International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007, 42, 573–578 573

Effect of particle size and drying temperature on drying rate and oil
extracted yields of Buccholzia coriacea (MVAN) and
Butyrospermum parkii ENGL

César Kapseu,1* Divine Nde Bup,1 Clergé Tchiegang,2 Charles Fon Abi,3 Fernand Broto4 & Michel Parmentier5
1 Department of Process Engineering, ENSAI, University of Ngaoundere, BP 455 Ngaoundere, Cameroon
2 Department of Food Science and Nutrition, National Advanced School, of Agro-Industrial Sciences (ENSAI), University of Ngaoundere, PO
Box 455 Ngaoundere, Cameroon
3 Department of Chemistry, Advanced Teachers’ Training College, University of Yaounde 1, PO Box 47, Yaounde, Cameroon
4 Université de Pau et des Pays de l’Adour, ENSGTI - GP LaTEP, Rue Jules Ferry BP 7511 (F) 64075 PAU Cedex, France
5 Physical-Chemistry and Food Engineering Laboratory, ENSAIA, PO Box 172, 54505 Vandoeuvre Lès Nancy, France
(Received 23 February 2005; Accepted in revised form 2 March 2006)

Summary The effect of particle size and drying temperature on drying rate and oil extracted yields of Buccholzia
coriacea (MVAN) and Butyrospermum parkii (ENGL) was investigated. Air drying studies carried out on
B. coriacea and B. parkii, tropical food sources subject to high post-harvest losses, have resulted in the
establishment of a significant difference between oil yields extracted from samples of various particle size
pretreatments (paste, 4 mm, 8 mm and whole kernels) dried at 45 and 60 C with the highest oil yield given
by the 4 mm thick slices dried at 45 C. The influence of temperature and particle thickness on the drying
rate has been evaluated. The drying constants were found to depend on both temperature and particle
thickness. Analysis of the oil extracted from the 4 mm thick slices dried at 45 C showed that apart from the
acid value (52.4%), the saponification (181.2 mg g)1 KOH), peroxide (8.6 meq kg)1) and the unsaponifiable
(7.43%) matter values of the extracted shea butter remain within the limits cited in the literature while a close
analysis of the cake suggests that it could be a good mineral source.
Keywords Buccholzia coriacea, Butyrospermum parkii, cake, drying, drying constants, oil yield, quality.

compounded by lack of conservation means of the local

Introduction
Tropical trees and shrubs are expected to play an
increasing role in future food supply. Even though the
species are diverse, there are interestingly many species
already utilised and/or having potentials for food
production if their chemical compositions are deter-
mined. Much information is available in the literature
on the physico-chemical characteristics of conventional
oil seeds to the neglect of non-conventional oil seed
types (Oyenuga, 1997). According to Afolabi et al.
(1985) two areas that have often been neglected in
augmenting available raw materials, especially oilseeds,
are the use of under-exploited local substitutes and the
non-development of production to an industrial scale.
The conventional oil types are more expensive and thus
not readily affordable today by many poor people of
developing countries of the world. This is further
*Correspondent: Fax: (237) 225 25 99;
e-mail: kapseu@yahoo.fr
oil seeds before processing. Food conservation consti-
tutes a primordial problem in the tropics where
post-harvest losses are estimated at more than 50%
(Omoregie, 1990). These losses are due partly to lack of
technical and socio- economic information on preserva-
tion methods in hot and cold climates. Butyrospermum
parkii (shea) is a tropical tree whose kernel may contain
up to 56.0–69.1% fats, commonly called shea butter
(Tano-Debrah et al., 1995). This oil is edible and is also
used by local women in cosmetics. Buccholzia coriacea,
(commonly called mvan) belonging to the family capp-
aridaceae, is a tree that measures 20 m in height and
5 cm in diameter. The fruits are yellowish, ellipsoidal
(10–15 · 7 cm) with two to three grains per fruit. These
grains are edible with a spiceable flavour (Vivien &
Faure, 1996). The kernels are usually grated, mixed with
ants, pepper and salt and taken as a delicacy-consumers
believe it enhances the efficacy and performance of the
male sexual organs. Consumers also claimed that the
kernel prevents drunkenness, relieves heart diseases and

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2006.01277.x
 2007 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
574 Drying of B. coriacea and B. parkii C. Kapseu et al.
when eaten raw induces sneezing and thereby relieves
catarrh (Interviews with sellers at Mfoundi market,
Cameroon, August 2002). Mvan kernels which are not
consumed 2 months after harvest gets spoilt if stored
only at ambient temperature (unpublished observation,
D.N. Bup). In most parts of Cameroon, natural drying
or sun-drying is the traditional post-harvest practice of
small farmers. However, because of the uncertainty of
weather conditions (collection is done in the months
of May–July when rainfall is high enough to disturb
sunshine) large quantities of the newly collected fruits
cannot be dried by the traditional method at once and
the kernels are often spoiled by mould and fungi or
contaminated with mycotoxins (Womeni et al., 2002);
hence, the need for alternative drying methods. Studies
that have been carried out on shea kernels (Duke &
Atchley, 1986; Booth & Wickens, 1988; Tano-Debrah &
Ohta, 1994; Kapseu, 1998; Kapseu et al., 2001; Maranz
& Wiesman, 2004) have not laid emphasis on the drying
of shea kernels. Data are available on the distribution
and botany of the mvan tree (Vivien & Faure, 1996) but
data on the drying of these kernels is scarce. This work is
therefore aimed at determining the influence of particle
size and drying temperature on the drying rate, yields
and quality of the oils extracted from the dried kernels.
Materials and methods
Fresh shea nuts and fresh mvan kernel samples were
bought already depulped respectively from Bambi
village in Ngaoundere and Mfoundi market in Yaounde
all in Cameroon and stored in a refrigerator (0–3 C) for
about 3 months before characterisation and processing.
The drying equipment used was a prototype forced
convection cabinet type dryer with a capacity of about
15 kg of fresh products and measures 52 · 40 · 170 cm
(Kuitche et al., 1999). The dryer consists of four
principal elements viz: the drying section, a diffuser, a
blower which operates at constant flow rate (2 m s)1)
and accessory elements which include a thermostat for
temperature regulation, (the dryer temperature ranges
from 20–60 C) and a simple switching device for
turning the dryer on or off. The shea nuts were carefully
cracked to remove the kernels using small hard knives
while ensuring minimum damage to the kernels. The
kernels were then subjected to the following four
treatments before drying:
1 Sorting based on uniform weight for drying as whole
kernels;
2 Cutting into 4 mm thick slices, using an electric
machine (Tommy slicer, Siemens, Erlangen, Germany;)
3 Cutting into 8 mm thick slices, using an electric machine
(Tommy slicer, Siemens, Erlangen, Germany) and
4 Grinding, using a kitchen type manual grinder to give a
paste.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007, 42, 573–578
Each category of the kernel preparation was deposited
on small trays and then introduced into the dryer
separately and the loss in weight with time recorded
until a nearly constant mass of the sample was observed.
In each drying run the initial weight of sample per tray
was 28 g. The choice of this weight was based on the size
of the small tray, which allowed for a uniform mono-
layer spread of the sample on the tray. The weighing was
done under hot conditions and the sample quickly
returned into the dryer. This exercise took about 12–15 s
and was considered negligible on the over all experi-
ment. In all the drying runs, at least three small trays
(each containing a monolayer of sample) were used and
from the tray replicates average values of the moisture
content were determined as a function of time. These
values were used to construct the drying curves.
To evaluate the influence of the drying process on the
quality of the product, the Sohxlet method was used to
determine the fat yields and the AFNOR (1981)
methods employed to determine the saponification,
peroxide, acid, and the unsaponifiable matter values of
the fat as well as the carbohydrate, crude fibre, ash and
protein contents of the cake. For each determination
there were three replicates.
Statistical analysis (anova) of the oil yields was
carried out on statgraphics plus 3.0 (Statpoint Inc.,
Herndon, VA, USA) and the Duncan’s multiple range
test was used to detect the differences between means.
Results and discussion
Drying behaviour
The influence of particle size on the drying rate at 45 C
of all pre-drying treatments is shown in Figure 1 (similar
trends were obtained at 60 C). What ever the pre-
treatment given to the kernels and the air drying
temperature, the water content of the sample was found
to decrease with time until it reaches a critical value
below which there is no further reduction of the water
content. The strong influence of sample size or thickness
is readily observed, as there is a very rapid decline in
moisture content with time for the paste compared with
the 4 mm, 8 mm thick slices and the whole kernels. The
rate of decrease of the moisture content was therefore in
this order paste > 4 mm > 8 mm > whole kernels as
expected as a smaller particle size presents a larger
surface area for drying to occur. The paste gave the
highest drying rate, at each drying temperature com-
pared with other particle size samples. The drying curves
are similar to those obtained by other authors, (Womeni
et al., 2002) for the drying of shea. The initial drying
rates, i.e. the rates in the first 15 min of drying for the
shea paste and whole kernels were respectively 0.011 and
0.001 kg water/(kg DM min) at 45 C and 0.009 and
0.001 kg water/(kg DM min) at 60 C. The same trend
 2007 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
 Drying of B. coriacea and B. parkii C. Kapseu et al. 575

(a) (a) 0.007

Mvan (45 °C)

Drying rate(kg water kg–1 DM min–1)

Moisture content (kg water kg–1 DM)

1.0
0.006
8 mm 4 mm 45
0.8 4 mm 0.005 8 mm 45
whole 4 mm 60
Paste 8 mm 60
0.004
0.6
0.003

0.4
0.002

0.2 0.001

0.000
0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 Moisture content (kg water kg–1 DM)
Drying time (min)

(b) (b) 0.008

Shea (45 °C)
1.5
Moisture content (kg water kg–1 DM)

Drying rate (kg water kg–1 DM min–1)

4 mm 45 °C
4 mm 8 mm 45 °C
8 mm 0.006 4 mm 60 °C
Paste 8 mm 60 °C
1.0 Whole

0.004

0.5

0.002

0.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 0.000
Drying time (min) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Moisture content (kg water kg–1 DM)
Figure 1 Effect of particle thickness on the drying rate.
Figure 2 Effect of temperature on drying rate.

(higher drying rates for the paste than the kernel) was
observed for mvan treatments at both drying tempera- function of X and through regression analysis with
tures. The high rate for the paste could be attributed to sigma plot 5.0, the equilibrium moisture content (final
the fact that grinding of the kernels provoked rupture of water content) for each product and for each sample was
the cell membranes thereby providing a larger surface predicted as the point where the curve cuts the X-axis as
area for dehydration to occur. This finding is in at this point dX/dt ¼ 0. These values presented in
agreement with the drying behaviour of other agricul- Table 1, were used in the evaluation of the drying
tural products (Menon & Mujumdar, 1987). The higher constants. The regression equations are shown below.
rate noted for the shea paste at 45 C than at 60 C Regression equations for the plot of drying rate dX/dt
could be due to surface hardening which might have with the moisture content at 45 C. The results at 60 C
been more rapid and pronounced at 60 C. This higher are not shown.
drying rate at 45 C was reflected in the drying constant
which was higher at 45 C than at 60 C. The drying )1
Table 1 Equilibrium moisture content (kg water kg DM) of the
rate of mvan paste at 45 C was, however, lower than various particle size samples
that at 60 C as expected. From Figure 2 it is observed
that the drying rate is clearly dependent on temperature Equilibrium moisture content (kgwater kg)1 DM)
for each pretreatment given to the kernels, increasing Treatment Paste 4 mm 8 mm Whole
with an increase in temperature as noted in the literature
by Sankat et al. (1996). Temperature (C)
At both temperatures and for each particle size Mvan
sample, drying was observed to occur generally in the 45 0.05 0.08 0.12 0.11
60 0.05 0.08 0.15 0.11
falling rate period. This is in conformity with the drying
Shea
of agricultural or biological products where the absence
45 0.12 0.13 0.27 0.10
of the constant rate period is generally observed 60 0.05 0.06 0.14 0.045
(Bimbenet et al., 2002). From the plot dX/dt as a

 2007 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007, 42, 573–578
576 Drying of B. coriacea and B. parkii C. Kapseu et al.

Mvan Table 2 Drying constants for the various particle size samples

Paste : dX=dt ¼ 0:0024  0:0231X  0:0277X2 Drying constants (h)1)

þ 0:0366X3 r2 ¼ 0:98 Treatment Paste 4 mm 8 mm Whole

2
4mm : dX=dt ¼ 0:0005 þ 0:0040X þ 0:0002X Temperature (C)
Mvan First falling rate period K1
þ 0:0006X3 r2 ¼ 0:99 45 0.403 0.275 0.211 0.066
8mm : dX=dt ¼ 0:0024 þ 0:0144X þ 0:0222X2 60 0.906 0.346 0.260 0.138
Second falling rate period K2
þ 0:0183X3 r2 ¼ 0:97 45 0.054 0.058 0.024
2 60 0.224 0.110 0,.042
Whole : dX=dt ¼ 0:0002 þ 0:0017X  0:0030X Shea
þ 0:0019X3 r2 ¼ 0:93 45 0.576 0.120 0.096 0.030
60 0.216 0.198 0.076 0.056

Shea
Paste : dX=dt ¼ 0:0024  0:0231X  0:0277X2
3 2
þ 0:0366X r ¼ 0:98
4mm : dX=dt ¼ 0:0005 þ 0:0040X þ 0:0002X2
þ 0:0006X3 r2 ¼ 0:99
8mm : dX=dt ¼ 0:0024 þ 0:0144X þ 0:0222X2
þ 0:0183X3 r2 ¼ 0:97
Whole : dX=dt ¼ 0:0002 þ 0:0017X  0:0030X2
þ 0:0019X3 r2 ¼ 0:93
Drying constants
The removable moisture ratio Xr is given by Henderson
& Perry (1976).
ln Xr ¼ ln A  Kt
where
X  Xeq
Xr ¼
Xcr  Xeq
and A is a constant, K is the drying constant.
Xcr is the critical moisture content which in our case
was the original moisture content, X is the moisture
content at time t, and Xeq is the equilibrium moisture
content. Linear regression analysis of the drying data
(ln Xr as a function of t) did not generally give a very
good fit for 4 mm, 8 mm and the whole kernel of mvan
because of some deviation from linearity, after a certain
time (about 5 h) had elapsed. The drying curves were
therefore broken into two linear sections, corresponding
to two diffusion controlled drying rates periods. Mvan
kernel treatment could therefore be undergoing certain
structural changes during this period. According to
Bimbenet et al. (2002) the falling rate period is often
divided into two or three phases which correspond to
structural changes in the material. The drying constants
K1 and K2 for the various drying runs were evaluated
through regression analysis from plots of ln Xr vs. t for
each sample and r2 values obtained, ranged from 0.90–
0.99. Linear regression analysis, however, gave good fits
(r2 ¼ 0.94–0.99) of the entire data for the mvan paste
and all shea kernel treatments at 45 and 60 C, hence
K-values for the mvan paste and all shea kernel
treatments were calculated only once at each air drying
temperature. These K-values were then used to describe
the average drying behaviour of the samples in the
falling rate period. At each air-drying temperature, the
K-values decrease with an increase in particle thickness
with the paste and whole kernels having the highest and
lowest K-values respectively at both temperatures. This
suggests that the drying rate decreases with sample
thickness and vice versa. This could be due to the fact
that the volume of large particles is subjected to greater
shrinkage during drying, thereby causing the particles to
become denser and tougher resulting in greater resist-
ance to internal moisture movement compared with
particles of smaller sizes. Except for the paste and the
8 mm thick slice samples the K-values increased when
the temperature of the drying air was increased from 45–
60 C indicating that the drying rate increases with
temperature. The exception could be due to surface
hardening and the deposition of solute in the pores
within the particles resulting in greater resistance to
moisture movement, which slows down mass transport
and hence reduces K-values. These K-values are presen-
ted in Table 2.
Oil extraction yield and quality
The results of the oil yield extracted by the Soxhlet
method with hexane from the dried samples of the
various particle sizes are presented on Table 3. Statis-
tical analysis in statgraphics plus 3.0 of the fat yield
showed a significant difference between the samples at
P < 0.05. The Duncan’s multiple range test carried out
on the yields showed that, of all the samples studied for
both products, the highest yield was given by the 4 mm
thick slice dried at 45 C. The oil extraction yields of
shea (35.9–40.21) were similar to those obtained by

International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007, 42, 573–578  2007 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund

Table 3 Oil extraction yields from the various particle size samples
Oil extraction yields (%)
Treatment Paste 4 mm 8 mm Whole
Temperature (C)
Mvan
45 2.49 ± 0.90a 3.85 ± 0.13b 2.71 ± 0.77a 3.47 ± 0.23b
60 1.79 ± 0.11a 1.63 ± 0.47a 1.61 ± 0.53a 3.14 ± 0.39b
Shea
45 36.25 ± 0.39d 40.21 ± 0.54c 35.90 ± 0.58d 39.64 ± 0.60c
60 37.64 ± 0.21d 37.03 ± 0.61d 40.13 ± 0.15c 37.64 ± 0.77d
The figures with the same superscript are not significantly different.
Womeni et al. (2002) who reported fat yields in the
range 36.18–38.04 for dried (45 ± 5 C) shea slices
which were ground and oil extracted with cyclohexane.
The oil extraction yields were, however, lower than
those obtained by Tano-Debrah et al. (1995) 56.0–
69.1%. These differences could be due to the fact that
Tano-Debrah et al. (1995) pre-digested the kernels with
enzymes and maintained that pre-extraction enzyme
digestion increases cellular degradation and significantly
enhances oil recovery from extraction. Hence, with
drying alone, cellular degradation might not have
occurred much to influence oil extraction rates. In
addition, Tano-Debrah et al. (1995) worked on shea
samples from Ghana while this work was carried out on
samples from Ngaoundere-Cameroon; hence, the differ-
ence in the oil contents could be due to the difference in
the two agro climatic regions (Ghana and Cameroon) as
oil yields vary according agro-climatic zones. Kapseu
(1998) noted that the oil content of safou pulp varied
with agro-climatic region.
The oil yields for all the mvan treatments were
particularly low, ranging from 1.61 to 3.85 g 100 g)1
DM. The yield of the 4 mm thick slice dried at 45 C of
3.85 g 100 g)1 is close to the 4.2% cited by Kittur et al.
(1993) for Capparis divaricata, Lam. syn., C. stylosa,
DC of the same class Capparidaceae. Analysis of the
mvan oil was not carried out.
The acid value was found to be 52.43, which is high
enough to suggest that the oil obtained by conserving
the kernels in this manner has to be treated before
human consumption (Table 4). This value is completely
out of the range (7.13–13.5%) reported for oil extrac-
ted from kernels dried at 45 C after storage for 6 days
in the refrigerator, freezer and open air at ambient
temperature by Womeni et al. (2002). This increase in
acid value could be attributed to the long storage of
the kernels (about 3 months) in the refrigerator before
oil processing, a period within which enzyme action of
fats hydrolysis could probably have continued which
might also explain the relatively high peroxide value
obtained. The high acid value could also imply that
 2007 Institute of Food Science and Technology Trust Fund
Drying of B. coriacea and B. parkii C. Kapseu et al. 577
Table 4 Some physico-chemical properties of the butter and cake
compared with literature
Tano-Debrah
Mvan test Shea test & Ohta (1994)
Parameter sample sample Shea kernel
Fat yield (g 100 g)1 DM) 40.21 ± 0.54
Acid value 52.43 ± 0.77
Saponification value 181 ± 4.99
Peroxide value 8.59 ± 0.02
Crude protein g 100 g)1 DM 3.30 ± 0.006 3.90 ± 0.001 7.81
Total sugar g 100 g)1 DM 58.62 ± 6. 80 47.12 ± 3.28 34.77
Ash % 5.96 ± 0.16 5.59 ± 0.32 2.57
Crude fibre % 1.62 ± .04 7.2 ± 1.20 20.35
some of the kernels were already germinating at the
time of harvest. High acid values could also be due the
fact that the oil was not purified (apart from drying
with anhydrous sodium sulphate) before analysis;
hence impurities in the oil could also be responsible
for this. The unsaponifiable matter was relatively high
to suggest the use of shea butter in cosmetics although
this may seem to limit its usage in the soap and
detergent industry.
Chemical analysis of the cake
The analysis of crude protein, total carbohydrates, ash
and fibre contents were carried out on the cake
resulting from the extraction of oil from the 4 mm
thick slices dried at 45 C. The fibre content of shea
was relatively lower than that quoted by Tano-Debrah
& Ohta (1994) (Table 4). It could be predicted that
drying led to the destruction of some of the fibres as
Tano-Debrah & Ohta (1994) worked on enzyme
digested, and not, dried kernels. The decrease in
protein content could be due to the drying of the
kernels before extraction of oil as heat alters and
brings about insolubilisation of proteins (APRIA,
1966). Shea cake gave a high total carbohydrate
content of 47.1%, suggesting that these kernels remain
a good carbohydrate source after preservation by
drying. The relatively high ash content suggests that
shea cake could be considered to remain a good
mineral source after preserving it by drying (Scheeman,
1986).
Conclusion
Drying of mvan and shea kernels was found to occur
only in the second rate period and the appropriate
drying constants were established. All these findings
point to the fact that air drying of the kernels in thin
slices and at low temperatures could constitute a suitable
base for their conservation and commercialisation for
subsequent oil extraction.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2007, 42, 573–578
578 Drying of B. coriacea and B. parkii C. Kapseu et al.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank ‘Agence pour l’Investissement dans
la Recherche à l’Etranger (AIRE- Development, Paris,
France) for its financial assistance in this work as well as
International Drying Symposium Series and China
National 863 Program (2006AA10Z243) for their
cooperation.
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