J Appl Phycol
DOI 10.1007/s10811-013-0082-8
The effect of seaweed composite flour on the textural
properties of dough and bread
Hasmadi Mamat & Patricia Matanjun & Salwa Ibrahim &
Siti Faridah Md. Amin & Mansoor Abdul Hamid &
Ainnur Syafiqa Rameli
Received: 23 May 2013 / Revised and accepted: 4 July 2013
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
Abstract Seaweeds as food and seaweed-derived food
flavors, colors, and nutrients are attracting considerable com-
mercial attention. In the baking industries, hydrocolloids are
of increasing importance as bread making improvers, where
their use aims to improve dough handling properties, in-
crease the quality of fresh bread, and extend the shelf life
of stored bread. Seaweeds contain a significant amount of
soluble polysaccharides and have the potential function as a
source of dietary fiber. In this study, red seaweed
(Kappaphycus alvarezii) powder was incorporated (2–8 %)
with wheat flour and used to produce bread. The effect of
seaweed composite flour on dough rheological properties
and the quality of bread was investigated using various
techniques. Farinograph tests were applied to determine the
effect of seaweed powder on the rheological properties of
wheat flour dough, while texture profile analysis (TPA) was
used to measure the textural properties of dough as well as
the final product. The results showed that the additions of
seaweed powder (2–8 %) increased the water absorption of
the dough. TPA results showed that the addition of seaweed
powder decreased stickiness properties. Bread produced
with seaweed composite flour showed higher values of
firmness.
Keywords Seaweed composite flour . Texture profile
analysis . Bread properties . Dough properties
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
(doi:10.1007/s10811-013-0082-8) contains supplementary material,
which is available to authorized users.
H. Mamat (*) : P. Matanjun : S. Ibrahim : S. F. Md. Amin :
M. Abdul Hamid : A. S. Rameli
School of Food Science and Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah,
88400 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
e-mail: idamsah@ums.edu.my
Introduction
The use of food additives has become a common practice and
it is widely used in the baking industry. In the baking indus-
try, hydrocolloids are of increasing importance as bread
making improvers, where their use aims to improve dough
handling properties, increase the quality of fresh bread, and
extend the shelf life of stored bread. Hydrocolloids, com-
monly named gums, are substances consisting of chain poly-
mers, usually with colloidal properties, that in water-based
systems produce gels, i.e., highly viscous suspensions or
solutions with low dry substance content (Hoefler 2004).
Dickinson (2003) defines hydrocolloids as all the polysac-
charides that are extracted from plant, seaweeds, and micro-
bial sources, as well as gums derived from plant exudates,
and modified biopolymers made by the chemical treatment
of cellulose.
High-quality bakery products have various attributes, in-
cluding high volume, uniform crumb structure, tenderness,
shelf life, and tolerance to staling. Therefore, the quality of a
finished bakery product can be influenced by the addition of
substances that affect these properties, as hydrocolloids do.
These polysaccharides are used in food production as pro-
cessing aids to provide dietary fiber or to impart specific
functional properties to the products. They are able to im-
prove food texture, retard starch retrogradation, improve
moisture retention, and enhance the overall quality of the
products during storage (Stauffer 1990).
Seaweeds contain large amounts of polysaccharides, no-
tably cell wall structural polysaccharides that are extracted
by the hydrocolloid industry: alginate from brown seaweeds
and carrageenans and agar from red seaweeds. Seaweed
contains a significant amount of soluble polysaccharides
which have a potential as processing aids, provide dietary
fiber, and can be used as significant food additives to per-
form specific purposes. The principal commercial seaweed
extracts continue to be the three hydrocolloids: agar,

alginates, and carrageenans. Seaweeds as food and seaweed-
derived food flavors, colors, and nutrients are attracting
considerable commercial attention. The processed food in-
dustry is still the primary market for seaweed hydrocolloids,
where they serve as texturing agents and stabilizers.
Several studies have been carried out showing the poten-
tial use of seaweed hydrocolloids in the baking industry.
Dziezak (1991) found that hydrocolloids can influence the
rheology and texture of aqueous systems by stabilizing
emulsions, suspensions, and foams. Hydrocolloids can mod-
ify starch gelatinization (Rojas et al. 1999) and extend the
overall quality of the product over time. In addition, an
improvement in wheat dough stability during proofing can
be obtained by the addition of hydrocolloids, such as sodium
alginate and κ-carrageenan (Rosell et al. 2001a). Alginate
and its salts have wide applications due to their thickening,
emulsifying, gelling, and stabilizing behaviors, in addition to
their capacity to retain water (Draget 2000; Khotimchenko
et al. 2001). The usage levels for alginates are cost-driven
and range between 0.5 and 1.5 % in food applications
(Brownlee et al. 2005). Guarda et al. (2004) reported that
alginates showed an anti-staling effect. The ability of algi-
nates to decrease the staling rate of bread samples was
attributed to inhibiting interactions between gluten and
starch (Davidou et al. 1996).
Hydrocolloids also modify the pasting properties of starch
(Rojas et al. 1999; Rosell et al. 2001a, b). These starch
properties, which include gelatinization temperature, paste
viscosity, and retrogradation of the starch, affect cake bak-
ing, the final quality of cakes (Miller and Trimbo 1965), and
staling behavior of baking products (Armero and Collar
1996, 1998). Several studies have been carried out showing
the potential use of hydrocolloids in bread making: wheat
bread (Guarda et al. 2004; Rosell et al. 2001b), whole wheat
bread (Bell 1990), rye bread (Mettler and Seibel 1995),
protein-fortified starch bread (Christianson et al. 1974), and
frozen bread dough (Ribotta et al. 2004). The use of hydro-
colloids as anti-staling agents in bread has also been studied
(Armero and Collar 1996, 1998; Davidou et al. 1996).
Hydrocolloids have been used as gluten substitutes in the
formulation of gluten-free breads due to their polymeric
structure (Ylimaki et al. 1998). The objectives of this study
were to evaluate the effect of seaweed composite flour on
dough rheological properties and the quality of bread using
various techniques.
Materials and methods
The red seaweed species (Kappaphycus alvarezii) was harvested
from Universiti Malaysia Sabah farms in Semporna, Sabah
(north coast of North Borneo), Malaysia. Fresh seaweeds were
thoroughly washed with distilled water, and their holdfasts and
J Appl Phycol
epiphytes were removed. They were then placed in a freezer
(−20 °C) immediately after collection. The seaweed sample was
dried using a cabinet dryer at 40 °C for 24 h. Dried ground
seaweed (2, 4, 6, and 8 %) was mixed with wheat flour to
produce bread. The ground samples were stored in airtight plastic
containers and stored at −20 °C for further use. High-protein
wheat flour (14 % protein) and other raw materials for bread
production were procured from the local market.
Bread making procedure
A straight dough process was carried out to prepare the bread
samples. A basic bread formula, based on flour weight, was
used: 100 g of wheat flour/composite flour, water up to 500
Brabender units (BU) consistency, 10 % sugar, 8 % vegetable
shortening, 1.2 % dry yeast, and 1.2 % salt. The dough was
optimally mixed, fermented for 10 min, divided into 450-g
pieces, hand molded and sheeted, and then put into tin pans for
proofing (RH 85 %) at 38 °C for 90 min. The breads were
baked in an electric oven for 37 min at 190 °C. The bread
quality attributes were evaluated after cooling for 2 h at room
temperature.
Dough rheological characteristics
Farinograph characteristics
Farinograph characteristics were determined according to
the AACC method (AACC 1983). The following parameters
were determined in a Brabender farinograph: water absorp-
tion (percentage of water required to yield a dough consis-
tency of 500 BU), dough development time (time to reach
maximum consistency), stability (time wherein dough con-
sistency is at 500 BU), mixing tolerance index ((MTI) con-
sistency difference between height at peak and 5 min later),
and elasticity (bandwidth of the curve at the maximum
consistency).
Dough stickiness
Dough stickiness was determined by following the method of
Stable Micro System Ltd. (1995) using a texture analyzer (TA-
XT2, Stable Micro Systems Ltd., England). Dough was
rounded, sheeted, and molded as in bread making. The dough
was then divided into 5-g pieces for each test. The dough was
placed into the chamber of a Stable Micro System/Chen–
Hoseney dough stickiness cell and then closed with a die by
screwing. After that, it was extruded through the holes on the
die by rotating the internal screw. A sample of this first
extrusion was discarded from the die surface using a spatula.
The screw was then rotated once again until a 1-mm height of
dough sample was extruded through the die. The stickiness of
the dough was determined using an adhesive test at a pre-test
J Appl Phycol

Table 1 Farinograph analysis

results of the seaweed bread Samples Water absorption (at 500 BU) (%) Development time (min) Stability (min) MTI

F1 58.53±0.11 d 8.33±0.35 b 6.73±0.37 c 72.00±3.60 d

Values with the same letters have F2 65.47±1.62 c 8.56±0.32 b 7.43±0.40 b 103.33±19.29 ac
no significant difference F3 71.17±0.05 b 8.73±0.28 b 7.20±0.20 b 99.00±10.583 c
(p>0.05) F4 76.10±0.26 a 8.77±0.40 b 7.63±0.32 b 95.00±1.00 b
F1 0 %, F2 2 %, F3 4 %, F4 6 %, F5 77.63±0.20 a 11.90±0.17 a 11.73±0.37 a 105.00±10.14 a
F5 8 % seaweed powder

speed of 2.0 mm s−1, a test speed of 2.0 mm s−1, and a post-test
speed of 10.0 mm s−1 with a 25-mm Perspex cylinder probe.
The maximum force reading from the highest positive peak is
an indicator of the stickiness of the dough.
Evaluation of bread quality
Loaf volume
Mass and volume were measured 1 h after the removal of bread
loaves from the oven. Loaf volume was determined by the
sesame seed displacement method, and specific volume was
obtained by dividing the volume by the loaf mass (Sangnark
and Noomhorm 2004).
Crumb color
Bread texture
Bread hardness was determined according to the standard
method published by AACC (Method 74-09 (AACC 1986))
using the texture analyzer (TA-XT2). After storage for 1 day,
bread slices of standard thickness (1.25 cm) were prepared,
and the first two slices of bread from either end were exclud-
ed from testing. Two slices of bread were stacked, and the
force required to compress them to 25 % of their height was
measured using a 3.5-cm diameter cylindrical probe with a
pre-test speed of 2 mm s−1, a test speed of 1.7 mm s−1, and a
post-test speed of 10 mm s−1. Three measurements per loaf
for replication were recorded, and three replications were
done per batch. Each time of measurement was taken, the
maximum peak force value was recorded, and the average
was calculated in force units.

Color characteristics were studied by measuring lightness (L), Statistical analysis

redness (a), and yellowness (b) (Fig. 1) using a Minolta CR-
400 spectrophotocolorimeter (Konica Minolta Sensing, Inc.,
Japan). Each loaf of bread was cut into slices, with each slice
being 2.5-cm thick. Ten samples were collected from the
middle of each crumb for color measurement. A replication
was represented by the average of ten samples.
Mean and standard deviation (SD) were calculated for each
measurement where applicable. All of the tests were carried
out in triplicate. Significant differences were calculated
using SPSS Windows 6.0.

Results

Farinograph analysis results are summarized in Table 1. The

Fig. 1 L, a, and b Hunter Lab color solid
addition of 2–8 % seaweed powder to dough formulations
significantly increased the water required to achieve 500 BU.
The water absorption of dough ranged between 58.53 and
77.63 %, with the highest amount of seaweed powder show-
ing the highest water absorption and vice versa. A similar
trend was observed in the development and stability time of
the dough. These parameter values were increased with the
addition of seaweed powder; however, no significant differ-
ence was observed between the means of samples F1, F2, F3,
and F4. F5 showed the longest time required for dough
development. The mixing tolerance index of sample F5 (8 %
seaweed flour) indicated a maximum value of 105 BU, while
sample F1 (control) showed a minimum tolerance index of 72
BU. The tolerance index showed no specific trend, whereas
F2 had a higher MTI compared to F3 and F4.
 J Appl Phycol

Table 2 Firmness of the seaweed bread (TPA) during storage

Formulation Day

0 1 2 3 4

F1 284.73±51.52 a 703.10±152.67 a 803.17±74.44 a 1010.01±379.76 a 1026.61±372.07 a

F2 476.35±7.18 bc 1151.60±266.79 a 1042.96±291.35 a 1361.17±376.54 a 1044.88±158.64 b
F3 396.48±31.49 ab 1048.11±150.70 a 1160.03±256.81 a 1534.12±733.30 a 1275.13±257.13 ab
F4 330.15±40.32 ab 1006.73±689.40 a 1007.28±382.07 a 1029.03±334.08 a 1510.07±805.81 ab
F5 587.51±177.15 c 1202.63±478.57 a 1413.34±552.84 a 2020.19±790.21 a 2076.98±740.04 b

Values with the same letters have no significant difference (p>0.05)

F1 0 %, F2 2 %, F3 4 %, F4 6 %, F5 8 % seaweed powder

The stickiness values are shown in Fig. 2. The results
obtained showed that the addition of seaweed powder
influenced the stickiness properties of the dough produced.
The stickiness values ranged between 37.55 and 41.52 g.
However, no significant difference was observed in any of
the samples studied (F1–F5). Samples without seaweed pow-
der showed the highest adhesion, whereas F1 was significant-
ly different from the other samples.
The breads produced with and without seaweed powder
are shown in Fig. 3. The crumb L and b values of bread were
significantly affected by the addition of seaweed flour. The
average L values of seaweed bread ranged between 58.02
and 45.37. The results showed that the addition of seaweed
flour in the formulation decreased the lightness and in-
creased the yellowness of the bread crumb obtained.
The volume, firmness, and crumb color of the bread were
measured to determine the effect of seaweed powder on the
quality of the bread produced (Fig. 4, Tables 2 and 3). The
volume of the breads ranged between 1,114 and 1,527 mL,
with the results showing that the addition of seaweed powder
decreased the volume of the bread produced. F1 was signifi-
cantly different from the other samples. The texture profile
analysis results obtained showed that the firmness of the bread
increased over the period of storage, as did the percentage of
seaweed powder used in the formulation. Color analysis results
showed that the crumb L and b values of the bread were
significantly affected by the addition of seaweed flour. The
average L values of seaweed bread ranged between 58.02 and
45.37. The results showed that the addition of seaweed flour
used in the formulation decreased the lightness and increased
the yellowness of the bread crumb obtained.
Discussion
The rheological characteristics are determined by the quality
of the dough during processing as well as the quality of the
final product produced. According to Wade (1988), dough

a a
40 a a
a

35

30
Stickiness (g)

25

20

15

10

0
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
Sample
Fig. 2 Stickiness properties of the seaweed dough. The same letter Fig. 3 Seaweed bread produced with different percentages of seaweed
denotes values not significantly different (p>0.05) from the other powder. F1 control, F2 2 % SWF, F3 4 % SWF, F4 6 % SWF, F5 8 %
(n=10) SWF
J Appl Phycol

1600 c
According to our findings, the addition of seaweed de-
1400 b
creased the stickiness, work of adhesion, and cohesiveness/
b b dough strength. Stickiness is defined as the maximum force
1200 a necessary to overcome the attractive forces between the surface
of the food and the surface of the probe with which the food
Voulume (ml)

1000
800
600
400
200
0
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5
Sample
Fig. 4 Volume of the seaweed breads for each formulation. The same
letter denotes values not significantly different (p>0.05) from the other
(n=5)
that is too firm or too soft will not process satisfactorily on the
appropriate dough-forming equipment and will not yield a
satisfactory product. A farinograph analysis of flour samples
is summarized in Table 1. The results showed that the
farinograph properties of seaweed composite flours are
strongly dependent on the seaweed content used. Seaweed
powder contributed to the high water-absorbing capacity as it
competed for water with other constituents. This is in agree-
ment with a previous study by other researchers (Friend et al.
2003; Rodge et al. 2012). According to Friend et al. (2003),
this is due to the hydroxyl groups in the hydrocolloid struc-
ture, which allow more water interactions through hydrogen
bonding. The addition of seaweed powder also increased the
development and stability time of the dough. Dough stability
is a measure of the time needed for the curve to stay at or
above 500 BU. The stability value is an indication of flour
strength, with higher values suggesting stronger dough. Most
commercial bread flours have a stability value of up to 10 min
(Mohamed et al. 2006). The mixing tolerance index parameter
represents the resistivity of wheat flour to the mixing, where
higher mixing tolerance index values indicate stronger flour.
comes into contact. Gluten fractions have been shown to be
important determinants of dough stickiness. A gluten network
is only slightly developed for the dough with higher seaweed
powder as compared to the control.
The bread volumes ranged from 1,114 to 1,527 cm3. It can
be seen that the bread density was affected by the amount of
seaweed powder used. The addition of seaweed decreased
the bulk density of the bread produced. The lowest volume
was obtained for samples with the highest seaweed flour
percentage (F5). There are two factors contributing to the
findings obtained: the ability of hydrocolloids to absorb
more water, which could suppress the amount of steam
generated, resulting in reduced volume of loaf (Gill et al.
2002); and the addition of seaweed powder, which could also
disrupt the gluten network that contributed to the low expan-
sion of the loaf.
Increasing the concentration of seaweed powder imparts
better color to the crumb. For this reason, crumb color was
more affected by the protein content: bread with the highest
amount of seaweed powder showed the darkest crumb, and
the lowest seaweed powder (F1) had the lightest bread
crumb.
According to AACC (1999), bread firmness is defined as
the force required to compress the crumb at a fixed distance
or to evaluate freshness, defined as the distance that a fixed
force will compress a crumb. Bread firmness results obtained
from texture profile analysis showed that crumb firmness of
the bread increased with the increasing seaweed powder and
also increased with the period of storage. The increase in
hardness of the bread crumb may be a consequence of the
thickening of the walls surrounding gas cells, as proposed by
Rosell et al. (2001b). Generally, water promotes starch re-
crystallization, and indeed the water content of breads with
higher amounts of seaweed powder was significantly higher
than that of the control (results not presented). Guarda et al.
(2004) reported that breads containing hydrocolloids showed

Table 3 Color analysis results

of the seaweed bread Formulation Parameter

Brightness Redness Yellowness

F1 56.09±9.57 ab −0.55±0.79 a 8.33±0.79 a

Values with the same letters have F2 56.97±5.06 ab −0.99±0.94 a 11.90±0.64 b
no significant difference F3 58.02±5.44 b −0.97±0.14 a 12.97±0.82 b
(p>0.05) F4 50.11±4.37 ab −1.03±0.11 a 11.94±0.46 b
F1 0 %, F2 2 %, F3 4 %, F4 6 %, F5 45.37±6.16 a −0.79±0.29 a 12.82±1.35 b
F5 8 % seaweed powder

a lower loss of moisture content after baking due to higher
water retention in the crumb.
In conclusion, seaweed has a great potential to be used as
an important ingredient in food processing. This study showed
that seaweed could be used as a part of the ingredients in bread
production. Up to 8 % of seaweed powder could be used to
replace wheat flour while maintaining the quality of the final
product, as compared to bread produced without the use of
seaweed powder. The addition of seaweed powder increased
the water absorption of the dough and other farinograph
parameters. In addition, seaweed powder also influenced
dough and bread textural properties where stickiness, volume,
firmness, and crumb color showed significant impact on the
dough and final product, respectively.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Seaweed
Research Unit, Universiti Malaysia Sabah for awarding this research
grant.
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