DATE PALM PRODUCTS

by W.H. BARREVELD
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FAO AGRICULTURAL SERVICES BULLETIN No. 101 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome 1993 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion what so ever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. M-17 ISBN 92-5-103251-3 Copyright Permission to make digital or hard copies of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is hereby granted without fee and without a formal request provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and full citation on the first page. Copyright for components of this work owned by others than FAO must be honoured. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers, or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or fee. Request permission to publish from:

The Chief Editor, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy, e-mail:copyright@fao.org

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CONTENTS
FOREWORD INTRODUCTION CHAPTER 1: WHOLE DATES 1.1 Formation and development 1.2 Composition and quality a. Moisture b. Sugars c. Proteins and fats d. Crude fibre e. Vitamins and minerals f. Enzymes g. Other chemical substances h. Quality profile of whole dates 1.3 Outlets and Marketing 1.3.1 Khalaal 1.3.2 Rutab 1.3.3 Tamr a. Transport of dates b. Storage i fumigation ii heat treatment iii refrigeration iv irradiation c. Sorting and cleaning d. Additional treatments i maturation ii dehydration iii hydration iv glazing v coating vi pitting e. Packing whole dates CHAPTER 2: DATE PRODUCTS AND PREPARATIONS 2.1 Home-made date preparations. 2.2 Semi-finished Date Products and Mixtures. 2.3 Ready-for-use Date Products. 2.4 Date Products Development. a. Whole pitted dates b. Pure date paste c. Date paste mixtures d. Date paste in bakery products and confectionery e. Date preserves

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f. Date condiments g. Date desserts CHAPTER 3: DERIVED DATE FRUIT PRODUCTS 3.1 Date Juice. 3.2 Juice products. 3.3 Juice concentrates. a. Date spread b. Date syrup c. Liquid sugar 3.4 Fermentation products. a. Wine b. Alcohol c. Organic acids d. Single cell protein e. Lipids CHAPTER 4: BY-PRODUCTS OF DATE PACKING AND PROCESSING 4.1 Cull dates 4.2 Date pits 4.3 Presscake CHAPTER 5: DATE PALM PRODUCTS (EXCLUDING DATES) 5.1 Traditional use of palm products a. Trunk b. Leaves c. Reproductive organs d. Date palm sap e. Pharmaceutical use f. Shade 5.2 Palm products development a. Animal feed b. Soil amendments c. Panel board d. Industrial rawstock e. Various TRENDS AND OUTLOOK APPENDICES: I - Production and Trade Statistics for Whole Dates II - Codex Standard for Dates III - Calculation of a two-stage extraction system at 30 Bx and comparison with measured results in a pilot plant I - BIBLIOGRAPHY II - BIBLIOGRAPHY

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LIST OF FIGURES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. Rural date orchard (top) with water lifting from shallow well (bottom) Abandoned date garden (Bahrain) Closely and irregularly spaced traditional date grove Mechanized date plantation with dusting operation in progress (California) Dissemination of the date palm in the Old World Major date production centres of the world Unattended date palms in marginal growth conditions Date bunches covered with paper bags against (early) rains and sunburn (California) Bunch protection by coarsely woven baskets (Hadramaut, Yemen) Hard desert dates, harvested on the bunch and thrown to the ground (Fezzan) Tidal irrigation (Iraq) Canary palms (Phoenix Canariensis) (note flower development in these overpruned ornamental palms) (Sicily, Italy) Single date palm at the Port of Ischia (Italy) Schematic picture of the date palm during a one-year production cycle Major parts of the date palm A fully laden Deglet Noor Palm (California) Harvesting whole bunches of khalaal (cv Khuneizi). Note strung (nylon) rope attached to climbing belt to slide down the bunch (Bahrain) Bunch of thinned Deglet Noor (California) Newly planted offshoots (8 x 16m) (Bahrain) 4-year old plantation of Zahdi offshoots (California) Formation and ripening of the date Major changes during date fruit development Three major stages of maturity in which dates are consumed: a. Khalaal; b. Rutab; c. Tamr Morphological and compositional changes in the major development stages of Ruzeiz (Saudi Arabia) Equilibrium moisture content curve for dates Enzyme activity in dates a. Harvesting whole bunches of sweet Khalaal b. Baskets made of palm leaflets are used for transport (Bahrain) Sweet khalaal on sale in the local market (Bahrain) Packing of sweet khalaal for postal market sales (California) Thawing of frozen khalaal (cv Kuneizi, a red variety) (Bahrain) Simultaneous thawing and dehydration of frozen khalaal (Bahrain) a. Semi-continuous dehydrator with dates stacked on trays; b. Effect of dehydration at 45 C (higher temperatures cause frothing) on Barhee variety during 60 hrs. Moisture content is reduced from about 60 to 40% Process for marketing frozen khalaal, a. Intake and weighing of freshly harvested whole bunches; b. Washing the whole bunchc. Stripping dates from the bunch; d. Filling/weighing small packs; e. Machine wrapping in stretch foli; f. Storage in carton boxes in deep freeze; g. Satisfied customers

32.

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33. Harvesting rutab, a. Selective picking of rutab collected in baskets; b. Harvesting whole bunch; c/d. Mixed late khalaal and rutab of 2 varieties selected in date garden for direct sale in local market 34. 35. 36. 37. Rutab on sale amongst other exotic tropical fruits (Netherlands) Fruit drop Sundrying of rutab in date garden (Bahrain) Sundrying of rutab in screened off, elevated platforms (Bahrain)

38. Harvesting tamr (California), a. Selective picking and containers made of cloth; b. Field sorting and use of wooden boxes and trays for further storage and treatment in packing plant 39. Different ways of transporting dates in and from the field 40. Plastic containers, a. Stacked empty boxes; b. Comparative volume of empty normal, and nested containers 41. Pressing dates in baskets 42. Local date store for bagged dates with ridges on the floor to accommodate syrup collection 43. Time/temperature/moisture relationships for storage of dates 44. Date grading on moving belts (Oman, Iraq) 45. Mechanical date washer 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. Washed dates loaded onto trays (Libya) Prototype washer/stripper/grader for dates on the bunch (Bahrain) Continuous hydration of dates Effects of temperature manipulation in the storage and treatment of dates Slice of pitted, pressed dates Loose tamr on sale in open air market (a. Bahrain, b. Libya, c. Netherlands) Hand packed bulk box of layered dates Glove boxes Natural dates on spikelets Dates packed in polythene bags Manual packing of cellophane wrapped pressed date blocks (a. Libya, b. Iraq, c. Bahrain) Closed carton, window carton and transparent plastic cups for loose dates (a. Libya, b.

Italy, c. Iraq, d. Netherlands) 58. Variety of date packs sold in roadside date products store (California, 1981) 59. Vacuum packaging of dates 60. Trays wrapped in stretch foli 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. Semi-automatic bag filling (Iraq) Mechnically filled small packs of loose dates (Saudi Arabia) Samples of date packs Dehydrated dates in powder form Breakfast foods incorporating dates Ready-made mix for date bread Date bar mix Several types of date cookies

69. Date muesli bar 70. Dried fruit and nuts mixtures including dates, a. Raw trail mix; b. Roasted trail mix; c. Tropical mix
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71. Date jam 72. Date banana chutney 73. Steak sauce 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. Different types of pickle incorporating dates English sweet pickle Centrifuged date solution Schematic representation of a (a) one-, and (b) two stage extraction system Date spread compared to date syrup produced from the same raw material Process flow sheet for combined date syrup and spread production Production of date syrup (rub, dibs) at the village level (Libya) Different aspects of date syrup production Semi-continuous, batch extraction system Distillation and rectification of alcohol Acetic acid (vinegar) generator Date pits

86. Palm trunk used in roof making 87. Planks made out of palm trunk used for doors 88. Crate making from the leaf midrib: a. The crate maker' tools; b. Removing the edges; c. Cutting into standard lengths d. Rounding the rods; e. Perforating holes by punch f. Finishing the holes; g. Driving in the rods h. Finishing the crate bottom 89. Examples of crates: a. On camel's back; b. For fowl on donkey's back 90. Baskets made of plaited leaflets containing about 300 kgs of dates 91. Variety of hand baskets made from plaited palm leaflets on sale in local market 92. Containers for domestic use made out of fibre of the leaflets wrapped around cores derived from fibre cut off the fruit stalk 93. Hand-made cord made of shredded date leaflets, (a) a two-strand cord; (b) a hank of cord about 75-80 m long 94. 95. 96. 97. Sheath fibre from the leaf base as it comes from the palm (top) and in detail (bottom) Nets made out of sheath fibre cordage for transport Several types of cordage made of sheath fibre in local market (Egypt) Heavy rope made from shredded date palm fruit stalks

98. Climbing the palm: (top) In-the-belt position; (bottom) Use of climbing rope only 99. a-o. Comparison between Indian method of tapping the wild date palm (Phoenix Sylvestris) and tapping the date palm (Phoenix Dactylifera) as practiced in some date producing countries (local method) 100. 101. Effect of palm tapping on trunk development (local method) Effect of palm tapping on trunk development (Indian method)

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LIST OF TABLES
1. Average relative humidity levels in different locations (%-age) 2. Relative salt tolerance of fruit crops 3. Date production ('000 MT) 4. Production record of a Californian date grower 5. Sugar content of dates from different countries 6. Sugar content of soft, semi-dry and dry dates 7. Overview of treatments of whole dates 8. Average moisture content of the different development stages of the dates 9. Lethal times in minutes for 100% mortality of different stages of Carophilus Hemipterus, L (Dried Fruit Beetle) exposed to 40 C-60 C (70% rel. humidity) 10. Lethal time in hours for 100% mortality of different stages of the Fig Moth (Ephestia Cautela (Walker)) exposed to temperatures of 40 C-60 C and 70% rel. humidity (R.H.) 11. Exposure time in minutes required for 100% mortality of different stages of Ephestia Cautela under the effect of temerature alone (T) and temperature-cum-vacuum treatment (T + V) (vacuum 25-30 mm Hg abs.) 12. Classification and treatment of Deglet Noor for Export (North Africa) 13. Derived date products 14. Material balance - Date extraction in one step (100 flesh + 100 water) 15. Material balance - Date extraction in one step (100 flesh + 250 water) 16. Composition of date syrups 17. Composition of date syrups - Iraq 18. Composition of dried yeast 19. Approximate composition of date pits 20. Composition of date pit carbohydrates (excl. sugars - % of dry weight) 21. Dry distillation of date pits 169 22. Composition of date pit carbon 169 23. Weight gain of chickens fed on date pit meal (grams) 24. Composition of dried date presscakes 25. Weight gain, food composition and conversion efficiency during fattening period (49 days) of broilers 26. Palm sap yields 27. Yields of palm sap (Indian and local method) 28. Composition of jaggery 29. Composition of fibrous date palm parts 30. Composition of spathe (%-age on fresh weight) 31. Composition of pollen (dry weight basis)

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FOREWORD
Dates are unique in that they constitute a set of properties and characteristics, which distinguish them from all major fruits. Dates are consumed in at least three major stages of maturity: from fresh, crisp to succulent, to soft pliable. A fully tree ripened date is self-preserving for months and can be stored or transported as a concentrated food source. Dates have a significance as a staple food as well as a dessert fruit, whilst their use in date products and industrial applications has increased. Date palms flourish where other fruit production would be marginal at best, which has perhaps contributed to the producer's special affection for the date palm and the habitat created by it. This versatility of the crop has given it an endurance to resist the negative influences which effect its economic development. In spite of individual cases where date cultivation has diminished or even vanished, overall date production worldwide has increased over the last 30 years, partly due to the introduction of improved and labour-saving techniques in the date gardens and better presentation and outlet diversification of the crop. The present publication focuses attention on this diversity of the date crop, the date derived products and palm products in particular, and can be seen as a continuation and elaboration of two earlier FAO books by the late V.H.W. Dowson: "Dates, Handling, Processing and Packaging (1962)" and "Date Production and Protection (1982)". The hand drawn sketches were, unless specifically referenced otherwise, made by Ms. Chiara Guarnera. Enquiries with regards to this publication should be addressed to: The Chief, Food and Agricultural Industries Service, Agricultural Services Division, FAO, Rome, Italy.

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INTRODUCTION

Few plant species have developed into an agricultural crop so closely connected with human life as has the date palm. One could go as far as to say that, had the date palm not existed, the expansion of the human race into the hot and barren parts of the "old" world would have been much more restricted. The date palm not only provided a concentrated energy food, which could be easily stored and carried along on long journeys across the deserts, it also created a more amenable habitat for the people to live in by providing shade and protection from the desert winds (Fig. 1). In addition, the date palm also yielded a variety of products for use in agricultural production and for domestic utensils, and practically all parts of the palm had a useful purpose. But if the palm had an impact on human life, the influence was reciprocal, because through a long process of learning and experience, date palm cultivation was gradually adapted to man's needs. If left undisturbed, in its wild state, the date palm would, favourable growth conditions permitting, expand in an impenetrable forest of highly competitive clusters of an approximate equal number of male and female palms with relatively few reaching appreciable height or fruit producing capacity. Examples of such uninhibited growth can still be found in some of the more remote areas of the Sahara. Thus, man learned to direct date palm productivity to his own advantage by restricting the number of plants per ha; by assisting in the pollination process, thus eliminating the need for non-productive male palms by over 95%; by propagation of the best, proven varieties by the use of offshoots, thus ensuring the continued, identical productive capacity of the mother palm. He started to care for his palm, learning the benefits of leaf and bunch management, fertilization and pest control. In this way he became assured of an annual crop of dates, leaves and fibre, because though the date crops may vary in size from year to year, they never fully fail. Through a longer cycle of replacing senile palms by young offshoots, he obtained access to palm trunks, which served in the construction of roofs, doors and utensils. Thus, with the energy and intelligence of man, and where other crops on their own would have failed, thanks to the date palm a perpetual production cycle was established, in which little was lost or accumulated. This process has existed for thousands of years, making it possible for man to live and survive in the most remote places and enabling him to cross the vast deserts.

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Figure 1: (a) Rural Date Orchard (b) Note waterlifting from shallow well However, over the last fifty to hundred years the discovery of oil, the industrialization process, improved communication systems and transport means have brought about many changes to this picture. Even the most deserted areas are now accessible by road or air, making available a great number of goods and services in direct competition with date palm products. Indeed, in many instances date palms are now only grown for the fruit they produce, with little or no use for the secondary palm products. Nevertheless, even if economic and social progress in the first instance appear to have had a negative effect on traditional date palm growing, this progress has not provoked the disappearance of the date palm. On the contrary, it has given impetus and means to find ways to adapt date cultivation and processing methods, to improve quality standards and seek new outlets for date fruit and develop products derived from dates, in order to preserve a national

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heritage so eminently suited for the prevailing conditions. The overall trend has been to move from mixed and random oasis date palm cultivation to organizing it as a plantation crop with similar varieties and even stands, allowing for a more efficient execution of cultural practices. This road is proving long and arduous, limiting factors being the relative shortage of high quality offshoots for new plantations, and the lack of large-scale private commercial interests, which, for instance, changed oil palm and rubber production entirely. The burden of date palm development has therefore mainly fallen on local governments. It can be said that in the total present spectre of date palm cultivation in the world, all facets of transition can be found: from the abandonment of orchards under pressure of socio-economic changes (Fig. 2), to maintaining traditional oasis date cultivation (Fig. 3); from local tenant farming, to private, mechanized orchards (Fig. 4), and large-scale privately and publicly owned plantations. This diffused picture of a crop, is also reflected in the varying successes obtained from industrialization of the date, i.e. the introduction of improved packing and processing methods. Dates considered as a fresh fruit rank number 5 in the production list of tropical and sub-tropical fruits after citrus, mangoes, bananas and pineappples. As a dried fruit dates easily top the list over raisins, figs and prunes.

Figure 2: Abandoned Date Garden (Bahrain)

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Figure 3: Closely Spaced Traditional Date Grove

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Figure 4: Mechanized Date Plantation with Dusting Operation in Progress (California) The characteristics of the date palm have on several occasions clearly been described by authoritative writers (445, 363, 136, 142, 70). However, for a better understanding of the underlying reasons why certain developments have taken place, a summary is again given of the main properties, distribution and limitations of the date palm and its products. The exact origin or gene centre of the date palm has been lost in history, but evidence of date palm cultivation goes as far back as 4000 B.C. in what is now southern Iraq. But references to date palms have also been found in Ancient Egypt, and there seems to be a consensus that the earliest form of date palm cultivation coincided with the oldest civilizations and originated in North-East Africa, stretching north east into the delta of the Euphrates and Tigris. From there date palms have spread either purposely or accidentally. Purposely, when in time of population movements the people took along their main crops. Missionaries, in the wake of the "conquistadores" introduced the date palm in some Latin American countries, perhaps more for having a supply of palm fronds for religious celebrations than for introducing a new crop. Then there have been numerous examples of accidental distribution of the date palm, facilitated by the fact that dates lend themselves perfectly to being carried along as a high calorie food, with a long-keeping quality. Soldiers on the march, traders and

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discoverers - all may have had their influence in spreading the date palm by leaving the seeds behind after consumption of the fruit flesh (Fig. 5).

Figure 5: Dissemination of the date palm in the Old World (363) In more recent times there have been a number of exchanges of offshoots between date producing countries, sometimes however restricted by embargoes for protective reasons or fear of the spread of disease. The most striking example of the commercial introduction of the date palm into new lands was the importation of a large number of offshoots into Arizona and California in the U.S.A. around the turn of this century and which reached its peak in the twenties when at least 50,000 shoots had been planted forming the basis for a striving date industry, now mainly restricted to the Coachella Valley in California covering almost 2,000 ha. Ironically, this importation of offshoots has seen a period of a reverse flow, when on the wave of acquired oil revenues, several Arab countries undertook large-scale programmes to increase their date acreage but found a shortage of suitable offshoots in their own countries and resorted to foreign imports, amongst others from the U.S. The present situation in the world as a net result of these historical developments is reflected in the map of Figure 6 (142). It shows a wide belt from the Atlantic Ocean through the Sahara, the Arabian Peninsula, into Iran and the Indus Valley in Pakistan with their main centres of production. Outside this belt the concentrations are much more localized and except for the U.S. of less importance worldwide.

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Figure 6: Major Date Production Centres of the World

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Figure 7: Unattended Date Palms in Marginal Growth Condition In arriving at this picture of the global distribution of date production, which was to a great extent man-induced, the date palm's own limitations for productive growth must also be taken into consideration. The often referred to statement that the date palm likes its "feet in Heaven and its head in Hell", alluding to the fact that the date palm requires an abundant water supply and high temperatures, is indicative of the basic growth requirements of the palm. When a constant natural or artificial supply of water becomes erratic palm growth soon becomes chancy as the pictures in Figure 7 demonstrate. Assuming however an adequate supply of water available for any given location, in the first instance, the temperature therefore becomes the determining factor. Within the climatological limits of where the palms are now grown, i.e. the hottest part of the Sahara, the upper range of temperature tolerance is of little importance to the palm. Maximum temperatures of around 50o C as they occur do not harm the palm, though they may influence the physiological aspects of the fruit they bear, which usually become hard and dry in these circumstances. Resistance to these high temperatures must be attributed to the fact that firstly the date palm, compared to most other plants, has only one growing point, on top sof the trunk well enshrouded in the bases of older fronds made of highly insulating material. By the time the new fronds and fruit and flower bunches, sprouting from this growing point, have to face the sun, they are already tough enough to withstand the heat. Inspite of this insulation, the growing point would eventually heat up if no cooling effect existed simultaneously. This is provided by the subsoil water supply which slowly rises in the trunk and evaporates through the leaves. Both effects result in a diurnal temperature amplitude of not more than 4 to 5 C (363) in the growing point whilst ambient temperatures may have a range, especially in desert regions, of 20 C and more. This dampening effect of daily temperature variations makes it possible for the palm to survive, not only from extreme high temperatures but also, although to a lesser extent, from lower or temperatures. Damage from cold is shown as the drying out of foliage to death of the palm in severe cases. No exact temperature range is known, because factors like the length of exposure (expressed in hours per day and days per month) and the varietal characteristics and age of the palm also play a role. An idea of the extent of tolerance to cold is therefore based on isolated observations such as: at -15 C drying out of foliage occurred but palms survived (363); in California damage was never observed when the temperature remained over -7 C (391).
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There are many more of these types of observations for different locations, but for the sake of "order of magnitude" it can be said that palms can resist moderate freezing temperatures and that damage can be expected below -6 to -7 C. A secondary effect of a submission to cold, without damage to the palm, is delayed flowering (363). It can therefore be concluded that the date palm can survive in a wide temperature range (up to about 50-60 C). But to complete a full productive cycle, i.e. to bear fruit, the date palm requires a certain amount of heat energy. To establish the approximate amount of this energy has been of concern to date researchers as early as the last century, the reason being to create a tool with which to predict suitability of new lands for date cultivation based on meteorological records. Accepted and confirmed data related to temperature requirements are that: the date palm will flower only when the shade temperature rises over 18 C; will fruit at temperatures above 25 C and vegetative growth will stop under 10 C (100). To quantify the minimum total amount of heat required for a full productive cycle the system of accumulated heat units was adopted, which, as a start, was the sum of the daily average temperatures in the period from flowering to fruit ripening. A first figure obtained was 5100 C (100). Later researchers have attempted to perfect the method by not taking the daily mean but the daily maxi-mum temperatures into account or by taking 18 C (below which no flowering takes place) as the zero point instead of 0 C or 10 C. Uniformity of the start and the end of the count of total heat units has also been lacking (examples: from flowering to maturation of the fruit; from minimum 18 C at the beginning to maximum 18 C at the end of the season; from 1 December to 30 September of the following year). Adding to this that some researchers like to express themselves in 0F and others in C. All these variations in determining the limit of required heat units below which commercial date cultivation is less likely to be successful, have made the results difficult to compare. In evaluating them one needs the exact specification of the measurements made. Perhaps the most realistic and useful method is to apply the sum of the mean daily temperatures minus 18 C, accumulated from pollination to harvest. Under these criteria for North Africa 1800 C is considered the minimum required for the so-called "common varieties" and 1890 for the Deglet Nuur variety (142). Inspite of some of the inconveniences created by the diversication of the measuring methods (some of which can be remedied by recalculation) the summation of heat units has been a useful tool in guiding the horticulturist in his decision making for the suitability of commercial date production in new lands. Not only in the early days of this century (561, 317), but also in more recent times in countries such as Kenya and Botswana, the method has been applied (547, 546). It is to be understood, however, that a satisfactory number of heat units alone is not a panacea to predict the success of date production. Temperature being the most vital factor and assuming a sufficient water supply, and an allowance for varietal tolerance and isolated favourable microclimates, the possibility for reproductive date palm growth becomes therefore largely a matter of latitude and altitude. But there are other climatological factors, that, at least in the eyes of man, affect date production qualitatively and quantitatively. They are humidity of the air, rainfall and wind. Rainfall during and right after pollination may reduce the fruit setting but is not generally a great preoccupation. More feared are the (early) rains during final maturation of the crop, a realistic possibility in many date growing areas.

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Apart from direct physical damage, the secondary effects of increased humidity and lower temperature work against the final maturation of the crop and favour insect infestation and fungal growth. It is for this reason that in several areas preventive measures are taken by protecting the fruit bunches with covers (Fig. 8).

Figure 8: Date Bunches covered with Paper Bags against (early) Rains and Sunburn (California) Bunch covering is, however, not only practised against rain damage but traditionally is also used in the form of coarsely woven well-ventilated baskets (sund) to protect the maturing fruit from birds and prevent early ripening fruit from falling to the ground. At harvesting time the baskets are carefully lowered to the ground on a rope (Fig. 9). When protection against early rain or sunburn are the prime objectives, increasing temperatures (which may reach 65oC under the paper cover with an ambient temperature of 40oC) may benefit maturation, but also create a favourable environment for fungal growth and spoilage in general. Material choice of the cover and ventilation therefore become of prime importance when resorting to this method of bunch protection.

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Figure 9: Bunch Protection by Coarsely Woven Baskets (Hadramarit, Yemen) Humidity of the air, expressed preferably as a relative percentage (i.e. %-age of saturation at prevailing temperature), because it is a measure of the absorptive moisture capacity of the air, is of great importance to the type and quality of the final product. The relation is rather simple: in regions with low relative humidities such as the internal desert areas, dates tend to dry out on the palm until they are hard with a moisture content as low as 10% (Fig. 10). This may be advantageous for increased keeping quality and food to weight ratio, it is less attractive, generally speaking, to the consumer. On the other hand, high relative humidities, such as frequently occur in coastal areas, delay the evaporation of moisture to the extent that the dates do not reach the "safe" moisture content for preservation and have to be harvested at a perishable stage, to be either consumed within a matter of days or to be preserved by artificial means. For instance, the major part of the date crop in the Nile Delta in Egypt is consumed at the "fresh" stage.

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Figure 10: Hard desert dates, harvested on the bunch and thrown to the ground (Fezzan) Some figures to illustrate this situation are given in Table 1(363, 142): Table 1 Average relative humidity levels in different locations (%-age)

Niger (Kaouara) South Algeria, Touggourt Interior Tunisia, Tozeur Coastal Tunisia, Gabs Nile Delta, Egypt Iraq, Baghdad Basrah Bahrain

25% 43.5% 61% 66% 68-74% 42-50% 55-60%

74-77%

These figures correspond very well with the type of date prevalent in the areas under consideration. The third climatological factor which has an impact on the final fruit quality is wind, which, since pollination is done by hand, has only negative, though not severe, effects on date production. The palm itself can withstand gale force winds, though these may result in damage to pending fruit from hitting against the fronds. Sand-laden winds like the Khamsin of Egypt, the Ghibli of Libya and the

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Sirocco in Tunisia and Algeria, are likely to deposit dust on the surface of the fruit especially when it is sticky. This problem is aggravated when dealing with varieties of which the skin tends to loosen during ripening and the dust will settle on the date flesh, with no possibility of it being washed out completely. To complete the description of the main ecological requirements, the variations of which may affect the productive capacity of the palm and quality of the fruit, a few remarks on water and soil requirements are made. Unless special provisions are made to accumulate and divert the surface water, rainfall has little importance in supplying the palm with its daily water requirements. In the majority of cases the cultivated date palm, therefore, has to be irrigated, either from rivers, streams, or wells. In a few places this can be arranged by harnessing natural forces such as gravity when rivers originate uphill and their waters can be diverted into the date gardens, by artesian wells, or by tidal irrigation, which is the classical case in the Shatt-el-Arab region (Fig. 11). Otherwise water has to be lifted either by man (Fig. 1b), animal or pump. Total annual requirements per palm have been estimated on many occasions (summarized in 363 and 142), which show a certain divergence, no doubt caused by different soil and climatological conditions. Nevertheless as an overall average for programming purposes a through-the-year figure of 0.5 l/palm/minute would seem adequate. This would correspond with roughly 250 m3/palm/year. If one considers that the water lifting capacity of one ox (and man) from 20 m deep is about 2 m3/hr (363), it shows clearly how much time and effort was going into supplying water to the palms. Another indicative figure is that about 2 m3 water per kg of fruit is used in the best of circumstances. It therefore shows that the date palm, inspite of its connotations with hot and dry climates, is a more than average consumer of water, but it compensates for this by tolerating relatively high salt contents compared to other crops. This fortunate circumstance gives it access to water supplies otherwise of little use in agriculture. Bearing in mind that very good drinking water contains 100 ppm (parts per million) of salts, normal "mineral" water around 600 ppm, the limit for use as drinking water is around 1500-3000 ppm and seawater goes as high as 40,000 ppm, the figures given in literature show the following tolerancy levels for the date palm: in the Algerian Sahara (Baskra, Touggourt) salt contents vary from 2000 to 5000 ppm; in Egypt studies showed that maximum salt content of irrigation water should not exceed 2000 ppm (363); experiments on young seedling palms showed a linear decline in growth rate from the level of 3000 ppm salts in the water supplies (166). Examples are also given of tolerancy figures going as high as 6000 and 7000 ppm but at these levels an adverse effect on crop yield and quality can certainly be expected. A visible example of the relative salt tolerance is the northwards ongoing process of decreasing date yields on Abadan island (Shatt-al Arab region) in consequence of the increasing salinity of the tidal water with which the date gardens are irrigated, and which in turn is the result of the more intensive use of the river waters (Euphrates, Tigris, Karoon, Dez, Karchech) feeding the estuary in which Abadan island is located (309). Compared to other fruit crops the date palm is, however, considered to have a high tolerance for salts compared to other fruit crops as the following table shows (456).

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Table 2 Relative salt tolerance of fruit crops

High salt tolerance (ECe x 10 = 18*) Date Palm

Medium salt tolerance (ECe x 10 = 10) Pomergranate Fig Olive Grape Cantaloupe

Low salt tolerance (ECe x 10 = 5) Pear Almond Apple Apricot Orange Peach Grapefruit Strawberry Prune Lemon Plum Avocado

*The numbers following ECe x 103 are the electrical conductivity values of the sat-uration extracts in millimhos per cm at 25 C associated with a 50% decrease in yield.

Figure 11: Tital Irrigation (Iraq)

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Apart from having a certain drought resistance because of its relatively few and well protected foliage, the date palm can withstand flooding for prolonged periods partly explained by the presence of numerous and large air spaces in its root tissue (136). With regard to soil requirements the date palm is not very demanding and will grow on almost any type of soil, from almost pure sand to heavy alluvial soils, provided they furnish the basic needs of anchorage to the palm, minerals, water penetration and drainage. The optimal situation lies, therefore, in the middle, and deep sandy loams are often quoted as the more suitable type of soil for the date palm. In conclusion of these general ecological characteristics for date palm cultivation reference is made again to the map of the distribution of date palms in the world (Fig. 6) and the actual date production figures in the different countries in Appendix I as derived from the FAO Production and Trade Yearbooks (155). The more important date producing countries are shown below in order of the size of the crop:

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Table 3 Date Production ('000 MT)

Average 1961-65 Egypt Iran Saudi Arabia Iraq Pakistan Algeria 407 305 170 336 96 122

Average 1971-75 386 293 280 400 177 159

Average 1981-85 457 385 417 346 234 193

1990

580 540 525 490 290 212

Sub-total 6 major producers 2637

Sudan Oman Libya Tunisia

58 40 36 35

109 49 68 41

120 74 84 61

130 125 74 73

Sub-total medium producers 402

The remainder of 372 000 tons is produced in some 22 countries of which the more important are Morocco, Chad, USA, Israel, United Arab Emirates and Yemen 372
World 2208 1839 2645 3411

From these figures it can be concluded that date production worldwide has been steadily increasing over the last 30 years and in 1990 reached 3,400,000 tons, 85% more than in 1960. Over 75% of this tonnage is produced in six major date producing countries, 90% of total world production comes from 10 countries out of a total of 32 date producing countries. This is as far as quantities is concerned: a qualitative evaluation is complex because of the large varietal nuances and differences in the production areas. Suffice to say that there is a great quality factor involved in estimating the crop value and that some of the smaller producer countries produce some of the best quality fruits in the world trade market. The date palm (Phoenix Dactylifera) is a monocotyledon of the family of the Palmae, one of the genera of which are the Coryphoideae, of which one species is Phoenix Dactylifera. It is a feather
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palm, characterized by compound leaves with a series of leaflets on each side of a common petiole, originating from one growing point on top of the trunk. Two close relatives of the date palm are the Wild Date Palm (Phoenix Sylvestris), widely used in parts of India for sugarmaking (jaggery), and the Canary Palm (Phoenix Canariensis) frequently found as an ornamental palm on Mediterranean coasts and the Americas (Fig. 12), on occasion interrupted by a lonely, and unproductive, true date palm (Fig. 13).

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Figure 12: Canary Palms (Phoenix Canariensis) (Note flower development in these overpruned ornamental palms) (Sicily, Italy)
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Figure 13: Single Date Palm at the Port of Ischia (Italy) The date palm may reach an age of over 100 years and reach up to 24 m in height to the growing point. Normally the useful age limit is less and consequently the height will not be more than 15-20 m maximum before it will be cut down because of declining yield and increasing difficulty (and danger) to reach the crown during pollination, bunch management and harvesting (510). A schematic picture of the date palm during a one-year productive cycle is given in Figure 14.

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Figure 14: Schematic Picture of the Date Palm during a ONe-year Production Cycle Five main stages in the palm's life cycle can be distinguished (322): 1. growth of the offshoot attached to the mother palm (5-8 years); 2. growth of the separated and transplanted offshoot (4-6 years); 3. start and increasing fruit yields and formation of offshoots (14-20 years); 4. full productivity but no more offshoot formation (30-35 years); 5. declining yields. Leaves are formed in buds in a slightly ascending spiral around the growing point, at the rate of 1030 per year. With an average lifespan of 3-7 years the number of leaves per palm varies from 30-140. Initially, the young leaf is enclosed in a leaf sheath of tender tissue which at a length of about 20 cm will open to give passage to the extruding leaf. The sheath tissue will dry out and eventually only the fibrous tissue, known as palm fibre will remain at the base of the leaf. Leaves may reach a length of 6 m, with an average of 4 m (142). Under natural conditions, the leaves, after their useful life is over, will dry and bend down alongside the trunk where they would stay for quite a while before dropping to the ground. The date cultivator, however, will each year remove the old leaves in order to give him better access to the crown. The leafbase will remain attached to the trunk and where palms are still climbed, are used as steps for the climber's feet.

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The leaflets (pinnae) of the compound leaf (frond) (Fig. 15a) may range in length from 15 cm to about 1 m with a width ranging from 1 to 6.5 cm. Total number of leaflets on one frond may vary from 120 to 240. Apart from pinnae the petiole (midrib) usually also grows spines in the lower region. They are hard and very sharp pins, ranging in length from almost nothing to over 20 cm. They are situated at the two outer edges of the midrib and may number from 10 to about 60. The date cultivator will quite often remove the spines to prevent injury during cultural practices.

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Figure 15: Major Parts of the Date Palm Some 12 (0-25 range) flower buds develop during the winter in the axils of some of the leaves just below the growing point. The inflorescence, enveloped in a sheath or spathe (Fig. 15b), pushes through the fibre on the leaf base it originated from to a length of 25 to 100 cm. It will split open upon maturation of the inside flower cluster, which consists of a main stem (fruit stalk) which rapidly lengthens outside the spathe, and a number of spikelets originating mainly from or near the apex of the main fruit stalk. The date palm is dioecious, which means there are male and female plants. The yellowish flowers are small, attached directly to the spikelets; male flowers are sweet-scented and have six stamens, female flowers consist of three carpels with ovules, of which normally only one will develop into a fruit (Fig. 15c). For fruit setting, fertilisation of the female flowers by male pollen is required, which in date palm cultivation is not left to the wind or insects but is done traditionally by man by inserting a piece of a spikelet of male flower at the moment of the opening of the female flowers. More modern methods will collect the pollen from the males and in combination with a carrier (such as flour) will be dusted on the female flowers with a mechanical device. Upon successful pollination the fruit will now start to develop through different distinguishable stages until it reaches maturity, a term which, especially in date cultivation, needs qualification (see later). As not all female flowers are produced at the same time, the stage of maturity of the dates is also staggered for the different bunches. Even on one particular bunch, ripening will usually start from the lower end of the hanging bunch going upward. This means the grower will be required to climb his

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palms more than once for each operation, e.g. at least 3 times for pollination. At the last round of harvesting the fruit bunch is cut off. It is difficult to give an average figure for the size of the annual crop per palm because it depends so much on growing conditions, the variety, the age of the palm, and the skill of the cultivator. In comparing crop yields an allowance must also be made for the stage at which the fruit is harvested, for instance fresh hard dates (Khalaal or Bisr, around 50% moisture) yield much more in fruit weight than a dry desert date (say 15% moisture). A unique record was kept by a private Californian date grower (91) who, over a period of more than twenty years (1934-1956), kept track of all fruit bunches formed and the total weight of dates produced from the time of planting the offshoots for a total of 435 Deglet Noor Palms. The following cumulative figures give an interesting picture of the production capacity of a commercial date grove under Californian conditions (Fig. 16):

Figure 16: A Fully Laden Deglet Noor Palm (California)

Table 4 Production record of a Californian Date Grower

1936-1956 over 21 productive years Number of palms Number of bunches 435 114 214

1947-1956 over last 10 years 435 68 295

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Dates produced (kgs) Average date weight/ bunch (kgs) Average number of bunches/tree Bunches per tree (1 yr. av.) Kgs per tree Kgs per tree (1 yr. av.)

864 162 7.56 262.5 12.5 1985.9 94.6

532 993 7.80 157.0 15.7 1225.3 122.5

Additional observations during this period were the following: i. formation of offshoots (up to 8 per tree) does not seem to have an effect on the productive capacity of the palm compared to palms not forming offshoots ii. full maturity of the palms is not reached before 12-13 years iii. outside rows of palms, exposed to more sunshine bear consistently more fruit than those planted inside, giving some weight to the thesis that the standard planting distance of 30 x 30 feet (9 x 9 m) may be a little too close (from a productivity point of view). The above production figures from an intensive date cultivation system go far beyond the results of traditional date growing practices. Overall country averages in the date production countries do not go much higher than 20-30 kgs/palm/year, though the production inputs are also less (fertilizers, pesticides) and generally the palms are much closer spaced. Even so, in well organized date plantations in favourable environments in the old world yields may reach 100 kgs/palm/year and over (Fig. 17).

Figure 17: Harvesting Whole Bunches of Khalaal (cv Khuneizi). Note strung (nylon) rope attached to climbing belt to slide down the bunch (Bahrain)

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Annual crop volume and individual fruit size can be influenced by the grower by bunch removal and fruit thinning. Bunch removal, usually the very early and late ones, is aimed at avoiding overbearing of the palm with a consequent poor yield in the next year. For mature Deglet Noor palms normally not more than 15 bunches are left on with an overall leaf to bunch ratio of 8 or 9. Fruit thinning is accomplished in three ways: i. cutting back the tips of the strands by about along a horizontal plane ii. removal of the inner strands, leaving about 40-45 strands per bunch iii.reduce number of dates on one strand to about 40. The result of fruit thinning is less overall yield but bigger sized fruit developed on well ventilated bunches (Fig. 18).

Figure 18: Bunch of Thyinned Deglet Noor (California) Both bunch removal and fruit thinning are location and variety specific, not necessarily transferable elsewhere without on-site testing. The trunk of the palm is composed of vascular bundles held together with connective tissue. Towards the periphery, where the leaf bases are embedded, the tissues tend to become more lignified and tough. The diameter of the trunk will not increase once the full crown of fronds has developed.

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Roots of the date palm originate from the more or less ball shaped foot of the trunk and are singular with little or no secondary thickening or branching into rootlets. The date palm has no tap root, but 4 zones in the root system can be distinguished (363). 1st Zone: Roots sprouting from the upper part of the trunk base. They have partially a negative geotropism and do not go deeper than 1/4 m, apparently playing a role in the respiratory system, evidenced by the large air pockets in the tissue. 2nd Zone: This is the most intense rooting zone with numerous roots branched into rootlets spreading into the earth with the main purpose of collecting nutritive substances and moisture. By and large the zone stretches from a little below to 1 m below ground level. 3rd Zone: The development of roots into the third zone (roughly from 1-2 m underground) largely depends on the availability of nutritional substances in the higher zones, i.e. in poor soils the roots of the second zone will also extend into the third zone. 4th Zone: Finally in the 4th zone, some 2 m below ground level, roots may develop with a strong geotropism, in search for water, when this is not available in sufficient quantities in the higher zones. In its natural state the date palm would propagate by seed, which either falls to the ground after the fruit has matured or after having been spread byanimals or man carrying away and eating the fruit. The date palm, however, also has the capability of vegetative propagation by the formation of offshoots (Fig. 19 and 20). Although in the natural state these offshoots tend to become competitor to the mother palm, for man this method of propagation has two major advantages: firstly, the offshoot is the exact replica of the mother palm, thus the established characteristics of the palm are carried on unchanged. This in contrast by multiplication through seed, which includes always the genetic inheritance of the father palm and carries no guarantee of continued desirable qualities in the offspring. This becomes of special importance when one considers that it may take up to ten years before the first fruits are produced on a seedling palm. This is in contrast to fruit from vegetative offshoots which may bear fruit after 4 to 5 years. Though selection programmes through cross pollination have been initiated the results, because of the time factor and the low expectancy rate, have not been encouraging. Almost all propagation nowadays is done through offshoots, though it has its limitations when rapid expansion of date cultivation of one particular variety is desired, the reason being the slow vegetative reproduction rate. One mother palm will produce 6 to 12 offshoots in her lifetime, or at the very best an average of one child every five years, which does not allow for vast replacement or expansion programmes. Much attention is therefore given with high expectations focussed on propagation through tissue culture. Results at the laboratory stage have been positive and promising but turning them into practical field applications has so far not become foolproof. With the above general description of world date production and the major characteristics of date palm cultivation the following chapters will focus on the products derived from the date palm. The more important product is the date fruit, in particular in a market economy. In a subsistence economy, however, the situation is more diffuse with respect to the use of other palm products, especially in the more remote areas.

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Figure 19: Newly Planted Offshoots (8 x 16 m) (Bahrain)

Figure 20: 4-Year Old Plantation of Zahdi Offshoots (California) Because of the great diversity in date fruits, originating not only from inherent varietal differences, but also from different growth conditions and post-harvest treatment, the description of the use of dates has been classified into four groups, i.e. I whole dates, II date fruit products and preparations, III derived date fruit products and IV by-products of date packing and processing. In Chapter V the remaining palm products will be reviewed.

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CHAPTER 1: WHOLE DATES

1.1 Formation and Development Botanically the date fruit is a berry consisting of a single seed surrounded by a fibrous, parchmentlike endocarp, a fleshy mesocarp and the fruit skin (pericarp). The fruit is attached to the spikelet by a perianth (calyx or cap). It takes up to about 200 days from pollination to reach full maturation (tamr stage). During its formation and ripening the fruit passes through a number of distinct phases, each of them distinguished by one or more particular characteristics, both physiognomically and chemically, which are represented in generalized form in figures 21 and 22 (adapted from 139, 117, 363, 468, 478, 497 and 40).

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Figure 21: Formation and Ripening of the Dates

Figure 22: Major Changes during Date Fruit Development These models help to understand the development of the date through basically 4 stages named by their Arabic denominations; kimri, khalaal, rutab and tamr. Hababauk is the term used for the female flower and the period just after pollination when the young fruit is still creamy white before gradually turning green at the kimri stage. At the kimri stage there is a rapid increase in size, weight, and reducing sugars; it is the period of highest acid activity and moisture content (up to 85%). All factors level off at the end of this stage when the fruit starts to turn yellow (or red according to variety). At this point the date seed could already germinate and the fruit is botanically mature. At the khalaal stage weight gain is slow but sucrose content increases, moisture content goes down, and tannins will start to precipitate and lose their astringency. In some varieties this latter process evolves rapidly, which makes them already palatable at the khalaal stage, and one could speak of commercial

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maturity for this type of fruit at this stage. With (normally) the tips of the fruit starting to turn brown, the rutab stage sets in which is characterized by a decrease in weight due to moisture loss, a partial (the degree depending on the variety) inversion of sucrose into invert sugar and a browning of the skin and softening of the tissues. The moisture content goes down to about 35% and the dates at this stage are sold as fresh fruit. Only when the dates are left to ripen further on the palm will they turn into tamr, climatic conditions permitting, characterized by a moisture content at which the date is self-preserving. The upper limit for the date to be self-preserving lies at around 24-25%. Dates distinguish themselves therefore from most other fruit in that they have a botanical maturity and at least 3 distinct commercial maturation levels, the sweet khalaal, the rutab, and the tamr stage (Fig. 23).

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Figure 23: Three Major Stages of Maturity in which Dates are Consumed: (a) khalaal, (b) entab, (c) tamr According to variety and growth conditions date fruits (tamr) vary in shape, size and weight. Usually they are oblong though certain varieties may reach a near round shape. Length and width may vary from respectively 18 and 8 mm to 60 and 32 mm but averages at 40 and 20 mm (139). Average weight per fruit is about 7 to 10 gr. In conclusion, a practical example is shown of the growth and compositional changes for the Ruzeiz variety of Saudi Arabia (Fig. 24, adapted from 504).

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Figure 24: Morphological and Compositional Changes in the 5 Major Development Stages of Ruzeiz (Saudi Arabia) 1.2 Composition and Quality Knowledge of the qualitative and quantitative chemical composition of date fruit is of prime importance to the user of dates, in particular the packer, processor or trader, because it affects the possibilities and limitations of the raw material for the intended end-use. The consumers' interest will mainly focus on the organoleptic and nutritional properties of the product. There is a good deal of information to be found in date literature, mostly on individual varieties, but a general picture emerges of what the date fruit consists of and what are the average quantitative values. A summary is given below of the major components and their relationship to the post-harvest qualities of the fruit, especially from the viewpoint of the trader, packer, processor and consumer. a. Moisture: As has been referred to in the text before even at the natural stages of development, the date goes from one extreme of moisture content (85% at the early kimri stage) to another (5-10% in dry desert dates). In between there are several levels of importance, i.e. about 50-60% for sweet khalaal, about 35-40% for rutab, around 24% for entering the zone of self-preservation, and about 20% at which a large amount of dates are marketed because they are safe to store but have still retained a pliable and attractive texture. The above practical observations are confirmed by the equilibrium moisture content curve (Fig. 25 adapted from 139 and 469).

Figure 25: Equilibrium moisture content curve for dates

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With the knowledge that moulds are unable to grow in an atmosphere below 70% relative humidity (for yeasts and bacteria even higher), the curve indicates a moisture content of 24% where dates are in equilibrium with surrounding air of 70% rel. humidity. Rutab at 35% is well above this level and must be considered perishable. The curve is further useful when considering storage conditions and drying of dates. Moisture content can be artificially manipulated by drying (either in the sun or by dehydration) to remove, or by (vacuum) hydration and steaming, to add water. Apart from microbial attack increasing moisture content also tends to increase biochemical processes in the dates such as darkening and softening. Increasing moisture content tends to decrease relative sweetness and bring outmore strongly the specific date flavours, hence the preference, generally speaking, for softer and rutab dates. b. Sugars Sugars contribute the most prevalent single component and in the ancient date production countries the date has been used more as a sugar source than as a fruit. In Tibesti water is boiled with dates to make tea, the nomads boil milk with dates, or they are simply chewed to obtain daily calorie intake (361) (a date of 20% moisture content will provide about 3,000 Kcal/kg date flesh, for the greatest part derived from its sugar content). For practical purposes all sugars in dates consist of a mixture of sucrose (C12 H22 011), glucose (C6 H12 06) and fructose (C6 H12 06) of which the latter two are the derivations of sucrose after inversion. Total sugars (at the tamr stage) on a dry weight basis for the more known varieties in the world do not appreciably differ in quantity as shown in Table 5. Table 5 Sugar content of dates from different countries

% Age Total Sugar on Dry Weight basis Average USA (118), 21 varieties Saudi Arabia (504) Central, Northern Region, 15 var. Eastern Region, 15 var. Western Region, 10 var. SW Region, 13 var. Iraq (599), 4 var. Iraq (353), 5 var. 77 74.2 78.3 79.1 87.1 73.8 67-83 65-83 74-87 71-83 86-88 45-86 78 Range 67-85

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The relative amounts of sucrose, glucose and fructose are determined mainly by varietal characteristics, but it can be said that most dates belong to the invert sugar type, i.e. at the stage at which they are consumed, most if not all sucrose has been inverted into glucose and fructose by the enzyme invertase. An exception is the very important variety Deglet Noor of North Africa and California in which the inversion has only partially been completed at commercial maturity. The practical and commercial sub-division of dates in "soft", "semi-dry", and "dry", based on their external qualities of texture and pliability at the tamr stage, is seemingly correlated to increasing sucrose content, but not always, with the Deglet Noor and to a certain extent the Zahdi as exceptions, the latter one also sometimes being classified as a dry date. Moisture and fibre content are expected also to play a role in determining whether a date is "soft", "semi-dry" or "dry". A few illustrative samples are given in Table 6 (118). Table 6 Sugar content of soft, semi-dry and dry dates Reducing sugars % on dry weight basis 84.8 82.2 38.6 70.4 70.7 64.6 40.9 35.0

% Moisture (fresh weight) Soft Semi-dry Noor Barhee Khadrawy Deglet Dayri Zahdi Zahdi Dry Thoori Kinta 37.3 24.4 24.1 22.2 13.6 15.5 -

Total sugar % on dry weight basis 84.8 82.2 77.1 75.7 78.2 82.0 73.0 80.0

Sucrose % on dry weight basis 0 0 38.5 5.3 7.5 17.4 (585) 32.1 45.0

Though the ratio glucose and fructose originates from a one-to-one basis, this ratio may change during ripening, usually glucose remaining the prominent one. For practical purposes the relative percentages of sucrose, glucose and fructose are of no great importance to the consumer, though availability of glucose and fructose is sometimes propagandized as a more direct, accessible energy source to the human body. To the processor this varying amount of sugars in the fruit means that the date cannot be considered a commercial source of table sucrose like that derived from beet or cane, and that in the processing of the date he has to deal with fructose, which is a less stable and moreover, hygroscopic sugar. c. Proteins and Fats Both substances occur in small amounts in the date flesh. Fat is mainly concentrated in the skin (2.57.5%) and has a more physiological importance in the protection of the fruit than contributing to the nutritional value of the date flesh (0.1-0.4%). Palmitic, capric and caprylic acid were identified as the major free fatty acids in the date flesh followed by linoleic, lauric, pelargonic, myristic acid and a number of others (278). Date pits contain a certain percentage of oil (see Chapter IV). Proteins occur in date fruit in the range of 1-3% and though their amino acid pattern is favourable to human needs,

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the amounts are too small to be considered an important nutritional source. When extracting dates for sugar, proteins may create turbidity in the juice and have to be removed. Proteins also play a role in non-oxidative browning (Maillard reaction) and in the precipitation of tannins during ripening. The amino acid composition, both as total and as free, has been investigated on several occasions (179, 453, 461). d. Crude fibres (non-soluble solids) These are usually connotated with the insoluble, non-nutritive portion of the date flesh, and mainly composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignins and ligno-cellulose, and insoluble proteins. During the ripening process these substances are gradually broken down by enzymes to more soluble compounds to render the fruit more tender and soft. In commercially ripe dates crude fibre amounts to 2-6% of the date flesh, but in low quality dates for industrial purposes this percentage will be higher, up to 10%. In one particular determination, date flesh was found to contain (on fresh weight basis) 1.55% cellulose, 1.28% hemicellulose and 2.01% lignin (relatively high and perhaps caused by the lignin content in the skin) (298). The consumer may, perhaps unconsciously, prefer a certain amount of crude fibre because in proper balance with moisture and sugars it gives "bite" to the date, and may also add to the supply of necessary dietary fibre. The processor has an interest in crude fibre content because it influences, like moisture content, the yield of his final product if that is based on the sugar content of his raw material. Where it concerns insoluble pectin as part of the crude fibre content and which is gradually converted into soluble pectin, this is of considerable concern to the processor where filtering and concentration of date juice are part of his process (see Chapter 3). e. Vitamins and Minerals Of the many data found in literature related to these two groups of substances, mainly of importance for nutritional purposes, a main conclusion emerges that dates at the stage of maturation in which they are normally and mostly consumed, contain: i. vitamins A, B1, B2 and niacin in reasonable amounts, but ii. no significant amounts of the other vitamins, notably vitamin C; iii.a good source of potassium, calcium and iron, and iv.a fair amount of chlorine, copper, magnesium, sulphur and phosphorus. f. Enzymes Enzymes play an important role in the conversion processes that ake place during formation and maturation of the date fruit and the activities of four of them are of particular interest to final product quality: i. invertase: responsible for the inversion of sucrose into glucose and fructose and related to texture and pliability, ii. polygalacturonase and pectinesterase both convert insoluble pectic substances into more soluble pectins, contributing to softness of the fruit, iii. cellulase: breaks down cellulose into shorter chain substances with increasing solubility and eventually leading to glucose, thus decreasing fibre content, iv. polyphenol oxidase is responsible for biochemical changes of polyphenols to which the tannins belong; they are important in non-oxidative browning reactions of the date.

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Knowledge of the functions and activity of these enzymes is of practical importance to the packer and processor because by proper manipulation of heat and humidity the enzyme activity can be stimulated or depressed according to the desired result. Enzyme activity normally takes place in solution or moist atmosphere; the optimum temperature range usually falls between 30 and 40 C, over and below which the activity will decrease (for instance invertase at 50 C, loses 50% activity and 90% at 65 C after 10 minutes). Prolonged storage of dates under refrigeration or freezing is based mainly on the slowing down of enzyme activity. Practical examples of enzyme manipulation will be given in the related chapters following. Alternatively enzyme preparations added to dates have been successfully used to provoke or hasten desirable conversions such as the use of invertase to improve the texture and appearance of "sugar wall" dates (551), pectic enzymes and cellulase in the quality improvement of mixed green dates (549) and cellulase for upgrading of substandard dry Deglet Noor (550). g. Other chemical substances Although in the above paragraphs over 95% of the constituents of the date flesh have been covered quantitatively, there are a number of substances that even in minute quantities have a decisive influence on the ulterior quality of the date. A few of these are mentioned: i. polyphenols, to which belong the tannins which on a dry weight basis may constitute up to 3% of the date flesh. One of their main effects in the maturation process is when they change from a soluble form (astringent to the palate) to an insoluble form (tasteless), probably resulting from a combination with protein. As reported before, the timing of this conversion varies and determines to a large extent whether dates are palatable in the hard yellow (red) stage. Tannins are also believed to play a role in the darkening of dates at the post-harvest stages, though this was not confirmed by tests using tannins as a substrate for enzymatic browning by phenolase (311). The enzymatic browning reaction is now more attributed to the more simple polyphenols such as flavans (310), whilst the more complex tannins play a role in non-enzymatic oxidative browning. For practical purposes it can be stated that heat treatment of dates retards the browning in storage of dates which points to the fact that an enzymatic process is also involved. ii. Organic acids: a number of organic acids such as citric-, malic- and oxalic acid, have been isolated from date flesh as contributors to flavour, though generally during maturation the acid content tends to go down. A definite correlation between increasing commercial quality and increasing PH (i.e. lower acid activity) was established for Deglet Noor. Most common PH values for dates range from 5.3 to 6.3 (470). Upon storage and more specifically at the onset of deterioration second generation organic acids are formed which makes the overall picture of what are to be considered "normal" values less determined (585). iii. Others: - Flavour volatiles responsible for the specific aroma of dates have not been much researched and little is known. For Zahdi dates 38 volatile compounds were identified, consisting of 2 unsaturated hydrocarbons, 5 aldehydes, 6 ketones, 5 alcohols, 3 phenols and 11 free fatty acids (239). A positive correlation between volatile acetaldehyde content and quality differences of fresh dates was established. Acetaldehyde content dropped during a 5-month outside storage period (399). - Pigments of various nature have been identified: caratonoids, anthocyanins, flavones, flavonoles, lycopene, carotenes, flavoxanthin and lutein in some fresh Egyptian dates (39); caretonoids were

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quantitatively determined for 3 varieties in different stages of ripening showing decreasing values with advanced maturity of the fruit (180). Similar investigations for 8 Iraqi date varieties in different stages of development revealed chlorophyll, caretonoids, anthocyanin and anthocyanidin specifically in the early stages of development (Kimri and Khalaal) (385). - Extraction of sterols from date flesh, leading to the identification of a.o. cholesterol, campesterol, stigmasterol, b-sitosterol and iso-fucosterol was the subject of a comprehensive study (279). h. Quality profile of whole dates So far, the inherent constituents of the date have been reviewed, which each in its own way takes part in the formation of the fruit. Because of genetic differences and growth conditions dates show, perhaps more than other fruits, a wide variety in their final appearance and quality as perceived by man. Moreover, fruit quality, apart from these inherent properties, is also determined by influences from outside, classified as degree of insect infestation, defects, presence of foreign matter (sand, dust, debris and the like) and pesticide residue. To draw up a date quality profile will therefore involve an evaluation of: - colour, shape, size, taste, texture, pit/date ratio and uniformity in colour and size of the fruit - moisture, sugar and fibre content - defects of the fruits, which may include discoloration, broken skin, sunburn, blemishes, shrivel, deformity etc. - presence of insect infestation, foreign matter, pesticide residues, mold and decay Some of these quality factors are subjective and their qualification is linked to individual preferences. For instance, some people may prefer the soft, moist dates that "melt" in the mouth, whilst others opt for a more chewy fruit. On insect infestation, foreign matter and pesticide residues there is no doubt, they should be eliminated or reduced to the minimum. To arrive at acceptable and applicable quality standards for dates the main characteristics, especially the non-desirable ones, have to be quantified, preferably in figures, by which the ultimate grade of the date will be established. A number of countries have formulated and applied date standards at the national level (e.g. USA, Canada, Israel, Algeria, Tunisia, Oman) both for locally produced and imported dates. In an effort to arrive at global standards for dates the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme form-ulated a proposal for date standards intended to be the basis for world-wide application subject to the acceptance by governments (Appendix II, 154). Also the Economic Commission for Europe of the UN Economic and Social Council have proposed "Recommendations concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of whole dates moving in trade between and to European countries" (147), which have been incorporated in the Compendium of applicable standards issued by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (413). In spite of some progress being made these standards have not as yet been made binding by all governments concerned. The reason for this, in the first instance, is probably the wide diversication in date fruits which make it more difficult to define the permissible practical quality limits on a global level. Secondly, too stringent standards may have a negative effect and a number of date producers will a priori be excluded for reason of being unable to meet the standards under the present

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production conditions. This became evidently clear when in the eighties Iraq and Iran virtually dropped out of the international market, and no other date producing country was able and ready to fill the gap. Quality standards are a useful tool to stimulate the improvement of the wholesomeness of produce provided the extra effort and cost to achieve this are compensated by higher revenues. It will, therefore, need the combined efforts of growers, packers, processers and traders to work towards an overall quality improvement of the date crop in tandem with gradually more rigorous quality requirements. 1.3 Outles and Marketing Whole dates are harvested and marketed at three stages of their development (Fig. 23). The choice for harvesting at one or any other stage depends on varietal characteristics, climatological conditions and market demand. They are as described before: - (sweet) khalaal: dates, physiologically mature, hard and crisp, around 50% moisture content and over, bright yellow or red in colour, perish-able. This applies only to those varieties which are sweet at this stage such as the Lemsi of North Africa already referred to by travellers in the 17th Century (137). - rutab: partially or wholly browned, reduced moisture content (average 30-35%), fibres softened, succulent flesh, perish-able. - tamr: colour from amber to dark brown, bluish or almost black, moisture content further reduced (below 25% down to 10% and less), texture from soft and pliable to firm, to hard; protected from insects can be kept without special pre-cautions over longer periods. Although all three groups find in part an immediate outlet in their natural form through the established trade channels, a number of techniques have developed to either prolong their storage, and thus their availability, or to improve the appearance and presentation of the product for better marketing possibilities. The next table gives an overview of those techniques for the three groups:

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Table 7 Overview of treatments to whole dates Manipulating Temp. Khalaal i. ii. Boiling, drying X Bagging Chemical treatment Storage Packaging Product

Fresh khalaal

Khalaal matbuukh

iii.

Freezing

Deep freeze

Frozen khalaal Artificially ripened khalaal

iv.

Vinegar, salt

v.

(Field) curing, drying

Pressing in jars or baskets

Jars or baskets

Pressed rutab/tamr Fresh rutab

Rutab i. ii. Cooling Cold storage X

Refrigerated rutab Preserved rutab

Iii.

Preservation

iv.

Field curing and drying

Pressing in jars or baskets

Jars or baskets

Pressed rutab/tamr Tamr

Tamr i. ii. Fumigation Pressed in baskets or boxes Variety of packages

Bulk dates

iii.

Hydration, curing dehydration

Coating

Fumigation

Retail packed dates

1.3.1 Khalaal The khalaal of those varieties that have lost their a astringency at this stage are the earliest to appear on the market as a fresh fruit (Fig. 27). Perhaps also helped by the fact that they are the "primeurs" of the date harvesting season they usually find a ready market, especially in the traditional date producing countries. The markets are normally of a local nature (Fig. 28), although in California a

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postal market service of khalaal exists initiated by some grower/packers through which khalaal dates are distributed all over the U.S. (Fig. 29). The customers are mainly foreigners who are acquainted with this type of fruit.

Figure 27: Harvesting Whole Bunches of Sweet Khalaal: Baskets made of palm leaflets are used for transport

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Figure 28: Sweet Khalaal on Sale in the Local Market (Bahrain)

Figure 29: Packing of Sweet Khalaal for Postal Market Sales (California) If supply and demand are in equilibrium the khalaal season will last for a couple of weeks, terminating the supply of those varieties most suited for this purpose and leaving the others to mature further on the palm. If, however, there is a surplus of khalaal, which occurs in particular in those regions where the climatological conditions prevent a full ripening of all or part of the crop, the fresh market cannot absorb the supply and methods have been developed to artificially turn khalaal
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into a more durable product. (Incidentally, it should be mentioned that the advantages of harvesting khalaal are: minimum infestation, possibility of cutting the whole bunch, easy washing and handling, high yield.) Broadly these methods can be sub-divided in (a) accelerating the natural process of ripening (b) temperature treatment and (c) use of chemicals, or combinations of all three. (a) Accelerating the natural ripening process can be achieved by putting, preferably, late khalaal in the sun on mats or elevated tables in protected areas (for instance, flat rooftops) and taking care to avoid rain and dampness during the night by covering the dates or taking them inside. In this way, by natural ripening, accompanied by drying, the dates will turn into rutab or even acceptable tamr. The process of sun drying may be further accelerated by cutting the dates in half, removing the pit, and exposing the flesh. But the moisture removal may go at the cost of completing the biochemical, mainly enzymatic, maturation process. Field drying and curing is therefore a balancing act between allowing time for maturation and gradual moisture removal but not exceeding the time for spoilage to occur. The introduction of improved sun drying techniques by the use of plastic covers or specially designed solar dryers will shorten this critical period considerably (342), but may arrest the full maturation cycle. The net obtainable result of this khalaal treatment depends much on local climate and skill of the operator. Artificially dried Khalaal at 55oC and a relative humidity of not less than 70% resulted in a well-ripened fruit after 72 hours. (b) There are two main methods to prolong the storage for khalaal by temperature manipulation: boiling in water followed by sun drying and secondly, freezing. The first method is the most known and results in so-called boiled dates or khalaal matbuukh. The process consists of dipping the khalaal in boiling water for 20 to 30 min. or, depending on the date variety, even longer. The visual, but not fully explained, result is that subsequent sun drying proceeds at a much faster pace than when without boiling. In experiments where hot water treatment was applied both at 65-70 C and at boiling temperature, followed by drying, it resulted that dipping in boiling water gave a superior final product (255), which is a hard, light coloured date of long durability. Experiments on khalaal matbuukh from Zahdi dates in Iraq showed that 30-45 minutes cooking produced, after drying, a product with desirable texture, appearance and taste. 15 minutes cooking was insufficient to remove astringency whilst 60 minutes cooking caused skin breakage and browning (597, 601). Apart from a varietal preference it has been established that the better results are obtained when using late khalaal (602). Another phenomenon in this process is the sugar loss during boiling. Again here there are varietal differences (257) with one variety losing more than the other. But losses can be considerable and go as high 20% (139). In tests in India it was found that after boiling for 18 minutes sugar losses were 16.7% (Medjool), 9.3% (Hillawi), 8.4% (Khadrawi), 7.8% (Shamran) which shows both the order of magnitude and varietal differences (257). Nevertheless, and in spite of this, boiled dates are a practical solution to convert a perishable surplus fruit into a durable product of which thousands of tons are still traded as a popular food. Cold storage and freezing of khalaal has received some more attention in recent times when in the date producing countries domestic refrigeration and cold-chain distribution of foods has increased exponentially. In Iraq it was found that for khalaal of the Hillawi variety freezing and thawing to accelerate ripening gave superior results over heat or chemical treatment (72). Khalaal dates differ from the commonly known deciduous fruits in that they do not store well over prolonged periods above freezing temperatures like apples or oranges. The ripening process will continue and the softening of the tissues combined with high moisture content make them an easy prey for microbial
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contamination. Even below 0 C varietal differences are distinct. Whilst several Iraqi khalaal will store well for months at - 3 C (77) the common varieties from Bahrain would deteriorate, even at - 10 C. Only storage at - 18 C gave an assurance of no change for one year in that case. Apart from prolonging the keeping quality of khalaal, freezing has a secondary effect. Upon thawing the khalaal will within a matter of hours turn soft and juicy (Fig. 30). It is believed that the formation of ice crystals during freezing ruptures the cell walls which provides, upon thawing, a liberal passage for the enzymes and other constituents of the fruit, accelerating the maturation process manifold. But only to a point. First of all, the so created rutab has a moisture content related to khalaal (about 5060%), which makes it very soft and difficult to handle. This defect has been overcome, however, by combining thawing and a dehydration treatment at about 45 C reducing the moisture content as required (Fig. 31). Secondly, it has been observed that the maturation process after thawing proceeds much quicker in the date flesh than in the skin which remains relatively hard and is not like in a naturally matured rutab. At this point one could speculate whether cellulase treatment or other conditions could help to correct this situation. More investigations are necessary to overcome these problems if frozen khalaal is to become a means of extending the availability of fresh dates in the offseason. A few small commercial initiatives to freeze, store and market frozen khalaal have been undertaken with the special aim of making rutab available through the year on festive occasions when consumption of dates is of a long-standing tradition. However, the process and product need to be perfected for further expansion of this market (Fig. 32).

Figure 30: Thawing of Frozen Khalaal (cv Khuneizi, a Read Variety) (Bahrain) c) Under the pressure of obtaining a mature, useable product from the palm before adverse weather conditions may spoil the crop, many chemicals have been tried to accelerate the maturation process. These have been applied whilst the fruit is still on the palm, or when already harvested. But the results have not been very promising or cost effective, with the preference always going to a naturally tree-ripened fruit. Where circumstances force the grower to look for saving his crop, the traditional methods of the use of salt and acetic acid have been successful as demonstrated by the following examples:

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- spraying of harvested khalaal (cv Khasab) with common salt solutions and/or acetic acid resulted in all cases of softening of the fruit after 24 hours, but the best result obtained, taking into consideration a number of parameters and organoleptic consequences, was with 2% NaCl solution (42). - spraying khalaal with weak vinegar solution and keeping the dates for a day or so in a closed environment or protected by cloth has been common practice in North Africa, Israel and Spain (139, 87). - Khadrawi dates harvested at the khalaal stage developed the best curing after treatment with 0.09% acetic acid + 1.5% NaCl solution (106). - immature Barhee exposed for 1, 4 and 24 hours to acetaldehyde solution ranging from 1-6% strength changed from hard, yellow astringent to a soft, sweet, edible date in 1-5 days (218). These few examples may illustrate that the use of chemicals, and several more could be cited, to accelerate ripening may have some benefit, not forgetting, however, that it is a method of "force majeur" involving extra work, cost and little hope of exceeding the quality of a naturally matured fruit. Only if the latter situation cannot be achieved, the grower can resort to remedies as described above to save his perishable khalaal. 1.3.2 Rutab The discussion on outlets and marketing of rutab follows much the same line as for khalaal, except that the date has passed one stage further in its maturation process on the palm, and which physiologically actually initiates the process of degradation.

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Figure 31: Simultaneous Thawing and Dehydration of Frozen Khalaal (Bahrain (a) Semi-continuous dehydrator with dates stacked on trays (b): Effect of deydration at 45C (higher temperatures cause frothing) on Barhee variety during 60 hrs. Moisture content is reduced from about 60 to 40%

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G Figure 32: Process for Marketing Frozen Khalaal (Bahrain). a) Intake and weighing of freshly harvested whole buches; b) Washing hte whole bunch; c) Stripping dates from the bunch; d) Filling/weighing small packs; e) Machine wrapping in stretch foli; f) storage in carton boxes in deep freeze; g) Satisfied customers. There is no doubt that a well matured rutab handled with care is one, if not the most, appreciated form in which the date is consumed and which gives the grower the highest rate of return from his palm (Fig. 33). However, rutab has three serious setbacks; it is produced in comparatively short periods with the tendency of production peaks, it is perishable and it is delicate, which makes handling and transport difficult and expensive. With local markets liable to become saturated and market expansion over longer distances hampered by costs of special treatment and freight, a local surplus situation can easily arise. The greatly improved communications and transport systems over the last decades have facilitated, however, the marketing of rutab and nowadays it is not uncommon to find rutab on the "exotic fruit" shelves in European markets (Fig. 34). If the climatological conditions permit, which is, after all, the case in many date growing areas, the rutab will mature further into tamr on the palm and be used that way. If, on the other hand, rutab suffers from a periodic surplus problem because it will not ripen or drop (Fig. 35), alternative ways to use them have to be found.

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Figure 33: Harvesting Rutab Selective picking of rutab collected in baskets; Harvesting lwhole bunches of rutab; Mixed late khalaal and rutab of 2 varieties selected in date garden for direct sale in local market

Figure 34: Rutab on sale amongst other exotic tropical fruits (Netherlands, 1990)

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Figure 35: Fruit Drop The basis for these methods is to prolong their shelf life by either preservation or by cold storage, or turn them artificially into a modified product that will keep, or into tamr, hopefully with as little as possible loss of the original quality. The most traditional way of converting rutab is sun curing and drying which is still extensively practised in the coastal areas of the date countries bordering the Gulf and Indian Ocean where rutab tends to drop before reaching tamr stage. Curing and drying is done on mats in an often fenced-off area of the date garden (Fig. 36) or, in a more sophisticated way on screened elevated platforms, the latter definitely giving more protection from flying insects and rising dust (Fig. 37). A particular case are the sheds of southern Tunisia where Deglet Noor dates are cured on the bunch which gives a better result than when the dates are stripped from the bunch and then cured (478). Another example of the many variations in sun curing and drying is the beautiful prune-like Muzaafti of the Bam area in Iran. This rutab is more cured than dried in thick layers before being packed in boxes and sent to market. Under refrigerated storage these dates have been exported and marketed in Europe.

Figure 36: Sundrying of rutab in date garden (Bahrain)

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Figure 37: Sundrying of rutab on screened off, elevated platforms (Bahrain) Even if this sun curing and drying takes the rutab out of the first delicate period in which deterioration would take place within days, it is normally not sufficient to secure a prolonged storage period, preferably up to nine months in order to have a continuing supply of food in the post-harvest date season. At this point it may be useful to review the factors that adversely affect the quality of dates in storage: (a) Insect infestation: storage insects if left uncontrolled can devastate the date, materially, and organoleptically. The most notorious pests are the Fig Moth (Ephestia cautella, Walker), the Dried Fruit Beetle (Carpophilus Hemiptenus, L) and Storage Mites (Tyrophagidae), but there are many others. Insect development in storage is favoured by: - high initial degree of infestation prior to storage, (eggs) - elevated temperatures and humidity of the air, - higher moisture level of the date, Prevention and control can consist of: - keeping down or eliminating initial contamination, - fumigation, either atmospheric or under vacuum, - lowering storage temperature and regulating humidity of the air, - lowering moisture content of the date, if consistent with quality retention, - heat treatment of dates prior to storage, - compressing dates to inhibit insects to penetrate or eggs to hatch. (b) Microbial infestation: Dates of over 24% moisture in a warm moist atmosphere are an easy target for microbial attack, especially yeasts, but also moulds. The most common conversions are fermentation (alcohol), souring (lactic acid, acetic acid) and superficial mould growth.
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Preventive measures are: - to keep initial microbe counts down as much as possible - lowering storage temperature - keeping moisture levels down, if consistent with quality desired - storing dates in adjusted relative humidity of the air in order they will not increase in moisture content - compressing dates to exclude oxygen and making them impenetrable - heat treatment - use of anti-microbial agents (c) Darkening: Darkening of dates beyond the natural light to dark brown colour at harvesting is caused by several mechanisms: - enzymatic oxidative browning (polyphenolase) - non-enzymatic oxidative browning by involving the more complex tannins - non-oxidative browning in which sugars and proteins play a role (Maillard reaction) There is a positive correlation between the degree of darkening and increased moisture content, storage temperature and time as clearly demonstrated from experimental work (475). Preventive measures to reduce darkening are focussed on enzyme inactivation (heat treatment), exclusion of air (pressing, or storage in an inert gas atmosphere) and low temperature storage. The traditional way of preserving rutab after sun curing and drying for a more prolonged storage, is very much based on compacting the dates into containers. Although this goes at the cost of losing the date's singular form and shape this operation of pressing combines several preventive actions against insects, microbes and deterioration. If done well, air will be excluded, reducing the darkening process. Moreover, the mass will not be easily penetrated by insects and also micro-organisms will be more restricted in their growth, especially aerobic yeasts. In addition, the type of container will be determining what type of rutab can be stored. Bags and baskets are less suitable for storage of rutab with high moisture, but earthenware jars closed off with clay and exposed to the sun prior to storage will be effective also for the wetter type of dates, even up to 30% moisture. If compacting has been an efficient traditional means of prolonging the storage life of dates and providing a through-the-year food source, the resulting concentrated sticky mass is less suitable for presenting rutab to a more sophisticated market, where the consumer expects a recognizable, individual date fruit. For a better understanding of how the rutab trade has or can be developed the moisture levels of the different stages are looked into again in some more detail (139):

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Table 8 Average moisture content in the different development stages of the dates

Moisture Content Kimri Late Khalaal Rutab tip browning " 50% " 90% " 100% Eq. moisture at 70% rel. hum., invert type dates Tamr 20% and less 85% 50% 45% 40% 35% 30% 24%

It should be remembered that the changes in moisture and related stages, apart from varietal differences, are not as sharp as indicated but are part of a continuous process. For rutab the moisture range, 35% down to 24% is important with the following characteristics with decreasing moisture content: i. decrease in weight (about 15%), i. texture from soft to more pliable and firm, iii. becoming less perishable, i.e. a date of 28% though still perishable will keep longer than a fruit of 35%, iv. liable to insect infestation at all levels, v. decreased danger from microbial attack, though always present, vi. reduced rate of darkening. Essentially the packer, processor or trader is confronted with the problem of taking to the market a perishable product for which he would like a prolonged storage life without impairing the original quality of the fruit and at a cost which can be recuperated from sales. Assuming the insect problem is under control, microbial attack and darkening are the two moisture/time/temperature linked quality degrading factors, which can be counteracted in several ways. Firstly, reducing the moisture content by drying to such a level that microorganisms cannot attack and darkening occurs at a much slower rate. However, this takes the typical characteristics of soft rutab and therefore will not be further considered at this point. A second method is heat treatment (pasteurization) which will inactivate microbes and enzymes. However, to kill all microoganisms requires considerable temperature/time relationships. Although there are no sharp minimum figures known for this, some examples of effective pasteurization are as follows (356): 20 minutes at 87 C, 50 minutes at 71 C, 60 minutes at 66 C. Other reports show, however, that 4 hours at 71 C failed to kill all microorganisms and that many yeasts survived 30 minutes at 74 C (476).
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The order of magnitude of these figures shows that though effective pasteurization can be achieved, from experience it is known that subjecting the dates to these temperatures will go at the cost of the organoleptic properties especially at the soft rutab stage. Heat treatment is therefore not practised for soft rutab also keeping in mind that in this stage the fruit is very delicate and would not tolerate frequent manipulation. Many chemicals have been tried to prolong the storage life of perishable dates (198, 473, 409, 208, 282, 86, 476). Some chemicals like ethylene oxide had some effect but this has been banned for many years now in most countries. Others have difficulty in staying within established tolerance levels for residuals, like potassium sorbate, which, though effective as a 2% dip for prolonging storage life of fresh dates by 1-2 weeks (282, 409) leaves a residue on the date higher than the tolerance level of 1000 ppm. The use of chemicals for preservation, with their limited effect and the growing consumer consciousness against their use, has as far as is known, practically ceased to exist. As a last resort the date merchant can turn to prolonging the storage life of rutab, and to reaching more distant markets, by the use of cold storage which is effective when executed at the correct temperatures correlated to the desired length of storage. From Figure 43 (478) an idea can be obtained of the effect of cold storage: a date of 30% moisture would spoil in a matter of days at room temperature (21 C) but keep for about 4 months at 5 C and 6 months at 0 C. But cost of refrigeration and refrigerated transport are high and moreover one must be assured of the appropriate distribution channels way down to the consumer. In practice an overseas trade in rutab exists, but it is selective and made possible by a vastly improved transport and distribution system (where it exists) which allows merchandise to reach their destination within days, very much like the fresh strawberries and tropical fruits being available in mid-winter in the markets of the Northern hemisphere. With the proper manipulation of time of harvesting, curing and storage temperatures, storage life can be extended in such a way as to be assured of ample time for sales to be affected in specialized markets such as the pre-Christmas season for instance. 1.3.3 Tamr In the previous chapters the use of khalaal and rutab was discussed which, for local climatological or other reasons, are harvested at an earlier stage than tamr. It was shown that, apart from a limited percentage being consumed "fresh", the maturation of these dates could be hastened by artificial means (curing, heat, chemicals), to give them longer storage life and more marketing possibilities. At the rural level sun-curing and compacting of the dates have proved efficient methods. Boiling of certain varieties combined with sun drying established itself in several areas as a major rural processing technique to turn a perishable commodity into a durable one. Refrigerated storage, freezing and the use of anti-microbial agents have, though on a limited scale, also contributed to prolong storage life and thus marketing opportunities. This Chapter deals with fruit harvested at the tamr stage, i.e. when the date has dried down on the palm to below 24%, and its flesh has firmed through moisture loss but is pliable. The fruit at this stage is non-perishable that is, micro-organisms will not be able to grow on it, but it does not exempt it from insect infestation, moisture uptake and its consequences, and compositional changes (darkening and changes in flavour) during subsequent storage, unless special precautions are taken. Appreciation of these constraints and taking into account consumer preference and market demands will facilitate understanding how the markets for tamr have developed. A useful subdivision of these outlets is as follows:
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i. home consumption, local markets ii: wider regional distribution, also overseas, through merchants, primitive packaging in bulk, iii. collecting/bulk packing centres, iv. small-, medium-, and large-scale packing plants for bulk shipments and retail packs. Pertinent figures on the size of each of these marketing channels are not available but it is most likely that the statement in Dowson's book of 1962, (139): "Most of the dates of the world are never submitted to any processing operation except pressing" still holds true. In other words, home consumption, local markets and the somewhat wider regional distribution of loose dates or those pressed in baskets, second hand tins and bags occupies still the better portion of the annual crop. But it is also true that organized commercial date packing has increased substantially over the last 30 years. There is hardly any date producing country in the "old" world that does not have its one or more date packing plants which operate mainly for local but also for foreign markets. The development in this direction has not been easy, however. The external markets being dominated in either size (and price) or quality, by a few major date producing countries, and local consumer appreciation of quality and convenience of food products not having been developed (or trained?) to such an extent to be prepared to pay for the higher price of a packed product, have jeopardized the economic operation of date packing plants considerably, especially in the smaller date producing countries. To be added here, that for going into date packing, for exports in particular, one needs to be assured of a raw material, constant in quality and desired quantity. With the large variety of dates, the many smallholders and the sometimes difficult conditions of climate and logistics this has been a severe bottleneck in the development of date commercialization. Even when world demand was there and foreign importers were looking for supplies, when the major traditional suppliers had dropped out of the market for reasons of war or politics, the less developed date producers could not fill the gap qualitatively and quantitatively. Going from diffused traditional marketing channels where much local produce is traded directly between grower and consumer, the establishment of date packing plants is a quantum jump, which can only be successful when raw material supply and markets are reasonably assured, apart from the time it takes to adapt a local subsistence economy into an externally oriented market economy. Dates intended for domestic use, for bulk export or for retail packs may vary widely in the treatment they undergo before reaching the consumer. Below, in summary form, are listed the major operations that are in use in post-harvest technology, from harvest to delivery to the consumer: a. Transport of Dates From the moment the dates are harvested (Fig. 38) they need a container for being transported to the drying yard, or a central collecting point in the garden, the home or the local market, or eventually to a date packing plant. A multitude of baskets, mats and crates, made from palm materials is in use, their size and shape adapted to the type of date and transport means. They may range from the small shallow baskets made of palm leaflets carried on the head by the women, to the rigid baskets made of the midrib of the palm leaves and carried on the back by men, to the twin baskets and folding mats, slung over the donkey's back (Fig. 39). In the more advanced marketing systems where dates are purchased on a contract basis by a central authority or date packing plant the use of garden boxes, usually supplied by the purchaser of the dates, is widely used. Though with some variation in size, basically the box is of sturdy wood construction without lid, provided with handholes, and holding 10-15 kgs of dates. Use of standardized boxes gives the purchaser the chance to streamline transport to and handling of the incoming dates at the plant, but it requires extra
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investment, administration, transport, cleaning and storage costs of empty containers. A more recent development has been the use of plastic containers which apart from being a more hygienic and cleanable material, does not however reduce the other cost factors of empty boxes. A container that does reduce transport and storage costs is the so-called nesting box, which by a clever arrangement of the design allows the boxes to be stacked, and by turning them alternatively by 180 C around their vertical axis, to be nested. In this way a saving of 2/3 of the space required for storage and transport of the empties is obtained (Fig. 40).

Figure 38: Harvesting Tamr (California) (a) Selective picking and use of cloth containers (b): Field sorting on trays and wooden boxes for further storage and treatment in packing plant

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Figure: 39: Different ways of transporting dates in and from the field

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Figure 40: Plastic Containers (Saudi Arabia) (a) Stacked emply containers, (b): Comparative volume of empty, normal and nested containers In the United States the increasing trend of mechanized harvesting has made room for the use of bigger containers, the so-called lug bins. They measure about 120 cm x 120 cm but are not deeper than maximum 45 cm to avoid crushing of the fruit. They are pallatable for transport to the plant. The usual garden boxes are, however, also still in use. b. Storage A major first concern after harvest is to prevent or control insect infestation and, traditionally, the date farmer has made use of locally available materials to provide protection against insects. Soft tamr is normally pressed into containers such as goatskins, small to large size jars made out of clay, baskets made of palm leaflets or other similar materials, old kerosene tins and oil drums (Fig. 41). The more tightly the dates are pressed the better they will be protected from insects, although exposed surface areas are liable to be attacked. For prolonged storage the exposed areas are therefore covered by cloth, clay or a layer of oil. One step further and more particular for larger scale containers or heaps, cloth or mats treated with malathion were found to be an effective protection (219). Jars are also used to store and pack dates in syrup. A typical example of larger scale storage in the field is the mud bin (mudibsa) of the Shatt-el-Arab region. It is made of thick mud walls and measures about 3 by 2 m and 2 m high. The bottom is corrugated which allows syrup oozing from the (soft) dates by their own weight, to be collected from a common spout at the bottom of the bin. A variation of this system is found in Saudi Arabia where sun cured dates are pressed in jute bags and stacked on ridges at the bottom of the store. Syrup will exude through the bags and eventually collect in channels between the ridges as an incidental by-product (Fig. 42). The bags which are covered with syrup and very sticky, are traded this way; a not attractive bulk pack, but it has its effect on preventing insect damage. Pressing soft dates into an impenetrable mass is therefore an effective way to reduce insect infestation.
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Figure 41: Pressing Dates in Baskets

Figure 42: Local Date Store for Bagged Dates with Ridges on the Floor to Accommodate Syrup Collection At the same time pressing excludes air, which is responsible for some of the compositional changes taking place in dates during storage. It also prevents the quick exchange of moisture with the surrounding air, retarding either drying out or getting wet according to the humidity of the air. Storage of semi-dry and dry dates, unless very dry like desert dates and boiled dates, which insects do not find very attractive, is a difficult proposition unless preventive measures in the field are taken by covering heaps with cloth to reduce initial egg laying by storage pests. When left uncared for in storage it was found in experiments in Saudi Arabia that infestation by the fig moth started one month after harvesting (20 October) and increased progressively to 100% after 7 months, involving 3 generations of the insect (346). Dry dates are usually packed in bags, boxes or are transported loose on trucks to the market or packing plant. The prevailing climate during the date harvesting season, i.e. hot and quite often
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humid, makes the conditions ideal for infestation and unless this is accepted, one has to resort to field fumigation and move the crop out of the growing areas as quickly as possible. As an example of how persistent the threat of infestation in dates can be, it is cited that one of the greatest worries and problem areas in the past has been to keep insect infestation within the permitted levels imposed by the Food and Drug Administration of the US, for the annual bulk shipment to the US (up to 15,000 tons) of dates from the Shatt-el-Arab region, in spite of the most strict precautionary measures from harvest to delivery. The major techniques to prevent and contain insect infestation are four: (i) fumigation (ii) heat treatment (iii) cold storage and (iv) irradiation, of which fumigation is by far the most applied technology. Heat treatment and cold storage are rather "benefits in disguise" when these are applied to dates for other reasons, and not solely for the purpose of containing insect infestation. Irradiation may be classified as an effective but a not yet for other reasons materialized technology. (i) Fumigation: Fumigation consists of exposing dates under an airtight cover or in a container or store room to a noxious gas at the appropriate temperature and time with the aim of killing insect life in all its stages of development: egg, larva, pupa and adult. Amongst the various fumigants (solid, liquid and gaseous) that have been used over the last 70 years or so, the main fumigant now in use is methyl bromide (CH3Br). It is a gas (boiling point -10 C), highly noxious to insects but also to man, heavier than air, non-inflammable and almost non-corrosive. With regard to fumigation by gases two types can be distinguished: at atmospheric pressure and under vacuum. The penetration of the gas in the vacuum method is more intense, the time of treatment is reduced and more dictated by the time of evacuating the air than dispersion of the gas, but the investment costs are much higher. Capacities range from small batch cabinets to large drivein chambers of several tons capacity. Fumigation at atmospheric pressure can be subdivided in fumigation in temporary enclosures, like under tarpaulin or plastic and in permanent storeroom space equipped for fumigation with airtight doors, and circulation and exhaust fans. The practical, average dose of effective fumigation of dates has been l lb of gas/1000 ft3 of storerooms for 12 hrs (which corresponds to 15 grams/m) at 15 C. If the temperature is lower, the amount of gas has to be increased (25% for every 3 C drop) but can be reduced when time of treatment is increased. A second fumigant which has gained popularity over the last thirty years or so is hydrogen phosphide more commonly known under the trade name Phostoxyn. Tablets of a standard format, consisting of aluminium phosphide, ammonium carbamate and paraffin, upon contact with the air and depending on temperature and humidity, release hydrogen phosphide, the active component. The ammonium carbamate is decomposed into ammonia and carbon dioxide, jointly acting as a warning and fire suppressing agent. The residue of the tablet is a powder which can be removed after treatment. One standard tablet of 3 g (there are also available pellets of 0.6 g) will release 1 g of hydrogen phosphide. Compared to the use of methyl bromide, which is fast in its action, the use of hydrogen phosphide is slow and it will take at least 48 hours before the gas has fully developed. On the other hand, the application is very simple and also suitable for small containers like airtight bags and small storerooms without the need for special equipment, and where the time factor is not important. Effective dosage for the fumigation of dates is 50 to 60 tablets per 1000 ft3 of storage space, which corresponds to 1.5 to 2 g gas/m3. Apart from effectiveness in killing all stages of insect life (which is also correlated to the type of insects involved), a common point for consideration is the residual amount of gas remaining in the

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date after treatment. Both methyl bromide and hydrogen phosphide when properly applied and aerated after treatment stay within the limits by law for these residues, though for the latter fumigant the time involved for dissipation could extend to 9 days (429 and 384). In summary therefore methyl bromide and hydrogen phosphide provide two effective fumigants with slightly different fields of application: methyl bromide for large-scale quick turnover treatments and hydrogen phosphide for simpler applications on small lots in storage conditions where the time factor is not that important. (ii) Heat treatment: as intimated before, heat treatment would not normally be applied in isolation for the single purpose of killing insects though the idea has been tinkered with in order to replace pesticides and fumigants in consequence of tightening residue regulations and increasing insect resistance towards these insecticides. It may therefore be useful to review what kind of time/temperature relations are required to cause a 100% insect kill in all life stages, illustrated by the following examples, summarized in Tables 9, 10 and 11 (53, 55). Table 9 Lethal times in minutes for 100% mortality of different stages of Carophilus Hemipterus, L (Dried Fruit Beetle), exposed to 40 - 60 C (70% Rel. Humidity)

Temperature C Stage Egg Larva Pupa Adult 40 1080 5760 4320 9060 45 240 240 210 480 50 25 35 30 25 55 10 17 20 20 60 5 10 15 10

Table 10 Lethal time in hours for 100% mortality of different stages of the Fig Moth (Ephestia Cautela (Walker)) exposed to temperatures of 40 -60 C, and 20% and 70% rel. humidity (R.H.)

20% R.H. Stage Egg Larva 40 15.0 18.0 50 1.50 1.75 55 0.50 1.17 60 C 0.33 0.50 40 15.0 18.0

70% R.H. 50 3.00 1.50 55 0.50 1.11 60 C 0.33 0.58

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Pupa Adult

10.0 12.0

4.00 1.25

0.75 0.66

0.50 0.41

10.0 12.0

3.00 1.25

0.75 0.50

0.50 0.33

In practical applications these treatments will be somewhat longer because of the time required to reach the target temperature in the dates. Above results were obtained by directly placing insects in the environment indicated. It is further noted from Table 10 that relative humidity does not seem to have a great influence on the time, though in practice higher humidity would have a shortening effect on the heating-up period because of better heat conductivity. A variation of singular heat treatment is to combine it with vacuum which would have importance for preserving vacuum packed dates mainly in small retail packs. The following table gives the results of tests along this line, including comparative figures where heat treatment was given without vacuum (54): Table 11 Exposure time in minutes required for 100% mortality of different stages of Ephestia Cautella under the effect of temperature alone (T) and temperature-cum-vacuum treatment (T+V) (vacuum 25-30 mm Hg abs.)

45C Stage Egg Larva Pupa Adult T 900 1080 600 720 T+V 190 40 40 15 T 180 90 180 75

50C T+V 40 30 20 20

Though not all figures under T correspond with Table 10, these results show enough of the effect of added vacuum treatment, i.e. sharply decreasing the lethal time, though one may still remain amazed that an insect can resist 20 minutes at 50 C in a vacuum of 30 mm abs. Other empirical references on heat treatment with the aim of destroying insect life recommend 2.5 hrs at 54C, 30 minutes at 65oC, or 20 minutes at 71C. The lethal temperature for microorganisms is generally higher than for insects especially when it concerns spores of the spore forming bacteria. Complete sterilization which would require temperatures over 100C is therefore impractical in view of the damage caused to the date. However at the level of 60-65oC a partial pasteurization will take place. Moreover at the usual moisture levels of the date i.e. below 24%, microorganisms have no chance to redevelop. More or less the same applies to enzymes, which, each within his own range have a minimum temperature below which action is stopped, an optimal activity range, usually between 35-45o C and
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an upper range usually starting at 50oC at which gradually the enzyme activity decreases. Most enzymes are inactivated at 80-90C. The above figures tell us that heat treatment of dates, provided it is applied at a maximum of 60-65o C may have the combined beneficial effect of destroying insect life, reducing the microbial count and decreasing enzyme activity, all factors that work in favour of creating a product with a prolonged storage life. (iii) Refrigeration: Cool storage is applied to prolong storage life of dates by stopping or retarding biochemical and biological processes. Thus, enzymatic reactions slow down as well as the activity of microbial and insect life. The extent to which this reduction of activities goes is governed by three parameters: the inherent charateristics of the date, the microbe or insect, to the moisture content of the raw material, and to the temperature. An example of the latter two is shown in Figure 43 which shows the relation of temperature and moisture content for good quality storage of Deglet Noor (478). For instance, dates of 20% moisture can be kept well for a year at 40 F (4.5 C), whilst dates of 30% moisture would not keep longer than 4 months at the same temperature. Maintaining the correct relative humidity in cold storage at the prevailing temperature is important in order to prevent either drying out or moisture uptake of the date (unless these are packed in airtight containers).

Figure 43: Time/Temperature/Moisture Relationships for Storage of Dates With respect to keeping insect infestation down, as a general rule it can be stated that below 4 C no insect activity takes place, but at these levels the insects will not necessarily be destroyed. (iv) Irradiation A substantial amount of research has been carried out on irradiation by gamma rays to control infestation of storage insects in dates. This research has apparently been motivated by the desire to create an effective new way of controlling insects which would overcome the, reportedly, increasing problems of pesticide residues on treated fruit and increasing insect resistance to fumigants. However, introduction of radiation treatment of foodstuffs, though already accepted and practised in a number of cases, requires a long procedure of testing, especially with respect to possible after

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effects. Dates are no exception and available literature on the subject over the last 20 years reflects this cautious approach. Without pretending to be able to conclusively treat the subject in this chapter, a number of results are reported which centre around answering three main questions: - at what dosage is irradiation effective against all stages of insect life, i.e. eggs, larvae, pupa, and adult, - to what extent, if any, is the composition and quality of the fruit compromised, - could the consumer of irradiated fruit in any way be affected. With regard to dosage, the following examples are given: - tests on Ephestia Cautella and Oryzaephilus Surinamensis in dates over a range of 30-100 Krad irradiation treatment showed 100% mortality at 50 Krad for the most resistant development stages of the insects, - 25 Krad was effective in preventing the development of Oryzaephilus Surinamensis, Ephestia Cautella and Batrachedra Amydraula in dates at all stages of their development (508), - In Ephestia Cautella and Oryzaephilus Surinamensis 100% mortality was obtained with irradiation at 20 Krad at the most damaging developmental stages of the species, except for late-instar larvae, which show a high resistance to gamma radiation (11). The latter conclusion has given rise to proposals for combined treatments such as fumigation/irradiation (11), heat/irradiation (15, 12), cool storage/irradiation (584), all aimed at keeping radiation to the minimum and exploiting the complementary effectiveness of the control methods. Above dosage figures may serve to indicate the order of magnitude where irradiation of dates appears effective in the control of insect infestation. As a comparison it can be stated that 100 Krad was already approved for dried fruits in the sixties in the USSR and that 100 Krad is permissible for disinfesting grain and cereal products (131) in the USA. Concerning the compositional and quality changes the date may undergo from irradiation, the following references are of interest: - dates treated with 50, 100 and 150 Krad gamma irradiation and stored for 3 weeks were vacuum distilled at low temperature. Both acid and non-acid fractions of the distillate were found to retain initial aroma. Also, chemically, no major changes in the components could be detected (236) - no qualitative or quantitative change in sugars in dates irradiated with 150 Krad and stored for 3 weeks could be detected (237) - several Iraqi varieties irradiated with gamma rays, ranging from 30 to 500 Krad, were stored at 2535 C in wooden boxes and plastic bags. Quantit-ative and qualitative analyses at regular intervals did not show significant changes in either sugar or protein content of the control and treated fruit (52) - chromotographic and spectophotometric analyses of extracts of irradiated (up to 270 Krad) and non-irradiated dates revealed no quantitative or qualitative changes in glucose, fructose, sucrose, proteins, amino acids, carotenoids and pectin (49) - no significant changes in the nutritional value of irradiated dates (25 Krad) (carbohydrates, proteins and amino acids) could be detected after 3, 6, 9 and 12 months storage respectively at 20-35 C and 85-95% RH. In the same dates evaluated by a test panel of 10 judges in a triangular test (2
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irradiated dates, 1 control) no sensory differences could be detected between treated and untreated fruit (508) The above results on compositional and organoleptic changes for irradiated dates should be comforting and in favour of the introduction of irradiation. Answering the last question, concerned with the possible effects on the consumer from eating irradiated fruits, is more difficult, because direct target tests are obviously impossible and the results have to be extrapolated from simulations on insects and animals (cells). But in a field where consumer consciousness and public opinion is highly senstive, a very prudent approach has to be taken. Some of the types of tests and results of same to prove the "wholesomeness" of irradiated dates are given below: - 6 lots of dates treated with high dosage of irradiation (0, 625, 1250, 2500 and 5000 Krad) were each, after treatment, seeded with 200 eggs of Ephestia moths and incubated at 35 C and 50-60% RH. Dosages of 2500 and 5000 Krad caused a significant increase in softness of the fruit and lowered the rate of Ephestia development. At treatments of 625 and 1250 Krad (10 to 20 times the normally needed dosage) there was no significant difference with the control, neither was there an increase in malformed moths (191) - possible toxilogical effects from interaction between gamma radiation (100 Krad) and phosphine residues were studied by feeding treated dates to Ephestia Cautella. Results showed a comparable development, fecundicity and fertility of the insects fed on, respectively, the control, fumigated, irradiated and fumigated/irradiated dates (194) - irradiated dates (50 and 100 Krad) were fed to Fig Moth (Ephestia Cautella). Statistical analyses of the results showed no significant difference in: average number of larvae and pupae, adult survival, mating frequency, eggs laid per female, and egg hatch in the control and treated dates (192 I) - long-term feeding of irradiated dates (100 and 200 Krad) on 5 generations of Ephestia Cautella did not show signficant differences in: development from egg to adult, female fecundicity, mating frequency, and egg hatch for, respectively, control and irradiated dates, leading to the conclusion that the irradiated diet had no genetic effect (192 III) - cultured Chinese hamster ovary cells and Salmonella Typhimurium were subjected in vitro to extracts of irradiated dates following special testing techniques for mammalian cells and microorganisms. No genetic damage was observed (442). The same result was obtained by in vivo genetic tests using hamsters, rats and mice fed on irradiated dates (454). In spite of these apparent positive results of irradiation technology for dates, the last word has not been spoken and the underlying reasons for not having found practical applications are perhaps twofold: the slumbering consumer resistance and suspicion towards irradiation of foods and the cost. With regard to the latter, it has been calculated that grain irradiation can be only competitive with fumigation at an annual throughput of 200,000 tons (131). There is probably only one date producing country at the moment that would have the capability to put such an amount of dates through one facility. c. Sorting and cleaning In any organized date handling and packing undertaking, be it on a small or large scale, sorting and cleaning must form part of the operation if a clean, homogeneous product is to be offered to the

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market. However, the extent to which these operations have to be applied is closely related to the way the dates are harvested and handled in the field and during transport. As mentioned before, dates do not ripen simultaneously, neither on one particular bunch, nor on different bunches of the same palm. The time lapse between the first date to reach maturity and the last one on one palm differs with the variety and may last from 3 to 4 weeks for early maturing varieties and 2 to 3 months for the later ones (393). Assuming that the early stage of full maturity of tamr is the preferred quality for marketing, a choice has to be made between carrying out frequent selective pickings, harvesting only those fruits that have reached the desired maturity and thus, the highest economic value, or, opting for less pickings and dividing the crop in different quality classes either to be marketed at their own merit, or, to be technologically adjusted into a higher quality grade (Fig. 38). Considering some of the disadvantages connected with selective picking, such as labour cost and availability, increasing risk of weather and insect damage with the advancing season, and pressure of marketing demand, make it clear that selective harvesting at optimum maturity is not practical and feasible. Actually in those countries where either labour costs have increased or skilled labour in the date garden has become increasingly scarce for this type of work, which is also not without danger, the tendency has been to reduce the number of pickings. For example, in California, Deglet Noor which used to be picked as many as seven times a season, is now reduced to one or two (478), with a trend towards mechanical harvesting of principally dry dates. Experimentally it was observed that all dates can be processed into a high quality product when 75-80% of the fruit on the bunch is fully mature (288). Dates are therefore delivered to the packer/processor as a mixture of qualities which he, in the first instance, will sort and clean into the grades required by the market. Sorting in many instances will result in not more than three of four qualities, i.e. culls, 1st, 2nd and 3rd choice. Culls will go for animal feed, 3rd choice may be used for date products, whilst first and second quality will be retained for packaging. However, for the Deglet Noor of North Africa and California the classification has become much more specific as shown in Table 12 (363). Table 12 Classification and treatement of Deglet Noor for Export (North Africa)

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Besides the resulting types of products, this diagram also shows how and with what means the packer/processor will technologically adjust the quality of the fruit, i.e. dehydration, artificial maturation and hydration.

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Sorting is principally done by eye, whether on fixed tables or along moving belts (Fig. 44), quite often in two stages. Parameters for sorting may be colour, texture, size, moisture content and blemishes. Average capacity of one grader (South Algeria) is about 200 kgs per 8 hour shift, which, however, is increased to 400 kgs when use is made of moving belts (363), which should not move faster than about 9 m/minute.

Figure 44: Date Grading on Moving Belts (Iraq, Oman) Dates, because of their shape, size and sometimes stickiness, do not lend themselves well to mechanized sorting. Moreover, in contrast to the eye of an experienced grader, a machine can focus only on one aspect of quality. To cover the combined aspects which determine the ultimate quality grade, the date would have to undergo several mechanized operations. Some experimental success was obtained with a diverging roll sizer, and a system based on resilience of the date (228). Separation on colour basis is not sufficiently selective to justify sophisticated colour sorting equipment and separation based on difference in specific gravity could only have some importance for sorting of immature dates (228). An experimental separation system based on applying different degrees of vacuum could remove up to 98% of high moisture fruit (109).

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It would appear from the above that date sorting and grading will have to rely for the greater part on the human eye and on the efforts to make the crop more uniform in order to reduce the degree of necessary sorting. Cleaning dates runs from simple hand-operated water spraying by hose of the fruit in baskets or wiremeshed trays, to the more mechanized dry or wet cleaning systems for larger operations. Dry cleaning of dates is done by moving dates over damp towelling, on mechanical shakers or inside inclining, slowly rotating cylinders, also lined with towelling, or passing the dates over rotating soft brushes. The operations are preferably preceded by a pre-cleaning with an air blast (suction) over a coarse screen to remove a major part of coarse debris and dust. These methods are particularly suited for the more delicate fruits, but the danger of microbial build-up necessitates frequent changing and cleaning of towelling and brushes. Capacities of this type of operation are rather limited. For the larger scale date packing operations mechanical washers based on spraying the dates from water jets have now been mainly adopted. A complete washing unit consists of an inclined feeding belt made of coarse screen which takes the dates to the enclosed washing tunnel where they are subjected to strong water sprays, in the first instance by a spray of recirculating water containing a detergent, and at the end of the tunnel by a fresh water rinse (Fig. 45). During this process the dates are turned around by the water sprays for a complete wash from all sides. Moving on, the dates will pass under a strong air blast which removes the adhering water from the date surface. Coming out of the air blast the dates are carried on over a moving belt which allows the possibility of an after grading before being collected on trays (Fig. 46) or in boxes awaiting further treatment.

Figure 45: Mechanical Date Washer

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Figure 46: Washed Dates Loaded on Trays (Libya) In Bahrain a prototype date washer/stripper/grader was developed for cleaning dates on the bunch, at the khalaal stage (Fig. 47). The unit consists of an endless overhead chain with hooks, which moves intermittently (at variable, selected intervals) over a rectangular course. Date bunches coming from the field are hooked on and are inspected for possible removal of culls or damaged fruit. These culls are dropped on the moving belt underneath and collected in boxes. Bunches now enter the enclosed washing compartment which consists of two or three positions where strong water jets are removing dust from the fruit. The last washing position uses fresh water after which a strong air blast removes adhering water from the bunch. Leaving the washing compartment, the bunches continue their course and workers alongside the moving belt will strip the fruit from the bunch which drops on the belt, where, if needed, they are subjected to further grading, before being collected in boxes. The empty bunches are removed from the hooks and replaced by full bunches to keep up the continuous process. The collected khalaal, in the case of Bahrain, were put in deep freeze for subsequent packaging.

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Figure 47: Prototype Washer/Stripper/Grader for Dates on the Bunch (Bahrain) d. Additional treatments Whilst, given the right variety and maturity, fumigated, sorted and cleaned dates, are ready to be packed, either in bulk or retail packs, in a number of cases additional treatments are given to upgrade their quality and prolong their storage life, before being packed and going to markets. These treatments, which vary according to need, are briefly discussed: i. Maturation (curing): what has been described in former chapters on sun curing and drying of khalaal and rutab, can also be achieved by artificial heat treatment in circumstances where ripening is not completed entirely on the palm or early rains threaten to damage the crop. In its pure form artificial maturation consists of imitating the optimum conditions for ripening on the palm. The process requires rooms in which temperature, humidity and air ventilation can be controlled. Maturation is quite often accompanied by dehydration, i.e. removal of moisture. Optimal temperature for Deglet Noor should not exceed 35 C, but most other varieties will permit higher levels, though not exceeding 50 C. Relative humidity also varies according to variety and the need to remove moisture or not. Because of these moderate conditions, the time required is usually rather long, a matter of days rather than hours. Artificial maturation is therefore a delicate, time-consuming process, and very variety-specific. Taking into account also the non-stable conditions of the incoming dates from week to week and season to season, it stands to reason that artificial maturation requires much practical experience by the date packer.

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At this point mention should also be made of the steam treatment to Deglet Noor in North Africa to promote the enzymatic inversion of sucrose into invert sugar to render them more pliable and soft. The treatment consists of submerging the dates in water for 8-15 hours, after which they are treated with live steam at 60 C for 3-7 hours in an enclosed environment. After having been left in baskets for 24 hours to "settle" the dates are heat treated for 1 hour at 70 C in a cabinet dryer. After cooling they are ready for packing. During the process the dates increase in moisture, become softer and obtain an attractive gloss. A U.S. company has drawn out a patent on a similar process to turn "lightcoloured U.S. grown dates into the darker, soft, chewy texture of Middle East dates". The temperature of steam treatment in this process is at 175 F (almost 80 C) (553). These treatments could be considered a combination of maturation and hydration. ii. Dehydration: The aim of dehydration is to remove moisture artificially from the fruit without affecting its desirable qualities. It is a common process in the dried fruit industry (prunes, apricots, peaches, apples, etc.). Dehydration becomes necessary when dates contain too much moisture and will not be consumed immediately or stored under refrigeration. For instance, a desirable moisture content for Deglet Noor, acceptable to the consumer, is 23-25%, self-preserving with soft texture (478). Dehydration can be carried out in maturation rooms or in specialized cabinets (for small quantities) and tunnel dryers for large-scale operations. In all cases the principle is the same: moving air of a certain temperature and humidity over the dates. Moisture from the dates absorbed by the air has to be disposed of through air vents. Drying time and drying rate is a function of temperature, relative humidity and velocity of the air. For drying of soft dates 65 C is recommended, which will ensure a reasonable drying rate (a date by nature is rather resistant to losing moisture) without affecting the basic qualities. Relative humidity, to avoid case-hardening and also for fuel economy, should be maintained (by recirculation of drying air) at over 40%, but should not exceed 60% (at the cold end). Sometimes, but this is only possible in batch-wise cabinet dryers, at the final stage of drying the temperature is raised to obtain a pasteurizing and glazing effect and insect kill. The limitations of dehydration and possibilities for these combined treatments depend very much on the type of date and the desired result. Natural dark dates will suffer less from darkening caused by high temperature than the light coloured ones. A special case presented itself when deep frozen khalaal were thawn and dehydrated artificially to rutab in a tunnel dryer. Drying temperature had to be reduced to 45 C to prevent frothing which occurred at higher temperatures. iii. Hydration: Dates that are considered too dry because they have been left longer than usual on the palm, or excessive dry hot weather has dried them out, can in many cases be restored to a pliable, soft fruit by hydration, i.e. adding moisture. There are several methods of hydrating date fruit, the most simple one being the sprinkling of water on a heap of dates and leaving them in the sun under a cover of mats (139). But it may take weeks before the results are visible. Soaking in cold water and later by hot water was applied for some time but this fell out of use, mainly because of the time factor and related microbial infection problems. The most common method of hydration is with low-pressure live steam in an enclosed environment. Apart from a much quicker uptake of moisture than soaking, steam may at least partially inactivate insects and micro-organisms and it also leaves the dates with an attractive gloss. Typical condition for Deglet Noor hydration in California is 4 to 8 hrs at 60 C with steam of 5 PSI (about 0.4 atm) (478) which corresponds with the example for North Africa given under heading i. Maturation. During this treatment the dates will gain several percentage points in moisture. Another method of hydration consists of evacuating the air from sub-merged dates under vacuum. Upon release of vacuum, water (or in a modified version live steam) will penetrate the date in proportion to
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the vacuum applied. This batch-wise vacuum method with its disadvantages has been ingenuously turned into a continuous operation by making use of a natural difference in pressure occurring in the two legs of a syphon, as illustrated in Figure 48. Two vessels at different heights are connected with an overhead syphon and a second pipe fitted with a centrifugal pump connecting the two tanks at bottom level. To set the system going the two vessels are filled with water and an air suction pump fitted at the highest point of the syphon will suck water into both legs until the water from the shorter leg will overflow into the longer leg and syphon action is established. At this point the in-line centrifugal pump in the bottom pipe is switched on to recirculate the water from the lower to the higher tank. Dates fed into the upper tank will be carried along with the water stream and subjected to a slight under pressure in the shorter leg, just enough to draw some air from the inside of the date to be replaced by water when the pressure returns to normal (in the longer leg). Dates are separated in the lower vessel by a continuous chain elevator.

Figure 48: Continuous Hydration of Dates iv. Glazing: A short high temperature treatment, quite often at the end of hydration, with vigorous air movement will make the wax on the date surface melt and upon cooling reset in an attractive gloss. 5 minutes at 130 -140 C is recommended for Deglet Noor (467), whilst for Zahdi dates also a satisfactory lustre was produced at 130 C for 5 min. (329). Steam treatment for 10 min. also gave acceptable results (437). This gloss will eventually disappear, especially during storage exposed to air, but normally will last sufficiently for the expected marketing period. In conclusion of these additional treatments (i to iv) which are all based on the manipulation of temperature and moisture content, and incorporating heat treatments for enzyme inactivation and microbial and insect control, dealt with under b: "Storage", it is felt useful to review the
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time/temperature relationships for the different operations in a diagram (Fig. 49). It is evident that the application of heat has a promotional effect asfor instance in maturation, hydration, moisture removal and glazing whilst in others it is applied to prevent, such as in enzyme inactivation, insect control and pasteurization. In all cases, restricted by the degree of the susceptibility of the date to heat, care should be taken to depress undesirable side effects from heat treatment. This will not always be possible and a compromise will have to be sought.

Figure 49: Effects of Temperature Manipulation in the Storage and Treatment of Dates v. Coating: Apart from glazing, which makes use of the naturally available wax on the date surface, several materials have been used to improve the appearance of the date by giving it more lustre and protection and reduce stickiness when it concerns soft dates. Some examples are: a 37 Bx date liquid sugar solution, starch derivatives, sodium alginate and commercial pectin proved excellent coating and glazing agents, especially when dates were kept in cool storage (329). A British patent (52) refers to coating dates in a fluidized bed of heated air with a mixture of partially acetylated monoglycerides from hydrated cottonseed oil. After cooling the coat is reportedly impermeable to bacteria and prevents moisture loss upon storage. Literature makes further mention of the use of sugar syrup, mineral oil, glycerine (139), 6% cold-water soluble starch, and 3% methylcellulose (527). Whatever the merits of the above materials, the present trend in date coating is to "stay natural" and not to add foreign materials to the product that may be frowned upon by the law and by the consumer.

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vi. Pitting: The traditional, and by no means abandoned, method of removing the pit from the date is by hand, mostly with the use of a knife cutting open one side of the fruit, removing the pit and folding the two sides of the date together to make the cut almost invisible (Iraq). If done properly this method also provides an opportunity to check on insect infestation. In Iran field pitting is done in certain areas with a blunt needle piercing the pit out end-wise. This method can be considered the manual forerunner of the mechanical date pitters that have been devised. As can be expected hand pitting is rather slow and yield per hour does not normally exceed 5 kg (139, 363). Pitted dates pressed into blocks and sliced create an attractive marbled product (Fig. 50).

Figure 50: Slice of Pitted, Pressed Dates For soft dates the pit can be squeezed out between the fingers at the same time removing the skin. This is done for the preparation of agwa, a soft date paste preserved in jars (a.o. in Egypt) (139). This principle of removing the pit could be compared to mechanical date maceration, by which the pits are removed but the date loses its identity and is produced as a coarse date pulp. The working principles of both mechanical date pitters are as follows: in the whole date pitter incoming dates are lined up vertically in cups, by a special feeder. The cups are tightened around the date to hold them in position and move them intermittently along an endless belt (90-130 strokes per minute) up to the pitting head. Here pins will descend and pierce out the pits end-wise. The pits drop underneath the belt and are collected whilst the cups with pitted dates move on. The grip on the date is released and the conveyor turns down at which point the pitted fruit drops out of the cups and is collected. Because most dates and their pits are longitudinal in shape, the vertical alignment in the cups is of utmost importance. Preferably dates should be graded for size and correlated to the cup size. Output of these machines is in the order of 250-400 kgs/hr. (38, 160, 580). The date macerator works on the principle of feeding dates between two almost touching rollers turning in opposite directions. One roller is covered with a thick layer of rubber of a determined density, the other consists of notched steel disks separated by washers about 2 cm smaller in diameter and 0.5 cm wide. When dates are fed between the rollers they are squashed, where the two

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rollers touch and the flesh penetrates in the slits between the notched disks but the pits, being too big for these, are momentarily pushed in the rubber. Whilst the pit will almost immediately again be pushed out of the rubber the date flesh will rotate along the toothed roller until being removed by scrapers positioned after about half a turn of the roller. Both flesh and pits are collected in separate chutes. The operation will now be repeated with two rollers with all dimensions reduced with the aim of removing the calyces. The machine can give good results, up to 1,000 kg/hr, provided dates are used of the right moisture content, which if necessary should be obtained by artificial means prior to maceration. The resulting macerated dates are a starting point for the manufacture of date products (see Chapter 2). e. Packing whole dates: Loose tamr is frequently sold in the markets, not only in date producing countries, but they are also still commonly found on the stalls of the weekly open- air markets around the Mediterranean and Northern Europe (Fig. 51). Here they are part of the dried fruits and nuts assortment such as apricots, prunes, carob, peanuts, almonds etc. The type of container and packaging material used for tamr in the national and international date trade is varied and can be subdivided in: - traditional bulk packs - export bulk packs - retail packs Bulk packs for dates have been traditionally jute bags for the harder types and baskets woven of palm leaflets or tins in which the softer types of dates are pressed. Both types are still in use, the basket specificially for export of lower quality dates as popular food or for industrial use. Bags, amongst other means, are used for the transport and sale of khalaal matbuukh. Dates are sold straight from the baskets or bags in the local markets. The process of pressing dates has at least partially been mechanized by the introduction of semi-automatic presses, which however require a standard size basket or tin. In North Africa the traditional bulk pack for transport and bulk sales is a wooden box holding 20 to 30 kgs of side in layers is seldomly found anymore (Fig. 52).

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Figure 51: Loose Tamr on Sale in Open Air Market ({a} Bahrain, {b} Libya, {c} Netherlands)

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Figure 52: Hand Picked Bulk Box of Layered Dates The standard size bulk case of 70 lbs for the specialized export trade from the Gulf area to the USA and to Europe which amounted to thousands of tons at one time, has been in use for a long time. The prepared sides, bottoms and covers for the boxes had to be imported from European countries to be reassembled on the spot. Later developments have seen also the use of carton boxes, with or without inner plastic bags for extra protection. Filling and pressing of wooden and carton boxes has been fully mechanized, usually in two stages, that is, approximately half the amount of dates are filled automatically and compressed by a plunger, after which the second half is added to be compressed by a second plunger in the continuous production line. Later sizes adopted for the export trade have been boxes of 45 lbs unpitted, and 50 lbs pitted select quality dates for repacking (-use) in the country of destination and 55 lbs good average quality (GAQ) dates for use in the baking, sauce, pickle and confectionery industries. By far the most variety of packing style, size and materials developed over the last century is in the packs intended for retail sales. Perhaps part of the inspiration for this diversification was obtained from a study in the U.S. (437) which clearly showed that the more variety was put into the presentation of the product, the more volume was sold. A few historical lines in retail packing can be traced which persist up to today. The most well-known confection for North African dates, principally Deglet Noor, has been the glove box ("bote gants"), originally totally made of wood strips, in which the dates are packed in fish bone arrangement along a central piece of spikelet. Contents ranged from 200 to 250 g. Making and handfilling of the pack is costly, and the wood material has now been replaced by carton or plastic, but the form persists (Fig. 53). Deglet Noor, probably following the

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trend of consumer preference for natural products, are also marketed whilst still attached to the spikelets as they come off the palm, mostly in cellophane bags or window carton (Fig. 54). In the Near East much use is made of polythene bags (Fig. 55) and cellophane for pressed dates (Fig. 56). Small moulds with a sheet of cellophane and label underneath are filled in layers with a weighed quantity of dates, after which with a weight or by a simple lever press the lined-up dates are compressed in the mould. The mould is removed and the cellophane is wrapped around the block and heat sealed. This type of pack, usually ranging from 100 g up to 1 kg in size and used for soft dates, has the advantage of additional keepability because of the pressing and tight fit of the cellophane which keeps the original appearance and gloss for a longer period. On the other hand, to the consumer the tightly pressed dates may be less appetizing. For loose dates the closed window carton and transparent plastic cup are popular, because filling is quicker and for the latter two the product can be seen (Fig. 57).

Figure 53: Glove Boxes

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Figure 54: Natural Dates on Spikelets

Figure 55: Dates Packed in Polythene Bags

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Figure 56: Manual Packing of Cellophane Wrapped Pressed Date Blocks (a. Libya, b. Iraq, c. Bahrain)

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D Figure 57: Closed Carton, Window Carton and Transparent Plastic Cups for Loose Dates (a. Libya, b. Italy, c. Iraq, d. Nethelrands) In California dates are packed in cellophane bags, overwrapped trays, plastic cups, fibreboard cans, all-metal cans (478) in sizes varying from 8 ounces (about 250 g.) to 3 lbs. (about 1 and a third kgs) (Fig. 58). The dates for bulk trade are packed in 15 lbs (6 3/4 kg) reinforced cartons or wooden boxes. For longrange transport, also overseas, they are usually pallatized. For softer types, flatter cartons of 10 lbs are used.

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Figure 58: Variety of Date Packs Sold in Roadside Date Products Store (California, 1981) Vacuum packed dates, either in bags (Iraq) (Fig. 59) (289) or in cans (US) has met with some success but has not taken the market in any appreciable way. Trays overwrapped with stretch cellophane, gives a very attractive appearance and has been successfully applied to frozen khalaal (Bahrain) (Fig. 32) and is also found in use for tamr (Fig. 60).

Figure 59: Vacuum Packaging of Dates

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Figure 60: Trays Wrapped in Stretch Poli Whatever small packs have been designed, tried and sometimes failed, one of the major problems has been the cost of the packing operation itself. The date as a fruit, even in a dry form, does not lend itself well to mechanical packing in small packs, though some semi-automatic bag fillers are in operation (Fig. 61). However, progress has been made and there are now several machines on the market that will fill and seal small packages of dates, of 100, 125, 200 and 250 g at the rate of 360 to 900 kgs/hr (290, 580) (Fig. 62). A further sampling of the great variety of date packs found in various markets is represented in Figure 63.

Figure 61: Semi-automatic Bag Filling (Iraq)

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Figure 62: Mechanically Filled Small Packs of Loose Dates (Saudi Arabia)

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Figure 63: Samples of Date Packs

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CHAPTER 2: DATE PRODUCTS AND PREPARATIONS

Dates are ambiguous in the sense that, depending on the stage of maturity, they can either be classified as a fruit, comparable to any other fruit consumed between meals, or alternatively, as a food source as part of the daily meal, in particular in the rural areas of the date producing countries. Though not a true staple food by definition like rice, potatoes or cassava, dates, on occasion, have been forced to play this role for lack of other staples. In recent times, either because of a decreasing demand for table dates or in an effort to make better use of off-grade fruit, there has been a renewed interest in the date as a food source, not necessarily as a staple food, but rather as a component in food preparations like sweets, confectionery, baking products, institutional feeding and health foods. In this Chapter a review is made of the use or potential use of dates in combination with other foodstuffs. Only the use of the whole date flesh is considered and therefore all quality standards as imposed on whole dates, except perhaps for blemishes and other external defects, are applicable. In Chapter III: "Derived Date Fruit Products" the use of dates will be extended to a group of products for which the initial quality demands, in particular with regard to foreign matter and insects, are less stringent, because the foreign matter can be effectively removed during processing and will have no effect on the quality of the derived product. Although demarcations are not always sharp, date products and preparations, based on the use of the whole date flesh, can be classified under: sweets, preserves, condiments, breakfast foods and desserts . In order to follow somewhat the historical developments in this field they are reviewed as home preparations, semi-finished products, and ready-for-use date products after which research work on new date products will be listed. 2.1 Home-made date preparations Include those dishes and foods for which whole dates are acquired by the housewife and incorporated or combined for home consumption. Preparation of the dates, according to the intended use, will normally consist of washing, hand pitting, and either cutting, slicing or mixing with water to prepare a date slurry. Literature, both old and more recent, is abound with references to dates being consumed in food combinations and - preparations. The date's organoleptical and nutrititional characteristics being what they are, that is rich in sugar, and low in protein and fat, it stands to reason that a large number of combinations are focussed on supplementing the nutritional shortcomings and perhaps also diluting the natural sweetness of dates and sometimes adding some acidity, which they lack. Fresh dates are therefore often found in combination with milk (fresh and sour) and milk products, such as yoghurt, curd, butter and cheese. Dates are also stewed in fresh milk or thoroughly mixed with milk powder (513). A refined delicacy consists of dates, butter and honey, named Khabis, and reportedly known from the time of Mohammed, the Prophet (445). Extending the date and protein combination, one comes across dates and fish which has been a long-standing staple in the Gulf area (445), which, incidentally, finds a reciprocal appreciation for dates by fish, because in ancient Egypt dates were used as fish bait (127). Although perhaps a strange combination to a Western palate it should not be rejected off-hand if one thinks of the recipes in the West based on a sweet with animal protein like apple sauce or prunes and pork, cranberry sauce with turkey, which in Naples finds a parallel in turkey prepared with a stuffing incorporating dates. But this tolerance for accepting unusual food

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combinations would probably stop for most people when being confronted with dates mixed with oil and boiled, dried and ground locusts which apparently was considered a delicacy in those countries where these insects are abundant from time to time (445). Ground dates mixed with sesame oil is a well known dish and probably most effective with which to pass the cold desert nights. A typical example of complementarity in the consumption of fruits and vegetables is the combination of dates and either cucumbers or water melons, in which the sweetness of the date is diluted and the taste of the cucumber or water melon is reinforced. In more recent times these combinations are extended to recipes for date fruit salads, using pineapple, citrus, apples, pears, celery and lettuces. Date and starch preparations are frequently found and normally need cooking or frying. Examples are dates stewed in fresh milk with onions and flour or a stew of dates and rice in milk commonly used for lactating mothers (445). Adding sesame paste (tehina) to cooked flour and dates adds extra flavour to a product called Tamreyya (513) especially used in winter and by women after childbirth. Honeiny consists of comminuted dates thoroughly mixed with a precooked thick dough and reheated on a flat plate and served with butter (512). A common, traditional dish based on dates and flour, found in many date producing countries but with many variations is Asseeda. A traditional Asseeda from East Saudi Arabia (512) would be made by roasting wheat flour briefly (1,000 g.) and adding it to a coarsely sieved date/water mixture (2,350 g., 11.5 Bx). After mixing thoroughly and adding some pepper (3 g.) the mixture is spread on a flat metal plate with a small amount of butter and cooked in the oven for 1.5 hours. Asseeda is served with some more butter (40 g.) (512). However, there are many variations of this recipe: other flours may be used (sorghum, millet), date syrup or molasses may replace dates, and other spices, e.g. cardamom can be added. Dates are frequently used in home made pastry. A typical date sweet (halwa tamr) is made by frying finely ground dates with flour and milk and forming this mixture into cakes (445). Another date sweet consumed on festive occasions in and around Mecca is Debiaza, made by concentrating date juice, to which dates, dried lemon and mint are added, until it gels (512). Dates and nuts (walnut, pistachio, almonds), and also sesame seed, are a well-appreciated combination and frequently prepared in different forms for home use. Nuts also often play a role in preparing home preserves as shown from the following example: peel hard dates with a knife, cover with water and boil until soft, remove seed and insert almond or pistachio nuts and a clove, boil dates in syrup with lemon until thick consistency, preserve in glass or glazed jars (445). Another more or less similar recipe adds, besides walnuts, sesame seeds and powdered ginger before pressing and storing the mixture under syrup in glass jars. Home made jams based on dates are also known, as the following example from Egypt shows: cook semi-dry dates in water to soften, remove skin and seed, and insert a clove, add half a cup of sugar to one cup of dates, add lemon juice and original cooking water, concentrate over low fire. Leaving out the lemon juice and clove and replacing them with chopped walnuts gives another type of date jam (122). It is clear that this list of home made date preparations in the traditional date producing countries is far from complete because so many variations are possible depending on local availability of other foodstuffs and prevailing traditions and customs. The situation in the countries without local (traditional) production of dates is understandably different. In Europe the date is mostly used as a table fruit and then only mainly before and during the Christmas season, when lower temperatures and perhaps connotations of the date with the Holy Land, work in favour of an increased consumption of whole date fruit. Home made date preparations
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are more difficult to find; however the more inventive housewife may mix some chopped up dates in mixed salad, or fill up the dates with cheese as a cocktail snack (183), or stuff them with nuts for an after-dinner sweet. Dates used in cooked foods are even more rare as witnessed by the paucity of recipes to this effect in the European cook books. However, a few interesting examples are given: (i) dates used in stuffing for chicken and turkey. A first version combines dates in pieces with pine seeds, minced meat, breadcrumbs, eggs, milk and spices; a second type uses dates, potatoes, eggs, cheese, raisins and nutmeg (181). The chicken or turkey meat can be further garnished with a sauce, prepared from dates in butter, orange juice and some brandy. (ii) dates with rice. Date pieces are lightly fried in butter, combined with slices of chicken breast. This mixture is combined with rice cooked in broth with cloves. (iii) date and fish. Sole or bass with some butter and herbs (thyme, rosemary) together with dates rolled in a slice of bacon, are wrapped together in aluminium foil and cooked in the oven (296). (iv) dates and pasta: ravioli pasta is stuffed with date pieces (mixed with nuts, if desired), deep fried and rolled in sugar (181). (v) date mousse. Dates and nut pieces are mixed with yoghurt to which egg yolk and cinnamon are added. The white of the egg is whipped separately with sugar until foamy and incor-porated with the yoghurt mixture to form a light, tasty dessert (182). In the U.S., which only during this century became a date producer in its own right, strong and persistent promotional campaigns have made the housewife much more date-minded than in Europe, reflecting itself in a variety of date uses including cooked foods. The emphasis on the use of date products prepared in the home is on baked products like bread, cakes, cookies and puddings either incorporated in the dough or as a filling. Dates are often used in combination with other dried fruit, especially apricots, raisins and figs. Also very popular are the admixtures with nuts, coconut, chocolate and sometimes ginger and vanilla. For more contrasting tastes the following suggestions are made by a U.S. date grower/packer (291): a) for sandwich spreads i. chopped dates and cream cheese, ii. chopped dates, peanut butter, salad dressing in equal amounts, mixed lightly with some lemon juice, iii. chopped dates with orange marmalade b) for party snacks i. dates, stuffed with cocktail sausage, oven baked and served on cocktail sticks, ii. dates, stuffed with olives, rolled in thin cream cheese and chopped nuts, iii. dates, stuffed with fondant, nutmeat or candied fruit, iv. date chews, consisting of a mixture of ground dates, chopped nuts, shredded coconut, cream, vanilla, made into balls coated with sugar c) for salads i. chopped dates with grapes, peanuts, cottage cheese, bananas, or celery and nutmeats, ii. dates stuffed with Philadelphia cheese on pineapple slice served on lettuce A recipe for a home-made date relish (134) combines chopped, pitted dates with sugar and ground raisins, spiced with garlic, ginger, red pepper, vinegar and a little salt. The mixture is boiled for 15 minutes and used as a sweet-sour condiment.

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In order to promote the use of dates in home cooking the housewife is greatly helped by a number of semi-finished and prepared date mixtures available on the market and which will be reviewed in the next paragraph. 2.2 Semi-finished Date Products and Mixtures The base material for the further industrial use of dates in mixtures and preparations are pitted dates, most of which are produced in macerators as described in Chapter I: "pitting", although for special purposes whole pitted, cut or sliced dates are also procured. Out of this base material the following product range is available as semi-finished products: a. macerated chips in 50 lb cases , usually going to bakers and confectioners who further convert it into the form desired by them. The product generally needs refrigeration because of the borderline moisture content for fermentation at which the date macerators operate most efficiently. b. date paste: a simple additional grinding operation will turn the macerated date into date paste. The principle is the same as for prepared minced meat and the fineness of the product can be regulated by the use of different size holes in the discs. Here also, refrigeration may be required to prevent possible fermentation. Date paste is also produced commercially in Saudi Arabia and used for bakery products. The estimated volume of this product is 1,000 tons in this country. A curious nonfood application of date paste is that it will, in combination with soap, efficiently stop leaks in gasoline tanks in automobiles (363). This will not open up large markets for date paste, but it may become a life saver on long desert journeys. c. extruded date pieces: macerated dates are forced through dies with " circular holes and the resulting "sausage" is cut at lengths varying from " to 1" whilst being coated with dextrose (solid glucose) or oat flour to prevent the pieces from sticking together. This product is sometimes air dried for more firmness or customer preference. d. diced dates: a variant of above are diced dates which are cut up rather than extruded macerated dates. The operation is performed in a dicer, which can be set to produce pieces of about 3/16" to ". They are also coated with dextrose or oat flour to keep the pieces separate. e. dehydrated dates: macerated dates are put on trays and dried down to less than 5% moisture in tunnel or cabinet dryers. The dried dates are ground and sold in various screen sizes. The product is used in prepared cake-, cookie- and muffin mixes. Some of the products are also sold directly to the public such as "extruded date pieces", "diced dates" and a "date block", which is a slightly pressed cube of macerated dates (10 oz or 1 lb size) for home baking. A product under the name of Date Crystals, dehydrated fine date pieces, almost a powder, was put on the market and proposed as the basic ingredient in date recipes and taking the place of dates (526, 609) (Fig. 64). Another semi-finished product in the form of a spread, consisting of ground dates and sugar, was marketed as a base ingredient for the preparations of mainly cakes and desserts aimed as a raw material in the catering industry (434).

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Figure 64: Dehydrated Dates in Powder Form A second generation of semi-finished date products mainly developed in the U.S. are the prepared foods which with simple additions and home preparation can be turned into a ready dish. In this group belong the breakfast foods in which date crumbs are normally used together with other dried fruits, cereals and nuts (Fig. 65) and the ready mixtures for date bread (Fig. 66), date cakes and date puddings in their various executions. A specific example is the date bar mix (Fig. 67) which needs only the addition of water, eggs, baking powder and other optionals (e.g. walnuts, grated lemon rind, instant coffee, coconut) and oven cooking for 30 minutes to produce date bars (171).

Figure 65: Breakfast Foods Incorporating Dates

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Figure 66: Ready-made Mix for Date Bread 2.3 Ready for Use Date Products

Figure 67: Date Bar Mix

Ready for use date products incorporating dates are mostly found as sweets and snacks though there are also some other examples where dates are product ingredients. In countries where taste for sweets, the so-called "sweet tooth", is still prevalent, notably in the date producing countries of the Old World, a great variety of coated and stuffed dates as well as pastry based on or garnished with dates, is available. Dates filled with nuts and coated with chocolate or stuffed with brightly coloured fondant are only a few of the many date based sweets. Date pastry like halwa or date cookies (a sister of the Wellington or fig bar) and date wafers can be found in many countries (Fig. 68). In the U.S., and to a lesser extent in Europe, the popularity of dates especially in the Christmas season, has given rise to a gift parcel trade. It includes attractively packaged and arranged dates and date products which are, on order by the customer, sent by the producer as gift parcels through the postal system. The date products may consist of stuffed and coated dates, date cake with walnuts, date/plum pudding, date preserve and dates in brandy.

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Figure 68: Several Types of Date Cookies A popular sweet as a snack is the date nut roll. It is a cylindrical bar of about 3/4" and up to 2" in length of macerated dates, rolled in coconut and with an almond on top. A date-muesli bar (Fig. 69) consisting of hazelnuts, date syrup, dates, oatflakes, and sunflower seeds, is another example of a one-portion snack. Another product, also under the name of date nut roll is a canned ready date cake (based on dates, nut meats, coconut, flour and other minor ingredients), to be heated "au bain marie" and served after slicing with either sweet or spicy toppings (382). Less sweet and in analogy with the early desert travellers carrying dates along as a concentrated, high energy food, are the socalled trail snacks, mixtures of dried fruits including date pieces and nuts taken along on mountain hikes especially by younger people (Fig. 70).

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Figure 69: Date-muesli Bar

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Figure 70: Dried Fruit and Nuts Mixtures including Dates a) Raw trail mix; b) Roasted trail mix; c) Tropical mix Date jams in different forms or admixed with other fruits are part of the product assortment of a few internationally oriented conserve industries (Fig. 71).

Figure 71: Date Jam In conclusion of the ready date products available on the market mention should be made of several condiments, mixtures of sweet, sour and spices: date chutney (Fig. 72), steak sauce and pickles. In date chutney all or part of the mango (for which chutney as a product is better known) is replaced by dates, and mainly used as a condiment in rice dishes. Steak sauce (better known as HP sauce after the company that makes it) is a very old product, and is used as a condiment in meat dishes. It contains about 10% finely ground, sieved dates. A more fruity version is used as a general condiment (Fig. 73).
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Figure 72: Date-Banana Chutney

Figure 73: Steak Sauce A product in between chutney and steak sauce is a pickle incorporating dates known under the name of Branston (named after the town where it was first created). Besides dates the different versions contain vegetables (pieces), fruits and spices. Its pleasant sweet-sour taste makes it an appropriate accompaniment to salads, cheese and cold meats (Fig. 74). A sweet type of pickle is shown in Figure 75.

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Figure 74: Different Types of Pickle incorporating Dates

Figure 75: English Sweet Pickle 2.4 Date Products Development The development of new products derived from dates to create more product diversity and marketing outlets has always existed and principally originated from small scale private initiatives of a localized

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nature. However, in the fifties and early sixties a strongly increased interest in date products development can however be observed, especially in the U.S., the reason being to broaden the marketing base of the date crop and upgrading the quality standards of choice table dates by being able to use the sub-standard fruit for date products. The initiatives were undoubtedly also inspired and helped by a strongly emerging prepared food industry in the U.S. in which the date producers desired to have a part. Many of the Annual Reports of the Date Growers' Institute in this period bear witness to this research both by private and public initiatives, and many of the products referred to in the previous paragraph had their roots in this development work (123, 124, 125, 302, 527, 31). With the gradual change of ownership of the date plantations and concentration of date products use in large multi-food companies, development work nowadays is largely done under cover of proprietary rights and does not come out in the open as it used to. This phenomenon is also confirmed by an increasing number of patent applications in this field. In the Old World, Iraq has been the leading country in date products development, especially in the industrial use of the date. Its National Date Research Centre has operated for many years and hosted the Headquarters of the FAO/UNDP Regional Centre on Palm and Date during the period 1975 to 1985. North Africa has contributed to these developments though the main emphasis has been on improving (export) quality of table dates of the Maghreb countries and some industrial uses of low quality dates in Libya and Egypt. As will be remembered, most of Egypt's date crop is consumed fresh. Over the last ten years Saudi Arabia has entered the field of research on dates, a parallel development to the strong promotional efforts by the Government to improve and increase date production and processing. The research activities are now centred at the National Date Palm Research Centre located at Hofuf, Al Hassa. By 1971, 5,000 new products of all kinds were presented yearly to the U.S. supermarkets, an amount about equal to the available items of most supermarkets at that time (610). These numbers will probably have increased since then and it is obvious that only a few newly introduced products can survive in the long run. Proportionally, date products will be no exception as is shown from the experiences of date products that have vanished or have been replaced by newer developments. The European and local markets in the date producing countries will show similar signs and the conclusion is that the commercial introduction of a new date product is a tedious process which needs a thorough knowledge of customers' habits and tastes with regard to food, assured raw material supply and distribution systems, secured keeping quality of the product, potential market volume, and competitiveness with closely related products. In addition, trends in consumer preferences should be recognized and exploited by responding to them. It further needs capital and much promotional effort. In the last twenty years there have been numerous attempts to improve existing formulae and develop new date products as reflected in the technical literature. However, little is known about the rate of success, i.e. whether the idea remained conceptional, or reached pilot scale production and marketing, or became a commercial success. The following overview of research on date products development over the last twenty years or so is therefore given in the light of technical interest and perhaps as a source of ideas for date products promotion. For convenience and clarity the products have been classified in groups, reminding the reader that only the use of the date flesh, of comparable or nearly comparable quality as that applicable to whole dates, is considered in this chapter.
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a. Whole pitted dates: Various products can be mentioned that in some way provide a new use for dates in a date product. The first consists of a fig stuffed with roasted almond, a date, raisins and a bonbon, and then coated with chocolate (130). Another replaces the date pit with an almond, cooks the filled date in sugar syrup, thereby imparting a golden colour to the date and syrup (324). The preservation of dates in syrup is long known and practised but has also been the subject of additional development work. In these tests peeled and pitted dates were placed in 50 Bx syrup of which PH was adjusted by citric acid from about 7 to 3. The mixture was boiled down to Bx 75 , and various flavours (orange, banana, grapefruits etc.) added (275, 276). Whole, pitted rutab spiced with clove and cinnamon, stuffed with almond (if desired) are put into jars and a slightly acidified sucrose solution (70o C Bx) is added under vacuum to ensure good penetration of the liquid in the date cavity. After sealing, the jars are pasteurized for 20 minutes at 90o C in a waterbath (65). Another development involves an apparatus which combines pitting and filling the cavity of dates with a suitable mixture or almond in one operation. The resulting filled date, if desired, is then sent for coating with chocolate (312, 580). In analogy with the long established process for candied fruits, this technology has also been tried on khalaal (276, 506). Washed and pierced (to facilitate exchange of materials) khalaal were immersed overnight in a 35.5 Bx syrup (composed of equal amounts of sucrose and glucose syrup), of which the PH was adjusted to 2.8 by a mixture of citric and ascorbic acid. After briefly bringing to the boil, Bx content was increased by 5-10 at 2-3 day intervals until a Bx level of 75 was reached. Originating from a date of about 40% dry matter (of which about 84% was sugar), a product resulted of over 80% DM (of which about 86% was sugar). Canning of khalaal has been the subject of a study (322) but no definite recommendations as to the procedure, which consisted of washing, pitting, blanching, can filling (with sugar syrup, citric and ascorbic acid), exhausting, sealing, sterilization and cooking, could be arrived at. b. Pure date paste: The technical aspects of making date paste are simple and is normally done in mincers. The fineness of the grind can be adjusted by changing dies with holes of different diameter. The texture (softness) of the product is mainly determined by moisture content, but not by this alone. Different date varieties of the same moisture content may produce a paste of different softness. Moreover, date paste will tend to get harder during storage, even when maintaining the same moisture content. Add to this the increasing risk of browning and fermentation with increasing moisture, it is clear that the characteristics of the raw material and the desired end product must be matched by technological manipulation. Evaluation, standardization, and storage stability of date paste were subject of a study (on one date variety: Ruzeiz) reported in two parts (607). The main results of these investigations are: - moisture content can be satisfactorily adjusted (upward) by either steaming or soaking of the dates prior to grinding. (Normally one will start with dry dates for producing a paste of around 20% moisture. If dates of a high moisture content have to be turned into paste of 20%, dehydration would have to be applied.) Within the normally required range (say max 10% increase in moisture) during steam treatment (5 min.) and soaking (10 min. at 25 C) no significant leaching loss will occur, - soaking of Ruzeiz dates (12.38% moisture) for 10 minutes raised the moisture content to 22.09% with water activity of 0.57, well within the safety limit for fermentation,

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- Ruzeiz date paste of about 18% moisture (pre-steamed) and 22% (pre-soaked) stored at respectively 5 , 25 , and 50 C did not show appreciable difference in colour, PH and total sugar content for 16 weeks at 5 C, 8 weeks at 25 C and 3 weeks at 50 C, - addition of 0.2% citric acid, which lowers initial PH from 5.96 to 5.40, perhaps desirable from an organoleptic point of view, does not significantly change storage stability except perhaps for PH at 25 C at which the paste remains more stable than the control, - the same applies to addition of 0.2% citric acid + 0.2% ascorbic acid. In the context of date paste making mention should also be made of several attempts to produce date paste sheets, named tamaruddin in analogy with the well-known and widely distributed apricot "leather" (quamaruddin). There are, however, two basic differences between the two raw materials, which makes the date the less favourite for such a product. Whilst the apricot can be turned into sheets from its natural state by pulping, screening and drying on boards, dates have to be diluted first to be pulped, after which the water has to be evaporated again. Secondly, the date's natural less pronounced flavour and acidity make it less suitable as a base for a reconstituted drink for which this paste is mainly used. The experiments carried out (379, 388, 389) reflect these shortcomings which have been tried to overcome by addition of organic acids, and/or other fruit pulps and flavours. In this way fruit pulp mixtures are created which under certain conditions may find a place in the market or as a semi-finished product (see iii). c. Date paste mixtures With the possibility of producing a date paste with the desired moisture content, texture and softness well in hand, the field to combine and supplement this basically sweet material with other foodstuffs is wide open and many proposals have been made: - premixed date bar (including almonds and corn starch) supplemented with respectively soy protein isolate (SPI), single cell protein (SCP) and dry skimmed milk (DSM), resulted in a nutritional balanced mixture and scored well with moderate variations in sensory testing compared to control, also after prolonged storage (up to 6 months) at 7 C and 25 C. Similar product mixes based on protein supplementation by SPI, SCP and DSM have been reported (270, 259, 496, 144), as well as date paste/roasted peanut mixtures (487, 578). All these studies were aimed at creating acceptable, nutritious snacks for children. - nutritious candy bars based on date paste mixed with corn starch, whole dry milk, roasted almonds, coconut, sesame butter and milk chocolate (as coating), in various proportions. Date paste constituted from 74-84% of the final weight according to recipe (6 in total). Moisture content ranged from 14.9-16.6%, protein 4.78-5.98% and fat 7.28-15.17%. Sensory testing showed a preference for chocolate coated bars. Storage tests showed a decline in quality after two months at 40 C and five months at 28 C, whilst the samples stored at 5 C remained unchanged (604). - tamrina, a protein-rich food mixture for feeding infants and pre-school children (600) is based on a variety of mixtures of wheat, lentils, chickpeas, dates, milk powder and vitamin supplements. The process is as follows: wheat, lentils and chickpeas are cooked for 15-20 minutes with just enough water for total absorption. The cooked mixture is then dried at 70 C on trays in a drier. Pre-dried pitted dates (50 C) are mixed in and the total mass ground to 70 mesh. The other ingredients (milk powder and vitamin supplement) are added and the whole mixture is packed in aluminium lined polythene and stored at 4 C and room temperature up to 6 months. Dates constitute 10% of the mixtures before preparation. The final products, varying according to the recipe, range 5-6% in
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moisture, 19-20% in protein, 2-5% in crude fat, 10.5-14.5% in sugar and 45-47% in starch. Organoleptic evaluation was favourable, even after six months storage. The product was created with the intention of using as many locally available materials as possible and substituting sugar for dates. - tamarheep (a contraction of tamr (date) and haleep (milk) is an effort to create nutritionally balanced date mixtures following the process of apricot leather, i.e. pulping, screening, mixing and drying into sheets (see ii). In the experiments under review (380), apricot leather was compared with pure date leather and a number of date leathers reinforced with skim milk powder (DSM) (respectively 20, 35 and 50 gm to each 300 g date pulp, which corresponds to 120 gm of dates). In addition the basic tamarheep (i.e. dates + DSM) were flavoured with different fruit flavours and the resulting multitude of products were tested by a taste panel. General conclusions were a preference for apricot leather but good appreciation for tamaruddin (date leather) and plain tamarheep and some of the fruit flavoured tamarheep, either in solid form or reconstituted. A chocolate and vanilla flavoured drink from a whey/milk mixture sweetened with date puree and sugar was successfully tested and rated well compared to the control based on sugar only (200). d. Date paste in bakery products and confectionery The use of dates and date pieces in bakery products and confectionery has been reviewed earlier in this Chapter and several commercial products, mainly of American origin, were identified. The use of date paste for this purpose is much less common and was investigated for possible application in bread and cookies by large-scale modern bakeries (370, 605). In these experiments wheat flour (12.40% moisture, 13.07% protein, 1.33% fat) was replaced by date paste (15.82% moisture, 78.24% total sugars, 2.24% protein, 0.35% fat) at the respective rates of 0, 4, 8, 10 and 12% in bread. For cookies 0, 10, 15 and 20% replacement was adopted with corresponding adjustment of sucrose addition to keep total sugar constant in all samples. Overall outcome of testing the resulting samples was: - bread specific volume was highest at 8% addition of date paste - at 12% the dough is sticky and typical bread characteristics are distorted - sensory testing by a taste panel revealed a preference for the control (i.e. 0% date paste) on all test criteria (crumb texture, appearance and flavour) for the bread samples - in the case of cookie testing the results were opposite with highest rating for 20% addition of date paste - cookies showed less tendency of cracking with increasing paste content On the basis of these results it would therefore seem that application of date paste in cookies will have a better chance of success than in bread making. In another study (395) replacement of 50% sucrose by date paste in cookies resulted in, besides the organoleptic improvement, a higher moisture retention and prolonged shelf life of the product. e. Date preserves Preserves are normally understood to be derived products created to prevent spoilage of fresh foodstuffs in order to extend their storage life and availability to the consumer. Common natural auxiliary materials to assist in this process are sugar, salt and (organic) acids.

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Though dates at the tamr stage would not necessarily fall into the fresh food category because they are self-preserving, several date preserves have been experimented with or reached commercial application, perhaps more for the purpose of broadening the date product choice than for the effect of preservation. Fruit jams are one of the most common preserves and the process consists of boiling fruit or fruit pieces with sugar to a consistency where microbes are not able to grow. If required, pectin is added to secure gelling and the PH is adjusted by citric or tartaric acid. The resulting product is hot filled in jars or cans, closed, and usually pasteurized in a hot water bath. Upon cooling the product will gel. Densities may range from about 60 to 70 Bx and a PH in the range of 3.2 - 3.5. Most food laws require a minimum percentage of fruit pulp in the final product. Dates are, because of their natural composition, not the most adaptable type of fruit for jam making because of their high sugar content, their comparatively high PH and less pronounced flavour. Naturally occurring pectin varies with the type of date and normally needs to be supplemented especially when a lighter type of jam is desired. Several research institutes have therefore analysed varieties and experimented with date jam making to find the most suitable types and recipes (553, 276, 330, 331, 498, 367). A typical date jam recipe and analysis is as follows: Khudairy date jam, Saudi Arabia (355) Recipe: Date pulp (62.4% date flesh) Sugar Citric acid (as % of dates in pulp) 55 kg 45 kg 1.02

Mixture boiled down to Brix 66-68 Analysis: PH 3.7, Brix 67.2 , Date/Sugar ratio + 0.75 In testing the suitability of dates at the different stages of maturity (khalaal, rutab and tamr) it was found that rutab lends itself best for jam making before tamr, whilst khalaal should not be considered for its low solid content and lack of specific date flavour (357). With the present overall trend to produce lighter jams of less sweetness there may be scope to finish the jam at a lower Brix (within the limit of the law) and to consider dates combined with other fruit mixtures to create specific flavours. A product slightly different from date jam, named date-butter, was made experimentally with the aim of, a.o., creating a semi-finished product for further use by industry such as confectioners. The difference with date jam consists mainly in a higher date/sugar ratio, lower acidity (PH 4.6) and higher final Brix (around 75 ) (276). Along similar lines as experimented earlier (125), canning of date pulp was attempted for eventual use as a semi-finished product for the food industry. Difference with the date jam and date butter processing is that no cooking takes place. Best results were obtained by blending date pulp (made of steamed dates) with a 20 Bx sugar solution or date liquid sugar solution. This blend is homogenized, adjusted for PH (3.9), packed and sealed in cans and sterilized, because the product is perishable (around 50 Bx) (335). Whilst raising the sugar content of food to a high level is a form of preservation to exclude microbial growth, pickling consists of both controlling some and encouraging growth of other microbes (not
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harmful to humans), in order to reach a situation in which the product is both preserved from microbial deterioration and remains edible. To reach this condition quite often use is made of salt which selectively controls microbial growth. Examples are fermented cabbage ("sauerkraut") and a wide variety of pickled fruits and vegetables, like gherkins, cucumbers, cauliflower, olives etc. However, high sugar containing fruits like deciduous fruits, are not suitable for this type of preservation and the fully mature date therefore would not seem a promising candidate. Nevertheless, some work has been done and the first interest has focussed on the pickling of dates at the kimri and khalaal stages, i.e. when they are perishable, low in sugar, high in moisture and mostly astringent. Up to a point the comparison with olives is valid, except that olives have a high oil content. A first report on the subject (277, 276) deals with a method, called fresh-pack pickle, which does not involve fermentation, because dates are packed in an acidified sugar solution and immediately pasteurized. Other particulars of this experiment were: 3 varieties of dates at the kimri stage were washed, peeled in an abrasive drum peeler, hand pitted and cut in slices. They were packed in a 20% sugar solution with a varying (acetic) acid level (2.0, 2.5 and 3% of a 5% standard acid strength solution respectively). 3% salt, 1.5% spices and 0.05% sodium benzoate were added to all samples. Pasteurization time and temperature were also varied but proved optimal at 71 C for 15 min. Major results of these tests were: - after 3 months storage, total acidity in the solution drops and PH values increase; total soluble solids decrease. These changes level off sharply in the period up to 6 months storage. Conclusion: product has stabilized after 3 months - in sensory testing no clear preferences for either variety or acidity range could be detected and all samples came out as acceptable for colour, taste and texture in the range of 7 (out of 10) In a sideline of the above main experiments one variety was stored in salt solution for 2 months before being used as salt-stock in the main experiment. The preparation of the salt-stock went as follows: dates were covered with 12% salt solution, which after one week was raised to 15% and maintained until stabilization. After two months at ambient temperature the dates were removed, washed several times with running water to remove salt, and further treated as for the fresh-pack pickle. The initial acidity of the salt-stock as lactic acid was found to be 0.49% which is considered low though it shows fermentation had taken place. In the analyses of the subsequent pickles derived from this salt-stock according to the fresh-pack recipes, the decrease in total acidity, increase in PH was not so pronounced as for fresh-pack pickles after 3 and 6 months storage, but the decrease of total soluble solids in solution followed the same pattern. Other experiments on kimri and khalaal pickling resulted in satisfactory products using 15% salt solution and 2% acetic acid after 6 weeks for kimri (417) and 10% brine plus 2% acetic acid, boiled for 5 minutes, for khalaal (603). In another effort of date pickling (201) dates were pickled following two methods: "fresh brine pickling" and "salt-stock pickling". In the fresh brine pickle dates (kimri stage, 70% moisture, PH 6, Bx 16-18 ) were given two vertical cuts and placed in jars covered with 32 Salometer salt solution (n.b. 100 Salometer corresponds to 25% salt solution) and 2% vinegar (of 4.5% strength) was added. In a parallel lot the fruits were cut but no vinegar added, and in a third lot the fruit was not cut but brine and vinegar were added. After

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90 days of fermentation the brine solution (32 ) is renewed including 5% vinegar, packed in jars and sealed, and pasteurized at 80 C for 15 min. in hot water. In salt-stock pickling the fermentation is started with 32 salt solution, after which at weekly intervals 2% salt is added until after 4 weeks the solution has reached 60 Salometer. After 90 days the fruits were freshened with warm water for 8 hours at 50 C (repeated twice). Fruit is then treated as for fresh brine pickle at the second stage. In both methods some lemon and dill were added for extra flavour. Main results of this study were: - in spite of rather slow fermentation rate (12 weeks) in fresh brine pickling, acceptable PH (3.45 3.85) and total acidity levels (0.80 - 0.90%) were reached, the samples with vinegar having the higher acidity levels - in the salt-stock pickle it took up to 24 weeks to reach the extreme acidity levels of the fresh brine pickle - cutting the dates or not had no appreciable influence on the process - samples to which vinegar had been added were preferred in all cases during sensory testing - the addition of lemon, dill and stuffing of piemento red pepper enhanced the acceptability of the product - a negative comment on quality concerned the toughness of the pickle It is evident that with these experiments, valuable as they are, the possibilities of pickling dates at the kimri and khalaal stages have so far not been exhausted. The process variables and techniques, the sugar/salt/acid ratios and the use of additional flavours are numerous and provide many opportunities for extended research in this area. Attractive, appetizing date pickles could become a welcome addition to the date product variety and date outlet possibilities. f. Date condiments A condiment is characterized by a specific flavour and is used to give relish to food. In Heading 3 of this Chapter several commercially available condiments containing dates were identified. Two additional efforts to incorporate dates in condiments are referred to: they are concerned with date chutney and tomato ketchup. Chutney is a generic term of a condiment composed of a sweet (provided by fruits), acid (provided by lemon or vinegar), vegetables and (hot) spices. Chutney (derived from the Hindu chatni), is probably best known when mango is used as the basic fruit, but also apple, tomato and mixed fruit chutneys are known, so why not a chutney predominantly consisting of dates? In trying this, 6 prototype samples of date chutney were prepared (276, 505) in which the following ingredients were incorporated: - dates: either as chopped pieces or as pre-prepared pulp - raisins - sugar - vegetables: carrots, onions, piemento - spices: ginger, cayenne pepper, paprika, coriander, cinnamon - vinegar/acetic acid - other additives: salt, casein powder, gum arabic, water

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The preparation of these chutneys consisted of boiling the carrots, chopped dates and raisins with water and date pulp for 15 minutes after which the sugar and seasonings were added followed by a further boiling for 20 min. The major characteristics of the samples were: PH 3.57-3.65; Brix 50.251.2 ; Total sugars 35.4-37%; Acidity (as acetic acid): 1.22 - 1.39%. In sensory evaluation (15 panel members) no significant preferences for one or more of the 6 samples came out but the overall appreciation of the product was favourable. Tomato ketchup (derived from the Chinese Koe-chiap) is now mostly known as a sauce of homogenised tomato pulp mixed with sugar, vinegar, salt and flavouring (sometimes hot spicy). In an attempt to make more and better use of local resources experimental work was carried out (336, 337) to substitute sugar for dates in tomato ketchup. Starting from a standard recipe which contained tomato juice, salt, sugar, vinegar, pectin, onion and a number of condiments (garlic, red chillies, paprika, nutmeg, cloves, cinnamon, cardamon, ginger, coriander, and aniseed), the preparation of the ketchup consisted of extracting tomato juice from fresh tomatoes (heating in water, straining) mixing in the other ingredients and boiling down to the required Bx content. Major characteristics of this standard sample were: Dry matter 33.9% (Bx 32 ), PH 3.62, acidity (citric acid), 1.16%, sugar total 26.5%. In the preparation of the test samples sugar was progressively replaced by date pulp (prepared from steamed, pitted, homogenised dates mixed in equal mounts with a 20% sugar solution, slightly acidified with citric acid). The rates of sugar substitution were respectively 25, 50, 75 and 100%. The chemical composition of these samples, as a consequence of this substitution, showed a slight increase in PH and reducing sugars, and increasing mineral, crude fibre and fat contents. The results of the test panel according to the report, showed no significant difference in colour, flavour and consistency of the various samples, but was not conclusive on overall taste. g. Date desserts Past records (302, 123) make mention of development work on the use of dates in desserts, like ice cream and puddings and some of these products have reached commercial application, the extent of which is difficult to judge but mostly concentrated in the U.S. More recent development work has also been done in the Arab World as part of the overall effort to provide more diversified marketing outlets for the date fruit. The following examples are quoted: dates in the form of date juice (diluted and strained date paste), were used at different levels as sweetening and flavouring agent in water ice, fruit sherbet at 20, 25 and 30 Bx and ice cream. From a technological viewpoint the following results were obtained: Overrun (i.e. the percentage increase in volume of the mix caused by beating-in of air) as well as viscosity increased with higher Brix. Increasing Bx content from date juice reduces meltdown time, however. The sensory evaluation revealed no significant difference in water ice for flavour, body/texture and colour, hence the lower level of 20 Bx at the different Bx levels could be considered sufficient. For fruit sherbet and ice cream a statistically significant preference with regard to flavour for 20 Bx addition was observed equalling the rating for the control ice cream (15% sucrose). General result of these tests are therefore that date juice at 20 Bx can replace sucrose partially or completely in water ice, fruit sherbet and ice cream (532). In a similar experiment strained and unstrained date juice derived from date paste was used to replace sucrose in ice cream at the rate of 17, 34 and 50% (w/w of sugar value) respectively. These substitutions created an increase in freezing time and decrease in overrun for unstrained date juice. However for strained date juice (through cheesecloth, which removes skin particles and coarse fibre) this was not the case. Melting time was increased with increasing amounts of sucrose replacement
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and melting quality remained stable in all samples. Sensory testing rated ice cream with highest sucrose replacement (50%) as significantly best. In a parallel test date chips were added to ice cream at the rate of 5, 10 and 15% to the control sample (0% sucrose substitution). Percentage overrun was decreased (from 80 to 75% for 15% addition of chips), freezing time was not affected, but melting time was increased. Sample with 10% chips were rated first in sensory evaluation (203). Dates combined with yoghurt has not received much attention in date products research, which is somewhat surprising whilst the yoghurt fruit combinations on the market nowadays are numerous. The popularity of these products has brought about the establishment of a specialized industry which at the client's preference prepares fruit mixtures, ready for incorporation in yoghurts, confectionery and ice creams. However, so far dates have not played an important role in this development. One study (464) focusses on incorporating dates (tamr) in an existing product made of fermented and dried milk (oggt), creating a new product tamroggt. Oggt is a traditional preservation technique for milk, which is fermented, churned, the butter removed and the remaining butter milk is boiled down to a paste. This paste is formed into patties which are further dried in the sun. Moisture content in these traditional products may range from about 4 to 8.5%, fat from 16-23% and protein from 4448%. In the experiment oggt was made from reconstituted skimmed milk powder, thus by-passing the churning process, and using a common yoghurt starter. Boiled down to a paste, pitted, chopped dates were added in different proportions and the samples dried at low temperature. The sample in which equal mounts of dates and skimmed milk powder were present had the following composition: Moisture 10%, protein 25%, total sugar 60%. In two other samples the date ratio was cut by half and replaced respectively by 0.1% anice and 0.2% sesame seed in one, and 1% cocoa in the other. In sensory evaluation, the cocoa flavoured sample did not fare well; the tamroggt with anice/sesame addition came out highest, followed by tamroggt and the control oggt. The use of dates in puddings has already been referred to earlier but it seems appropriate to conclude this chapter on "Date fruit products and preparations" with a recipe of such a dessert, because the proof of the pudding is in the eating, as the English saying goes. And that applies to all the date products and preparations which have been reviewed in this Chapter. Spiced date bread pudding (465) 2 cups warm milk, cup sugar, tsp salt 1 tsp freshly grated nutmeg, tsp vanilla cup pineapple or other fruit juice Mix and pour over 2 cups cubed day-old bread, soak for 10 min. and stir in three quarters of a cup of chopped dates, 3 beaten eggs, and half a cup nutmeats. Bake pudding in greased baking dish, set in a pan of hot water in moderate oven (350 F, 175 C) for about 1 hour. Serve hot or cold with cream.

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CHAPTER 3 DERIVED DATE FRUIT PRODUCTS

In the preceding chapters the use of dates and date products has been discussed where it concerned the whole of the sound fruit flesh. Ideally, and that applies to most fruits, the emphasis is on this use, because normally it gives the highest reward to the producer. However, there are situations where a use of part of the fruit flesh is indicated in order to utilize the raw stock to the best advantage. Three areas which stimulate such use of fruits can be distinguished: a. Derived products which have established themselves in their own right. Fruit juices, citrus in particular, tomato paste and wine are clear examples, even to the extent that fruit selection and breeding is directed towards optimal use for this purpose. b. Temporary surplus of fruits because of abundant harvest and/or insufficient marketing outlets of a perishable commodity. On occasion this happens and one resorts to the use as animal feed or alcohol making, when feasible. c. Damaged, undersized fruit of unattractive appearance, and presence of foreign matter. As far as dates are concerned the raw material for derived products is mainly found in the last area (c), or, in certain circumstances, in combination with a surplus situation (b) of usually the more common date varieties. But no instance is known where sound, whole dates are utilized for the purpose of making derived products, for the simple reason of not having an economic justification. The production of derived date products is therefore dependent on the existence of quantities of second grade fruit, resulting from inadequate or marginal production systems, or as graded out fruit from large scale date packing operations. For a general view of the scope and opportunities to produce derived date products it is useful to look at a homogenized date flesh/water mixture which has been centrifuged in a tube centrifuge (Fig. 76). The following observations can be made. At the very bottom of the tube sand and dust are collected 1.; the layer above that shows pieces of date skins, fibrous particles, and insect fragments 2. More upwards the material becomes lighter in colour and turns into a greyish slurry 3., gradually turning into a clear liquid 4. The extent of layer 3. and its demarcation line with the clear layer 4. is related to the date variety and stage of maturity. Sometimes it is difficult to obtain a clear layer 4., indicating that we also deal with semi-solids and colloids. Layer 4. contains the sugars and other soluble solids of the dates, which extends also through the layers 3., 2. and 1. At the very top of the liquid a thin film of material (fat, perhaps) can sometimes be found. It is clear that the above identified qualitative distribution of materials in the tube is also a function of Brix level of the date flesh/water mixture. If a
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heavier slurry is employed the demarcations are less pronounced because of less difference in specific gravity on which the centrifuge action is based.

Figure 76: Centrifuged Date Solution For the sake of choosing and understanding the technologies to be applied for the separation of the different components of the date flesh use is made of the following composition parameters: Total weight (T) Moisture (M) Total solids (TS) ) ) T = M + TS )

Non-soluble solids (NSS) ) TS = NSS + SS Soluble solids (SS) ) Sugars (S) ) SS = S + SNS Soluble non-sugar (SNS) ) Table 13 gives an overview of the major possibilities for derived date products.

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Table 13 Derived date products

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For all these products dates are mixed with water in order to facilitate the separation of the desirable and undesirable components of the date. For some products the added water will be incorporated in the final product such as for soft drinks and date wine; in others, water is added in such an amount as to create the right medium for the subsequent production process. This is the case with all products based on microbial conversion. In both cases therefore the amount of water to be added is governed by the subsequent process and products. However, when the envisaged final product is concentrated, notably date spread, date syrup and date liquid sugar, water acts only as a temporary carrier to facilitate the subsequent separation process, after which the water is removed again (by evaporation). As this last operation is relatively expensive (investment and energy), one therefore tries to obtain the desired effect with the minimum amount of water added. This has brought about a number of extraction processes, in which the retention time, cost of investment, residual losses, sugar concentration are balanced to arrive at a minimal overall unit cost for the extracted date juice. Though date juice (in its different compositions) is not a product in its own right, but its extraction from dates forms such an essential operation in further product processing, the subject will be elaborated in the first paragraph of the discussion of the various derived products from the date. 3.1 Date juice Dates are different from other fruits from which juices are obtained by pressing (e.g. citrus, berries, grapes) in that their soluble solids are too concentrated to be pressed out. A minor exception was described earlier where syrup (dibs) is produced as an incidental by-product when bagged humid dates are heaped and over a period of months some syrup oozes out by the force of their own weight (Fig. 42). To make date juice, water has therefore to be added to dissolve and dilute the soluble solids of the date, after which the non-soluble solids are separated out. To create the best conditions for an optimum extraction (least cost commensurate with best quality and highest yield) at an industrial level several factors have to be taken into account. A whole date put in cold water will take a long time to be extracted, the latter which, technologically speaking, means that the soluble solids in the surrounding liquid reaches equilibrium with the liquid in the date itself. Stirring and raising the temperature will shorten this time, but not that much. "Time is money" is an appropriate saying in this respect because the more time is involved the higher capacity of containers and other machinery is needed to produce the same amount of juice/day. The next step to reduce time is to increase the contact area between water and date flesh to facilitate a quicker exchange of soluble solids. This can be done by pre-treatment such as crushing the dates or cutting them into pieces. The extreme situation of increasing surface contact is to thoroughly mix dates and water, like in a household mixer, when equilibrium is reached almost instantaneously. However, this method puts a much heavier burden on subsequently removing the non-soluble solids, because these become finely divided, and colloidal and pectinous material may be released which hampers separation from the juice. Nevertheless, at least one proposed date juice process is based on this principle (108). Before discussing the percentage of soluble solids (the Brix level) at which the date juice will be produced, and which obviously is a function of the date composition and the amount of water added, first an easy tool (the material balance) to visualize and calculate an extraction system, is given. In its simplest form a calculation will be made if date (flesh) is extracted with water in one step. For this purpose the composition of the date as far as moisture, soluble solids and non-soluble solids, should be known. Also, the moisture content of the remaining cake after separation of the juice. This
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percentage is related to the type of separation used and has to be found experimentally in the laboratory. Obviously, moisture content will differ according to whether separation is achieved by simple draining, sieving, pressing or centrifuging. Furthermore, it is assumed that during contact equilibrium in the slurry is reached, non-solubles remain in the presscake and no evaporation of water takes place. All three conditions in practice cannot be entirely met, thus somewhat reducing the effectiveness of the calculated system. Table 14 Material balance Date extraction in one step (100 flesh + 100 water)

Operation

Material M;

Composition % SS; NSS 70; 0 35; 35.8; 30.1; 10 0 5 0 14.3

Weights Total 100 100 200 130.2 69.8 H20 20 100 120 81.6 SS 70 0 70 48.6 NSS 10 0 10 0

Extraction

Date (flesh) Water Slurry

20; 100; 60; 64.2; 55;

Separation

Date juice Presscake

38.4w 21.4 10

Data given are: - Composition dates: M 20; SS 70; NSS 10% - Moisture content in presscake: 55% (empirical figure based on the use of an expeller press)
Calculation of the underlined figures is as follows: - Equilibrium has been reached in the slurry, hence the Bx level (SS) of the liquid is 70/90 = 35.8 which is also the Bx level of the separated juice and the liquid remaining in the presscake after separation. - If x is the amount of SS by weight and w is the amount of H20 in the presscake, on the basis of the above data it follows that: x x+w
=

35.8 100

(1) and

w w + x + 10

55

(2)

100

Out of these x and w can be solved and the composition of the presscake determined (x = 21.4; w = 38.4) as well as all other underlined figures. Conclusions: The calculation shows that when dates are extracted in one stage with an equal amount of water, the Bx level of the juices reaches about 35 , but the Bx loss in the press cake of 55% moisture is (intolerably) high (30%). This loss would be even higher when the date juice would be recovered by draining only (say 60% moisture in the residue).

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To reduce the loss of soluble solids one should therefore, in the first instance, have a most efficient separation of NSS and SS in the solution. For instance, if a presscake could be obtained of 50% moisture, the calculated loss of SS in the presscake would already have been reduced by little over half (12.6 kgs out of 70 kg). At 40% moisture this loss would be halved again (5.9 kgs out of 70 kg). However, experience has shown that for the type of material at this Bx level the available process equipment does not go below a cake containing 55% moisture. A second remedy for reducing the Bx loss in the residue is to increase the amount of water as the following example shows: Table 15 Material balance Date extraction in one step (100 flesh + 250 water)

Operation

Material

Composition % age M; SS; NSS 20; 100; 70; -; 10 2.9 0 18.1

Weights Total 100 250 350 294.9 55.1 H20 20 250 270 SS 70 0 70 NSS 10 0 10 0 10

Extraction

Date flesh Water Slurry

77.1; 20; 79.4; 65; 20.6; 16.9;

Separation

Date juice Presscake

234.2 60.7 35.8 9.3

Data given are: - Composition dates (flesh): M 20; SS 70; NSS 10 - Moisture content in presscake 65% based on empirical data in the same expeller press as for Table 14. This figure may at first glance seem contradictory but is caused by the fact that the Bx level of the juice retained in the cake is lower.
The calculated figures (underlined) are found as for Table 14. Conclusions: The amount of SS loss in the presscake (9.3 kg out of 70) is reduced from 30 to 13.3%, which however is still considered too high for an extraction process. Moreover this reduction has been achieved at the cost of increased equipment volume (about twice as high) and a higher amount of water that has to be evaporated (from about l l/kg of syrup (75 Bx) for the first case to a little over 2.5 l/kg of syrup for the second extraction system. From the above examples it can be deduced that one-stage extraction, unless the loss of soluble solids in the presscake is of no predominant economic importance (normally one would aim at a loss not exceeding 5% of the original soluble solids input), is not an optimum solution. Also the proposed one-stage extraction by complete disintegration of the date (108) in spite of the time reduction to reach equilibrium in the date/water mixture, pays the price of having to employ an elaborate and expensive separation system (vacuum band filter) and having to reduce the Bx level of the juice to
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below 15 further aggravated by washing the filtercake with fresh water to recover some of the residual soluble solids from the filtercake. It is to be noted that at a level of 15 Bx it requires 4 l of water to be evaporated for each kg of syrup (75 Bx), compared to about 1 l at 36 Bx juice and 2.5 l at 21 Bx. Washing out the cake in order to recover some of the residual soluble solids leads us to a two (or more) stage extraction system. The main characteristic of this system is that the added water is used twice in a countercurrent system. This results in much less loss of residual soluble solids compared to a one-stage system, but maintains the same Bx level in the extracted juice. However, as a consequence the extraction and separation equipment has to be doubled in number. Figure 77 shows the diagram for both a one-stage and a two-stage extraction system. The calculations for two-stage extraction are more complex than for a one-stage system, but is based on the same type of data, i.e. composition of the dates and the moisture content of the presscake(s) and the assumption that equilibrium between dates and the extraction liquid is reached, no non-solubles pass into the extracted juice and no water is lost in the operation.

Figure 77: Schematic Representation of a (a) one-, and (b) two stage extraction system To obtain a deeper insight into the possibilities and limitations of date juice recovery, in Appendix III a two-stage extraction system is calculated for a date juice of 30 Bx and compared with the measured results of a two-stage extraction system in an experimental date syrup plant in Libya. The conclusions of this comparison are: a. There is an excellent correlation between the calculated and measured results with regard to soluble solids recovered and lost in the presscake (respectively 94.9% and 5.1%) which also is a satisfactory result from a techno-economic point of view. It would probably not "pay" to add a third extraction stage only to recover part of the 5% now lost. In case more yield is required or desired one could in this case lower the Bx level of the extracted date juice somewhat.

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b. The main difference between the two material balances is that in the actual operation a good part of non-soluble solids ends up in the recovered date juice. This is caused by the separation equipment used and will influence the subsequent clarification of the juice, but it does not seem to influence the efficiency of the extraction system as a whole. c. The calculated extraction schedule was based a.o. on reaching equilibrium between the dates and the extraction liquid. In the pilot plant results we find that in the first extraction step a high degree of equilibrium is reached (30.8 in S1, and 31.0 in P1) but less in the second (9.4 in S2 and 14.9 Bx in P2). Although already referred to in the general considerations affecting the performance and efficiency of an extraction system, mention should again be made of the temperature of extraction and the contact intensity between material and liquid. Increase of both will shorten the time for equilibrium to be reached which is of great importance to the volume of the equipment required. The retention time, i.e. the time the material remains in the system may, according to the equipment used, vary from a couple of minutes (one stage, complete maceration of the date) to up to 6 hours in a stationary batch system. With respect to temperature, the upper limit is considered 65 -70 C if no changes in the chemical composition of the juice are wanted. Contact intensity is improved by increasing surface contact and by stirring. Surface area can be increased by crushing or cutting the date and for stirring extra equipment will have to be incorporated, which normally also serves to move the product through the system in a continuous operation. The various process variables and equipment options, also in part determined by the type of date juice required, have brought about a number of extraction systems ranging from batch to co-current and counter-current versions in one or more stages with separation based on centrifuging, pressing, screening or simply draining. Each of these systems has its own characteristics and performance data, but they are all based on the same basic principles of extraction as explained before in this chapter. Specific applications are reported in literature (528) and will be identified under the various products derived from date juice. Each extraction system produces a raw juice as the main product and a presscake as the byproduct (Chapter IV). The raw juice will normally consist of the extracted soluble solids of the date, some non-solubles and some foreign matter. Although to obtain a clear natural date juice a simple filtration suffices, for the more sophisticated end-uses of date juice which calls for the removal of soluble nonsugars, several additional processes have to be applied. This clarification process of removal of nonsolubles to a pure sugar solution can consist of one or more of the following techniques: Purpose - precipitation and degradation of colloids - removal of foreign and nonsoluble material Technology - pretreatment of juice by boiling and/or enzymes - filtration in various executions (band-, bag-, drum-, rack and cloth-) - centrifugation

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- decolorization

- active carbon - ion-exchange - precipitation with chemicals (425, 426) - ion-exchange - foaming (experimental) (190)

- removal of minerals

- removal of high weight molecular components

Where relevant some of these technologies will be discussed further with the products for which they are used. 3.2 Juice Products Traditionally, a date drink (nabidh) was prepared by soaking mashed up dates in water for one night (but not longer) (445). Clarified date juice, i.e. the natural juice containing only soluble materials of the date, has found little direct use because of its rather flat taste unlike other clear fruit juices such as from grape, apple and berries. For its production usually filtration of the raw juice (with the help of filteraid) sometimes preceded by a quick boil to precipitate some of the colloidal matter in the raw juice, is sufficient. Centrifuging may also give the desired result but this is also linked to the initial turbidity of the raw juice. Calcium hydroxide, gelatin and tannin have been used to remove this turbidity (426). Several attempts have been made to prepare beverages, carbonated or not, based on date juice, but most of the time the juice needs reinforcement with organic acids and additional flavours to arrive at acceptable products (511). A home-made date juice drink is proposed by boiling dates and water in equal amounts, extracting the juice by squeezing through cloth. Juice is diluted, sugar and citric acid added (0.3%) and pasteurized in bottles (25 minutes in boiling water) (433, 177). Combination of date juice and milk is possible provided precautions are taken against curdling and whey separation by PH adjustment to 5.4-6.2 or 4.2-4.8 with addition of a stabilizer (596). Date juice has also been experimented with to replace sugar in ice cream making (532). Furthermore, date juice has been used in date jelly making in a small commercial fruit processing plant as part of the jam and jelly production assortment. The process consisted of mixing and boiling 60 kgs of date juice (42 Bx) and 48 kgs of sugar with 350 gms of pectin and PH adjusted to 3.4 with citric acid, to a level of 68 Bx. The product was hot filled in 1 lb jars and pasteurized for 10 min at 90 C. 3.3 Juice Concentrates Date juice concentrates, as the name implies, have in common that they are condensed products made out of date extract by water evaporation. They differ in appearance, taste and consistency depending on the type of the raw juice and the degree of concentration. Three main products can be distinguished: date spread, date syrup and date liquid sugar which, in this order, represent products with a decreasing non-soluble and soluble non-sugar content. a. Date Spread
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Date spread, though it has reached a far advanced stage of product development, is not a commercial product. It is reviewed first in the range of juice concentrates because as a product it fits between date paste made of the whole date flesh, and date syrup, from which all non-solubles have been removed. The idea of date spread originated in Libya in the sixties, when after having initiated date syrup production on a pilot scale and planning for a commercial factory, it was felt that increasing the product range would benefit the economics of the commercial date syrup factory as well as give some more scope to creating outlets for a second quality fibrous raw material, almost always contaminated with dust and other foreign matter including insect fragments. In Figure 76 it was shown that when a homogenized date/water mixture is centrifuged in a tube centrifuge the product divides in different layers of non-soluble materials according to their specific gravity. Applying this principle to a continuous centrifuge and manipulating centrifuge speed, input rate, temperature and Brix level, one can at will separate out the heavier fractions. The liquid recovered (overflow) will contain some of the lighter solids and semi solid material. Upon concentration, the liquid will turn into a more or less thick paste, dependent on amount of nonsolubles and the final product density. In the early stages of development this resulted in a proposed production scheme as follows (514): Dates Water Disintegration/Mixing Pits are left whole, Bx level at about 15 Pits Screening Removal of pits Homogenizing part NSS Centrifugation In 1 or 2 stages. Removal of skin fibre, dust, sand, and other foreign matter Water Concentration Removal of water Date spread By varying the different process parameters (and using different types of date) a number of date spreads of different taste and strength were produced on a small pilot scale and used for testing (Fig. 78). In spite of the promising prospect of adding another useful product made from inferior dates, the proposed process had two handicaps: the rather high loss of soluble solids (more than 10%) in the centrifuge cake and the relative high cost of equipment for centrifuge and evaporator (starting level of juice 15o C Bx). It also seemed advisable to try to combine date syrup and date spread manufacture in one factory to give it a stronger economical base. Elaborating further on this principle and with the assistance of a technical institute this could finally be achieved and resulted in a proposal for a combined date syrup/spread plant (63, 104). The essential technical characteristics of this process are: i. the plant is based on the (proven) process for date syrup manufacture (two-stage countercurrent extraction)

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ii. for date spread the required inclusion of non-soluble material and the absence of foreign matter is achieved by a combination of coarse and fine fibre separation on screens in the extraction system, followed by a clarification in hydrocyclones (which are much cheaper than a centrifuge) iii. to reduce the Bx loss in the process, the required extraction water is first used to recover most of the soluble solids from the underflow (apex) of the hydrocyclones.

Figure 78: Date Spread Compared to Date Syrup Produced from the same Raw Material A complete process flow sheet is given in Figure 79. The calculated soluble solids losses as percentage of those present in dates are: for date syrup: 5% for juice extraction at 26.4 Bx and final product of 75 Bx

for date spread: about 2% for juice extraction at 21.5 Bx and final product of 65 Bx A combined syrup/spread factory of 1500 ton/year capacity based on this principle was installed, but the practical results of spread production in this factory, are not available. By recording the research work on date spread in this Chapter one would like to see a renewed interest in its development because it creates an additional, different product made from inferior dates with applications similar to that of date paste (see Chapter 2).

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Figure 79: Process Flow Sheet for Combined Date Syrup and Spread Production b. Date Syrup Date syrup (dibs, rub) is probably the most common derived date product, produced in three different ways: (i) as an accidental by-product in the storage of bagged, humid dates (especially in the Gulf area), (ii) at the home or village level by extraction and boiling down of the juice, and (iii) on a semiand full industrial scale. The first "method" has already been mentioned before and reference to it goes back to the 17th Century (137). It yields not more than maximum 6% of the weight of the date, the quality of the syrup per se is quite good, because it is the direct natural fruit extract, but contamination with foreign matter, because of the rudimentary ways the product is collected, is quite high. With regard to home or village level production, which mainly occurs on special occasions, such as the birthday of the Prophet or the birth of a child, the following data from a field experiment are a demonstration of such a rural process (63) (Fig. 80).

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Figure 80: Production of Date Syrup (rub, dibs) at the Village Level (Libya) Dates (25 kgs) are mixed with water (ratio 1:1) and left to boil on a wood fire for about 1 hours. The boiled pulp is coarsely filtered in a basket of woven halfa grass or palm leaflets; the juice is collected and water is again added to the presscake and the mixture is boiled again. This extraction is repeated 4 times in total after which the presscake is discarded or fed to the animals. The combined collected juice (in this case, 40 kgs of 28 Bx) is now filtered through a cloth and boiled down. During boiling a piece of fruitstalk of the date palm is put in the pan "to avoid burning" according to the makers of the syrup. The only technological explanation for this measure is that it avoids boiling retardation and thus overheating, like the use of pumice stones in the chemical laboratory. Boiling down time depends on the intensity and efficiency of the fire but a few hours are involved. The end point of boiling is determined by dropping a few drops of the liquid on white sand: if the droplets enter the sand readily, the end point is not yet reached. If, on the other hand, they remain as little balls on the sand, the syrup is considered ready. In the experiment under review total
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syrup produced was 12.5 kgs of 67 Bx out of 25 kgs dates of 72 soluble solids, hence a rather poor outturn with much loss of sugar in presscake and handling. The same can be said for the use of energy because a total of 140 kgs of firewood was used (on Kcal basis more than 10 x the energy used for a similar quantity of syrup in an industrial plant). The process is also labour intensive: it took about 11 hours (for 1 persons) divided over two days to finish this batch of syrup. In spite of this, a product that will preserve for years is made and if wood energy (palm wood) is plentiful and the cost of labour is not paid for, the cash cost of production is low. During extraction and boiling the juice develops a deep red colour which is carried on in the final product. The taste of the syrup is distinct, rather strong and resembles also in appearance somewhat prune concentrate. The local population, either because of tradition or indeed for its taste, in general prefers a dark coloured product with a strong flavour over the lighter decolourized versions of syrup. A slightly modified version of making home-made syrup is by soaking dates in water for 2 days and then boiling them thoroughly. The mixture is then pressed in a basket, the juice recovered and left in a pot in the sun for a week until thick (445). It makes one think of how honey bees collect nectar from flowers and concentrate it into honey by a system of drying induced by forced air movement in the hives. Another modified version (Southern Iraq) consists of boiling dates with water and pressing the date juice through filter bags by putting weights on them. The collected juice is concentrated in open pans by the heat of the sun, a process taking several days (321). Date syrup produced on a semi- or full industrial scale exists in at least 5 date producing countries, but has developed earliest, and on the largest scale in Iraq. The process is basically the same, though sometimes adapted to the typical characteristics of the dates to be used. It consists of: i. pretreatment (if required) ii. extraction of juice iii. clarification iv. concentration Pretreatment may consist of slightly squashing the date between rollers to break the skin and facilitate penetration of the extraction liquid. The principles of extraction have been explained in the introduction to this Chapter. The trend over the years in extraction systems for syrup production has gone from the batch type to the counter current systems with more efficient separation techniques and shorter retention times, however with more complicated machinery involved. Clarification not only covers the process of freeing the extracted raw juice from non-solubles but is also concerned with, if so desired or required, removal of some solubles (e.g. colouring matter) and semi-solubles (e.g. pectins). Active carbon, resins, enzymes and filter aids have been used to reach this effect (71, 288, 78, 299). It is to be noted that, according to the clarification method applied, also some desirable substances like flavour components may be removed and the final product may, apart from having a different appearance and colour, also have a modified taste. Clarification, especially where it concerns the removal of solubles is therefore a delicate process, which has to be carefully explored and tested. The clarified juice, which normally will have a Brix level of 20-25 will now be concentrated, preferably under vacuum, to avoid as little as possible heat-induced changes in the materials and to be able to use energy saving multi-stage evaporation. The degree of concentration is a compromise between the rheological properties of the desired product (i.e. the syrupiness, its viscosity and thickness) and the microbial and physical stability. Date syrup from most dates consists for the greater part of a mixture of fructose and glucose and a minor fraction of sucrose and other soluble matter. The saturation points of the individual sugars in pure solutions are known, but in a

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mixture these figures do not apply. However the general rule exists that though in a combined solution different solutes will depress each other's saturation point, the total solubles content in a mixed saturated solution will be higher than for each of the single components. For instance, at 30 C one gram of water will dissolve 2.19 g of sucrose, but 7.3 g of solute made up of sucrose and fructose. If glucose is added to provide a solution saturated with respect to all three solutes, a total solute concentration of 8.8 g/g of water can be reached (216). This principle has been used to retard crystallization in date syrup (derived from invert sugar dates) by adding 10% of sucrose to the syrup, thus reaching a higher saturation point. With regard to physical stability experience has shown that below 70 Bx the possibility of crystallization is remote (saturation of pure sucrose is 67.9 Bx at 25 C, for glucose about 50 Bx, for fructose 80.2 and for invert sugar 66.2 ). However at that density the syrup is rather "thin" and microbial stability (without specific preservative precautions taken) is marginal, at best. For some syrups derived from certain varieties gellying may occur upon storage. This effect is generally attributed to high pectin content of the raw material and is counteracted by pretreatment of the extracted juice with pectinase, a pectin decomposing enzyme. Producing stable date syrup in all aspects is therefore a compromise and helped by auxiliary methods like adding a "foreign" solute like sucrose, sharp filtration (to reduce crystallization nuclei), and pasteurization (to prevent or retard microbial spoilage). A most common density for date syrup is 75 Bx at which level it is self-preserving and crystallization only occurs after prolonged storage. Some typical composition figures for date syrups from different sources is given below: Table 16 Composition of Date Syrups (416)

Iraq Brix Total solids % Mpm-solubles % Sugar, invert % Sugar, sucrose % Protein,s % Tannin, % Total pectin, as impure Capectate, % Methoxyl scontent of the pectin, % 76.0 76.3 1.390 69.2 3.14 1.11 0.17 0.60

Libya 76.8 75.9 0.005 71.6 0.86 0.86 0.06 0.25

4.98

4.00

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Acidity as citric acid (b/100 g syrup) Ash, % PH

0.76

0.46

1.80 4.14

1.63 4.60

Table 17 Composition of Date syrups Iraq (217)

Dibis type AA (factory made) Total solids Reducing sugars Glucose Fructose Total sugars Purity ( Total sugars x 100) total solids 72.4 63.4 35.5 (56% of total reducing sugar) 27.9 64.2 88.7

Dibis (cottage industry) 74.3 53.6 29.7 (55.4% of total red. sugar) 23.9 55.8 75.1

These figures show that although during the intial breakdown of sucrose both reducing sugars are formed in equal amounts, during storage and processing of the dates the less stable fructose is more liable to be decomposed and hence the glucose becomes dominant. This also has an effect on the purity of the solution, notably in syrups produced at high temperatures and long processing time. Different aspects of industrial date syrup production are demonstrated in Figure 81.

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Figure 81: Different Aspects of Date Syrup Production The traditional use of date syrup is mainly on specific occasions, e.g. poured on cooked and sometimes fermented dough (asseeda) on the occasion of the Prophet's birthday. Consumption is also more intense during the cold periods of the year. Date syrup is widely used for softening and preserving dates in jars and in home-made confectionery. Use on bread has become increasingly accepted. Early records reveal (445) that date syrup in the past may have been an overland export article between the Gulf area and China, a product even more concentrated than the date itself and easily turned into a nutritious drink. The more recent efforts to broaden the field of application for date syrup as a product in its own right have focused on the use as a base for beverages, in confectionery, bakery products and ice cream. Although there have been several attempts to produce a date soft drink, the results have not been encouraging, probably in the face of the strong competition for this type of product. In the preparation of soft drinks from date (syrup) an extra clarification of the diluted juice (615) and a reinforcement of the flavour and acidity are almost a must if a typical soft drink is desired. But apparently it is possible if the right formula is found because a carbonated date syrup based soft drink (of Swiss origin) is marketed in Saudi Arabia under the name of "Tamra". In the U.S. several attempts have been made to introduce date syrup along similar lines as other fruit juice concentrates as from raisins, figs and prunes for use in the preparation of cakes, cookies, sweet breads, etc. It was also sold in squeeze tubes for direct use on pancakes. Furthermore several tests have been made to use date syrup as a sweetening (and flavouring) agent for dairy products. Date flavoured buffalo skim milk (483), and fermented milk products, like yoghurt, flavoured with date syrup (516) were researched with good results. Likewise a date juice milk beverage could be successfully produced from date syrup and powdered or fresh milk. With proper PH adjustment (over 6) to prevent curdling and UHT treatment, drinks were produced that had a shelf life of 3 months at room temperature. The ratio of the to 20Bx diluted date syrup and milk was 4:6 (606). Date syrup can successfully be used as a sugar replacement of up to 15% in ice cream making without affecting overrun or viscosity (199). The use of syrup in ripple ice cream has also been

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reported (302) but early crystallization at the low temperature may be a handicap, though it was found experimentally that date spread did not have this problem. Partial replacement of sugar (6% on flour basis in the control) by date syrup in sweet bread making proved feasible up to a point when crumb structure and dough colour deteriorated and became a limiting factor (618, 484). In cakes these factors were much less pronounced and up to 17% sugar replacement could be achieved without significant quality changes in the cake. It was also found that date syrup could replace honey by up to 75% (368). In tests carried out with wheat, sorghum and millet biscuits crystalline sugar of the control formulae was replaced by date syrup ranging from 0 to 60% (at 10% intervals) for wheat and sorghum and 020% (at 5% intervals) for millet. All invert sugar used in the recipes was also replaced by date syrup. The conclusions of these tests showed that for wheat and sorghum biscuits up to 50% of the sugar can be replaced without affecting quality. For millet biscuits the tolerance to replacement is much less and not more than 10-15%. At higher level the millet dough becomes sticky and difficult to handle (280). Use of date syrup in animal feed as a substitute for molasses was tried (448) and showed an increased digestibility of hay in a diet for lambs. Feeding trials on alternating lucerne supplemented with, respectively, date molasses and urea, or pelleted concentrates, or only date molasses were not conclusive (448). A more curious aspect of the use of date syrup are the reported excellent results from feeding it to racing camels. Caramel usually used as a colour additive in food processing is an amorphous, dark brown material resulting from the carefully controlled heat treatment of food grade carbohydrates like dextrose, invert sugar, molasses etc. Thin date juice and diluted date syrup were experimentally tested as the raw material for the production of caramel and their characteristics compared with commercial caramel. Though potentially, especially date syrup, a promising raw material, the process still needs perfection to reach the specific characteristics for certain applications, notably the acid resistance as required in soft drinks (334). Concluding this chapter on date syrup it may be stated that this product is the most promising where it concerns the use of off-grade and contaminated dates. It can be and is produced in the home, in the village and on industrial scale, it has reached export status with deliveries to non-date producing countries and can be bought in the market in practically all date producing countries for direct use. With regard to industrial use, the development work should continue. There are several worthwhile technological opportunities though in economic infrastructures with more convenient and cheap foreign products becoming available it is not always easy to introduce a fledgling national product. c. Liquid sugar If in all previous date products described the date flavour, either natural or in a modified form, was an integral part of the product, liquid sugar is an attempt to make use of the date as a sugar bearing fruit to be exploited for that purpose like sugar beets or cane. Having the same purpose in this case a comparison must therefore be made with regard to the utility and economics of these other sugar sources. As yield per ha the date does not fare too badly if one considers that a well kept plantation with 125 palms per ha at 100 kgs dates per palm (60% sugar) would produce 7.5 tons sugar per ha. Sugar yield from beet is in the same order of magnitude whilst cane sugar is more and can go as high as 25 t/ha. The com-petitive position of dates as a sugar source is however weakened by the relatively greater difficulties of introducing large-scale mechanized farming as is practised for beet
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and cane sugar. Secondly, its utility is highly restricted by the fact that no date contains sucrose alone but on the contrary, this sugar constitutes in most cases only a minor part of the total, the rest being invert sugar composed of more or less equal parts of glucose and fructose. And these sugars are difficult to turn into crystalline products and do not have the same convenience of use as has sucrose at the household level. Use of date sugar must therefore be sought in the form of liquid sugar in industrial applications in competition with liquid sugars derived from sucrose or corn syrup and high fructose corn syrup (HFCS). These syrups have a distinct market nowaways but mainly on an industrial level. A third restriction in the use of date sugar is economy of scale. The type of industrial process involved, with a high cost of investment and multiple process steps, makes it very sensitive to the scale at which production takes place, with production costs proportionally rapidly going down with increasing capacity. Against the above background it would therefore seem that the only chance of profitably exploiting the date as a sugar source would be in the case of an abundant supply of dates, too big for direct local consumption, and the existence of an outlet for industrial liquid sugar, with little or no competition from similar local raw material sources. The great majority of the date producing countries do not, for one or other of the above conditions, qualify, except for Iraq and it is in this country where a liquid date sugar industry has developed over the last thirty years. Liquid sugar may have its disadvantages in handling and dosing, especially on small-scale, it also has some advantageous characteristics for certain applications vis-a-vis sucrose, such as less tendency towards crystallization in the products it is used and a moisture retaining capacity thanks to its hygroscopicity. But so has liquid invert sugar derived from sucrose. It remains therefore to a great extent the economics (mainly determined by production - and raw material costs) whether there is a niche for date liquid sugar in the market. Whilst in sucrose production the major part of non-sugar solubles remains in the mother liquor and the sucrose is crystallized out; whilst in corn syrup production the raw material (maize starch) is relatively pure, in date liquid sugar production all undesirable non-sugar components from the date juice have to be removed. Consequently clarification costs for refining date syrup are higher than for syrups derived from cane or beet (227) and it will involve several rather delicate and expensive operations. It is therefore an extension of date syrup production which involves chemical clarification by precipitation, decolourization by adsorption and demineralization by ion exchange (435). Liquid invert sugars come in different versions with regard to the distribution of the three main sugars involved (sucrose, glucose, fructose) but the quality requirements with regard to other components are very rigid, especially in the beverage industry. A few ppm of iron can cause a change of flavour, colour and PH of chocolate syrup, and ash content of less than 0.1% is quite often not enough and easily affects delicate flavours of raspberry and cherry (435). The syrup should be odourless, and crystal clear. Furthermore crystallization should at all times be avoided because it will create great problems in handling, transport and use in the factories. This requires a careful control of the sugar combinations in the syrup, because the high purity of the liquid sugar (unlike in date syrup where soluble non-sugars also assist in raising the solubility of the total solids) the saturation point is governed by the partially depressed saturation points of the components. Solubility of pure invert sugar is 69.7 g/100 g (69.7 Bx). At 50% sucrose and 50% invert the saturation point for the total solids reaches 77 Bx. In other words, the more the reliance on the two hexoses, as in most dates, the lower the saturation point will be and the more danger for microbial infection will exist. The above considerations of liquid sugar from dates serve to illustrate that the production and use of date liquid

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sugar has many particular aspects and it took well over twenty years of technical research and feasibility studies before a plant was established in Iraq by the end of the seventies. Use of date liquid sugar is focussed mainly on those products where application of date syrup for its flavour or colour is less desirable. Soft drinks (423), light coloured cakes (18), jellies and fruit preserves, confectionery and ice cream are main target products. Research on separating glucose and fructose has focussed on selective adsorption on specific resins. Conversion of glucose into fructose apart from isomerization by enzymes has also been tested with sodium aluminate technique (490, 354). The motivation for this research is that glucose and fructose have distinct properties of their own, which can be best exploited on the single sugar because in a mixture these specific qualities are mutually weakened. For instance pure glucose with low solubility (54.6 g/100 g) can be crystallized into a dry stable powder, but has the lowest sweetening power per gram. Fructose, on the other hand is highly soluble, hygroscopic, heat sensitive and less stable, but has the highest sweetening power per gram (which pleases the weight watchers). These rather contrasting properties therefore justify a use of these sugars in their own right. An example of partially reaching this goal is high fructose corn syrup, in which, by an enzymatic pretreatment, part of the glucose is converted into fructose, thus diminishing the crystallization aspect of glucose, obtaining more sweetness per gram of product and reaching a higher saturation point. Along the same lines, there have been several research efforts to produce solid sugars from the date, though prospects of obtaining a comparable product like table sugar (sucrose) seem doomed from the onset for two main reasons: i. sucrose at best, but in a very few varieties, reaches half of the total sugars and, ii. one of the sucrose derivatives, fructose, is very hygroscopic. Nevertheless some researchers have worked on the subject. In one case (145) a proposal is made to settle for a more or less white sugar paste (like cystallized honey) packed in impermeable film, accepting the increased difficulties of dosage in small portions at the consumer level. A patented process for crystalline invert sugar derived from a highly concentrated date liquid sugar is also on record (148, 403). A third approach concerns experiments with the selective solubility and crystallization of sucrose in ethanol (ethyl alcohol). By a process of acqueous ethanol extraction, filtration, evaporation and crystallization, sucrose crystals could be recovered in the order of 10% of the weight of the dates (583, 240). Another type of sucrose recovery by removing glucose and fructose from the solution by selective bacterial digestion is also reported (404). Modern sugar technology is undoubtedly capable of separating sugars out of mixed solutions and produce dry, flowing, crystalline or amorphous sugars. Also fructose, the more difficult one to handle but often quoted as a preferable sugar in pharmaceutical use or combined with artificial sweeteners, has been mastered by these technologies. However, two major obstacles arise as to the use of dates for this purpose: internationally, the severe competition of other basic sugar sources like cane, beet and starch crops; nationally, in the date producing countries, (if not for the same problem of alternative raw materials), today's lack of sufficient demand or size of the market for these types of products. 3.4 Fermentation Products The group of products under consideration have in common that they are produced by microbial conversion with date sugar as the main nutrient. In most cases the target product is the metabolic by-product of this microbial conversion like alcohol from sugar or acetic acid from alcohol. However, in a few instances the target product is the microbial biomass itself such as baker's or fodder yeast. Another distinction can be made between products in which the other components of the date also

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play a role in the final aroma, colour and general quality of the target product like date wine or vinegar, whilst others are required in a pure form as in the case of distilled alcohol or citric acid. Glucose is considered a fundamental organic building block in nature from which a large number of substances can be derived by chemical or microbial manipulation. Theoretically therefore dates could be a source of many derived products though as has already come out before, dates are not a typical sugar crop. Production of fermentation products is therefore restricted where the availability of suitable (low cost) dates and market demand create a favourable climate for producing these types of products, a number of which are listed below: a. Wine Wine is a beverage derived from fruits (and occasionally also vegetables) in which all or part of the sugar is converted into alcohol. All other constituents of the solubles of the fruit are part of the final product and determine, together with newly formed components, its colour, taste, flavour and consistency. The alcohol content most commonly is about 11-13% (by volume). Wine is mostly known and connotated with grapes, but also other fruits may be used including dates. Apart from the use of dates as a reinforcement and flavouring agent in beer making in Ancient Egypt (128) references to date wine can also be found from early history, although the subtle difference between a pure date extract or a fermented one, does not always come out clearly (445, 128). Dates are not an outspoken fruit for wine making; they lack natural acidity and the typical flavour and the slight astringency such as found in grapes. It should also be remembered that almost 40% of the total date crop is produced in Muslim countries where prohibition is in force, thus reducing the marketing possibilities considerably. Basically wine making is a simple process, but to produce high quality wines through the correct choice of raw materials, process conditions and aging, one needs a thorough know-ledge of the processes that are taking place. Research on date wine focusing on selection of active yeast strains, density of the solution, process conditions and additional nutrients has been active and continuing over the last decades (209, 482, 419, 197, 26, 210, 26, 415, 73). Zahdi dates, the common variety in Iraq, were found to be produce good quality light-coloured dry wine whilst date syrup (dibs) proved better suited for a darker, sweeter wine. The addition of 0.025% urea reportedly aided the fermentation process. Aging improved the quality of the wines (73). It would seem logical that the vast experiences gained in wine making from grapes could be used fruitfully to further explore and improve the use of dates as a raw material for a fermented beverage. b. Alcohol Whilst the alcohol produced during wine making is an integral part of the final product, alcohol can also become a target product and separated from the fermented mother liquor (mash) by distillation and rectification. Perhaps a transitional product between wine and distilled pure alcohol was date "sherry" (a misnomer because the original sherry made from grapes is a specific type of (strong) wine and not a distilled product). The process consisted of fermentation of a date extract and a one-run distilling off without much concern for cutting the "heads" (the light fractions) and the "tails" (the heavy fractions) resulting in a drink of about 25-30% alcohol content with a flavour determined by the volatiles of the raw material which distilled together with the alcohol (62). Pure alcohol production is better known as the production of a chemical produced in different strength and purities to be used subsequently in beverages, the chemical industries (solvent), medicinal purposes (disinfection), cleaning and as a fuel for small stoves and alcohol lamps. In the seventies, in the wake of the fossil fuel crisis it gained importance as a fuel for internal combustion
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engines as a renewable energy source. In large scale industry alcohol is also used as the primary material for the production of numerous derivatives such as acetaldehyde (further used in the production of acetic acid and butanol) and ethylene (which is the base for the manufacture of polyethylene, polystyrene and poly vinyl chloride (PVC)), not to mention the numerous alcohol distillates which derive their typical flavour from the raw material they are made of such as "Kirsch" (cherries), "Schlivovitch" (plums), Gin (juniper), Tequila (cactus), Grappa (grapes), Brandy (grapes), Rum (molasses) etc. Alcohol is therefore a very versatile chemical but as an industrial raw material requires a well developed down-stream chemical industry. In the date producing countries alcohol making with dates as the raw material exists but its use is mainly restricted to medicinal purposes, small scale household use and in some countries for the preparation of beverages. It should also be remembered that alcohol used as a feedstock for the chemical industry is mostly synthetically produced. Alcohol fermentation is a biochemical process whereby the enzymes necessary for the conversion of sugars are procured from living yeast cells, usually of selected strains of Saccharomyces cerivisiae. Through a chain of reactions, fermentation results ultimately and chiefly into ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide according to the following formula: C6H1206 ________ 2C2H50H + 2C02 + 27 Kcal From this formula the theoretical yield of 51.1 kg ethyl alcohol (64.1 litres) and 48.9 kg carbon dioxide can be calculated. However, because the yeast cells for their own growth need material and some by-products are formed, the practical yields rarely exceed 90% of these theoretical figures. To produce 95% (v/v) alcohol from dates the following processes are involved: extraction of the juice; fermentation; distillation and rectification. Since yeast cells thrive best in solutions of 18 to 20o Bx and the extracted juice does not necessarily have to be completely free of non-solubles, a batch-wise extraction is much practised. In this system the whole dates remain stationary in a vessel until after a series of step-wise extractions with juices of decreasing Bx content the dates are almost completely stripped of their sugars. A schematic representation of such a system is given in Figure 82 (587) which shows increasing sugar content from vessel 1 to 4. Live steam is added to keep the extraction temperatures at the correct level. Once the dates in vessel 1 are exhausted and removed the extraction water will be fed to vessel 2 and fresh dates fed to vessel 1. Juice from vessel 4 which had the highest sugar content will be diverted to vessel 1 which will now become the producer of the final juice. Thus by intermittently emptying and filling and changing of valves a semi-continuous extraction system is created with few moving parts and no separation equipment. A variation of the above process is whereby juice is circulated by a pump in the same vessel until equilibrium is reached, after which the juice is redirected to another vessel with higher Brix in the dates. In this way 3 or 4 extractions may suffice to yield a suitable fermentation liquor with minimal sugar loss in the dates. Another advantage is that dates in their stationary position release very little fibre and start to act as a filter for the circulating juices. Juice for fermentation is also produced in a 2-stage countercurrent continuous system (Iraq) but in that case the recovered juice is filtrated before being fermented. The collected juice of around 18-20o Bx is now ready for fermentation. It is advisable to keept it at an elevated temperature (60oC) to avoid infection by undesirable microbes. Just before adding the prepared starter of the selected yeast strain (428) the juice has to be cooled, because optimal fermentation temperature lies around 32oC. Fermentation will, for the purposes of crude alcohol making, last for a couple of days, when the liquid now called DM (distilling material) contains about 9% alcohol. The next phase aims at separating the alcohol from the mother liquor. Distillation can be done batch-wise in pot stills whereby alcohol/mixtures are distilled and collected in between set
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boiling temperatures range in order to remove the non-desired (and sometimes poisonous) light fractions and the heavier by-products (a.o. fusel oils). Repeating this process 4 times alcohol strengths of up to 90% can be obtained. In industrial alcohol production the process has been made continuous, and consists of two main stages: distillation and rectification (Fig. 83).

Figure 82: Semi-continuous, Batch Extraction System

Figure 83: Distillation and Rectification of Alcohol In the distillation part the DM is counter currently brought into contact with rising steam under vacuum in a stripping column over a number of plates. The net result of the continuous process is that at the top of the column a predominantly alcohol/water vapour mixture is drawn off, whilst at the
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bottom the remainder of the DM, practically free of alcohol, now called slop or stillage, is discarded. The alcohol/water vapour mixture is drawn into the base of the rectifying column in which by a stepwise condensing and boiling process the vapour mixture separates into fractions of different boiling points. The lightest fractions (heads, mainly aldehydes and esters) are drawn off at the top, pure alcohol of 95% (side product) somewhere at the upper part of the column, heavier fractions (fusel oil, mainly higher alcohols) at the lower end and a residue called reflux at the bottom which is returned to the distillation column. By this process a very pure alcohol is produced from pure culture fermentation in contrast to for instance rum making which purposely introduces micro-organisms other than yeast to create aromas which are distilled with the alcohol to impart specific flavour to the final product. Four main by-products are produced during alcohol production: i. Carbon dioxide, which can be (and sometimes is) recovered and liquified or sold as dry ice. In countries where the soft drink industry is well developed the use of CO2 for this purpose should be considered. ii. Fusel oil is a generic term for a mixture of alcohols with a higher boiling point. They are normally removed from quality drinks (the ratio ranges for 0.1-0.5% of total alcohol) and can be used as solvent for lacquers and resins (466). iii. Yeast cells have, during fermentation, fed on sugars and excreted (mainly) alcohol whilst increasing in size and number. The microbial biomass, high in protein, is therefore increasing and represents a valuable resource in the magnitude of 3-4 kgs dry yeast per 100 l of alcohol produced. Its validation will depend much on the size of the alcohol operation and the marketability of the recovered product. iv. Slop or stillage, also called vinasse is the watery remains of the distillation process and may contain 7-10% solids. It is rich in minerals and yeast (if not centrifuged out). It can be used as fertilizer but low solids content soon puts a limit to its application because of transport costs. It has therefore been concentrated to be used in feedstuffs. This method is partially induced by the need to find an outlet for this high polluting waste product. In smaller plants where disposal of limited quantities of stillage does not create environmental problems, the stillage is normally discarded without further use. Apart from medicinal and household use date alcohol is well known, in those countries where its use is permitted, for the production of arak, a strong alcoholic beverage in the same group of drinks as the Greek "Ouzo", the French "Pernod" or the Italian "Mistral". It is a "made up" drink, i.e. it is composed of pure distilled alcohol with little flavour reference to the original dates it was made from, and added essences (anise), and mastic (a natural resin). It is a clear beverage of around 50% (v/v) alcohol strength with a pronounced anise flavour. Upon dilution with water the anise oil separates out of solution and forms an emulsion, giving the long drink its milky appearance. Mastic is added to give viscidity ("body") and extra flavour to the drink. The purity and wholesomeness of arak depends on the purity of the components and the way these are made (94, 567, 83). A proposal for manufacture of date brandy, in which the volatile date flavours would participate in the aroma of the final product has also been made (285). c. Organic acids

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The number of organic acids that directly or indirectly can be derived from sugars is large but for practical reasons of economics of scale and market limitations only a few have been considered for date extracts. The most known and widespread is acetic acid in the form of household vinegar. The principles of manufacture are much similar as that for wine making, that is both products can be made (and used) at the household (or cottage) level incorporating the flavours of the date extract and secondary fermentation products. Acetic acid (like alcohol) can however also become the target product and separated from the mother liquor by distillation. Acetic acid formation is a sequence to alcohol making (well known from wines that turn sour ("vin-aigre" actually means sour wine). The basic chemical formula is: C2H5OH + O2 ______ CH3COOH + H2O + 118 Kcal alcohol acetic acid

It shows the base material is alcohol, the process needs oxygen (in contrast to yeast fermentation) and is exothermic, i.e. heat is formed. The microbes, in this case bacteria, belong to the genus Acetobacter. Like for grape vinegar very acceptable household date vinegar can be made inoculating a strain of Acetobacter into a date wine supplemented with some nutrients (urea or malt) and let it stand with an access to oxygen (for instance a barrel on its side with the bunghole left open). After a first formation period vinegar can be drawn off at the bottom for use and at regular intervals the feedstock can be supplemented by adding new date wine. In this way a perpetual production takes place which can go on for years. To speed up the process of acetic acid formation, generators have been developed in which the inoculated mother liquor is sparged over a filling material (ceramics, beechwood shavings, pieces of date midribs), which provides a large contact sur-face between forced circulated air and the liquid. The collected liquid under the perforated false bottom in the generator is recirculated by pump passing through a water cooler to keep the temperature at the correct level (27-30oC) (Fig. 84). Another method of accelerated vinegar production is by submerged culture in a vessel heavily oxygenated by air bubbles. One batch will take 24-48 hours to ferment after which half the tank will be emptied and new feedstock added for another run. Vinegars can be produced in this way from a multitude of raw materials each having its own flavour and contain about 4-5% acetic acid.

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Figure 84: Acetic Acid (Vinegar) Generator Concentrated pure acetic acid used in industry and other chemical use is made from pure synthetic or fermentation alcohol and concentrated by distillation. In the date producing countries date vinegar is well known, but there are only one or two industrial scale production units. Literature has few references on the subject (197, 436). With respect to other potential organic acids which are quite numerous as compared to the product lists for molasses (466), for date juice or date syrup most attention in research and project development has been given to citric acid (408, 407, 69, 446, 406, 517). The reason probably is that citric acid would have an assured market potential for the soft drink and food industry. But it is a more complex fermentation than for alcohol and acetic acid which are almost spontaneous and with minor precautions can be optimized with simple means. Instead citric acid is formed by Aspergillus Niger under stress and the conditions to optimize the process are stringent. The feedstock may need treatment to bring it in a condition to yield the highest amount of citric acid versus another common fermentation product, oxalic acid. It is therefore clear that apart from the possible alternative feedstocks available, and the market potential for organic acids, the suitability of date juice also has to be investigated for these fermentation. It is not just a matter of technology transfer. d. Single cell protein The possibility of turning carbohydrates into proteins by microbial conversion in situations where the first occurs in abundance and the second is in deficit, has caught the imagination of many scientists over the last decennia. There are numerous proposals for utilizing waste and surplus products into high protein food and feed in the form of microbial biomass derived from a variety of microorganisms, yeasts, micro-fungi and algae in particular. The exaltation perhaps reached its peak in the early seventies when hydrocarbons of fossil origin were included in the choice of raw materials with

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high expectations of alleviating world food shortages through the use of the "mighty microbe". But the enthusiasm was soon tempered for two main reasons: the sudden rise in oil prices (1973) and the increasing suspicions on the presence of noxious substances (for human health) in the final products, leading to the closing down of several large scale investments. Since then a more realistic view has been taken, because after all, microbial products have existed over the ages. Earlier reference was made to yeast as a by-product of beer, wine and pure alcohol production. In large scale operations these yeasts are recuperated, purified and sold, but the yield compared to alcohol production is small. By changing the process parameters (mainly a change from anaerobic to aerobic conditions), the selection of suitable yeast, almost exclusively of Saccharomyces Cervisiae strains, and providing appropriate nutrients, the process can be directed towards biomass production. Thus, expressed in a simple molar formula glucose is transformed into biomass following: C6H12O6 + NH3 ______ C6H7O3NH2 + 3H2O glucose nutrients microbial biomass (ashfree) which theoretically would mean an 80% conversion of glucose into biomass, but since the yeast needs glucose for metabolic energy (C6H12O6 + 602 ____ 6CO2 + 6H2O) the effective yield (dry basis) is not more than about 50% and about 3/8 of the glucose is converted into carbon dioxide and water. In the extreme case only biomass and no alcohol is produced, though there are systems whereby both biomass and alcohol are recovered, both substances at a lower rate than their maximum possible (466). A well-known microbial product is baker's yeast available as pressed fresh yeast (27-29% dry substance) kept refrigerated or as active dry yeast (90-92% dry matter), the latter often imported and used as a leavening agent in bread making in the date producing countries of the Old World. It is a living product also in its dried form, and reactivated when put in solution. There have been a number of investigations into the production of baker's yeast on date extracts (359, 412, 352, 410). This research was mainly directed to testing the suitability of date extracts versus molasses, which is the traditional raw material for yeast production. Good results are obtained and there does not seem any technological constraint in using date extract which would be of special interest to date producing countries which have no beet or cane sugar production. Whilst baker's yeast is produced almost exclusively with selected strains of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae, food and fodder yeast is also produced with other genuses or mixtures of yeast strains, such as Candida Tropicalis and Torulopsis Utilis. The dried yeast (90% dry matter) is known for its high protein content and vitamin B as is shown in the Table 18, (466). Feed or fodder yeast is fed mostly to monogastric animals as a protein and vitamin/mineral source. For human consumption it is mostly considered as a health food or used as condiment in the form of yeast extracts which are mainly hydrolyzed yeast proteins with a strong specific flavour. When planning for a food or feed yeast industry note should be taken that the process needs a large amount of nutrients, in the form of minerals, electrical energy and cooling water. As a protein source it is normally not competitive with soy protein. Apart from the experimental work on using date extracts (414, 186, 260, 43, 416), feed yeast production using dates has reached industrial level in Iraq. Some research work has also been done on fungal protein using Aspergillus (390, 411), whilst the same organism was also tested on date extract for the production of amylase (562).

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Table 18 Composition of dried yeast

YEAST FROM Molasses %-age Water Crude protein Phosphate Crude fate Ash Vitamins in ppm Thiamine Riboflavine Pantothenic acid Nicotinic acid Ergosterol 60 - 72 39 - 45 32 476 5 000 - 8 000 9 - 35 39 - 67 23 - 90 427 - 685 3 500 - 5 200 8.8 43.5 - 56.6 2.6 - 2.9 5.9 - 7.2 6.0 - 8.5 46 - 54 2.7 - 4.3 4.4 - 8. 2 6.6 - 8.7 Spent liquor of beech

e. lipids By selection of the most appropriate micro-organisms and manipulating the nutrient supply (mainly minimize nitrogen and phosphorus) and the process conditions, production of lipids can be stimulated at the cost of protein. This method has been the subject of experimental work on many substrates, but has found no practical applications. Also date juice and syrup have been investigated mainly with fat producing fungi (Penicullum Lilacium, Pen. soppi Zaluski and Aspergillus Nidulans) with some success, but no practical follow-up has been reported (376, 375, 563).

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CHAPTER 4: BY-PRODUCTS OF DATE PACKING AND PROCESSING

In date packing and processing operations a number of by-products are becoming available, for which a use should be found in order to improve the economics of the operation as a whole and to decrease disposal problems and costs. The main byproducts are cull dates and date pits from packing operations, and pits and presscakes from date processing: 4.1 Cull Dates Whether on the household, small or large scale level of whole date use there is bound to be a selection of the fruit which will leave, proportionally to the quality standards set, a percentage of cull dates, which are not considered suitable for the main envisaged use. Consequently the definition of a cull date is rather flexible but is generally connected with "too hard, too small, blemished, poor appearance, foreign matter, infested" etc. In Chapters I to III the end use possibilities for the date have been described proportional to an increasing prominency of these defects with probably alcohol making as the least demanding product with regard to the quality of the raw material. But products based on date extraction like alcohol and syrup require substantial additional industrial set up. A more direct use, also very suitable for the rural level is the use in, or as animal feed. This heading on cull dates will therefore be used to look into the value of dates as an animal feed with the understanding that it will also include the use of low quality or surplus dates which otherwise would have been suitable for the product range described in Chapter 3. Making good use of the (cull) date as an animal feed source requires not only consideration of its chemical composition but also the physical form in which the date is fed to the animal. Although whole dates will be eaten by camels, cattle, goats and sheep it is not uncommon to see the pit coming out the other end, undigested, thus losing its effect as a feed source (see 2.). Furthermore, the date, especially without considering the pit, is an unbalanced feed, i.e. high in carbohydrates and low in protein and fat, and for best feed efficiency has to be supplemented. Apart from feeding dates as is, which surely is the cheapest but not the nutritionally most optimal method, several techniques can help to improve the feed value, but this goes at a cost, which has to be recovered from the gain
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in nutritional worth of the feed. One of them is size reduction and mixing with other feeds. However, technologically, whole dates, especially the wetter ones, are an awkward material because they are composed of a soft and sticky, and a very hard component. Unless they are very hard and dry when ground on their own, dates tend to smear and clog the sieves of the commonly used hammermills in feed plants. It is therefore necessary to make a premix with a dry material such as barley or maize or soybean meal, which normally forms part of the feed anyway, and then grind. It was found that incorporation of dates up to 30% of the mix is possible without fear of caking in the machinery (170). At this level also the compressing of the mix resulted in an excellent pellet and the beneficial effect of the use of dates in this case is that it can take the place of molasses as a lubricant and binder (170). Date ratios of 20% also gave this result but at lower levels the resulting pellets are poor and molasses would have to be added in compensation (170). A second point in size reduction and incorporation of whole dates in feed mixes is the presence of the pits. In grinding tests, curiously, it was found, that grinding whole dates costs more energy (about 30%) than the sum of grinding the components, of the mix, separately (170). As can be expected the pits are the highest energy consumer in grinding (a factor 10:1 compared with the energy required for the rest of the mix). To reduce the cost of energy some thought has been given to separate the pits from the flesh first and treat them on their own (see 2) or discard them. When the dates are rather soft date maceration as described in Chapter I could be considered, which also leaves the date flesh already broken up for more easy mixing with other materials. However, because for animal feed purposes usually the lower quality and drier dates are used, the available mechnical date pitters will not perform efficiently. Therefore a date mash was made by adding about 50% water and thorough mixing after which the pits are removed from the pulp in a rotary screen. The date mash was mixed with flaked barley (1:1) and dried in a rotary dryer to be used as a feed component (251). Apart from some technological limitations of mashing, screening and mixing, this process is however rather energy intensive too. On the other hand it produces a semi-finished product which does not necessarily have to pass through the grinder in the feed mill before final mixing. By and large, however, it would seem that the above process will not offset the alternative energy costs for grinding the whole date, but it leads to another possibility: could not a date mash from which the pits have been removed, replace molasses? This would simplify the preparatory operation to a (heated) mixing vessel for making a date pulp and a rotary screen for removing the pits. A possible limiting factor could be the moisture content of the mash, which cannot be expected to be lower than 50% at best (molasses 20-25%). It will not be a serious handicap when a fresh ration is made up for daily supplement feeding to the animals, but to produce storable compound mixes or pellets the final moisture content should not be more than 12-15% in the final mix. A compound mix of components averaging 7% moisture would not allow more than 13-16 kgs of date mash (corresponding to 6.5-8 kg of date flesh) to be added to 100 kgs of mix (molasses are normally added in the range of 5-10%). If above "wet" additions of dates do not fit the requirements of the feed to be produced, one has to resort to passing the whole dates through the grinder and accept the extra energy costs or investigate the efficiency of a specially designed whole date/barley groats mixer which by its action breaks up the date flesh but leaves the pit intact, and which is separated in a following operation (286).

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Grinding whole dates into a paste without premix has also been proposed and demonstrated in a reinforced powerful meat grinder with double plate and knife set (247). With regard to the nutritional acceptability and value of dates for different target animals, a few pertinent examples are cited: i. Chickens: - whole ground dates replacing maize at respectively 5, 10 and 30% of a diet for broilers supported growth as efficiently as the control, but 47.7% as a total replacement of the maize resulted in growth depression and reduced feed utilization (263) ii. Pigs: - high digestibility coefficients for carbohydrates, but low if any for the protein and fat. Intake of whole dates up to 2500 gms daily for 120 kgs pigs. No stones found in faeces (457, 458). (Plinius, incidentally, already refers to the use of dates in fattening pigs in Egypt (128)) - Fed on an equal based ration of 1 kg cereals and vegetable and animal protein, substitution of potatoes (up to 2 kgs daily) for dates did not affect rate of gain and efficicency of feed conversion in the control and 2 experimental groups fed (partially) on dates (458) iii. Sheep: - replacing barley by whole dates at the rate of 25, 40 and 60% in rations containing 20% soybean meal and supplemented with roughage, lamb performance was similar, also with the control, fed on 85% barley and 15% soybean meal (592) - Lambs fed ad lib alfalfa hay with incorporated respectively 10, 20, and 30% date flesh and ground pits showed for the 30% date level faster weight gain, highest feed intake with similar feed conversion rate, but a tendency to deposit fat. Date-fed lambs all showed highest in organoleptic testing of the loin chops for tenderness, juiciness and flavour (168) iv. Cattle: - for weaned male Jersey calves the average growth rate was 20% less when fed on fresh alfalfa and hay plus 1 kg dates than on alfalfa alone, though the diets were palatable (462). For young bulls on 3 kg alfalfa hay plus 3 kgs concentrate or alternatively 2.8 kg dates + 0.2 kg fishmeal, the date fed animals gained less and ate more dry matter per kg live weight gain (463) - Macerated dates can successfully replace barley up to 50% in rations for cattle fattening (161) - 25% of macerated dates incorporated in a ration for lactating dairy cows and replacing barley/oats by half with total protein kept constant, did not lower the milk yields (24). More information on the value of feeding whole dates and date flesh to animals can be found in literature (463, 22, 231, 230, 494, 23, 112, 492). In conclusion it can be stated that dates have a value as a carbohydrate feed but that its feed efficiency depends on suitable administration and supplementation to reach the best feeding results. 4.2 Date Pits Date pits, also called pips, stones, kernels, or seeds form part of the integral date fruit in the order of, depending on variety and quality grade, 6-12% of its total weight in the tamr stage (Fig. 85). They become available in concentrated quantities when pitted dates are produced in packing plants or in

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industrial date processing plants based on juice extraction. In the latter case they may still be mixed with the exhausted presscake or they have been screened out in the process. At the rural level one may find some accumulation of date pits when immature dates are pitted before sundrying (e.g. on the coast of Libya) or countries where dates are pitted and preserved as a paste (agwa). For the rest, date pits follow the dispersed ways of distribution routes of the whole fruit and have no importance as an individual raw material.

Figure 85: Date Pits Adapted from a number of literature references (554, 503, 536, 559, 139, 167, 146, 509) an indicative picture of the chemical composition of the date seed has been collated in the following table: Table 19 Approximate composition of date pits

Moisture Protein (N x 6.25) Oil Crude fibre Carbohydrates Ash

5-10% 5-7% 7-10% 10-20% 55-65% 1-2%

Information on the amino acid pattern of date seed protein is scarce but from a study on 2 Saudi varieties (503) it appears that glutamic acid, aspartic acid and arginine account for nearly half of total amino acids whilst tryptophan is the most limiting essential amino acid followed by isoleucine, and lysine as a border case in reference to the FAO/WHO reference pattern of essential amino acids (for human consumption).

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The oil extracted from date pits is pale yellowish-green with a pleasant odour (146). Its main median characteristics are: spec weight, 0.9207 (15.5 C); 0.9174 (20 C), refr index, 1.4580 (40 C); 1.4633 (25 C); iodine value: (a measure for the degree of unsaturation of a fat): 50-55; saponification value: 205-210. Two independent analyses (i. (139); ii. (503)) on fatty acids show that oleic acid (i. 44.3%; ii. 52.2% including linoleic acid), lauric acid (17.4%; 24.2%), myristic acid (11.5%; 9.3%), palmitic acid (10.3%; 9.9%), and linoleic acid (8.5%; included with oleic acid) form by far the bulk of the total fatty acids. Stearic, capric and caprylic acid are present in minor amounts. In the above analyses (Table 19) "carbohydrates", the largest component, is found as the rest value (i.e. 100 minus the other main components). Only a small part, in order of a few percentage points, consists of sugar, the remainder of carbohydrates being of a more complex nature. With a special eye for use as an animal feed and together with crude fibre content this part can be further split up in cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and ash. For date pits this gave the following results (608): Table 20 Composition date pit carbohydrates (excl. sugars) (% of dry weight)

NDF ADF Hemicellulose

75.0 (neutral detergent fibre, total cell wall content) 57.5 (acid detergent fibre, NDF less hemicellulose) 17.5 (NDF minus ADG; hemicellulose is a long-chain carbohydrate composed of pentoses. It is readily hydrolyzed by dilute acids into mainly xylose) 11.0 (determined by potassium lignin procedure on ADF residue, oxydixing the lignin) 42.5 (burning above residue) 4.0 (what remains upon burning)

Lignin

Cellulose Ash

With regard to mineral content date pits show appreciable amounts of K followed by P, Mg and Ca and a low Na content. Of the micro elements Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu are the more important ones (503; 536; 355). On the basis of the above indicative composition figures a first prognosis can now be made on the possible use of date pits. For human consumption there seems to be little scope, though there are early reports of elaborate processes of pounding and boiling with the use of salt and vinegar, finally arriving at a soft paste, drying and grinding it into flour to be used for making a sort of pancake (445). Date seed oil is an edible oil but its low extraction for this purpose is no competitive match for the many other oil bearing crops. Date oil does not have any characteristic that would make it suitable for specific end uses, thus raising its value and compensating for its low extraction rate. Similar arguments apply also to the protein content. There remains therefore the use of the whole seed as an animal feed which apart from the value of the protein and fat is favoured by the rather high hemicellulose content. However, feed value is not

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only determined by composition but also by accessibility and digestibility of the components. The hard, enclosed structure of the seed is a real obstacle to optimize the feed value, although it is also claimed that pits are an excellent slow release energy feed for camels during long desert journeys. Traditionally, especially at the rural level one has resorted to soaking the pits after which they are fed whole to ruminants. Date pits submerged in water for 72 hours will gain 25% in weight, but may increase by 50% after a week or so. But even then they are not readily ingested by the animals. A second improvement is grinding which, again in view of the hard structure of the pit, is costly on energy and wear and tear of the machinery. Experimentally it was established that in a 40 HP swinging hammermill fitted with a 2 mm sieve the grinding of date pits consumed over 100 Kwh/ton whilst for barley or maize these figures are 19 and 15 Kwh respectively in the same mill. The energy consumption can be reduced by first crushing the pits and then grinding, but it requires more investment. The question is easily raised but only to be answered when all details are known, whether the high cost of size reduction is justified vis--vis the improved feed value resulting from it. With regard to the acceptability and feed value of date pits a number of research trials have been carried out over the last decennia, a sampling of which is summarized below: i. date stone meal can successfully replace a 10% barley content in chick rations, though the increased live weight gain over the control is related to more feed intake (9) ii. ground date seeds can be used from 20 to 75% in ruminant rations if a good protein supplement (e.g. cotton seed cake) or urea is added (178, 28) iii. except for its protein, date seeds have a high digestibility coefficient for ruminants and somewhat less for pigs (34) iv. a wheat bran/barley mixture for carp feed could be replaced by up to 75% by date seed meal, whilst complete replacement would reduce daily growth rate but increase fat content in carp flesh (37). Further references on the use of date pits in or as animal feed are found in (151, 598, 450, 451, 347, 348, 281, 45, 28, 252, 263). Next to physical pretreatment of the raw material to improve the accessibility of the feed, some chemical treatments are known to increase digestibility. For instance, alkali treated straw has a linearly higher digestibility coefficient (from 45% to 71% for respectively 0 to 120 g NaOH per kg of treated straw). The mechanism of alkali treatment is not known exactly but is most likely based on displacement of intra-fibril hydrogen linkeages by much larger Na-ions, and breakage of bonds between lignin and cellulose. The result is a material with more accessible nutritive compounds and which is physically more attractive for the animal to ingest because the material becomes softer. The disadvantage is the high lye intake (average 6% of the straw) and the animal's water intake is greatly increased to remove excess sodium. Ammonia and urea in decreasing rates of efficiencies are also used for the purpose of upgrading ligno-cellulosic materials. Sodium hydroxide treatment of date pits has been experimented with (608). Ground date pits were treated with respectively 2.4, 4.8 and 9.6% NaOH solution, which resulted in increased in vitro digestion rates. In another attempt to avoid costly size reduction of date pits to make them more valuable as a feed source, date seeds were germinated (over a period of 74 days). It could be concluded that without appreciable loss in nutrients (based on chemical analysis) the pits gained in softness to the point of possible direct consumption by the animals (560). A nutritional evaluation, if proven positive, might

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be interesting for village application of seeds for animal feed, in spite of the time factor involved for germination. The use of date pits for animal feed in the traditional way is still likely the most common practice but there are reports on other uses of date pits, both traditionally and experimentally. In remote parts of the desert a coffee like beverage is sometimes prepared from date pits by roasting and grinding in a similar way as for coffee beans. The result must have been promising because the method has been used to adulterate coffee powder. A research article devoted to possible toxic effects of this adulterant, states "date seeds are roasted by dry heat, then ground to a similar powder as for coffee. The colour is a little lighter, the odour is fairly agreeable, and when mixed with coffee is difficult to detect". (226) In Tibesti and other remote desert areas date pits are heated in closed pots and the tar thus formed is used as a preserving agent for wood. In a slightly modified form of dry distillation date pits can be turned into charcoal. In a test on making charcoal (554) the following results were obtained. Whole dates were carbonized (main reactions took place between 300-400 C) and the major formed products analysed: Table 21 Dry distillation of date pits

Carbon Tar, crude Acetic acid Methanol The characteristics of the carbon were:

27% 13-14% 2-3% 2%

Table 22 Composition of date pit carbon

Moisture Volatiles Ash Apparent spec.grav. Real spec. grav. Porosity

0% 8.8% 4.0% 0.67% 1.36% 51%

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Ion-absorption

1.8% mgaeq iodine/g carbon

On the basis of these results it was concluded that pit carbon is not likely suitable as active carbon for use in metallurgy (ash content), though it has been quoted as a fine charcoal used by silversmiths (445). It does not exclude, however, the use as fire carbon which is still very common for small cooking stoves in the Arab World. Dates pits, cleaned and polished have been used in necklaces and as earrings by women (445). Some attention has been given to investigate microbial conversion of date seeds such as utilization of date pits and cheese whey for the production of citric acid by Candida lipolytica (7), the production of protein from date stone by Apergillus oryzae (421), and Candida Utilis (427) but practical follow-up to these investigations is unlikely in view of the type and composition of the raw material. A perhaps more interesting potential use already referred to in the fifties in animal feed literature is the presence of a growth stimulating hormone, identified as estrone at the rate of 1.9 mg per kg of date seeds (212). The synthetically produced sisters of this female sex hormone have been used in chemical caponization of young cocks, but are more known for their growth promoting effect in animals. Their use in most countries is strictly regulated or totally forbidden for fear of the continuing effects of the hormone by consumption of the animal products by humans. Chickens given 10 g daily of ground date seeds with the normal diet gained weight at a faster rate than the control as the following average figures (for 10 birds each) show (522). Table 23 Weight gain of chickens fed on date pit meal (grams)

Start

After 1 week 900

After 2 weeks 919

After 3 weeks 1 067

Total increase 212

Chickens (control) Chickens (fed on date pit meal)

858

858

976

986

1 199

345

In this experiment no mention is made of the total feed intake of the two groups. In another similar experiment (9) the same accelerated growth in chickens fed on (partly) date stone meal is reported, but it was also measured that this increased weight is proportional to increased feed intake, which does not exclude the effect of a growth promoting substance in date seeds. However, increased weight gain was not attained but did not change significantly in an experiment on broilers fed on rations replacing wheat bran/maize/lucerne at the rate of 5, 10 and 15% by date pit meal (263). And even a negative effect on growth rate of broilers by the feeding of date stones was reported (252). The feed value of date pit meal for chickens is therefore not quite clear as is shown from the various contrasting reports referred to (9, 522, 263, 252).

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The matter of purported hormonal effect of date stone meal was further pursued in tests measuring sperm output and concentration in rams (253, 349) but no conclusive results were obtained. Neither could any significant influence of incorporating date stone meal in the diet of Awassi ewes be detected on their reproductive performances (350). The search for minor components with a specific activity has not limited itself to the effects related to animal feeding: an ethanolic extract of date pits showed, albeit weak, antimicrobial activity on several strains of microorganisms and increased motor activity in mice (355). Date seed extract lowered blood pressure in dogs when administered intravenously (522). Some flavonoids were analyzed in date seeds (372). 4.3 Presscakes Presscakes are the result of processes where dates are extracted such as for syrup and alcohol. It is the exhausted date flesh with some residual sugar with or without the pits incorporated, depending on the type of extraction. It is wet (up to 70% moisture) and therefore bulky (from Appendix III it can be seen that presscake constitutes about 30% of the weight of ingoing dates) and will deteriorate quickly and become a disposal problem. The composition of dried presscake (excluding the pits) varies but on average will be about: Table 24 Composition of dried date press cakes

Dry matter Crude protein Crude fibre Crude fat Ash Nitrogen free extr. (NFE) Sugar (part of NFE)

87.7 5.3 21.8 2.7 2.6 55.3 15.6 (458)

92.8 4.4 11.6 2.1 2.0 72.7 (554)

95.2 8.1 9.1 1.8 3.5 (215)

The feed value is estimated somewhat lower than dried beet pulp (458) but no references on tests on ensiling date pulp have been traced. This method has been very successful for beet pulp and avoids the prohibitive costs of drying these wet pulps. Date waste in broiler diets partially replacing cereals at the rate of respectively 50, 100 and 150 g per kg of feed gave higher weight gains, but at the cost of higher feed intake per kg gained, as shown in the following table (215): Table 25 Weight gain, food consumption and conversion efficiency during fattening period (49 days) of broilers

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Treatments

Weight gain, g. (mean) 1411 1472 1472 1371

Food consumption (g/bird) 3310 3324 3323 2861

Food cons./ weight gained 2.22 2.26 2.26 2.07

I. Date waste (50) II. Date waste (100) III. Date waste (150) IV. (Control)

It can be concluded that date waste can be used in broiler diets and that its inclusion will relate to practicality and relative cost of the waste and the replaced grains. Further work on nutritional value has been reported (215, 439. 616) as well as a few attempts on microbial conversion of date presscakes (232, 611, 20, 420).

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CHAPTER 5: PALM PRODUCTS (EXCLUDING DATES)

Besides the fruit, to which most of the contents of this publication is devoted, the date palm over the centuries has also provided a large number of other products which have been extensively used by man in all aspects of daily life. The often remoteness of the date producing areas with few other resources available has stimulated and refined these uses of basically rather coarse materials. However modern technological developments and improved communications have influenced, and in many instances decreased, their use. On the other hand these same technological developments have made it possible to look at the palm as a raw material source for industrial purposes. It seems, therefore, logical to review first the traditional uses of the various date palm parts, after which the more recent product development and use will be assessed. Practically all parts of the date palm, except perhaps the roots, are used for a purpose best suited to them. A main division of date palm parts is made as follows: a) the trunk, b) the leaves (whole leaves, midribs, leaflets and spines, and the sheath at the leaf base), c) the reproductive organs (spathes, fruit stalk, spikelets and pollen) and d) a number of palm extracts. 5.1 Traditional use of palm products Through the centuries the use of palm products in the date producing areas was diffused in all sectors of the economy from agriculture, transport and construction, to domestic use and reaching out also into the urban centres. On occasion the production of these palm products equalled or became more important than the date crop itself (318). a. trunk: The trunk or stem becomes available upon natural or accidental death of the palm or by forced removal. The soft growing point or terminal bud, sweet in taste, can be consumed either raw as a salad or as a cooked vegetable somewhat resembling artichoke hearts though this varies with the palm variety (445). Date growers of the Sahara attribute depurative properties to the bud and it is consumed more for this purpose than as a food (363). In time of food scarcity the inside of the trunk has been pulverized and turned into a coarse flour for human consumption (363). But the trunk's main use is for its wood, which intrinsically is not of high quality because of the coarse vascular bundles (monocotolydon!) but it has great tensile strength. Its use is therefore geared to exploit this characteristic such as for poles, beams (Fig. 86), rafters, lintels, girders, pillars, jetties and light foot bridges. For this purpose they can be used whole or split in half or quarters. Hollowed out half trunks

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are used as conduits for water, or at shorter lengths for mangers and troughs. Sawn into coarse planks they are made up into doors, shutters and staircases for houses (Fig. 87).

Figure 86: Palm Trunk used in Roof Making

Figure 87: Planks made out of Palm Trunk used for Doors Rustic furniture has also been made though trunkwood, because of its coarse vascular structure, is difficult to cut, finish and polish. Furthermore the trunk was used extensively in the supporting strucures for water lifting be it in the Egyptian waterwheel, the Sakiyeh (318) or in the animal drawn water lifting from open wells. And finally, the trunks are also used as firewood. b. leaves: Every year under normal growth conditions an average of 12 to 15 new leaves are formed by the palm and consequently the same amount can be expected to be cut as part of the maintenance of the palm. Taken over hundreds or thousands of trees this can lead to large numbers of leaves becoming available annually.

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Leaves offer the most varied end use opportunities which are discussed by the individual parts in which the leaf can be divided: i. the leaf as a whole: whole leaves are used in fencing by sticking them into the ground and holding them together with two or three layers of rope made of the leaflets (Fig. 10), or in partitioning in houses and enclosures of terraces providing privacy but keeping a certain ventilation. Leaves are further used as roofing to give shade or for newly planted offshoots. Where mud is used in house construction whole date leaves may be laid across the ceiling beams (made of the trunk) in a thick bedding upon which a layer of mud is poured to form the first floor or roof cover (318). Whole palm leaves further have a special meaning at Christian and Jewish religious festivals and the introduction of the date palm into South America has been attributed to the missionaries who carried along date seeds from the Old World in order to secure a supply of palm leaves for religious celebrations. ii. midribs: the very base of the date leaf encircles the palm as a fibrous sheath and remains part of the trunk. When the leaf is cut off at a length dependent on the prevalent cultural practices, the base of the midrib is broad and flattened but quickly narrows from the base upwards into a more or less triangularly shaped stick which thins down towards the end of the leaf. Usually the leaf base is cut off and treated separately whilst the remaining "stick" (still called midrib to simplify nomenclature) when stripped of the spines and leaflets is used for different purposes. Soaked in water, straightened and set and held closely together by cross members pierced through them, midribs make effective building boards of about 50 x 200 cm, and used as partitioning or roofing (136). Leaf bases sharpened at the thin end and hammered in a close pack have been used to line the walls of open wells when the usual brick or stone are not available (139). They were used by fishermen to float their nets and by the same principle helped children to learn to swim (445). The base can be split and beaten out with the resulting fibre mass being used as a hand broom. With a bit longer than the usual thin piece left on as a handle, the leaf base was used as a bat to densify mud walls by the mason (445). And, like other fibrous parts of the palm, leaf bases are particularly suited as a fuel. The most widespread use of the midrib is making crates, but also furniture. There is a great variation in size and type of the containers, adapted to the specific purpose, but the principles of construction are basically the same, a short description of which is given below (Fig. 88) (189). From the midribs of the preferred varieties (because there are quality differences), first the edges (where the pinnae were attached) are removed by a stripping knife (Fig. 88b), after which they are cut into pieces of standard lengths (Fig. 88c) and, since they are tapered, assembled in groups of about equal diameter. The smaller diameters are further smoothed and rounded for their intended use (Fig. 88d). The thicker lengths to be perforated are levelled in order to at least have two flat surfaces. After marking, the holes are perforated by a punch (driven in by a mallet) an operation in which both the operator's hands and feet actively and efficiently participate (Fig. 88e f). In assembling the crate the thinner rods are knocked down the holes making use of a flat thick piece of iron (Fig. 88g h), after which superfluous material is cut and trimmed by knife and file (318, 343).

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Figure 88: Crate making from the Leaf Midrib Starting from these basic operations and with increasing artisanal skills a wide variety of containers has emerged, from simple fruit crates, birdcages and chicken coops to double deck twin cages, sometimes with sliding doors, hung on a donkey's, or a camel's back to carry a wide variety of fowl and other produce to the market (Fig. 89a/b). For the more delicate products, e.g. fresh fruit or eggs, the crates may be lined with palm or other vegetable fibre, carton, or heavy brown paper. The art of crate making has extended to other domestic products like carrying boards, bottle racks and furniture, especially chairs and bedsteads.

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Figure 89a: Examples of Crates. a. On Camel's Back

Figure 89b.: For Fowl on Donkey's Back It is clear from the above description that artisanal crate making is labour intensive and comparatively slow. With the changing economic patterns in most date producing countries including increased labour costs and scarcity, crate making has diminished. Some attempts have been made to mechanize some of the operations by mechanical levelling, smoothing and punching in central workshops and delivering the crates in kits to be assembled by the user thus saving transport costs. Though these measures may have had some impact they have not been able to stem the flow and use of modern packaging materials, plastics in particular. Nevertheless midribs do still play a role in the manufacture of crates and rustic furniture in the rural date producing centres. Other uses of midribs have been reported such as a fibre source for rope making, as a staff, cane or fishing rod or as supports for grape vines and ripening date bunches (445). Besides serving as a direct fuel source when needed, midribs can also be turned into a light good quality charcoal (139). iii. leaflets vary in length from about 15 to 100 cm and in breadth from 1 to 6 cm (139). The number of leaflets on one midrib may be in the range of 120 to 240. Leaflets are mainly used in plaits which are sewn together in a wide array of baskets and sacks, but also mats and smaller articles like fans and hats. The fundamental technology for its most widespread

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use, baskets, is to plait the leaflets into strips of matting of considerable length which are coiled in a spiral and its edges sewn together with a thread made out of the same leaflets. For instance, for a common date basket with a bottom diameter of about 50 cm and 75 cm high, a plaited strip of about 10 cm width and 15 m length is needed (Fig. 90) (445). The finer the plaiting and the narrower the strips the more closely knit and sturdier baskets or bags can be made. For the most refined products fresh leaves just issuing from their protective cover on the palm and offering a less brittle, yet tough fibre, are used, but the supply of these fibres is necessarily limited (318). Next to the date basket, the carrying basket is a most common utensil both for private and professional uses. A common size for transport of earth, building materials or even, in a larger version, coal, is about 20 cm diameter at the bottom, widening to the top (in contrast to the date basket which narrows to the top), and 30 cm high. It will hold 30-36 kgs of earth or sand and needs reinforcement at the bottom and handles for a durable life span. These baskets are carried on the shoulder and through the ages a very large amount of material has been moved in this way. For private use, baskets or bags are often plaited with coloured leaflets to create colourful designs or reinforced with (brown) thread made of the fibre covering the frond base (sheath fibre, see later) (Fig. 91).

Figure 90: Baskets made of Plaited Leaflets containing about 300 kgs of Dates

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Figure 91: Variety of Hand Baskets made from Plaited Palm Leaflets on Sale in Local Market Large-scale carrying baskets of an inverted cone shape slung over a camel's back and fitted with a valve at the bottom for easy discharge are used for longer distances, whilst donkeys almost disappear under the loads of fruits and vegetables by similarly shaped side baskets hung on their backs (318). By a different technology but using the same raw materials, sturdy baskets, and vase shaped containers and trays are made. The technique consists of first forming cores of finely divided fibres of the date fruit stalk. These cores are laid in a spiral and wrapped over with shredded leaflets at the same time linking them with the former spiral. In this way all types of shapes can be given to the basket by the form in which the cores are laid. Lids are also made in this way, providing a vast array of baskets, vases and depository boxes (Fig. 92). Trays made in this way are used for many purposes in the house.

Figure 92: Containers for Domestic Use made out of Fibre of the Leaflets Wrapped around Cores Derived from Fibre cut off the Fruit Stalk Besides woven products, leaflets are also used for making cord which is used, for instance, for tying up bundles of nursery stock or other temporary fixing jobs in horticulture. In making it, the leaflets are shredded into strips of about 2-3 mm wide, soaked in water and twisted into cord by rolling the fibre between the palm of the hands into a strand. Usually a two-strand cord is made with a thickness of about 7 to 10 mm (318) (Fig 93).

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Figure 93: Handmade Cord made of Shredded Date Leaflets. a. A two-stand cord b. A hank of cord about 75 to 80 m long Handbrooms are made from the leaflets by arranging and tying them in flat bundles and the very young white pinnae shredded into fine fibre and bundled at one end serve as fly whisks. Leaflets are also used as bedding for animals. A different use of palm leaflets is the use as a stuffing material for cushions and mattresses, although rated lower in quality than the widely used "Krena" (crin vgtal) made from the dwarf palm (Algeria, Morocco). The process consists of drying the palm leaves on concrete floors, stripping the leaflets from the midrib, bundling them (about 15 cm diameter) and soaking these bundles in water. When softened they are put through a rippling machine which consists of a fast rotating drum with pins on its surface. The material comes out in fine threads. This material is dried (naturally) and baled, or turned into thick rope for further distribution. The quality of the material is determined by its elasticity and resistance to break under pressure. One ton of krena requires a supply of about 2,000 whole leaves. iv. spines: they are specialized leaflets converted into tough pointed pins which may vary from very short to up to 20 cm in length and from very thin to 1 cm in width. Situated at the lower end of the
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midrib they have the obvious function of protecting the central tender parts of the palm. When leaves are harvested, spines normally have already been removed during preceding cultural practices to give the operator access to the central part of the tree. They can be used in the making of fishtraps and obviously, toothpicks or other uses where a sharp pointed utensil is needed. No reference has however been found that the spine is used as a sewing needle in basket making, which really would make the palm fully self sufficient in procuring packing material for its own produce. v. sheath: New date palm leaves come out from a tender cover tissue which upon growth of the leaf remains at its base attached to its lateral edges, and surrounding the trunk of the palm. The connective tissue has gone and a brownish fibrous sheath is left which, when pruning the leaves, can be torn loose and is known under the name of leef. Apart from its fuel value it is best known for the many types of rope made from it. The raw material has the appearance of a coarsely woven fabric (Fig. 94).

Figure 94: Sheath Fibre from the Leaf Base as it comes from the Palm (a) and in detail (b).

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Manufacture follows the usual pattern from purely manual rope making to the use of simple machines. The product is rather coarse (somewhat like coir) but has sufficient strength to "hold ships together" (445) as was practised in the past when no nails were available. Rope of different diameters is frequently used in waterlifting. It is also made into nets with a mesh of about 20 cm for carrying (heavy) loads of coarse materials by camel or transporting forage and the coarser vegetables on a donkey's back (Fig. 95).

Figure 95: Nets made out of Sheath Fibre Cordage for Transport In lighter versions rope is used for binding, tying, handles and reinforcement of baskets, muzzles, fishnets, etc.(Fig. 96). The leef as such is used for protecting newly planted offshoots, padding, upholstering, washcloths, brushes, bedding and shading live plants and produce.

Figure 96: Several Types of Cordage made of Sheath Fibre in Local Market Egypt) c. reproductive organs: Male flowers, being the first to mature, and for a short period not yet required for pollination, are sometimes consumed by the farmer (17). The male flowers have been also used to distill a scent from it called Tara water (136). Pollen is reportedly ingested to enhance fertility (128). What remains after the annual reproductive cycle has ended with harvesting of the
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dates, are the spathes, the fruit stalks and spikelets of the female tree and some spathes and flower stalks of the male palms, because the latter are much less in number than the female palms. i. spathes: the initially green and tender shields that enclose the male and female flowers turn tough and fibrous at the end of the annual production cycle. After pollination male spathes are removed and pieces are sometimes chewed by the farmer or soaked in drinking water to improve its flavour (343). Spathe can also be boiled and distilled resulting in a liquid used for flavouring hot or cold drinks and is also effective as a digestive (343). More recently spathe extracts have been investigated for possible special properties (see later). ii. empty bunches: are composed of the fruit stalk with concentrated on one end the spikelets to which the dates were attached. With the spikelets trimmed down the bunch as a whole may serve as a simple broom. Secondly it has, like the other fibrous parts of palm a fuel value. Having had to carry a considerable weight of ripening dates through the season (indeed in some date varieties the bunch has to be artifically supported for fear of breakage) it stands to reason that the fruit stalks must have notable tensile strength. Also because the fibre is long, fruit stalks are quite often preferred over other palm fibre for work where safety is a first requirement such as in climbers' ropes and belts, and saddle girths. Making rope from the fruit stalks involves wetting (perhaps soaking) to soften the stalk somewhat, after which it is hammered with a broad-faced iron hammer to loosen the fibre, especially the basal end. After this, in vertical position and holding the upper end of the stalk with the spikelets with his foot, the operator will strip the fibre bundles by hand starting from the basal end of the stalk. The thinner the strands are made at this stage the finer and stronger rope can ultimately be made. With the fibre strips thus harvested the normal rope making procedures will start, i.e. making strands out of a number of strips, twisting two strands into one cord and subsequently twisting three cords into one rope. A typical climbing rope is 2.5 m long and 2 to 2.5 cm in diameter (Fig. 97).

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Figure 97: Heavy Rope made from Shredded Date Palm Fruit Stalks To make a broad climbing belt to give more support to the back of the climber a 3 ply cord (5-7 mm) is laid out flat and folded back and forth in 16 to 20 parallel lines each about 110 cm in length. These parallels are then stitched together crosswise. With a secure splicing technique the climbing rope is secured tightly to the belt at one end. At the other end of the belt the doubled loops are assembled in one single loop through which the climber will knot the loose end of his rope after having passed it around the palm trunk (318). There are several techniques to climb a palm with the help of rope; from a safe tucked-in position in a belt (Fig. 98a) to the more daring and quicker technique of using the rope only as a hand support and throwing it intermittently about one metre upwards whilst stepping up the palm (Fig. 98b).

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Figure 98: Climbing the Palm. a.: in-the-belt position b.: Use of climbing rope only Other uses of the fruitstalks are as decoration for the ceilings in the home (363), the spikelets are eaten by camels and the stalk fibre frequently used as coarse sewing thread and as the cores for special types of basket making described in b.iii. d. date palm sap The date palm sap stores the bulk of its reserve of photosynthetically produced carbohydrates in the form of sucrose in solution in the vascular bundles of its trunk. When the central growing point or upper part of the trunk is incised this palm sap will exude as a fresh clear juice consisting principally of sucrose. Upon standing and favoured by the warm season (when tapping takes place), breakdown of sucrose will soon commence, increasing the invert sugar content, after which fermentation will set in spontaneously by naturally occurring yeasts and within a day most of the sugar will have been converted into alcohol (around 5% v/v). The liquid will turn milky white. References to palm tapping date back long before the birth of Christ and also the famous Roman chronicler and historian Plinius makes mention of it (128, 137). However, the curious fact exists that, traditionally, tapping of the date palm has not developed in all date producing countries, apart from enforced bans on tapping that have been imposed, be it on religious grounds or to protect a national food source. Palm tapping, even if still existent in several parts of the date producing world, has always been marked with two phenomena: a potential danger of abuse of and addiction to the fermented sap, and a consequent decline of a recurrent food supply. With regard to the latter point it should be emphasized that
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tapping a palm, especially according to the methods used in the date producing countries, is a severe intervention. It deprives the palm of most of its (productive) leaves and food reserves and to recuperate these losses it is knocked out for at least 3 or 4 years before it will bear a full crop of fruit again. A severe wound inflicted on the palm is kept open every day to maintain the sap flow. The palm's survival depends on the skill of the tapper (Usta) because if the daily scarring is carried on too far, the palm will die. Literally the palm's life balances on razor's edge (in this case the Usta's sharp sickle) and it adds a sentimental issue for some people who resent seeing a palm exploited to these extremes. If not forbidden outright by Governments, the authorities have attempted to regulate palm tapping by restricting measures such as for example: i: subjecting it to a permit, ii: imposing tax, iii: permitting tapping of only diseased, declining or poor yielding palms, iv: authorizing only registered tappers, v: marking and wiring of palms, vi: restricting the period of tapping to 60 days, vii: obligatory substitution of the tapped palm by a new palm, viii: imposing heavy fines and/or imprisonment of trespassers (445, 138). These measures may assist in preventing a deterioration in date palm cultivation, but they fall short of preventing consumption or abuse of the fermented version of palm sap. It is indeed not an easy task for the legislator to intervene in the consumption of a liquid derived from a natural juice for which he gave permission to be harvested and which spontaneously has changed its properties within a matter of hours. The fact that the natural (sweet) and the fermented juice in Arabic are known under the same name, lagbi or lagmi, does not simplify the matter either. It is generally agreed that palm tapping can have, potentially, undesirable side effects and the safest way to prevent these from happening is to prohibit it altogether, a measure that more than often has been applied. However if one looks at the thousands of tons of sugar produced from the Wild date palm (Phoenix Sylvestris), the Coconut palm, Palmyra, the Sago (Caryota Urens) and the Nipa palm, the question is raised whether sugar from date palm sap would under certain circumstances not be profitable. Or put in another way: the date palm offers its "produce" in two ways, as fruits and, alternatively, as a sugar (sucrose) containing sap; does a choice exist? Compared with the Indian experience where tapping the Wild date palm is a very well developed cottage industry, two points emerge immediately: the Wild date palm does not offer an alternative product because its fruits are not attractive for human consumption hence it is not a choice anymore; secondly palm tapping has developed in India in a much less drastic way. It is done annually and it does not remove the whole crown of leaves, thus leaving a great part of the productive capacity of the palm. To illustrate the differences further both methods of tapping are briefly described (Fig. 99). Figure 99: Comparison between Indian Method of tapping the wild date palm (Phoenix Sylvestris) and tapping the date palm (Phownix Dactylifera) as practiced in some date producing countries (Local Method) LOCAL METHOD INDIAN METHOD

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a) Preparing the tools

a) Preparing the tools

b) Removal of leaves

b) Removal of leaves

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c) Cleaned tapping surface c) Cleaned tapping surface

d) Cover with sheath

d) Make incision

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e) Inserting the spout

e) Inserting the spout

f) The collecting pots are hung

f) The collecting pots are hung

g) (Twice) daily juice collection, changing of pots

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and periodically renewing the cut

g) (Twice) daily juice collection, changing of pots and periodically renewing the cut

h) - Partially fermented sap (left) - Sap froma limed pot (middle) - Clarified, filtered sap (right)

i) Indian stove under construction

j) Adding phosphoric acid to haeted limed juice

k) Measuring PH with PH paper

l) Filtering the neutralized juice

m) Cleaning the pan

Palm tapping as practised in some of the date producing countries consists of removing all the leaves except some of the outer circle to give support to the tapper whilst working. The top of the trunk is cut in a cone shape, carefully leaving the terminal bud intact. At the base of the cone a canal is cut around it, in which the juice oozing from the cone is collected and guided via a spout made of the leaf
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midrib into an (earthenware) jar, hung on the side of the palm. The cone is protected from the sun against drying out, by an inverted basket or by palm fibre. The flow of juice starts slowly but may reach full capacity after six or seven days. Twice daily the tapper will climb the palm to collect the juice and to shave a thin sliver of tissue of the cone's surface to keep the vessels from drying up. Whilst this daily process is going on, the terminal bud is growing upward also and every 20 days or so a readjustment of the cone, canal and spout implant has to be made. As in most cases, if not all, this tapping method is used for an eventual fermented beverage, no precautions are taken to keep the yeast population down as is done in Indian tapping. On the contrary some of the earlier (already fermented juice) may be left in the jar as a starter to hasten the process for the newly collected juice (the yeast accumulated from lagbi was also used as leavening agent in breadmaking in Tibesti) (143). Length of tapping period largely goes by the individual character-istics of the palm and cases have been known of up to 3 or 4 months. However, the law has usually put a limit to that in order to prevent too much exhaustion and a risk of high mortality amongst the tapped palms. In terms of yield (both in total litres and kgs of solid matter) only indicative figures can be given because several factors are determining such as variety, age/height and location (e.g. water supply). From comparative tapping tests between the local and Indian methods some actually measured results for the local method are given (61): (all palms were located in the same area) Table 26 Palm sap yields

Variety

Known as

Palm height (grnd level to terminal bud, m) 3.40 3.50

No. of tap.days (x) dried up (o) ongoing 42 (o) 45 (o) 41 (x) 52 (o) 46 (x) 39 (x)

Yield in l.

Yield in solids (kgs)

Solids (% age)

Average juice/day (1)

Average solids/day (kg)

Limsi Limsi

exc. yielder

352.1 397.6 400.1 732.2 268.1 229.3

35.9 47.7 44.7 62.3 32.7 36.9

10.1 12.0 11.2 8.5 12.2 16.1

8.4 8.8 9.8 14.1 5.8 5.9

0.85 1.06 1.09 1.20 1.00 0.95

Bikraari Beyuudi

good yields

5.80 7.20

Hammuuri Aami (seedling) poor yielders

5.30 8.20

Together with the (scarce) literature references (169, 138, 363) major conclusions on yield for the varieties recognized as the more adapted for tapping are that: i. total yield in litres for one tapping period may easily reach 500 l but higher yields are known (1,212 l in one particular case, (138))

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ii. a daily yield of 8-10 l is an acceptable range as an overall average iii. the average solids contents of the juice is around 10%, with higher levels possible but these are mainly due to lower moisture excretion iv. the daily yield of solid matter (mainly sugar) turns out to be rather constant for the different palms and amounts to about 1 kg/day Apart from quantitative appraisal there is also a qualitative appreciation of the juice and there are varietal preferences. The tapping operation eventually will leave a scar on the trunk in the form of a circular indent (Fig. 100). By the number of those rings one can tell how many times a palm has been tapped, normally not more than once every 5 years. A number of six rings is seldomly seen, but three and four is rather common. In this respect it should not be forgotten that each ring adds another relatively weak spot in the trunk and the risk for the tapper proportionally increases.

Figure 100: Effect of Palm Tapping on Trunk Development (Local Method) After tapping is finished in March the cut surface will dry out and heal but leaving an indent in the trunk. The next cut will be made on the other side of the trunk (180 ) a little higher because the palm has grown, and leaving again a similar scar. Eventually after several years of tapping the trunk will assume a zig-zag configuration (Fig. 101).

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Figure 101: Effect of Palm Tapping on Trunk Development (Indian Method) Yields of juice are, because of the reduced exposed surface area, much less than for the method described before, but the palms can be tapped every year, which can go on for an average of 25 years, though higher productive life spans have been recorded (32). Together with some yield figures from literature (32) for the Wild date palm and the measured results from the earlier referred to tests between local and Indian tapping (61) some indicative figures on yields are given in Table 27. Table 27 Yields of palm sap (Indian and Local Method)

Palm

Method of tapping L, local I, India

Palm height (grnd level to terminal bud, m)

No. of tapping days (x) dried up (o) ongoing

Sap yields in l.

Yields in solids (kgs)

Solids (% age)

Average yield/day (1)

Average solid yield/day (kgs)

Reference

Wild date palm (Ph. sylvestris)

45 (over a period of 105 days)

75

7.5

10 (estimate)

1.7

0.170

(32)

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Wild date palm (high yielder)

45 (id)

13.5

13.5

10 (id)

3.0

0.300

(32)

Date Palm (Ph. Dactylifera)

- Limsi

3.50

45 (o)

397.6

47.7

12.0

8.8

1.060

- Limsi

3.50

15 (o)

49.5

8.5

17.2

3.3

0.560

- Limsi

4.00

30 (o)

138.0

19.2

13.9

4.6

0.640

- Bikraari

5.80

41 (x)

400.1

44.7

11.1

9.8

1.090

- Bikraari

2.70

23 (o)

152.4

21.4

14.0

6.6

0.930

- Hallaawi

1.30

31 (x)

94.2

10.3

10.9

3.0

0.330

- Hallaawi

2.10

26 (x)

120.3

14.3

11.9

4.6

0.550

- Hallaawi

1.30

19 (o)

57.3

10.2

17.8

3.0

0.540

- Tabuuni

1.40

14 (o)

39.9

4.0

10.0

2.9

0.290

With due appreciation for the possible variations caused by varietal differences, height/age of the palms and length of the tapping period, certain tendencies can be discovered from these yield figures: i. the yields of juice and solid matter by the Indian method on the date palm (Ph. Dactilyfera) are consistently higher than for the Wild date palm (Ph. Sylvestris). ii. the daily and seasonal yields by the local method are higher than for the Indian method, but taking into consideration that by the local method the palm will not produce sap or dates for 2 years after tapping and in India the palms are tapped every year, the picture looks different. If indeed Ph. Dactilyfera could be tapped every year by the Indian method with the same result, most likely the total yield over three years would be higher than for the local method. This belief is reinforced by the fact that at least part of the crown leaves is left on and the palm's photosynthetic capacity is only partially impaired in contrast to the local method. iii. in consequence of the lower daily yield but with the same if not more daily work required to harvest the palm sap for the Indian method, the labour hours involved per unit sap harvested is definitely higher. With the production of sugar from palm sap as an alternative to the date crop in mind, the process of the different forms of sugar as practised in India as a cottage industry, will be briefly described. It is of vital importance to start work with a sound raw material, which involves a continuous fight against infection and multiplication of yeast. A freshly harvested sap will for the greater part consist of sucrose (say around 10%), minimal invert sugar, say less than 0.5% and small amounts of protein,
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gums, and minerals. To keep it in this form tools and pots should be kept clean, stagnant juice on the palm should be avoided and collected early in the morning. Time between collection and processing of the juice should be kept to a minimum. Artificial means to keep down the yeast are smoking the collecting pots by putting them head down on smouldering leaves before being used or by adding a small amount of quick lime to the pots. The latter method is definitely more effective to reduce the sugar inversion but for good quality gur (jaggery) production the lime has to be removed again by precipitation and filtering during processing (Fig. 99j, k, l). Four main sugar products are made from palm sap: i. jaggery (gur), the crystallized whole (sometimes clarified) sap ii. crystalline sugar with remaining molasses iii. sugar-candy, large sugar cyrstals iv. sugar syrup In the most traditional method the juice is boiled down in earthenware pans filling in the holes of an arched clay oven (Fig. 99n). Fuel, e.g. palm leaves, is fed on one side of the stove and the smoke leaves from another hole or primitive chimney. The end point of boiling which may take a couple of hours is different for each of the intended products and usually recognized by the type of bubble which appears during boiling. In the case of jaggery making a separately prepared starter to accelerate crystallization is mixed in the boiling liquid just before pouring into a mould and left to cool and crystallize. Removed from the moulds jaggery presents itself as a light to dark brown crystallized block. The less invert sugar was present in the raw juice the better quality jaggery results. As an average the outturn of jaggery is 10-15% of the weight of the raw juice (32). A typical composition of jaggery is: Table 28 Composition of jaggery

Moisture Total sugar Protein Fat Ca, Fe, P Vitamin, B, C Riboflavin

8-10% 85-90% <0.5% <0.5% Traces Traces Traces

Strong promotional campaigns to encourage cottage industries in India have helped much to modernize jaggery making. The use of lime is now common, which during processing is neutralized with phosphoric acid with PH indicator paper as a guide. The precipitated calcium phosphate is filtered off. In determining the end
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point of boiling also use is made of refractometers. Improved stoves have resulted in reduced fuel use and better controllable fires. Though remaining a cottage industry performed with simple means the qualitative aspects have greatly improved. On the basis of the foregoing the question posed at the beginning of this Chapter (d) whether sugar from palm sap could become an alternative to a date crop, has become a little more but not fully answerable. Physiologically it would seem that in sugar value the yield in the form of dates or in the form of sugar from sap are about equal, also in terms of the total productive lifespan of the palm (following the Indian method). Production-wise it would appear that it requires more labour hours and a longer annual involvement to produce one unit of sugar from sap than from dates. An economical evaluation therefore depends on the appreciation, organoleptically or monetary, attributed to the different products and the effect of their diversity and applicability. Each situation will have its own conditions and an on-the-spot feasibility is necessary. Technically however the date palm offers the possibility of alternative sugar production. e. Pharmaceutical use Be it, that the date palm historically has been so closely interknit in the farmer's life and environment, or that the "Tree of Life" with its single head and trunk and division into male and female sexes with a corresponding reproductive system, was felt to resemble that of humans, the fact has transpired that the date palm has always had an aura of mystique around it, which at times devleoped into a palm cult. In Assyrian times, for instance, the palm was worshipped and depicted frequently in decorative art and for the embellishment has been witnessed in different times and places and, perhaps less pronounced, skill persists to date in the traditional date producing countries. This esteem and adulation has probably also contributed to a sometimes overestimated belief in the medicinal powers of dates and other parts of the palm. There are many references to this effect in literature and if not for a desire of the search for alternative medicines, it is interesting (and sometimes amusing) to have a closer look at what benefit people obtained or thought to obtain from the different cures based on date palm products. In the foregoing text, in passing, mention has already been made of the depurative properties attributed to the terminal bud by Saharian palm growers (363) or the use of pollen to enhance fertility in (ancient) Egypt (128). Medically, dates were recommended in mouth washes (an application most likely frowned upon by a present-day dentist); as a purgative or in gynaecologically related interventions (128). Dates formed part of various ointments, bandages and opthalmic prescriptions and Plinius reports: "dates are applied with quinces, wax and saffran to the stomach, bladder, belly and intestines. They heal bruises" (128). A notable Sheikh in the 16th Century elaborates: "dates fortify the body, enrich the blood, cure pains in the back, invigorate the loins whey they are atrophied and when boiled with milk they cut short fever and ague" (445). And from the same source: "the sap of leaves is a remedy for nervousness, kidney trouble and putrid wounds and calms the effervescence of the blood. Burnt seeds are made in an ointment for ulcers or a collyrium that produce long eyelashes". And this sampling of medicinal use of date palm products could not end without reference to the invigorating power bestowed on man when consuming male flowers and male spathe (445, 341). Though the possible responsible agents to this effect have not been isolated scientifically, one wonders whether the chewing of spathe (Ch. V 1.c.i.) is practised for its flavour only. f. Shade

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A chapter on the traditional uses of date palm products could not close without making mention (again) of an abstract but ever so real attribute of the date palm: giving shade and protection from wind, thus creating a micro-climate in which the harsh conditions of a hot and dry climate are tempered to make living conditions somewhat more sustainable. In the traditional date orchards especially in the oasis the density of palms is so great as to form an almost closed canopy.Extreme density and irregular stands of palms, however, diminish the opportunities for growing secondary crops and the introduction of mechanization in date palm cultivation. Closely related to being a provider of shade is the ornamental value of the palm and indeed in several date producing countries where date production has declined as a consequence of a fast economic growth, the date palms are maintained and planted also as an ornamental tree. 5.2 Palm products development In the previous section it has been demonstrated that, historically, palm parts were extensively used but that there has been an overall decline in their application due to alternative materials becoming available which proved better or more convenient for the intended purpose. In consequence of this trend there have been several attempts to find new outlets for the annual crop of leaves and empty bunches that are obligatory by-products of date production. It concerns mainly ligno-cellulosic materials with scarce protein and fat content but a high ash content. Their potential use has mainly concentrated on animal feed, soil amendments and board where it concerns use of the whole material. Another field of attention has been extraction of components to be used as industrial feedstock such as cellulose and hemicellulose but also the search for minor constituents which might have an economic importance. a. Animal feed Lactating dairy cows divided in two groups were fed ad lib on alfalfa hay plus a rationed 16% CP (crude protein) concentrate in the first group and an ad lib mixture of NaOH treated date palm leaves (40%), wheat bran (30%), broken wheat residues (15%) and poultry manure (15%) (DPLS), plus the same (rationed) 16% CP concentrate, in the second group. Although the mean daily and total milk yields were consistently lower in the DPLS fed group than for the hay-fed group the fact that 40% of the ration was composed of an unused but plentiful resource, prompted the conclusion that the lower milk yield may be economically justified (381). It is to be noted, however, that date leaves were treated with NaOH and supplemented with wheat bran, wheat residues and poultry manure, which all represent additional cost factors. In an evaluation in vitro of the non-fruit components of the date palm (frond bases, midrib, leaflets, spikelets, fruit stalks, spathes) for feed value it was concluded that all components have a certain but limited value for ruminant feeding. Digestibility values were highest, though still modest, for spathes and spikelets (98). There seems therefore to be some scope, albeit very modest, for the use of palm by-products in animal feed. b. Soil amendments Whilst the use of date fibre and date leaflets as a mulch in a maize growing experiment in comparison with transparent plastic, black plastic and straw, was negative both in time to reach maturity and in yield (267), there seems to be some scope to use shredded palm leaves (SPD) as a potting medium in greenhouse cultivation of certain vegetables. A good horticultural substrate must provide good
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drainage, aeration, and have a high cation exchange and water holding capacity. Shredded date palm leaflets (about 8 cms long and less than 3 mm in width) were combined in different proportions of either/and peat moss, sand, perlite and vermiculite and tested as substrate for tomatoes and cucumbers, in otherwise similar growth conditions. Though peatmoss combinations came out as the medium with the highest yield for both tomato and cucumber attributed to its good cation exchange capacity, shredded date palm leaves in combination with sand, perlite and vermiculite gave good result in tomato yield (1.82 kg/plant) versus 2.13 kg/plant in a similar combination based on peatmoss (3). c. Panel board Experimental work (164) and feasibility studies (574) have led to the establishment of at least one board factory based on palm leaves. It is located in Iraq which alternatively uses also reeds as raw material. Practically all ligno-cellulosic waste materials can be turned into board by disintegration, pressing and addition of binders, usually synthetic resins. The ultimate economic feasibility depends on the raw material and production costs and the quality of the board expressed as density (kg/m3), % moisture, bending -, tension -, and impact strength, and swelling %-age upon soaking. An important cost factor is the amount of resin to be added, which is inversely related to the lignin content (which under high pressure and temperature liquifies and starts to act as a binder). Unfortunately palm wastes have a tendency to have a lower cellulose and lignin content than wood and a higher than usual amount of water soluble substances which tend to increase the water absorption and swelling. One machinery supplier rated the fruit stalks best for board making, followed by the midribs. Palm sheath fibre and the trunk are considered unsuitable (574). General conclusion is that board making from midribs and fruit stalks is possible with satisfactory results but that cost of production because of the intensive necessary disintegration (accompanied by much dust formation) and more than usual resin requirements, tends to be higher than for wood boards. Tests on making gypsum fibreboard were not entirely satisfactory with the process needing further perfection (164). d. Industrial rawstock Major contenders for extraction of industrial rawstock are: cellulose, pentosans (hemicellulose) and lignin, the main three components of the fibrous parts of the date palm. For a general impression of their importance the composition of the various parts of the palm are given as percentage ranges (adapted from 96): Table 29 Composition of fibrous date palm parts

Frond bases 55-65 9.511.5

Frond midrib 60-66 8.5-10

Leaflets

Fruit Stalk 20-22 5.5-9

Spikelets

Spathe

Moisture Ash*

38-40 10.5-11.5

22.5-24 6.5-8

60-65 5.5-6.5

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Holocellulose* Cellulose* Lignin* Furfural* (potential)**

54.5 22.5 27 13.6

55.6 33.5 21.5 16.2

48 28 28.1 9.2

60.4 30 21

55 26 12 16.7

64.5 37 19.4 -

* on dry weight basis ** Furfural is a derivative of pentosans (by hydrolysis and subsequent dehydration). Pentosans form the major part of the difference between holocellulose and cellulose and are often indicated as hemicellulose. (Furfural yield is about 1/3 of the pentosan content, e.g. 10 furfural out of 30-32 pentosans in corn cobs (234), which make the furfural yield figures in above table seem somewhat on the high side). Actually in another study (92) the pure furfural yield from midribs ranged from 6.310.2 (average 9%).
From this table it can be concluded that: - for cellulose preference goes to midrib, fruitstalk and spathes as the raw material - for lignin the frond bases and leaflets and - for furfural midribs, fruit stalk, frond bases and spikelets are quoted the best source (234) For lignin extraction further references can be found in (97, 479, 480, 266, 481). Cellulose extraction for paper making is technically feasible: the midribs yield a pulp easily bleachable and of good quality, whilst the pulp derived from the leaflets lends itself better to kraft paper or corrugating medium (152). See also (485, 184, 68, 19). All three industrial rawstocks: cellulose, furfural, and lignin have in common that they have to be produced on a large scale to be competitive on a worldwide basis. In the case of palm waste products this may create problems of supply because, though they are produced in large quantities, they are quite dispersed and transport costs for this bulky raw material may become a limiting factor. e. Various Various other attempts to make use of palm by-products are reported in technical literature, some of which are more of an academic nature than having a clear practical objective: i. date palm fibre was analyzed for length, strength and crimp and it was concluded to be best suited for needle-punched fabrics or in blends with jute (173). Suggestions have also been made to use the fibre as a filtration medium to cover sub-surface drainage pipes in Iraq (617). ii. spathe: inspired by some traditional uses of the spathe studies were carried out (343) to isolate and analyze organic compounds responsible for the pleasant fragrance (and flavour) of spathe and its purported pharmaceutical properties for certain intestinal disorders. In a first attempt a distilled extract (pentane and ether) of freshly harvested spathes the analysis by gas chromotography revealed a prominence of 1,2-dimethoxyl-4-methyl benzene of up to 75% of total isolated volatiles. Male spathes contained about 40% more of this substance than female spathes and its content in absolute terms ranged from 0.7-1.1 g/kg spathe. It has a pleasant characteristic flavour somewhat
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like vanilla. In a subsequent investigation (338) a conventional chemical analysis of the major components of the spathe was carried out resulting in the following composition: Table 30 Composition of spathe %-age on fresh weight

Moisture Sugars total reducing non-reducing Ca-pectate Crude fat Crude protein Crude fibre Ash Furfural (potential)

33.42

3.30 3.04 0.25 0.42 3.0 6.39 49.53 3.94 3.36

The aqueous distillate was tested for antimicrobial activity (proved negative), and for biological activity in mice, rabbits, guinea pigs and frogs, without any effect on heart, blood pressure and muscle reactions. Analysis of the distillate by gas chromotography revealed a number of organic compounds a.o. of the camphor family besides the earlier mentioned cyclohexenes. It is, however, clear that no final conclusions can be drawn at this stage of research on the active components in spathe distillate related to its flavour and pharmaceutical properties. Some work was carried out on the oil of the spathe (591). iii. Pollen contains around 50% moisture and an average chemical analysis (on dry weight basis) of 5 Iraqi varieties is shown in Table 31. (95) Pollen, also from other plant species claims to have high nutritive value which seems to be confirmed by above analysis with its relatively high protein, sugar and fat values. As mentioned previously early young male flowers when not yet required for pollination are eaten voluntarily by the date farmer. There is, however, more to the claim of nutritive value and a sort of mystique has built around it to the extent that pollen (of all kinds), collected from bees through special devices attached to beehives, is abundantly available in health food stores. In how far this is overrated by advertising and promotional efforts is difficult to judge. Isolation of micro elements has revealed the presence of estrone (30, 80), sterols, saponins, triterpenes and flavonoids (301). Snack foods have been

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supplemented with date pollen (2), but before indulging in pollen as a nutrient it is better to check for symptoms of allergy, otherwise the consumer may be in for an unpleasant surprise. Table 31 Composition of pollen (dry weight basis)

Ash Crude fibre Crude protein Total sugar - red. sugar - non-red. sugar Total lipids

5.5% 9.9 27.2 18.1 2.2 15.1 12.1

iv. fibre: the cellulosic material of different parts of the palm (stalks, leaves) were hydrolyzed and tested on different strains of yeasts for production of single cell protein. A mixed culture of Candida Utilis and Saccharomyces sp. gave the best results (420). TRENDS AND OUTLOOK During the last 30 years or so several changes in date harvesting, packing, processing and marketing have taken place. Perhaps one of the most striking trends in a number of date producing countries of the Old World has been that, under the influence of newly acquired oil wealth, date cultivation, packing and processing could be modernized, in spite of a tendency of decreasing importance of the date as a staple food resulting from the same welfare increase. The highly traditional nature and close relationship of the date grower and his crop has undoubtedly also played a role in preventing a decline in date production. New outlets for at least part of the crop were found through better handling and processing methods to cater for more sophisticated emerging markets. Modern technologies, mostly imported, sometimes adapted, made it possible to achieve more uniformity and higher quality standards. An indicative figure for this development is the number of new date packing and processing plants that came into existence amounting to some 40 and distributed as follows: Algeria Bahrain Egypt Iran Iraq 5 1 2 5 9 Libya Morocco Oman Pakistan Qatar 2 2 2 3 1 Saudia Arabia S. Yemen Sudan Tunisia 4 1 1 2 (529)

Not all of these plants have fared well, however, and some still lean heavily on Government support, but a number have been successful and have reached a true commercially viable status. Considering the fact that the first step in industrialization is the most difficult, when all the problems have to be

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faced together and simultaneously, it can be concluded that progress has been made and will continue to be made. Some of the salient technical aspects of this progress are the following: - increased use of plastic boxes and crates for improved field handling and storage of dates (529, 294) - use of vibrating tables and conveyors during grading for better inspection and bulk packing of dates by vibration instead of pressing (294) - increased use of vacuum fumigation and the use of phosphine, the latter also during transit (294, 341, 394) - continued consideration for the introduction of insect control by irradiation - regulation of moisture content (hydration, dehydration) in the packing plants for better control on product quality and uniformity (341, 394) - an emerging trend of marketing khalaal and rutab under refrigerated conditions (529, 394) - increased automation in date packing plant operations (394) - introduction of automatic filling of bags and thermo-form packs and packing under vacuum and nitrogen gas (394) - increased use of mechanized pitting and stuffing of dates (394) - improved bulk date shipments, facilitated by worldwide spread of containerization - intensified production of date products and industrial use of dates. In the New World (mainly California) the most characteristic phenomenon has been the gradual change-over of private, individual ownership of the date plantations into large holdings by companies integrated with large-scale packing and processing facilities. There are, however, some notable exceptions to this process and several individual farmers grow, pack and sell their fruit on the spot in roadside stores. The commercial success of these enterprises is no doubt helped by the fact that date cultivation in the U.S. is now practically restricted to one major area (Coachella Valley), which has become, also for its favourable climato-logical conditions, a tourist attraction. There is no need for the smaller entrepeneur for an elaborate and expensive marketing and distribution system, the clients come to him. Another major change that has taken place in U.S. date cultivation under the impact of increasing labour costs and height of the palms has been the mechanization of cultural practices and in particular the timing and method of harvesting. Today, in many instances, the dates are left longer on the palm and are harvested only all in one go. Major consequences of the prolonged stay on the palm are the need for more protection against early rain, more chance of infestation on the palm necessitating dusting and reconstituting the dates to the required moisture level after harvesting to prepare them for the market. An advantage of the lower moisture content at harvesting, however, is that the dates are much easier handled and store better. As for external marketing, there have been marked changes especially over the last ten years. Historically world trade in dates was divided in several sectors each with its own charcteristics, briefly described as follows: - dates pressed in baskets intended as a low cost popular food. This market was mainly confined to the Gulf area and to other Arab countries and the Far East. Origin was mainly Iraq, which has by far
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the highest per capita date production in the world and is an exporter by necessity. With a wellorganized, centralized marketing organization, the cif cost of Iraqi dates was practically always lower than locally produced dates in the receiving countries, which has not made it any easier for local date industries to emerge. The size of this market is difficult to estimate but an impression may be obtained from the import figures for dates in the Arab countries and the Far East (Appendix I) - a variant of the trade of pressed dates and which have not been constant in time or volume, are shipments of pressed dates, perhaps partly used for industrial purposes, to countries like China and the former USSR, - trade in boiled dates (khalaal matbuukh) mainly directed to India, not only from Iraq but also from other Gulf countries like Oman and Saudi Arabia, - exports of selected, bulk packed dates from Iraq and Iran to the U.S. mainly for use in date products. This trade has existed for many years and the imports into the U.S. have been as high as 15,000 tons annually. The general price levels for this trade are much higher than for pressed dates in baskets, - on a parallel line, perhaps slightly less select, dates in bulk are shipped to Europe for use in date products or repacking. Also trade in retail packs to Europe (not to the U.S.) exists, - trade of North African dates (Algeria, Tunisia), mainly Deglet Noor, to Europe for repacking and sales in retail packs. This trade originated exclusively as a bulk trade for repacking in Europe (mainly France). Since independence of the two producer countries of Deglet Noor a local packing industry has also emerged with direct sales to the European retail market. Whilst in the sixties and seventies there were no drastic changes in this trade pattern, the occurrence of the Iraq/Iran war in the eighties has had a profound effect. In the first instance it created sharp rises in date prices, which made industrial users look for substitute products, which in turn created a lower demand for dates. It also gave other date producing countries a chance to get into the market and a country like Pakistan managed, through a major effort of private initiative to get a chunk of this trade (294). Meanwhile Saudi Arabia also had built up a modern date industry and had increased its export potential, but so far has not been able to fill the gap, presumably because of the higher price levels. As far as the European market is concerned the emphasis for retail table dates has become even more accentuated on the North African Deglet Noor, reinforced by imports from the United States. Consumption of dates in Europe has only slightly increased over the last decennia and it does not normally exceed 100 g per capita per year. This, compared with 11 to 12 kg in Iran, for instance (363). The European market for whole dates increasingly demands first quality fruits of preferred varieties and more than anything else, a guarantee of wholesomeness. The guiding standards are laid down in the "Revised recommendations concerning the marketing and commercial quality control of whole dates moving in trade between and to European Countries" (576) There has been a trend away from using additives like preservatives or coating materials except those that can be considered natural products like ascorbic acid and glucose syrup (394). The situation is, however, not always perfect as reported in a consumer protection magazine (300) which after inspection of a number of samples of packed dates found a variety of defects ranging from deformation to live infestation and insufficient labelling. If whole dates are to acquire a larger portion of the dried fruit market in Europe these occurrences of quality defects should at all cost be avoided. In addition, distributors and retailers should put the use and nutritional and organoleptical qualities of dates more on the spot by advertising and television campaigns, which so far has hardly been done.

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At present (1992) the supply situation is more uncertain than ever taking into consideration the after effects of the Gulf War and no great positive developments in date consumption and trade can be expected until the political situation in the major supplier countries has been cleared up. With respect to date products the past thirty to forty years have shown marked developments, which have broadened the outlets for dates besides the use as a table fruit. Perhaps a distinction should be made between the modified forms of the sound date flesh to cater for the emerging needs of the consumer, and the use of dates as an industrial raw material resulting in products less closely related to the date proper. In the first category the major efforts were made in the U.S. but have also now found applications in date producing countries of the Old World. On the contrary, the industrial use of dates has seen a more extensive development in the traditional date producing countries because of the quantities and quality of dates available. Whilst in date products the intrinsic flavour and taste are preserved, in industrial date products the relation becomes much less pronounced and raw materials of different origin become a competitive factor. Industrial use of dates has provided an outlet for usually the lower quality fruits and however beneficial this has been, the ultimate goal of date production is to produce fruits of a high quality to be sold as a fruit which as an economical proposition has a different dimension. Improving quality of the crop depends, however, not only on the skill and dedication of the date producer but to a large extent on the availability of the adequate genetic stock adapted to the different climatological conditions. It is further to be noted that a substantial amount of date research and develop-ment work, originally mainly concentrated in Iraq and the U.S., has moved to other date producing countries in the Old World. International contacts and cooperation in date cultivation, packing, processing and marketing has increased enormously. Before World War II these contacts were practically non-existent except through trade channels, but scientifically very little was done. One exception must be made for the group of date planters and researchers in the U.S. which under the pressure of increasing problems of introducing a foreign crop in new land, put their imagination and effort together and created the Date Grower's Institute under the auspices of local agricultural authorities and in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Ever since, an annual report containing many valuable technical research results and articles of general interest for the date industry have been issued, which have also been of great assistance to date workers outside the U.S. For a long time it was the only publication solely devoted to dates. The first issue was in 1924 and continued up until 1979, when the 54th and last issue was published. The reasons for this unfortunate demise were the coming of age of the Californian date industry, the change from small, private plantations to large holdings and the closure of the U.S. Date and Citrus Station, Indio, with which the Institute was closely related. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations started its technical assistance programme on dates in the early fifties. Over the years many of the date producing countries have received specialist advice and equipment for starting or improving their date industry. Three International Date Conferences, under FAO sponsorship were held in Tripoli (Libya, 1959), and Baghdad (Iraq, 1965 and 1975). An FAO/UNDP funded Regional Project on Date and Date Palm Improvement started operating in 1978 with a membership of 17 countries, and headquartered in Baghdad at Iraq's National Date Centre. Amongst its activities, which included production, processing and marketing aspects of dates, were training courses, consultancies and outposted field officers in specific fields, issuance of a half-yearly Date Palm Journal and a Date Bibliography. The project came to an end in 1985 and there was, unfortunately, no immediate follow-up by national governments to continue this work at a Regional level. However, IFAD (International Fund for Agricultural Development) has taken the initiative for establishing a Network on Dates, which could, when
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approved, continue the international linkage between date producing countries of the Old World. Apart from the many technical and country reports on dates, FAO published manuals on Handling, Processing and Packing of Dates (130) and on Date Production and Protection (142). UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization) was involved in several date projects whilst Government bilateral aid programmes and the Arab Organization for Agricultural Development have on occasion also given assistance on specific matters in various countries. The latest major manifestations on all aspects of the date palm were organized in two Symposia by the King Faisal University, Al-Hassa, Saudi Arabia. The results and full text of the papers of the two Symposia, held in 1982 and 1986 respectively, are published in the Proceedings, which are a most valid contribution to the reference literature of specialized knowledge on the date. The net balance of the different developments in the date industry over the last thirty to forty years is positive in spite of several countercurrents such as change in food habits away from dates, increasing labour scarcity and cost in the date gardens, war situations, and problems of water supply (e.g. increasing salinity of the Shatt-al-Arab). Nevertheless world date production has increased, cultivation methods and handling the crop have improved, the quality and yield/palm generally speaking are rising and there has developed a substantial date product diversification. In its persistance in surviving the trends against its continuation, the date palm is greatly helped by the traditional, historical ties with the date producer, the secondary benefits derived from it and the limited choice of alternative crops especially under the more extreme environmental situations. This positive main development stream is on one side accentuated by great success stories such as the Californian date industry, and localized ventures in the Old World but on the negative side also cases of abandonment of palms under the pressure of, mainly, economic changes, are witnessed. The future of date production although with to be expected shifts in cultural practices and marketing outlets can be looked upon with optimism, but it will be essential to maintain the momentum of improvement programmes. APPENDIX I

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APPENDIX II CODEX STANDARD FOR DATES (World-wide Standard) 1. SCOPE This standard applies to commercially prepared whole dates in pitted or un-pitted styles packed ready for direct consumption. It does not apply to other forms such as pieces or mashed dates or dates intended for industrial purposes. 2. DESCRIPTION 2.1 Product Definition Dates are the product prepared from sound fruit of the date tree (Phoenix dactylifera L.), which fruit: (a) is harvested at the appropriate stage of maturity; (b) is sorted and cleaned to remove defective fruit and extraneous material; (c) may be pitted and capped; (d) may be dried or hydrated to adjust moisture content; (e) may be washed and/or pasteurized; and (f) is packaged in suitable containers to assure preservation and protection of the product. 2.2 Varietal Types Varietal types are classified as: (a) Cane sugar varieties (containing mainly sucrose) such as Daglat Nuur (Deglet Noor) and Daglat Beidha (Deglet Beidha). (b) Invert sugar varieties (containing mainly invert sugar - glucose, and fructose) such as Barhi (Barhee), Saiidi (Saidy), Khadraawi (Khadrawy), Hallaawi (Halawy), Zahdi (Zahidi), and Sayir (Sayer) 2.3 Styles Styles may be classified as: (a) unpitted; and (b) pitted. 2.4 Sub-styles Sub-styles are as follows:
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(a) Pressed - dates which are compressed into layers using mechanical force. (b) Unpressed or Loose - dates which are free-flowing or packaged without mechanical force or compression. (c) Clusters - dates with the main bunch stem attached. 2.5 Size Classification (Optional) Dates may be designated as to size names in accordance with the following charts: (a) Unpitted dates (b) Pitted dates

Size No. of dates in 500g Small Medium Large more than 100 80 to 100 less than 80

Size No. of dates in 500g Small Medium Large more than 110 90 to 110 less than 90

3. ESSENTIAL COMPOSITION AND QUALITY FACTORS 3.1 Composition 3.1.1 Optional Ingredients Glucose syrup, sugars, flour, vegetable oils. 3.2 Quality factors 3.2.1 General Requirements Dates shall be prepared from such fruit and under such practices that the finished product shall possess a characteristic colour and flavour for the variety and type, be of proper stage of ripeness, be free of live insects and insect eggs and mites and meet the following additional requirements: (a) Moisture content Cane sugar varieties Daglat Nuur Maximum 26% 30% (not processed in accordance with 2.1(d)(e)). 30%

Invert sugar varieties (b) Size (minimum) Unpitted Dates

- 4.75 grammes

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Pitted Dates

- 4.0 grammes

(c)

Pits (Stones) (in Pitted Style)

- Not more than two pits or

4 pieces of pit per 100 dates

(d) Mineral impurities 3.2.2 Definition of Defects

- Not more than 1 g/kg

(a)

Blemishes

- Scars, discoloration, sunburn, dark spots, blacknose or similar abnormalities in surface appearance affecting an aggregate area greater than that of a circle 7 mm in diameter. - (Unpitted dates only) - dates affected by mashing and/or tearing of the flesh exposing the pit or to such an extent that it significantly detracts from the visual appearance of the date. - Dates which may be light in weight, light in colour, have shrivelled or little flesh or a decidedly rubbery texture. - Dates not pollinated as evidenced by thin flesh, immature characteristics and no pit in unpitted dates. - Dates having embedded organic or inorganic material similar to dirt or sand in character and affecting an aggregate area greater than that of a circle 3 mm in diameter.

(b)

Damaged

(c)

Unripe Dates

(d)

Unpollinated Dates

(e)

Dirt

(f)

Insects and mites damage and contamination

- Dates damaged by insects or mites or contaminated by the presence of dead insects or mites, fragments of insects or mites or their excreta. - Breakdown of the sugars into alcohol and acetic acid by yeasts and bacteria. - Presence of mould filaments visible to the naked eye. - Dates that area in a state of decomposition and very objectionable in appearance.

(g)

Scouring

(h)

Mould

(i)

Decay

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3.2.3 Allowance for Defects The maximum allowances for the defects defined in 3.2.2 shall be: A total of 7% by count of dates with defect (a) A total of 6% by count of dates with defects (b), (c) and (d) A total of 6% by count of dates with defects (e) and (f) A total of 1% by count of dates with defects (g), (h) and (i) 3.3 Lot Acceptance A lot will be considered as meeting the quality criteria requirements of the standard when: (a) there is no evidence of live infestation; and (b) the sub-sample, as taken in conformity with sub-section 8.1.2 meets the general requirements of sub-section 3.2.1 and does not exceed the allowances for the respective defects in sub-sections 3.2.2 and 3.2.3, except that, with respect to size requirements, 5% by count (5 dates out of 100) may weigh less than the specified minimum. 4. FOOD ADDITIVES Maximum Level 4.1 Glycerol ) ) 4.2 Sorbitol ) 5. HYGIENE 5.1 It is recommended that the product covered by the provisions of this standard be prepared in accordance with the International Code of Hygienic Practice for Dried Fruits recommended by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Ref. No. CAC/RCP 3-1969). 5.2 When tested by appropriate methods of sampling and examination, the product: (a) shall be free from microorganisms capable of development under normal conditions of storage; and (b) shall not contain any substances originating from microorganisms in amounts which may represent a hazard to health. 6. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Containers shall be as full as practicable without impairment of quality and shall be consistent with a proper declaration of contents for the product. 7. LABELLING In addition to sections 1, 2, 4 and 6 of the General Standard for the Labelling of Prepackaged Foods (Ref. CODEX STAN. 1-1981), the following specific provisions apply: 7.1 The Name of the Food In accordance with GMP (see also Section 3.1.1)

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7.1.1 The name of the product shall be "Dates" or "Dates coated with Glucose Syrup". 7.1.2 The style shall be indiated as "pitted" or "unpitted", as is applicable. 7.1.3 The name of the product may include the name of the varietal type, such as "Hallawi", "Sayer", "Khadrawi", "Daglat Noor", "Barhee", or others, the sub-style as "pressed" or "unpressed", and the size designation as "small", "medium" or "large". 7.2 List of Ingredients A complete list of ingredients shall be declared on the label in descending order of proportion in accordance with the provisions of sub-section 3.2(c) of the Codex General Standard for the Labelling of Prepackaged Foods (Ref. CODEX STAN. 1-1981). 7.3 Net Contents The net contents shall be declared by weight in either the metric ("Systme international") units or avoidupois or both systems of measurement, as required by the country in which the product is sold. 7.4 Name and Address The name and address of the manufacturer, packer, distributor, importer, exporter or vendor of the product shall be declared. 7.5 Country of Origin 7.5.1 The country of origin of the product shall be declared. 7.5.2 When the product undergoes processing in a second country which changes its nature, the country in which the processing is performed shall be considered to be the country of origin for the purposes of labelling. 7.6 Lot Identification Each container shall be embossed or otherwise permanently marked in code or in clear to identify the producing factory and the lot. 7.7 Date Marking 7.7.1 The "date of minimum durability" (preceded by the words "best before") shall be declared by the day, month and year in uncoded numerical sequence except that for products with a shelf-life or more than three months but not more than 18 months, the month and year will suffice, and for those with a shelf-life of 18 months or more, the year will suffice. The month may be indicated by letter in those countries where such use will not confuse the consumer. In the case of products requiring a declaration of month and year or year only, and the shelf-life of the product is valid to the end of a given year, the expression "end (stated year)" may be used as an alternative. 7.7.2 In addition to the date of minimum durability, any special conditions for the storage of the food shall be indicated if the validity of the date depends thereon. 7.7.3 Where practicable, storage instructions shall be in close proximity to the date marking. 8. METHODS OF SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS 8.1 Method of Sampling 8.1.1 Gross Sample

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Select at random not less than 2 individual packages per each 1,000 kg portion of the lot. From each individual package draw a sample of 300 g and in any case sufficient to obtain a gross sample of not less than 3,000 g. Use the gross sample for checking carefully for live infestation and general cleanliness of the product prior to its examination for compliance with other provisions of the standard. 8.1.2 Sub-samples for Examination and Testing Mix the gross sample well and take small quantities at random from many different places as follows: For moisture test - 500 grammes For pits (in pitted style) - 100 dates For specified defects and size requirements - 100 dates 8.2 Methods of Analysis 8.2.1 Determination of Moisture Content 8.2.1.1 Codex Defining Method (Type I method) In accordance with the AOAC (1975) Method (Official Methods of Analysis of the AOAC, 1975, 12th Ed., 22.013, Moisture in Dried Fruits) (Vacuum Oven Method). 8.2.1.2 Codex Alternative Approved Method (Type III method) In accordance with the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Method, CAC/RM 50-1974 (FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Methods of Analysis for Processed Fruits and Vegetables, Third Series, CAC/RM 50/531974, Moisture Determination - Electrical Conductance Method). However, in cases of dispute, the method in 8.2.1.1 will be the defining method. 9. METHOD OF EXAMINATION 9.1 Internal Defects Examine each date carefully for internal defects using a strong light. If the dates are pitted, open up the flesh so that the internal cavity can be viewed. If the dates are unpitted, slit the date open so as to expose the pit, remove the pit and examine the pit cavity. APPENDIX III Calculation of a two-stage extraction system at 30oBx and comparison with measured results in a pilot plant 1. Date juice extraction in two stages at 30oBx (calculated). Data given are: - Composition of dates (flesh) moisture (M): 20% soluble solids (SS): 70% non-soluble solids (NSS): 10% - Moisture content for presscakes (P)

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P1 = 62%) ) P2 = 72%) - Date juice recovered 30oBx - Equilibrium in each extraction stage is reached - Non-soluble solids do not enter in juice, but remain in presscakes - No water or solid material is spilled in the process In the extraction schedule below the underlined figures are known data. To facilitate calculation initially the following letter symbols are used (all on weight basis). water in S2 = a soluble solids in S2 = b water S3 = c water in P1 = w soluble solids in P2 = x The figures in brackets are the result of the calculations. Material Balance empirical data

COMPOSITION (PERCENTAGE) MATERIAL Dates Date Juice (S2) M 20 (90.6) 70 (9.4) SS 10 0 NSS

WEIGHTS TOTAL
100

ION

H20
20 70

SS

on

a+b

(208.8) Slurry 1
100+a+b

(189.1)
20+a

(19.7)
70+c

(308.8) Date Juice (S1) Presscake (P1) (87.6) 70 62 30 (26.6) 0 (11.4)

12.4+a+b

(209.1)
a-34.3

(89.7)
46.7+b

on

(221.2)

(154.8)

(66.4)

(54.3)

(23.3)

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on

Presscake (P1) Water (S3)

62 100

(26.6) 0

(11.4) 0

(87.6)

(54.3)

(23.3)

(169.9) Slurry 2
87.6+c

(169.9)
54.3+c (23.3)

(257.5) Date Juice (S2) Presscake (P2) (90.6) 72 (9.4) (7.4) 0 (20.6)
a+b

(224.2)
a b

on

(208.8)

(189.1)

(19.7)

87.6+c-a-b

54.3+c-a

23.3-b

(48.7) Calculation

(35.1)

(3.6)

Equilibrium is reached, hence Brix of the juice in the presscake P1 is the same as in recovered juice S1 (30o ). It follows:

out of which x and w can be solved (x = 23.3; w = 54.3). All other unknown components in weights can now be expressed in a, b and c. - Since S1 is 30oBx and contains no soluble solids, it follows:

(equation 1) - Juice in presscake P2 and Date Juice S2 are in equilibrium hence have the same Brix level, expressed as follows:

and

(equation 2) b - Moisture content P2 is 72%, hence

(equation 3) Three equations, three unknowns, a, b and c can now be solved: a = 189.12 rounded 189.1 b = 19.655 rounded 19.7
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c = 169.89 rounded 169.9 After having inserted these results in the schedule, all other unknowns can now be calculated and the material balance is completed. 2. Date juice extraction in two stages at 30oBx in date syrup pilot plant (Libya) The extraction part of the pilot plant (about 50 kgs/hr date input) consists of two horizontal continuous extraction vessels in which dates and extraction liquid are in contact at 85o C for about hour whilst being sitrred. Separation between the stages consists of a combination of a vibratory screen followed by a twin expeller press. The performance data for the extraction were compiled by determining a) weight and composition of dates b) weight and composition of presscake P2 c) weight and composition of recovered juice, S1 d) composition of juice S2 by sampling during operation. Material Balance

Operational

Material

Composition %-age M SS NSS 20 89.6 70 9.3 10 1.1

Weights Total 100 198.2 298.2 H20 20 177.8 197.8 148.9 48.9 48.9 149.4 198.3 177.8 20.5 70 18.4 88.4 66.4 22.0 22.0 0 22 18.4 3.6 SS NSS 10 2.0 12.0 5.7 6.3 6.3 0 6.3 2.0 4.3

Extraction

Dates Date Juice (S2) Slurry

Separation

Date Juice (S1) Presscake (P1)

67.3 63.2 63.2 100

30.0 28.5 28.5 0

2.6 8.3 8.3 0

221.0 77.2 77.2 149.4 226.6

Extraction

Presscake (P1) Water (S3) Slurry

Separation

Date Juice (S2) Presscake (P2)

89.6 72.0

9.3 12.8

1.1 15.2

198.2 28.4

I - BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. ABBAS, M.F., HASSAN, H.K., MYSARA, M.S. (1989) Study to produce a semisolid infant food from date and whey or skim milk. Proceedings of the Second Symposium on the Date Palm, Saudi Arabia.

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