a discontinuous fiber embedded in a matrix
Uniform load Resin
Fiber
f,max
lc/2
lc/2
The critical transfer length over which fiber stress is decreased from maximum to zero at the end of fiber is referred to as half the critical length of fiber
303
To achieve the maximum fiber stress, fiber length must be equal to or Reinforcing efficiency of short fibers is less than that for long fibers. Orientation of short fibers in a lamina is random and therefore lamina is assumed to be isotropic on a macro scale. Rule of mixture for long-parallel fiber case is modified by inclusion of a fiber orientation distribution factor n
Ec = E11 = Ef Vf + Em Vm
= 0.375 for a randomly oriented fiber array = 1.0 for unidirectional laminae when tested parallel to fiber = 0 for unidirectional laminae when tested perpendicular to fiber = 0.5 for a bidirectional fiber array
304
fu
) f V (1
f cu c mu m m fu
composite matrix
mu m
cu
d le l ro t + on c Vf er fu b Fi =
cu = controlle mu (1 d -Vf )
1
mat rix
0 Vmin Vcr
Vf
mu m Vcr = fu m
Vmin
mu m = fu + mu m
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- If failure is due to breaking of fibers (fiber controlled, Vf > Vmin, then cu > mu) cu = m Vm + fu Vf = m (1-Vf) + fu Vf - If failure is due to matrix flow (matrix controlled, Vf << Vmin, then cu < mu) cu = mu (1-Vf)
when Vf < Vmin, fiber content in the composite is so small that fibers break before ultimate strength of matrix is reached; fibers act as if there are voids in place of them and in fact decrease strength of matrix by a factor equal to (1-Vf). when Vf > Vcr, fibers become effective in increasing the strength of composite above that of matrix. From practical point of view, there is no meaning to use a fiber ratio less than this critical value.
306
my
or
fu lc = d 2 my
and
l = lc
for which tensile strength in the fiber will be reached at the same force as the yield strength of matrix on the interface If > 1, then matrix will yield first before fiber breaks in tension
307
f = f (1
where is related to stress distribution on fiber. = 0.5 for fully plastic stress distribution = 1.0 for fully elastic distribution
308
cu = fuV f (1
d
) + ' m (1 V f )
cu
cu
0.9
309
Example
Properties of matrix and fiber materials for a glass fiber reinforced composite with continuous fibers of 30% volume fraction are as follows
E (GPa) 2 140
a) Determine the modulus of elasticity of the composite for tension parallel to fibers b) Assuming linear elastic behavior of fibers until failure and elastic-plastic behavior of matrix, determine ultimate tensile strength of composite c) What minimum fiber volume ratio should be used to obtain a reinforcing effect
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311
Temperature
Fluctuating temperatures have a greater deterioration effect on GRP. Difference in coefficients of thermal expansion of glass and resin may cause debonding. Exposed to high temperatures a discoloration of the resin may occur composite becoming yellow. Both polyster and epoxy show this effect. As a result of exposure to high temperatures, the composite becomes brittle.
Fire
A composite material must meet appropriate standards of fire performance Some mineral filler, calcium carbonate can improve mechanical properties. Aluminum trihydrate and antimony trioxide are used as fillers to enable flame-retardant properties
312
Moisture
Cross-linked polymers absorb water which may cause a decrease in strength and modulus of elasticity. Absorption of water by polyesters and epoxies leads to swelling of the laminate. Water will also cause some surface flaws on fibers and reduce strength, long-term water absorption may cause weakening of the bond between fiber and polymer
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Weather
Natural weathering causes some deterioration of GRP composites. Sunlight degrades both polyester and epoxy resins. As a result of discoloration, loss of light transmission occur. UV absorbers and stabilizers are added to resin formulations. A rise of temperature accelerates chemical reaction and hence degradation. Weathering can affect mechanical properties of GRP composites through surface debonding. Because weathering is a surface effect, thickness of laminate becomes important. 3mm thick laminate shows 12-20% reduction in flexural strength after 15 years exposure, while 10mm laminate shows only ~ 3% reduction after 50 years exposure
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315
Selection of most appropriate resin should be done considering particular end use since every material does not possess all the following characteristics
High light transmission Infinite texture possibilities Minimum maintenance requirements Infinite design possibilities Resistance to water and corrosion High specific strength High impact resistance
316
been used to manufacture pipes for transportation of water, oil and gas
317
Thermoplastic polymers known as geosynthetics are used in soil environment in five categories
Geotextiles
Main fibers used in geotextiles are polyethylene, polypropylene, polyester and polyamide. Fibers are the load-bearing elements in geotextiles and framing technique determines the structure and physical and mechanical characteristics of the system Manufactured in impermeable sheet form from thermoplastic polymers or bituminous materials either reinforced or unreinforced. Matrix can be reinforced by textiles. Long, slender strips or bars consisting of a unidirectional filament fiber core made from a polyester, aramid or glass fiber in a polymer sheath of a low-density polyethylene or a resin. Fiber provides strength and deformation characteristics and matrix protects fiber and provides bonding with the soil
Geomembranes
Geo-linear elements
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Geogrids Grid-like structures of thermoplastic polymer material. They form a quasi-composite system in conjunction with soil grid structure in fiber and soil is assumed to be the matrx Two forms Geocomposites Hybrid systems. Two or more different types of thermoplastic polymer systems. They form a drainage passage along the water course with polymer core as drainage channel and geotextile skin as the filter
Cross-laid strips Punched thermoplastic polymer sheets
319
Marine applications
Dominant materials for pleasure craft. Effective in replacing wood Truck and automobile systems Sports car bodies and truck cabs Strength, stiffness, toughness, corrosion resistance and highquality finish are physical and mechanical properties that must be satisfied. However, economy is the crucial consideration Aircraft and space applications Used for making components in aircraft industry
The fin of European airbus is a component made from a sandwich construction with carbon fiber/epoxy resin face material. The Westland helicopter rotor blades are made from carbon fiber composite material
320
Pipes and tanks for chemicals Critical consideration is the corrosive resistance and ease of fabrication of complex shapes
Applications have started with GRP structures A dome structure erected in 1968 in Benghazi, Libya Roof structure in Dubai Airport built in 1972 1970-1980 prestigious buildings in UK
These buildings are built as a composite system, with either steel or reinforced concrete structural system and GRP composite as load-bearing infill panels In 1970, a classroom system, using only GRP, by folding flat plates into a folded plate system so that stiffness is provided by the structural shape. In 1980s more ambitious structural elements were produced
321
Mondial house (clad with FRP panels) FRP radar dome (25m diameter,
MATERAL Mortar matrix Concrete matrix Asbestos Carbon Glass Polyethylene HDPE filament High modulus Polypropylene (Monofilament) Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) Steel
Relative density 1.8-2.0 1.8-2.4 2.55 1.16-1.95 2.7 0.96 0.96 0.91 1-3 7.86
Tens. Str. (MPa) 1-10 1-4 200-1800 600-2700 600-2500 200 > 400 700-1500 700-2000
Failure strain (%) 0.01-0.05 0.01-0.02 2-3 0.5-2.4 3.6 >4 3-5
Volume in composite (%) 85-97 97-99.5 5-15 3-5 3-7 2-4 5-10 0.1-0.2 2-3 0.3-2.0
10000-20000 0.02-30 7-18 12.5 900 20-50 20-100 3-8 100-600 5-40
3-cont. 30-390 10-50 3-5 Cont. 5-20 2-6 10-60 70 5 10-30 4 12-40 200
Performance is controlled by vol. fraction of fibers properties of fibers and matrix bond between the two
323
Table shows that elongations at break of all fibers are two or three orders of magnitude greater than strain at failure of matrix. Hence matrix cracks before fiber strength is approached Most organic fibers have modulus of elasticity less than five times that of the matrix. Low modulus fibers are used in situations where matrix is expected to be uncracked. Large Poissons ratio of these fibers may cause debonding and pull-out, woven meshes or networks of fibers are necessary for efficient composites. Steel fibers of varying cross-sections or bond ends provide anchorage; glass fiber bundles may be penetrated with cement hydration products to give effective bonding
Dmax of mortars or concrete affect efficient fiber distribution Concrete with a Dmax = 10mm is preferred. Dmax > 20mm is never allowed. To avoid shrinkage, at least 50% by volume of inert filler (aggregate, fly ash, or limestone dust) should be used
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325
326
=
cu
fu cu f
fiber
cu fu fuVf
composite
fu
f
V
cu = m (1u
Fiber controlled
cu
fV f + V)
cracked)
) ked = V c a r cu f f (unc
mu
fVf
mu
f = mu f < mu
matrix
mu
fu
Vmin Vcr Vf
1.0
Vf
mu (1 Vf) + f Vf
327
d f Ec = d f
.V f
328
cu = mu (1-Vf) + f Vf (uncracked) cu = f Vf (cracked) f = stress in the fiber when matrix cracks ( = mu)
2) Matrix fails and later composite carries stress at an increased level. This mode of failure is called fiber controlled failure. This occurs under the condition that Vf > Vcr, cu = fu Vf Then the critical volume fraction for fibers is found as
Vcr =
fu
mu + mu ' f
329
On the other hand, there is a fiber volume ratio that determines the strengthening effect of fibers in the composite
Vmin
mu = fu
It is observed that Vcr is a function of f If f = mu, then Vcr = Vmin If f < mu, then Vcr < Vmin
330
When discontinuous fibers are used there is a critical length for fibers so that critical bond shear stress along the fiber-matrix interface does not lead to bond failure, that is, fibers will break rather than pull-out
331
332
Example
It is planned to reinforce a concrete matrix of tensile strength mu = 8 MPa with polymer fibers to increase its tensile strength. Fiber diameter is 0.25mm. Fiber tensile strength is 80 MPa and fiber-matrix bond strength is 0.2 MPa. Assuming constant bond shear stress distribution along the interface, calculate critical fiber length If discontinuous parallel fibers of 40mm length are used and a composite tensile strength of 11MPa is required, what fiber volume ratio will be necessary? In this case what will be the failure mode? If the moduli of elasticity of concrete and fibers are 20GPa and 50GPa, respectively, plot stress-strain diagram of composite in part b) For a continuous use of above fibers, and for the purpose of obtaining a reinforcing effect of the fibers for any volume ratio, what should be the lower limit of fiber modulus of elasticity. Calculate critical fiber ratio for value of Ef in c
333
Overall Outline
Introduction Concrete Bituminous materials Masonry Polymers and polymer composites Cement-based fiber composites Metals Timber
334
Non-ferrous
Aluminium
Copper
335
1) Cast irons Major consumption in pipes and fittings In civil engineering for tunnel segments and mine shaft tubing Carbon content is greater than 2 %. Hard and brittle.
2) Steel Steel is obtained through carbon reducing operations. Carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Amount of carbon within the lattice determines the properties of the steel. Alloys containing less than 0.008 % carbon are classed as irons. Steel has a carbon content less than 2.0 % C 0.25 % mild steel, low carbon steel (structural steel is in this category) 0.3 % C 0.6 % medium carbon steel, carbon steel C > 0.6 % high carbon steel
Normally, Mn and S are added to steel during production If elements other than Mn and Si are added alloy steels If elements like Cr and Ni are added stainless steels
336
Ferrow alloys: containing at least 12% Cr and some Ni and Mo. Chromium produces a stable passive oxide film.
1. Martensitic: 13% Cr, low carbon, hard, used for cutlery, unweldable
2. Ferritic: 13% Cr, low carbon, unweldable 3. Austenitic: 18% Cr and 8% Ni, low carbon, most resistant to pitting type of corrosion, weldable
338
Eal = 70GPa & Est = 210 GPa Aluminium deflects more under same load However, specific moduli (E/) is comparable (E/)al = 20, (E/)st = 29
339
340
PL3 = 3EI
PL3 = 3Ex 4
, x is a unit of length
341
weight is W = AL = Lx2
A = area of the cross-section = density of the material of which the beam is made
W2 x = 2 2 L
4
PL W = 3
1/ 2
E 1/ 2
E1/ 2
342
Timber is oustanding Then comes Al and GFRP These compete in applications where weight is costly (aircraft, sailing dinghies, racing cars, small-scale building, squash rackets, golf clubs, tables and chairs)
343
Overall Outline
Introduction Concrete Bituminous materials Masonry Polymers and polymer composites Cement-based fiber composites Metals Timber
344
TIMBER
Timber has been one of the basic materials of construction since the earliest days of human kind. Today it has been largely superseded by concrete and steel. However, the use of timber remains extensive.
Wood A Nature Made Composite Wood contains; 60 % cellulose (C6H10O5)n 28 % lignine (C41H36O6) 12 % pectine (C6H8O6)n & some others
345
Internal structure of wood is made up of groups of long and slender cells, called grain, that look like a group of thin pipes. The walls of the cells are made up of ligno-cellulose and they are bonded to each other with pecto-cellulose. The length of the cells is between 1-6 mm and their diameter is about 1/100 of their length Depending on internal structure, the trees may be separated into three groups;
1) Softwoods without any vessels or pores for the sap like pine, fir, spruce, cedar and cypress 2) Hardwoods with diffused vessels or pores like maple, beech, poplar 3) Hardwoods with ring-porous structure like oak, ash etc. Even though chemical composition is the same, differences in internal structure result in differences of properties. Unit weights vary between 0,398 0,720 kg/dm3 and flexural strengths between 65 110 MPa.
346
Table 1. Mechanical properties of trees in Turkey in air-dried condition and parallel to grains
Type of tree Poplar (kavak) Fir (kknar) Spruce (ladin) Yellow pine (saram) Cedar (sedir) Black pine (karaam) Red pine (kzlam) Oak (mee) Beech (kayn)
Unit weight (kg/dm3) 0,398 0,431 0,436 0,515 0,523 0,568 0,577 0,690 0,720
Even though chemical composition is the same, differences in internal structure result in differences of properties.
347
348
90 80 70
Composite strength moisture relation for soft - woods with unit wt = 0.420 kg/dm3
60 50 40 30 20 10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
w (%)
349
Modulus of elasticity Pine: // 10 GPa 0.3 GPa Oak: // 12.5 GPa 0.6 GPa
350