Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100073

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Journal of Agriculture and Food Research

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-agriculture-and-food-research/

Optimization and quality attributes of novel toast breads developed based

on the antistaling watermelon rind powder
Maryam Shivapour, Shima Yousefi *, Seyed Mahdi Seyedain Ardabili, Weria Weisany
Department of Agriculture and Food Science, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In the current research, production of watermelon rind (WMR) powder was studied as a promising additive to
Watermelon rind improve the quality characteristics of toast breads. The main formulation (WMR (4.6–11.4%)), and bread-baking
Toast bread process (temperature (166–233
C) and time (17–33 min)) parameters using response surface methodology (RSM)
Texture
were optimized to retard the acceleration of staling rate in toast breads. The second-order polynomial regression
Microstructure
Storage
equations (R2 > 0.939) were adequately fitted for all response variables. The highest moisture (22%), volume
Optimization (1431 cm3), and organoleptic acceptability (8.10) values and the lowest firmness (10.50 N) and total color dif-
ference (9.80) values were achieved under the following conditions: WMR concentration of 9.06%, baking
temperature of 206.66
C and baking time of 20 min. The analysis of dough farinographic and extensographic
characteristics showed a significant more water absorption (72.5%), development (6.7 min) and stability
(7.8 min) time, and extensibility (143 mm) values for the optimal sample compared to the control. Scanning
electron microscopy demonstrated that the thicker cell wall induced by WMR in the optimal bread (183.54 μm)
than the control (78.39 μm) was able to maintain air bobbles during the storage time. A negligible staling rate was
also found for the optimal breads with the lowest moisture, textural, color and sensory changes.

1. Introduction
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus L.) as a member of the family of
Cucurbitaceae contains significant amount of water (91%) and sugar
(6%). This fruit is rich of vitamin C and non-essential amino acid of
citrulline [1,2]. Although pulp and juice of this fruit are usually
consumed, its rind and seeds are considered as solid wastes for animal
feeds [3]. However, a number of industrial, pharmaceutical and food
applications for watermelon rind have been currently found. Water-
melon rind (WMR) has a great capability to bind with heavy metals in
aqueous solutions because of the presence of the citrulline and abun-
dant amount of carboxyl and amino groups [4]. Waghmare et al. [5]
developed new bulk forming laxative from WMR, while Sani [6] found
that WMR extracts have a strong anti-diabetic effect in alloxan-induced
diabetic albino mice. Moreover, this agricultural waste is an innovative
source to produce pectin during different extraction processes or to
prepare jams, marmalades, sweets, pickles, and preserves [7].
In recent years, several studies to use of WMR powders in formulation
of various types of baking products such as breads [8,9], cookies [10],
cakes [11,12], and noodles [13] have been performed. Overall results of
these investigations showed that the WMR is a high-efficient and suitable
alternative for many additive agents such as enzymes, gums or mucilages,
and dairy ingredients [14,15] to wheat flour-based products in order to
improve their physicochemical and organoleptic characteristics during
the storage. To the best of our knowledge, although the consumption of
toast bread is remarkably enhancing in developed and developing
countries, there is no specific study on the quality improving effect of
WMR addition to the toast bread dough.
Optimization of formulation and processing parameters involved in
bread baking is essential in order to assess the development process of an
optimal final product with the best quality. Response surface method-
ology (RSM) is a controlling tool to evaluate the optimum production
conditions necessary for the scale-up the baking process. RSM with a
statistical collection of mathematical techniques can easily explains the
effect of independent variables, alone or in combination, on the response
variables [14,15]. Therefore, the objective of the present work was to
optimize the baking process of toast breads prepared with partially
replacement of wheat flour with WMR to obtain a better understanding
of the combined effects of their main formulation and processing
variables.

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Shyousefi81@gmail.com (S. Yousefi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2020.100073
Received 7 June 2020; Received in revised form 11 September 2020; Accepted 12 September 2020
2666-1543/© 2020 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Shivapour et al.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Raw materials
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) fruits (‘Jabani’ variety) were collected
from the farms of Sabzevar city (Khorasan Razavi Province, north eastern
of Iran) during July–August 2016.
2.2. Bread ingredients
The wheat flour (Setareh flour; Etehad Flour Co., Karaj, Iran) with a
mean extraction degree of 84% was prepared. Oil (with commercial
brand of Bahar), salt and dried instant yeast were obtained from Beh-
shahr industrial Co. (Mazanderan, Iran), Sabzdasht Co. (Semnan, Iran),
and Iran Mayeh Co. (Tabriz, Iran), respectively. The improver agent (0–4
and 0–5 types) was also provided by Samin Nan-e-Sahar Industrial Group
(Tehran, Iran).
2.3. Preparation method of watermelon rind (WMR) powders
After the whole washing of watermelon fruits by tap water and a post-
harvest vegetables disinfectant, the watermelon rind were separated
from the washed fresh fruits and outer green layer, cut into small pieces
with a 3 mm-width and sun-dried at 30–38
C for 10 days, and then
ground using a laboratory disk mill (Mulinex Depose-Brevete SGCG,
France) to obtain fine powders (212 μm). Finally, the powders were
sieved and used for the further analysis.
2.4. Chemical composition analysis of wheat flour and WMR
The standard AOAC methods were used to determine the moisture,
ash, protein, and fat of wheat flour and WMR according to Helrich [16].
The total carbohydrate was estimated were calculated by difference: 100
– % (moisture þ crude protein þ crude fat þ ash). pH of samples was
measured using a digital pH meter (211 Microprocessor, HANNA In-
struments, Romania). The content of crude fiber of WMR and gluten of
wheat flour was evaluated by the standard methods described by Taghdir
et al. [17].
2.5. The dough preparation and bread manufacturing procedure
The formula used to prepare toast bread dough was wheat flour
(440–477 g), WMR (23–60 g), improver 04-type (50 g), improver 05-type
(2 g), dried yeast (20 g), salt (7.5 g), sugar (10 g), and certain amounts of
water (300–345 g). At first, powders were weighed and transferred into a
spiral mixer (49086 model, Diosna, Osnabruck, Germany) with a slow
mixing speed for 2 min. Liquid materials (e.g., water and oil) were added to
the resulted mixture and mixed at low speed for 2 min and at high speed
for 8 min, respectively. After the preliminary rest of dough for 7 min and
their weighing, they were divided into balls of 200 g each, rounded into
ball shape and allowed to rest for 7 min else. In the next stage, the dough
rolls obtained by a rolling system (Pishraft-Pokht Sahar Co., Tehran, Iran)
were molded with a weight of ~430 g and a relative humidity of ~85%,
incubated to ferment into sealed steel containers at 36  1
C for 45 min
and baked at 250
C for 25 min in a Miwe BackCombi oven (Miwe Michael
Wenz GmbH, Germany). The breads were cooled down to room temper-
ature for 3 h, packed in polyethylene bags with thickness of 10 mm, and
finally stored at room temperature.
2.6. Assessment of the dough farinographic attributes
A Brabender farinograph (Brabender, Duisburg, Germany) was used
to determine the dough farinographic characteristics including the water
absorption, development time, stability time, and softening degree
(10 min after the begin) [18]. All the doughs were mixed into a 300 g
mixing bowl to 500 BU at 30
C.
2
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100073
2.7. Measurement of extensographic traits of the bread dough
The dough stretching properties of doughs including energy (cm2),
extensibility (mm), ratio number (BU) and resistance to extension (R/E,
BU) value in proving time of 45 min was evaluated using a Brabender
extensograph (Brabender, Duisburg, Germany) [18].
2.8. Bread quality analyses
2.8.1. Moisture
An oven (model U 632, Fater Electronic Co., Tehran, Iran) at
105  1
C was applied to measure the moisture content of bread.
2.8.2. Volume
The bread volume (cm3) was estimated 1 h after removing bread
loaves from the oven. The loaf volume was measured by the rapeseed
displacement procedure [19].
2.8.3. Color
A color digital camera (Canon EOS 1000D, Tokyo, Japan) was
installed to analyze the color in a vertical location above the sample
and at a distance of 30 cm from it into a wooden black box. The
illumination of sample was performed on a standard white plate using
four fluorescent lights (40 W, model T10 230V G13, Pars Shahab Co.,
Iran) with a color index of 95%. The angle between the camera lens
and the light source axis was about 45
to distribute light with a
uniform intensity over each the sample. The Adobe Photoshop 7.0.1
(Adobe Systems, San Jose, CA, USA), and ImageJ version 1.45 s (Na-
tional Institutes of Health, USA) software were applied to analyze
color of images taken by the camera [20]. Three zones for each sample
were randomly selected and the color parameters of a* (red-green), b*
(yellow-blue), and L* (black-white) were determined. The total color
difference (TCD or ΔE) was finally calculated by the following equa-
tion (Eq. (1)) [21]:
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
TCD ¼ ðL*  LÞ2 þ ðb*  bÞ2 þ ða*  aÞ2 (1)
where L, a and b values are the color parameters for the commercial
control sample.
2.8.4. Firmness
An automatic CT3 Texture Analyzer (Brookfield Engineering Labo-
ratories, USA) was used to perform a penetration test on cube-shaped
pieces of the crumb (2  2  2 mm3) separated from the center of toas-
ted breads. A 3.5-mm cylindrical probe was used for the two-bite
compression test with the following settings: test speed of 1 mm/s,
25% deformation, relaxation time of 10 s and force of 0.5 N. Therefore,
firmness was referred as the force required to compress samples by 25%
was determined from the force–time curve [22].
2.8.5. Sensory attributes
15 trained panelists (9 female and 6 male, the age range of 20–32)
from the staff members and students of Food Science Department of Islamic
Azad University (Research & Science Branch, Tehran, Iran) were asked to
score the organoleptic characteristics of each bread sample in sensory
cubicles with standard lighting. The perceived verbal abilities, high
motivation, regular consumption of toast breads and capability to repeat
results were considered criteria to select the best trained panel members
[21]. Studied sensory attributes included color and texture of the crust
and crumb, appearance, taste, odor and overall acceptability and deter-
mined twice for each sample in a random order [23]. A nine-point he-
donic scale was applied to evaluate sensory attributes so that 1
corresponded to “most disliked” and 9 to “most liked”. It is worth noting
that the mouth rinsing with water between the tests was asked trained
panelists to prevent any probable error.
M. Shivapour et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100073

2.8.6. Microstructure 3. Results and DISCUSSION

The microstructure of low-moisture bread samples after sputtering
with a thin layer of gold was observed using a scanning electron micro-
scope (XL 30, Philips, Eindhoven, Netherlands). Images were obtained at
an accelerating voltage of 26 Kv with a scale bar of 1.0 mm.
2.9. Statistical analysis and response surface optimization
A total of 20 experimental runs with various combinations of WMR
concentration (X1, 4.6–11.4%), baking temperature (X2, 166-233
C),
and baking time (X3, 17–33 min) were applied to optimize the quality
properties of toast breads using a RSM-central composite rotatable design
(CCRD). Each variable was defined at five levels, namely, 1.68, 1, 0, 1
and 1.68 (Table 1). The studied range of each independent variable was
selected after preliminary series of experiments and the obtained results
from previous studies. Response variables in this investigation were
moisture content (Y1, %), volume (Y2, cm3), firmness (Y3, N), TCD (Y4),
and overall sensory acceptability (Y5). Modeling of these characteristics
led to a second-order polynomial equation to evaluate the effects (linear,
quadratic, and interaction) of independent variables on each response
variables using the Design Expert Version 8.0 (Minneapolis, MN, USA)
software. This mathematical equation to determine the optimal condi-
tions was defined as follows (Eq. (2)):
3.1. Chemical composition of wheat flour and WMR
Analysis of proximate composition of WMR and wheat flour used in
this study showed that the wheat flour (14.21  0.01%) had a more
moisture (p < 0.05) than the WMR (7.67  0.02%). However, the mois-
ture content of WMR in this study was higher than the value
(5.12  0.01%) reported by Egbuonu (2015). Moreover, the content of
fiber and wet gluten in WMR and wheat flour was 21.24 and 26.0%,
respectively. There was a significantly higher fat content (p < 0.05) in
wheat flour (2.00  0.01%) compared to that of WMR (1.48  0.01%).
Thus, since the partial replacement of wheat flour with WMR can
acceptably reduce the calorie intake rate, WMR can be applied as a
prebiotic fibrous material in low- and fat-free products. However, there
was no significant difference in protein content (10.40–11.54%) and pH
value (5.19–5.80) between the wheat flour and WMR. WMR compared
wheat flour consisted of more amounts of mineral components because
the ash percentage in WMR (12.18%) was much more (p < 0.01) than
that of wheat flour (0.60%).
3.2. Model fitting

X
4 X
4 X
4 Results of ANOVA demonstrated that the second-order polynomial
Y ¼ αk0 þ αki Xi þ αkii Xi2 þ αkij Xi Xj (2) models were very significant (p < 0.0001). The lack-of-fit assessment
i¼1 i¼1 i<j¼2
determines the model failure to signify data in the experimental domain
at points, which are not included in the regression. The lack-of-fit is
where Y is the predicted response; and represent regression coefficients;
preferred to be insignificant to explain the model [25]. The predicted
and, Xj are the coded independent factors.
responses including moisture (Y1, Eq. (3)), volume (Y2, Eq. (4)), firmness
The coefficient of determination (R2), adjusted-R2 (R2 adj), the predic-
(Y3, Eq. (5)), TCD (Y4, Eq. (6)), and sensory acceptability (Y5, Eq. (7))
tion error sum of squares (PRESS), and adequate precision (Ad-P) were
values in terms of coded factors can be obtained by using multiple
used to assess the fitness degree of the quadratic models [24]. Five extra
regression analysis methods:
confirmation tests were performed to validate the results obtained from the
RSM-CCD. The predicted and experimental data and also results of quality Y1 ¼ 17.90 þ 3.35 X1 – 0.87 X2 – 1.08 X3 – 0.76 X1X3 þ 0.65 X21 þ 0.53 X22 þ
parameters for the optimal and control breads were statistically compared 0.43 X23 (3)
by analysis of variance (ANOVA) procedure using SPSS 19 software (SPSS
Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) at a probability level of 5%. Y2 ¼ 1332.93 þ 39.42 X1 þ 22.71 X2 – 119.33 X3 – 15.87 X1X2 þ 14.88
X1X3 – 25.94 X21 – 38.32 X22 – 24.17 X23 (4)

Y3 ¼ 11.44 þ 0.91 X1 þ 1.58 X2 þ 2.71 X3 þ 0.82 X1X2 þ 0.67 X23 (5)

Table 1
The mean amounts of quality parameters of toast breads formulated with WMR as a function of the studied independent variables according to the RSM-CCD.
Run no. Independent variables (X1-3) Response variables (Y1-5)

WMR (%) Baking temperature (
C) Baking time (min) Moisture (%) Volume (cm3) Firmness (N) Total color difference Overall sensory
acceptability

1 6 180 20 17.62 1301 7.99 9.74 7.53

2 10 180 20 24.96 1387 7.04 11.62 7.79
3 6 220 20 15.29 1366 9.24 7.57 8.02
4 10 220 20 23.73 1398 9.28 10.59 8.59
5 6 180 30 17.21 1018 12.40 9.37 7.17
6 10 180 30 22.18 1173 13.74 10.89 7.05
7 6 220 30 14.72 1127 14.40 8.72 7.18
8 10 220 30 19.48 1209 15.91 10.47 6.91
9 4.6 200 25 13.87 1201 9.82 8.56 7.78
10 11.4 200 25 25.93 1310 19.75 12.19 4.12
11 8 166.4 25 20.52 1194 10.26 10.68 6.54
12 8 233.6 25 18.63 1247 21.71 8.54 3.89
13 8 200 16.6 21.27 1470 8.90 9.41 8.16
14 8 200 33.4 17.26 1051 20.39 9.24 4.32
15 8 200 25 18.46 1347 12.26 9.15 7.11
16 8 200 25 17.69 1329 12.30 9.32 7.68
17 8 200 25 18.09 1332 12.19 8.74 8.06
18 8 200 25 17.63 1309 13.01 9.36 7.45
19 8 200 25 17.11 1328 12.61 9.11 6.93
20 8 200 25 18.38 1354 12.68 9.46 7.29

3
M. Shivapour et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100073
Y4 ¼ 9.19 þ 1.05 X1 – 0.58 X2 – 0.20 X1X3 þ 0.27 X2X3 þ 0.43 X21 þ 0.16
X22 (6) 3.4. Volume optimization

Y5 ¼ 7.38 þ 0.15 X2 – 0.52 X3 – 0.19 X1X3 þ 0.20 X21 – 0.19 X22
2
The R and R2adj
values of the predicted models of studied responses
ranged 0.939–0.989 and 0.884–0.980, respectively (Table 2). High R2
values obtained in this research indicate the high capability of constructed
quadratic equations in the given experimental range. Ad-P also is exhib-
iting the signal-to-noise ratio, so that a ratio more than 4 being desirable
[26]. The Ad-P values of 14.5–38.2 show that the quadratic models could
be used to navigate the design space (Table 2). The low PRESS values also
reveal the exceptional adequacy of the fitted second-order polynomial
equations models for predictive applications (Table 2).
3.3. Moisture optimization
Table 2 shows the moisture content of toast breads was significantly
affected by the linear and quadratic terms of all the independent vari-
ables and the interaction term of WMR concentration and baking time.
The most significant effect on the moisture content was revealed to be the
linear term of WMR level followed by the linear terms of baking time and
temperature (Eq. (3)). Fig. 1a also shows an increase in WMR level and a
decrease in baking time can significantly increase the moisture content of
toast breads. Increasing the moisture of toast breads at higher WMR
levels can be attributed to the more fiber content. Hoque et al. [12] by
adding 5–15% WMR to the cake formulation found that the moisture
content was significantly more in cakes with 15% WMR due to the higher
level of dietary fiber constituents such as cellulose, hemi cellulose or
pentosans, and lignin other fiber. At high levels of WMR, the formation of
strong molecular structure with many numbers of hydroxyl groups allows
more interactions for water molecules via hydrogen bonding [15].
However, Al-Sayed and Ahmed [11] mentioned that an increase in the
replacement level of wheat flour with WMR in cake gradually could
reduce the moisture content due to the lower moisture level of WMR
compared to the wheat flour. In the present study, although the WMR
used had lower moisture content (~50%) than the wheat flour, no
remarkable reduction in the high substitution of WMR was observed. A
greater dehydration rate in the toast bread can be provided at higher
baking time and temperature because of the formation of a more porous
matrix with a low water binding capacity [27]. The individual optimi-
zation procedure also demonstrated that the 10% WMR-based breads
baked at 180
C for 20 min had the maximum moisture content (25.0%).
(7)
In term of the bread volume, it can be found that linear and quadratic
effects of baking time and temperature and WMR content were highly
significant on the bread volume. Also, the interaction terms of WMR with
baking temperature and time were significant (Table 2). The most
important variable affecting the volume was baking time (Eq. (4)), so that
an increase in baking time could lead to a decrease in the volume amount
(Fig. 1c). Therefore, a delay in crust formation of toast breads could
provide the volume expansion during the initial baking stage. It seems
that the longer baking time provides a more compact matrix with the
notable rupture of air bubbles by accelerating the moisture evaporation
and removal from the crumb to the crust [28]. Moreover, improvement of
the bread volume at high temperatures can be ascribed to the stabiliza-
tion of air bubbles into the starch-gluten matrix through the favorable
gelatination of starch granules and the protein coagulation [29]. In
addition, an improving effect on the volume was observed with the WMR
addition due to the high fiber content (Fig. 1b and c). The partial
replacement of defatted Indian rice bran [30] and WMRs and sharlyn
melon peels [11] also led to an improvement in the volume of produced
cakes. Hydrated structure of WMR and high amount of hydrogen bonds
in the dough can considerably reinforce cell boundaries of air bubbles in
the beginning of baking. This fact can improve the bread volume by
increasing/maintaining air bubbles formed during the middle and final
baking stages [15,31]. The individual optimization also proved that the
highest bread volume (1434 cm3) was predicted to be provided at 8.89%
WMR, 201.8
C baking temperature, and 20 min baking time.
3.5. Firmness optimization
Results represented in Table 2 show that quadratic effect of baking
temperature and WMR content and also interaction terms of baking time
with WMR and baking temperature were not significantly contributed to
the firmness. The most significant effect on firmness was related to the
linear effects of baking time, baking temperature and WMR content,
respectively (Eq. (5)). An increase in baking temperature and WMR level
in toast breads led to a significant increase in their firmness value
(Fig. 1d). The increased firmness of toast breads by increasing the sub-
stitution WMR level can be attributed to the instability in expanding gas
cells with regard to the intense viscosity and water absorption of dough
as a result of the formation of gel-like structure and strong molecular

Table 2
ANOVA table for the second-order polynomial models and their quality indicators for each the studied response variable.
Source DF Moisture content (%) Volume (cm3) Firmness (N)
a
SS MS F-value P-value SS MS F-value P-value SS MS F-value P-value

Model 9 195.70 21.74 64.49 <0.0001 2.6  Eþ5 28928.1 108.27 <0.0001 160.04 17.78 28.21 <0.0001
X1 (WMR) 1 153.55 153.55 455.37 <0.0001 21218.9 21218.9 79.42 <0.0001 11.23 11.23 17.81 0.0018
X2 (Temp.) 1 10.42 10.42 30.90 0.0002 7042.9 7042.9 26.36 0.0004 34.06 34.06 54.04 <0.0001
X3 (Time) 1 15.94 15.94 47.27 <0.0001 1.9  Eþ5 1.9  Eþ5 727.87 <0.0001 100.10 100.10 158.82 <0.0001
X21 1 6.08 6.08 18.04 0.0017 9698.2 9698.2 36.30 0.0001 0.57 0.57 0.90 ns
X22 1 4.12 4.12 12.22 0.0058 21157.2 21157.2 79.19 <0.0001 1.49 1.49 2.37 ns
X32 1 2.60 2.60 7.72 0.0042 8421.5 8421.5 31.52 0.0002 6.47 6.47 10.26 0.0094
X12 1 0.10 0.10 0.29 ns 2016.1 2016.1 7.55 0.0206 5.43 5.43 8.61 0.0149
X13 1 4.58 4.58 13.57 0.0054 1770.1 1770.1 6.63 0.0277 0.27 0.27 0.43 ns
X23 1 0.33 0.33 0.98 ns 595.1 595.1 2.23 ns 0.32 0.32 0.51 ns
Residual 10 3.37 0.34 2671.7 267.18 6.30 0.63
Lack of fit 5 2.05 0.41 1.55 0.3205ns 1416.9 283.38 1.13 0.4486 ns 3.47 0.69 1.22 0.4159 ns
Pure error 5 1.32 0.26 1254.8 250.97 2.84 0.57
Core total 19 199.07 2.6  Eþ5 166.34
R2 0.9831 0.9898 0.9621
R2adj 0.9678 0.9807 0.9280
PRESS 17.81 12632 32.22
Ad-P 27.46 38.20 18.86
a
ns, not significant.

4
M. Shivapour et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100073

Fig. 1. Response surface illustration of the effects of WMR content, and temperature and time of baking process on dependent quality variables (moisture (a), volume
(b), firmness (c), TCD (d,e), and sensory acceptability (f)) of toast breads (the third variable in the responses was held at 8% WMR, 200
C and 25 min).

interactions [15]. Reducing the moisture content at high levels of baking
temperature and time can reasonably justify the increased firmness
values. Moreover, the phase separation rate between amylose and
amylopectin in the baking process can explain textural characteristics of
the bread crumb [27]. Thus, the moisture migration along with the
intense retrogradation process of starch increased the bread firmness at
enhanced baking temperature and time levels. From the optimization
data, a combination of WMR of 10%, baking temperature of 180
C and
baking time of 20 min was predicted for attaining the minimum firmness
(7.64 N).
3.6. Color optimization
Table 3 shows the effects of all the independent variables with the
exception of linear and quadratic effects of baking time and the inter-
action effect of WMR content and baking temperature were significant.
Moreover, the main effects of WMR content and baking temperature
followed by quadratic effect of WMR level had the most significant
effect on the firmness (Eq. (6)). Increases in WMR content and baking
time resulted in increased TDC, although this character decreased
gradually with increased baking temperature (Fig. 1e and f). The color
formation on the bread crust is because of two mechanisms of Maillard
browning and caramelization reactions [14,15]. These chemical re-
actions causing darker colors can be easily facilitated in the presence of
WMR because this proteoglycan composed of different polysaccharides,
monosaccharides and protein compounds [1,3]. Decreasing the TCD
degree at increased temperatures may be related to the viscosity
reduction and thus the dilution increase of interactive ingredients
involved in the both color-forming processes. In contrast, an increase in
the baking time possibly provides a better opportunity to interact
proteins and carbohydrates present in the dough for the increase of
darkness degree. The optimum level of WMR content and baking tem-
perature and time for the lowest TCD value was around 6.0%, 220
C
and 20 min, respectively.

Table 3
ANOVA table for the second-order polynomial models and their quality indicators for each the studied response variable.
Source DF TCD Overall sensory acceptability

SS MS F-value P-value SS MS F-value P-value

Model 9 23.51 2.61 52.41 <0.0001 5.61 0.62 17.19 <0.0001

X1 1 14.92 14.92 299.40 <0.0001 0.0023 0.0023 0.063 ns
X2 1 4.53 4.53 90.98 <0.0001 0.32 0.32 7.83 0.0144
X3 1 0.009 0.009 0.19 ns 3.63 3.63 100.22 <0.0001
X21 1 2.70 2.70 54.19 <0.0001 0.56 0.56 15.57 0.0028
X22 1 0.38 0.38 7.63 0.0201 0.50 0.50 13.71 0.0041
X23 1 0.05 0.05 1.10 ns 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 ns
X12 1 0.23 0.23 4.71 ns 0.03 0.03 0.83 ns
X13 1 0.33 0.33 6.66 0.0273 0.30 0.30 8.28 0.0164
X23 1 0.57 0.57 11.38 0.0071 0.15 0.15 4.10 ns
Residual 10 0.50 0.050 0.36 0.036
Lack of fit 5 0.17 0.034 0.51 0.7587 ns 0.23 0.045 1.66 0.2968 ns
Pure error 5 0.33 0.066 0.14 0.027
Core total 19 24.01 5.97
R2 0.9792 0.9393
R2adj 0.9606 0.8846
PRESS 1.92 1.91
Ad-P 28.90 14.50
a
ns, not significant.

5
M. Shivapour et al.
3.7. Sensory acceptability optimization
Although the main term of WMR substitution level was not significant
on the sensory score of overall acceptability, the linear effects of baking
temperature and time were highly significant on this quality attribute
(Table 3). The quadratic terms of WMR content and baking temperature
were also significant. Among the mutual interactions, only the cross term
between WMR concentration and baking time was significant (Table 3).
Moreover, the linear effect of baking time was the most significant factor
on the overall acceptability (Eq. (7)), so that an increase in baking time
led to an obvious reduction in the acceptability rating of toast breads
(Fig. 1g). Color is the most important visual quality property of a food
product which can significantly affect the degree of consumer preference.
Increasing the baking temperature not only could reduce the crumb
darkness, but also improved the crust color with an increase in a* value.
Furthermore, the high temperature could more release volatile com-
pounds from flavor precursors or amino acids present in WMR in bread
structure and thus increased the acceptability ratings. Conversely, the
longer baking time could lead to a darker color and denser and firmer
texture, leading a low general acceptability for the produced toast breads.
Overall, the highest response for overall sensory acceptability was
observed when the toast bread containing 8.0% WMR was baked at 200


C temperature and 25 min time.
3.8. Verification of predictive models
The appropriateness of the constructed quadratic models for the
predicting optimum responses was based on the highest moisture
(22.0%), volume (1431 cm3) and organoleptic acceptability (8.10) along
with the lowest firmness (10.50 N) and TCD (9.80) values. Under the
optimal conditions including WRP of 9.06%, baking temperature of
206.66
C and baking time of 20.0 min, the corresponding experimental
values for moisture, volume, firmness, TCD, and sensory acceptability
were 23.04  1.04%, 1409  58.09 cm3, 9.04  0.85 N, 9.34  0.31 and
8.18  0.42, respectively. As there was not any statistical difference be-
tween experimental and predicted data (p > 0.05), the suggested second-
order polynomial models by the Design Expert software were found to be
robust and precise for the optimization of production conditions of WRP
based-toast breads.
Fig. 2. Typical farinographs (a,b) and extensographs (c,d) of doughs of optimal (a,c) and control (b,d) breads.
6
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100073
3.9. Dough farinograph and extensograph traits
Fig. 2a and b illustrates farinographs of dough of the optimal and
control (without WMR) breads. The amounts of water absorption,
development time, stability time, and softening degree of the optimal
bread dough were 72.5%, 6.7 min, 7.8 min, 27 FU, respectively, while
the corresponding values for the control bread dough were 63.4%,
1.7 min, 5.4 min and 64 FU, respectively. A significant difference was
detected for all the farinograph traits (p < 0.05). Increasing the dough
water absorption by adding WMR is due to the presence of hydroxyl
groups in the fibrous structure of WMR which provides more water
interaction via hydrogen bonding [31]. Wani et al. [32] earlier reported
that the water absorption of cookie dough could significantly improve
using blends of wheat flour and watermelon protein isolate. The
improved development and stability time of doughs formulated with
WMR can be attributed to the gel structure formation with an increased
viscosity as a result of more number of formed interactions between
WMR and proteins of wheat flour [14]. Therefore, the better molecular
association between ingredients of the dough composition because of the
presence of WMR can significantly decrease the dough softening degree.
Fig. 2c and d also depicts extensographs of doughs of optimal and
control breads. Values of energy, extensibility, ratio number, and R/E for
the dough of optimal bread were 81 cm2, 143 mm, 2.8 BU and 343 BU,
respectively, whereas the corresponding values for the control bread
dough were 63 cm2, 93 mm, 5.4 BU and 503 BU, respectively. There was
a significant difference between dough extensograph traits of the optimal
and control samples (p < 0.05). Higher energy and extensibility values of
doughs formulated with WMR showed their more viscosity and elasticity
levels. This result was expectable because the WMR addition improved
the dough hydration rate and gluten development. The lower ratio
number and R/E value in the optimal formulation probably were due to
the improving effect of WMR on the dough elasticity. This fact showed
that there was a positive association between glutenin proteins present in
wheat flour and WMR glycopeptides to increase the dough extensibility
degree.
3.10. Storage-dependent quality changes of breads
Table 4 indicates the mean values for physical (moisture and volume),
textural (firmness), color (TCD) and sensory properties of the control
M. Shivapour et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100073

Table 4
Changes of quality parameters of toast breads during the storage time.
Quality propertiesa Values at the initial and end storage timeb Change (%)c Regression linear equationd R2

Day 1 Day 7

Moisture (%)
Opt. 22.54  0.34a 21.04  0.26b 5.01b Y ¼ 0.2543 ST þ 22.846 0.9924
Cont. 21.41  0.21a 18.12  0.15c 15.36a Y ¼ 0.5364 ST þ 21.804 0.9869
Volume (cm3)
Opt. 1409  58.09a 1311  25.05b 6.95a Y ¼ 15.893 ST þ 1419.6 0.9797
Cont. 1156  45.14c 1076  40.61d 6.92a Y ¼ 13.679 ST þ 1173.8 0.9831
Firmness (N)
Opt. 9.04  0.85c 12.19  0.07b 34.84b Y ¼ 0.5079 ST þ 8.7379 0.9702
Cont. 12.44  0.21b 20.58  0.09a 65.43a Y ¼ 1.285 ST þ 12.015 0.9225
TCD
Opt. 9.34  0.31a 8.91  0.28b 4.60 Y ¼ 0.07 ST þ 9.39 0.9849
Cont. – – – – –
Sensory crust color
Opt. 8.19  0.04a 7.87  0.09a 3.90b Y ¼ 0.0529 ST þ 8.2371 0.9978
Cont. 6.24  0.41b 5.45  0.20c 12.66a Y ¼ 0.1354 ST þ 6.4196 0.9803
Sensory crumb color
Opt. 7.68  0.21b 7.04  0.11c 8.33a Y ¼ 0.1068 ST þ 7.7882 1.000
Cont. 8.12  0.43a 7.67  0.17b 5.54b Y ¼ 0.0736 ST þ 8.1764 0.9899
Sensory texture
Opt. 8.84  0.36a 8.62  0.21a 2.48b Y ¼ 0.0361 ST þ 8.8689 0.9927
Cont. 7.33  0.15b 6.12  0.07c 16.50a Y ¼ 0.2061 ST þ 7.5889 0.9878
Sensory appearance
Opt. 8.51  0.03a 8.34  0.09a 1.99b Y ¼ 0.0279 ST þ 8.5321 0.9922
Cont. 7.12  0.13b 5.78  0.13c 18.82a Y ¼ 0.2175 ST þ 7.2675 0.9809
Sensory taste
Opt. 8.32  0.19a 8.11  0.15a 2.52b Y ¼ 0.035 ST þ 8.355 1.000
Cont. 8.06  0.05a 7.24  0.06b 10.17a Y ¼ 0.1368 ST þ 8.1982 1.000
Sensory odor
Opt. 8.26  0.13a 8.01  0.02a 3.02a Y ¼ 0.0404 ST þ 8.2846 0.9724
Cont. 8.32  0.10a 8.02  0.16a 3.60a Y ¼ 0.0504 ST þ 8.3746 0.9986
Sensory overall acceptability
Opt. 8.18  0.42a 8.02  0.06a 1.95b Y ¼ 0.0261 ST þ 8.1989 0.9861
Cont. 7.59  0.32b 6.19  0.22c 18.44a Y ¼ 0.2375 ST þ 7.8775 0.9918
a
Cont. is the control bread without WMR addition (baked at 206.66
C for 20 min) and Opt. is the bread produced under optimal conditions determined by RSM.
b
Values in rows related to each the quality property in storage days followed by different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
c
Values in the same column for each the quality property followed by different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
d
ST, Storage time.

(without WMR, baked at 206.66
C for 20 min) and optimal breads in the
initial (day 1) and final (day 7) storage time. The regression linear re-
lationships between these quality characteristics and storage time and
their R2 values are also given in Table 4. Results revealed that the
optimal sample was much more than better the control one in all the
studied properties with the exception of odor sensory property
(p < 0.05). There was no significant difference in amounts of this sensory
attribute between two samples (Table 4). In general, the reduction of
moisture content, and acceleration rate of staling process was much
slower in the optimal bread than the control one. The other quality
characteristics in the optimal sample were maintained better than those
of the control. In general, in the optimal bread changed with a slower
trend than those of in the control (p < 0.05). The highest bad-quality
percentage in toast breads is related to firmness value. However, the
sensory odor score in none of the samples was not changed by prolonging
the storage time (Table 4).
The average thickness of the cell wall of the bread texture by adding
WMR at the optimum level increased from 78.39 to 183.54 μm
(p < 0.05). Thus, WMR by inducing hydrogen bonds was able to
strengthen the starch-gluten wall to maintain air bobble cells. The sub-
stantial reduction in volume during the storage can be owing to the
extreme shrinkage or collapse rate of the bread structure [33]. Fig. 3
shows that the structure of the optimal sample was composed of lower
and smaller pores than that of the control. Even though these structural
pores expanded with prolonging storage time by day 7 in both samples,
lower structural changes by the increasing storage time were formed in
the optimal bread. The starch retrogradation or the amylopectin
re-association into a moderately crystalline structure is the most
important factor in increasing the bread staling rate which can remark-
ably speed up the crumb firmness, the loss of flavor volatile compounds
and the moisture migration [34]. The optimal sample possibly due to the
presence of WMR containing a different reducing sugars and amino acids
can form the Maillard non-enzymatic browning reaction to provide a
high TCD and an acceptable appearance and color scores. However,
reducing the color organoleptic scores during the storage time can be
related to the distribution changes of moisture in the bread crumb and
crust [35].
4. Conclusion
Results of the present study revealed that WMR as innovative agri-
cultural waste can be a suitable dietary alternative for other antistaling
additives in order to develop toast breads with a high shelf life. The
partial replacement of WMR with wheat flour in formulation of these
breads could significantly improve their physical, textural and sensorial
characteristics. The RSM–CCD could efficiently be utilized for the
modeling of baking conditions and WMR amount in formulation of toast
breads. Second-order polynomial models were adequately fitted to the
experimental data of moisture, volume, firmness, TCD, and organoleptic
acceptability. According to the RSM optimization, the maximum mois-
ture (22.0%), volume (1431 cm3), and organoleptic acceptability (8.10)
and the minimum firmness (10.50 N) and TCD (9.80) for the produced
toast breads were as follows: WMR concentration of 9.06%, baking
temperature of 206.66
C and baking time of 20.0 min. The experimental
data under these conditions highly were in close agreement with pre-
dicted data by fitted quadratic models. In addition, the results of dough

7
M. Shivapour et al.
Fig. 3. Appearance and microstructure of the optimal (a,b) and control (c,d) toast breads at day 1 (a,c) and 7 (b,d) of the production.
farinographic and extensographic evaluations and the bread micro-
structural and staling analysis at the optimal point explained well their
acceptable quality characteristics during the storage. Additional in-
vestigations are required to compare the antistaling potential of WMR
compared to other natural components in the traditional and commercial
bread types.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors report no declarations of interest.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank the Bread Sahar Industrial Group (Tehran,
Iran) for experimental equipment support.
8
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100073
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