Stylistics for Translation Students

Prof.ReimaAlJarf
KingSaudUniversity

TableofContents
WHAT IS LANGUAGE?....................................................................................................................... 5 WHA IS COMMUNICATION?............................................................................................................ 5 FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE: ........................................................................................................... 6 SPEECH ACTS ...................................................................................................................................... 7

Speech Act Classification: ....................................................................................... 8

SOME KINDS OF TEXTS: ................................................................................................................... 9 BASIC DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................................ 10 LEVELS OF STYLE: .......................................................................................................................... 12

A. Regional: ........................................................................................................... 13 B. Formal vs. informal: ........................................................................................ 13 C. Standard, Colloquial, Slang:............................................................................ 13 D. Literary: ............................................................................................................ 13
CONTEXT ............................................................................................................................................ 14

Context of Situation ............................................................................................... 14

APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF STYLE ................................................................................. 15 APPROACHES ACCORDING TO LINGUISTIC LEVELS: ......................................................... 15 APPROACHES ACCORDING TO LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS: .................................................. 16 DISCURSIVE VS EXPRESSIVE LANGUAGE ............................................................................... 16 4. OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING STYLE ................................................................................... 17

a. Region = dialect................................................................................................. 17 b. Education and Social Standing: ....................................................................... 17 c. Subject-matter = register ................................................................................... 18 f. Interference: ...................................................................................................... 18 Style Marker: .......................................................................................................... 19 EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................... 19
5. LEXICAL ASPECTS OF STYLE ............................................................................................. 20

General: .................................................................................................................. 20 Nouns: .................................................................................................................... 20 Adjectives:............................................................................................................... 20 Verbs: ...................................................................................................................... 20 Adverbs: .................................................................................................................. 21 EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................... 21 2

referential: .............................................................................................................. 21 Denotation = conceptual = cognitive meaning ..................................................... 21 Use of slang: ........................................................................................................... 25 Use of Euphemisms: .............................................................................................. 26 Use of cliches: ........................................................................................................ 26 Use of Standard vs non-standard Words............................................................... 26 Use of rare words: .................................................................................................. 26 Use of obsolete & archaic words: .......................................................................... 26 Tautology ................................................................................................................ 26 High, Middle and Low Styles: ............................................................................... 27 Semantic features ................................................................................................... 27
6. GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS OF STYLE: .............................................................................. 29

GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS AND DESCRIPTION ..................................................................... 29

Sentence types: ....................................................................................................... 29 Sentence complexity:.............................................................................................. 29 Clause types: ........................................................................................................... 29 Clause structure: .................................................................................................... 29 Noun phrases: ........................................................................................................ 29 Verb phrases:.......................................................................................................... 30 word classes: ........................................................................................................... 30 General: .................................................................................................................. 30 Parts of speech: ...................................................................................................... 30 Sentence types: ....................................................................................................... 30 Sentence complexity:.............................................................................................. 31 anticipatory structures: .......................................................................................... 31 Clause types: ........................................................................................................... 32 Apposition ............................................................................................................... 34 Ellipsis: ................................................................................................................... 34 Focus, theme and emphasis ................................................................................... 34 Sentence Variety: ................................................................................................... 35
(3) SEMANTIC ASPECTS OF STYLE ............................................................................................. 36

Figures of Speech = figurative language=imagery .............................................. 36

(4) COHESION AND COHERENCE ................................................................................................. 38

Cohesion:................................................................................................................ 38 Cohesive ties: .......................................................................................................... 38 Types of Cohesion: ................................................................................................. 38

(5) EMPHASIS.................................................................................................................................. 40

Exercise: ................................................................................................................. 41
STYLISTIC FEATURES OF ADVERTISEMENTS ........................................................................ 43 STYLISTIC FEATURES OF NEWSPAPER ENGLISH ................................................................. 46 STYLISTIC FEATURES OF TECHNICAL TEXTS ....................................................................... 48 TECHNICAL TEXTS .......................................................................................................................... 48

1. Time order: Process .......................................................................................... 48 2. Time Order: Process ........................................................................................ 49 3. Time Order: Chronology ................................................................................. 49 4. Space order: ..................................................................................................... 49 7. Classification:.................................................................................................... 50 8. Definitions ........................................................................................................ 50 9. Description of properties: ................................................................................ 51 10.Cause-effect:...................................................................................................... 51 11.Function: ........................................................................................................... 51 12.Structure:........................................................................................................... 51 13. Measurement:................................................................................................... 52
STYLISTIC FEATURES OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS .................................................................... 53

Examples ................................................................................................................ 54
STYLISTIC FEATURES OF COMMERCIAL TEXTS .................................................................. 56

EXAMPLE ............................................................................................................. 56
STYLISTIC FEATURES OF LITERARY TEXTS .......................................................................... 58

WHATISLANGUAGE? Language is a system. Each language contains two systems rather than one system, a system of sounds and a system of meanings (language is a device for conveying meaning through sounds). Only certain sounds are used by the speakers of any language and only certain combinations of these sounds are possible. There is no connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these soundsrefer,forexample: pvgnmbrtds catbookfulleatrunbeautiful Language is a symbolic system , a system in which words are associated with objects, ideas, and actions by convention. Language is human. It is a system that is possessed only by human beings and is very different from the communication systems that other forms of life possess. Language is used for communication. languageallowspeople tosaythingstoeachotherandexpresstheircommunicative needs. These needs are strong. Language is the cement of society, allowing people to live, work , and play together, to tell the truth, but also to tell a lie or lies. Sometimes it is used to keep the communication channels open so that if any need arises to say something of importance a suitable channel is available. This last functionismetthroughtheconventionsofgreetingandleavetaking,bysmalltalkat parties,andinthechatterofsecretariesinalargeoffice.Languagealsofunctionsto communicateattitudestowardslifeandothers. The communication of most importance to us is the communication of meaning .(language is a system of arbitrary oral symbols by means of which a social groupinteracts). WhaisCommunication? Communication: it is the exchange of ideas , information, etc between two or more persons.Inanactofcommunicationthereare5elements: Thesender=speakerorwriter. A message = What is conveyed in speech or writing from one person to one or more other people. The message may not always be stated in verbal form butcanbeconveyedbyothermeans,e.g.:awink,gestures.Adistinctioncan be made between message form and message content. In spoken requests, for example, the message form is how the request is made (e.g.: type or sentencestructure,useornonuseofcourtesywords,typeofintonation)and

the message content is what is actually requested (e.g.: the loan of some money). Thechannelsthroughwhichthemessageistransmitted.Thechannelmaybe verbal, visual, pictorial,aural. The verbal channel = the code, i.e., a system of symbols involving sounds, letters, words, or other oral or graphic devices usedintransmittingthemessage. Thereceiver=thepersonorpersonsforwhomthemessageisintended. The situation = the physical setting and social context in which the communicationoccurs. The sender, receiver, message or code may be dominant in a text in order to fulfillthepurposeofcommunication.Hence,textscanbeclassifiedinto: (1) senderdominanttexts=expressivefunctionlikelyricpoems,personal letters,autobiographies,personalexplanations (2) receiverdominant texts = conative function such as public speeches, advertisements, sermons. These try to make an impact on the receiver. (3) messagedominant texts = cognitive function like technical reports, newspaperreports,textbooks,treatise,scientificdiscourse. (4) Codedominant texts = textual function: They are texts in which the organization of ideas is coherent and sentences and paragraphs are cohesive.

FUNCTIONSOFLANGUAGE: Languagehas5functions: 1. Informationalfunction: 2. Expressivefunction:itcanbeusedtoexpressitsoriginator'sfeelingsand attitudesswearwordsandexclamationsarethemostobviousinstancesofthis. 3. Directivefunction:itcanbeusedtoinfluencethebehaviorandattitudesof others,suchascommandsandrequests. 4. Aestheticfunction:theuseoflanguageforthesakeofthelinguisticartifactitself. 5. Phaticfunction:keepingcommunicationlinesopenandkeepingsocial relationshipsingoodrepair.Here,thecommunicativeworkdonebylanguageis atitslightest:itisnotsomuchwhatonesays,butthefactthatonesaysitatall, thatmatters. StylesofSpeech: Youalsounderstandthecontextsorsituationsinwhichstylesoflanguage maybeused: Pardonme,butwouldmindopeningthewindowplease?

 Openthewindownow. Gee,itshotinhere. Theattitudesyouhaveaboutandhowandwhendifferentformsofspeechareused andaboutthepeoplewhousethem. TextComponents:Atextconsistsofatheme,printedsymbols,words,sentences, paragraphsandlargerunitsofdiscourse,syntax,cohesion,anaphora, StylisticMeaning:Stylisticmeaningisthatwhichapieceoflanguageconveysabout the social circumstances of its use. We recognize some words or pronunciations as being dialectical, i.e., as telling us something of the geographical or social origin of the speaker. Other features of the language tell us something of the social relationship between the speaker and hearer. Variations in a person's speech or writing usually varies from casual to formal according to the type of situation, the personorpersonsaddressed,thelocation,thetopicdiscussed,etc.Wehaveascale of status usage that ranges from formal and literaryEnglish at one end to colloquial, familiar,andslangEnglishattheother. Message: What is conveyed in speech or writing from one person to one or more other people. The message may not always be stated in verbal form but can be conveyedbyothermeans,e.g.:awink,gestures.Adistinctioncanbemadebetween message form and message content. In spoken requests, for example, the message form is how the request is made(e.g.: type od sentence structure, useof nonuse of courtesy words, type of intonation) and the message content is what is actually requested(e.g.:theloanofsomemoney). SpeechActs Aspeechactisanutteranceasafunctionalunitincommunication.Inspeechact theoryutteranceshave2kindsofmeaning: Propositionalmeaning=illocutionarymeaning Thisisthebasicliteralmeaningoftheutterancewhichisconveyedbythe particularwordsandstructureswhichtheutterancecontains. Illocutionarymeaning=illocutionaryforce Thisistheeffecttheutteranceorwrittentexthasonthereaderorhearer. e.g.:inIamthirstythepropositionalmeaningiswhattheutterancesaysaboutthe speaker'sphysicalstate.Theillocutionaryforceistheeffectthespeakerwantsthe utterancetohaveonthelistener.Itmaybeintendedasarequestforsomethingto drink.Aspeechactisasentenceorutterancewhichhasbothpropositionalmeaning andillocutionaryforce.Therearemanykindsofspeechacts:requests,orders,

commands,complaints,promises. Aspeechactwhichisperformedindirectlyissometimesknownasanindirectspeech act,suchasthespeechactsofrequestingabove.Indirectspeechactsareoftenfelt tobemorepolitewaysofperformingcertainkindsofspeechact,suchasrequests andrefusals. SpeechActClassification: 1. Commissive:aspeechactthatcommitsthespeakerordoingsomethinginthe futuresuchasapromiseorathreat. Ifyoudon'tstopfighting,I'llcallthepolice.(threat) I'lltakeyoutothemovies.(promise) 2. Declarative:aspeechactwhichchangesthestateofaffairsintheworld.e.g: duringtheweddingceremonytheactofmarriageisperformedwhenthephrase Inowpronounceyoumanandwifeisuttered. 3. Directive:aspeechactthathasthefunctionofgettingthelistenertodo something,suchasasuggestion,arequest,oracommand.E.g.: Pleasesitdown. Whydon'tyouclosethewindow. 4. Expressive:aspeechactinwhichthespeakerexpressesfeelingsandattitudes aboutsomething,suchasanapology,acomplaint,tothanksomeone,to congratulatesomeone.E.g.: Themealwasdelicious. Representative:aspeechactwhichdescribesstatesoreventsintheworldsuchas anassertion,aclaim,areport.e.g.: ThisisaGermancar. Encoding:Theprocessofturningamessageintoasetofsymbolsaspartoftheact ofcommunication.Inencodingspeech,thespeakermust: selectameaningtobecommunicated. turnitintoalinguisticformusingsemanticsystems(e.g.concepts, propositions),grammaticalsystems(e.g.:words,phrases,clauses),and phonologicalsystems(e.g.phonemes,syllables).Differentsystemsof communicationmakeuseofdifferenttypesofsymbolstoencodemessages (e.g.:pictorialrepresentation,morsecode,drumbeats).

 Decoding:Theprocessoftryingtounderstandthemeaningofaword,phrase,or sentence.Whendecodingaspeechutterance,thelistenermust: holdtheutteranceinshorttermmemory. analyzetheutteranceintosegmentsandidentifyclauses,phrases,andother linguisticunits. identifytheunderlyingpropositionsandillocutionarymeaning. Decodingisalsousedtomeantheinterpretationofanysetofsymbolswhichcarrya meaning,forexampleasecretcodeofaMorsesignal. Tenor: refers to the participants who are taking part in this exchange of meaning, whotheyareandwhatkindofrelationshiptheyhavetooneanother. Mode: What part the language is playing in this particular situation, for example, in whatwaythelanguageisorganisedtoconveythemeaning Channel:writtenorspokenlanguageorboth SomeKindsofTexts: Literary texts: novels, short stories, tales, biographies, essays, diaries, plays, pomes,nurseryrhymes, Socialletters(invitations,thankyounotes),postcards,telegrams. Newspapers, magazines (headlines, articles, editorials, letters to the editor, classifiedads,weatherforecasts,radio/T.V./theatreprograms. Specialized articles, reports, reviews, essays, business letters, summaries, accounts,pamphlets,termpapers,researchpapers,documentaries. Handbooks,textbooks,guidebooks, Advertisements,travelbrochures,catalogues. Recipes, instructions (warnings), directions (how to use), notices, rules & regulations, posters, (road signs), forms (application forms, landing cards), menus,tickets. Comicstrips,jokes&riddles,cartoons&caricatures.

TextTypesAccordingtoPurpose:Narrative,descriptive,persuasive,informative. Text types According to Register: Journalese, legal, business, military, radio broadcasts, technical, literary, telephone, broadcasting, games, public speaking, commercial,advertisement,recipe,personalletter,businessletter.

BasicDefinitions Stylistics(N):Thestudyofstylesoflanguage.Thestudyofthatvariationinlanguage (style)whichisdependentonthesituationinwhichthelanguageisusedandalsoon the effect the writer or speaker wishes to create on the reader or hearer. It is the studyofthegrammatical,phonologicalandpracticalaspectsofstyleinlanguage.Itis the study or practice of the art of using linguistic devices to make communication more precise, connotative or personal. Although stylistics sometimes includes investigations of spoken language, it usually refers to the study of written language, includingliterarytexts.Stylisticsisconcernedwiththechoicesthatareavailabletoa writer and the reasons why particular forms and expressions are used rather than others. Stylistician:Onewhomakesamethodicalstudyoftheprinciplesofstyle. Style: The particular identifying characteristic of something, as writing style, acting style,baroquestyle. Awayoflivingordressing,etcaslivinginstyle;one'slifestyle. The particular way in which a person uses language in a given social environment;idiolect. Style as applied in writing and speaking is an elusive and subtle concept. In the broadest sense it refers to the characteristic way in which a person conceivesandexpressesideasthroughlanguage. The characteristic of a work which reflect its author's distinctive way of writing.Styleistotheworkofawriterwhatpersonalityistoanindividual. An author's use of language, its effects, and its appropriateness to the author'sintentandtheme.Styleisthedressofthoughts. The identifying aspect of a piece of writing or some other kind of performance. Themannerinwhichsomethingissaidordonein contrasttoitsmessage. AlinguisticVariationinaperson'sspeechorwriting.Styleusuallyvariesfrom casual to formal according to the type of situation, the person or persons addressed, the location, the topic discussed, etc. A particular style, e.g. formalstyleorcolloquialstyle,issometimesreferredtoasastylisticvariety. Stylecanalsorefertoaparticularperson'suseof speech or writing at all times or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time, e.g.: Dickens'style,thestyleofShakespeare,an18thcenturystyleofwriting. The element of style exists on the level of all meaningful linguistic units from wordtotext,andinallkindsofwritingwhetherliteraryornonliterary. 10

 Stylist: Aspeakerorwriterwhocultivatesanartfulliterarystyle. Adesignerorconsultantonstylesindecorating,dress,orbeauty. Stylistic variation: Differences in the speech or writing of a person or group of people according to the situation, the topic, the addressee(s) and the location. Stylistic variation can be observed in the use of different speech sounds, different wordsorexpressions,ordifferentsentencestructures. Genre: A particular class of speech events (a particular instance when people exchangespeech,eganexchangeofgreetings,anenquiry,aconversation)whichare consideredby the speech community as beingof the same type. Examples of genres are: prayers, sermons, conversations, songs, speeches, poems, letters, and novels. They have particular and distinctive characteristics. A group of several genres are calledacomplexgenre. Text: A piece of spoken or written language. It may be considered from the pointof view of its structure and or its functions, e.g.: warning, instructing, carrying out a transaction. A full understanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context in which it occurs. A text may consist of just one word, e.g.: DANGER on a warning sign, or it may be of considerable length, e.g.: a sermon, a novel or a debate. Discourse: A general term for examples of language use, language which has been produced as the result of an act of communication. Whereas grammar refers to the rules a language uses to form grammatical units such as clause, phrase, and sentence, discourse refers to larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations, and interviews. The study of both written and spoken discourse is knownasdiscourseanalysis. Discourseanalysis:Thestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageform larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc. for example,discourseanalysisdealswith: how the choice of articles, pronouns, and tenses affects the structure of the discourse. therelationshipbetweenutterancesinadiscourse(adjacencypairs, coherence). The moves made by speakers to introduce a new topic, change the topic, or assertahigherrolerelationshiptotheotherparticipants.

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LevelsofStyle: formalandinformalstyle: literaryandnonliterarystyle phonologicalaspectsofstyle: intonation lexicalaspectsofstyle: idioms proverbs figuresofspeech(similes&metaphors) euphemisms cliches slang grammaticalaspectsofstyle: nominalandverbalstyleSebeok emphasis activeandpassive subjunctive cleft topicalisation nominalization semanticaspectsofstyle variantreadingsandmisreadings(ambiguity) organization

StylesofSpeech: You also understand the contexts or situations in which styles of language maybeused: Pardonme,butwouldmindopeningthewindow please? Openthewindownow. Gee,itshotinhere. The attitudes you have about and how and when different forms of speech areusedandaboutthepeoplewhousethem. TRANSLATION: The process of converting the meaning of phrases, sentences, etc., from one languagetoanother. StylisticMeaning Stylistic meaning is that which a piece of language conveys about the social circumstances of its use. We recognize some words or pronunciations as being dialectical, i.e., as telling us something of the geographical or social origin of the 12

speaker. Other features of the language tell us something of the social relationship between the speaker and hearer. Variations in a person's speech or writing usually variesfromcasualtoformalaccordingtothetypeofsituation,thepersonorpersons addressed, the location, the topic discussed, etc. We have a scale of status usage that ranges from formal and literary English at one end to colloquial, familiar, and slangEnglishattheother. A.Regional: elevator(AmEng),lift(BrEng.) rentacar(AmEng),hireacar(BrEng.) either,often,laboratory,car,military,box,main, B.Formalvs.informal: Atapartywhereeveryoneislaughingand chatting, Peter Reynolds sees someone he thinks he recognizes. "Hello! You must be bill Merchant. I'm Peter".PeterReynoldsisgivingatalkathisfirm'sannual international sales conference. he has only recently joined the company and many in theaudiencedonotknowhim."MayIintroducemyself:PeterReynolds,sales manager,NorthernEurope".

C.Standard,Colloquial,Slang: Itakeyourpoint I'vegotthemessage Allright,thepenny'sdropped. (Standard) (colloquial) (slang)

D.Literary: "I'lltelltheeeverythingican; There'slittletorelate. Isawanagedagedman, Asittingonagate. 'Whoareyou,agedman?'Isaid. 'Andhowisityoulive? Andhisanswertrickledthroughmyhead Likewaterthroughasieve. Hesaid'Ilookforbutterflies 13

Thatsleepamongthewheat; Imakethemintomuttonpies, Andselltheminthestreet. Isellthemuntomen,'hesaid, 'Whosailonstormyseas; Andthat'sthewayIgetmybread Atrifle,ifyouplease.'

Context Thatwhichoccursbeforeandorafteraword,aphraseorevenalongerutteranceor text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc. E.g.: the word loud in loud music is usually understood as meaning "noisy" whereas in a tie with a loud pattern it is understood as unpleasantly "colorful". The context may also be the broader social situation in which a linguistic item is used. E.g.: in ordinary usage, spinster refers to "an older unmarried woman" butinlegalcontextitreferstoanyunmarriedwoman. ContextofSituation Thatwhichoccursbeforeorafteraword,aphraseorevenalongerutteranceor text.Thecontextoftenhelpsinunderstandingtheparticularmeaningoftheword, phrase,etc.e.g..:thewordloudinloudmusicisusuallyunderstoodasmeaning "noisy"whereasinatiewithaloudpatternitisunderstoodasunpleasantly "colorful".Thecontextmayalsobethebroadersocialsituationinwhichalinguistic itemisused.e.g:inordinaryusage,spinsterrefersto"anolderunmarriedwoman" butinlegalcontextitreferstoanyunmarriedwoman. 1.Situationalcontext:Itisassociatedwiththenotionofstyle. 2.Temporalcontext:Changeinlanguageinthedimensionoftime.ModernEnglish showssomedifferencefromShakespeareanorVictorianEnglish(19thcentury)in formormeaningofawordobtainedfromacommonsource. 3.Regionalcontext:Referstochangeinlanguageonthedimensionofgeographical region,eg 4.Socialcontext:Theenvironmentinwhichmeaningsareexchanged.Thesocial contextoflanguagecanbeanalyzedintermsofthreefactors: Thefieldofdiscoursereferstowhatishappening,includingwhatisbeing talkedabout.

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Thetenorofdiscoursereferstotheparticipantswhoaretakingpartinthis exchangeofmeaning,whotheyareandwhatkindofrelationshiptheyhave tooneanother. Themodeofdiscoursereferstowhatpartthelanguageisplayinginthis particularsituation,forexample,inwhatwaythelanguageisorganizedto conveythemeaningandwhatchannelisusedwrittenorspokenora combinationofboth.

Field:referstowhatishappening,includingwhatisbeingtalkedabout ApproachesToTheStudyOfStyle Stylecanbestudiedindifferentways: Accordingtothesubjectfield:literary,sociologicalsocial,psychologicaland linguisticstudyofstyle. Accordingtolinguisticlevels,i.e.linguisticunits. Accordingtolanguagefunctions. ApproachesAccordingtoLinguisticLevels: 1.1Microstylisticsisthestudyofstylefeaturesattheword,phrase,clauseand sentencelevels.Itissubdividedinto: phonostylistics:Studyofstylefeaturesatthephonologicallevel. morphostylistics:Studyofstylefeaturesatthemorphologicallevel. lexicostylistics:Studyofstylefeaturesatthelexicallevel,i.e.,lexicalitems andpatternsofvocabulary. syntacticostylistics:Studyofstylefeaturesatthesentencelevel,i.e.,studyof sentencestructuresattheclause,phraseandwordlevel(verbalstyle, nominalstyle). 1.2Macrostylisticsisthestudyofstylefeaturesabovethesentencelevel,i.e., paragraphs, stanzas, sections, chapters, and whole book. The text may be of any lengthandanyform.

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ApproachesAccordingtoLanguageFunctions: Function is the purpose for which an utterance or language unit is used. Language functions have been classified in different ways according to the approach and the purpose of the investigation. According to Buhler, language may be used as a symptom, a symbol or a signal. Symptom is selfexpression and is speakercentered. Symbol is information and is textcentered. Signal is persuasion and is hearer centered. Expressive Stylistics: It investigates texts in which symptom is dominant like lyric poetry, personal letters, diary writing and biographies. In such texts the focusisontheauthororspeaker'spersonality. Cognitive Stylistics: It is appropriate for studying texts where symbol is dominantasintechnical,technological,scientific,social,historicaltexts.Here thefocusisoninformation. Affective Stylistics: It is appropriate for studying texts in which signal is dominant as in public speeches, sermons, advertisements. In such texts the hearerorspeakertriestopersuade,affect,appealto,orexhortthereaderor hearer into believing in a certain thing or taking some kind of action. One languagefunctionormore(symbol,symptomandsignal)maybedominantin the same text. A text may be investigated for symbol, symptom and signal at thesametime. DISCURSIVEVSEXPRESSIVELANGUAGE Discursive Language: It is the language of science. It is used to transmit information, and knowledge. It is codecentered. It is cognitive. Texts are concerned with the real world. It is denotative, monodimensional, and unambiguous. ExpressiveLanguage: Itisthelanguageofliterature.Itisthelanguageusedto express emotions, feelings, and attitudes. It is messagecentered. It is understood through the components of the message. Texts are concerned with the author's inner world (his feelings, emotions and experiences). It is connotative,multidimensional,andambiguous.

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4.OTHERFACTORSAFFECTINGSTYLE English is the common core or nucleus which is realized in the different forms of the languageweactuallyhearofread.Throughhisuseoflanguagesuchasvocabulary,a person may reveal facts about his age, his sex, his educational level, his occupation, his social class, and his geographical and cultural origin. The following are some factorsthataffectstyle: a.Region=dialect Geographical dispersion is a basis for linguistic variation. This dispersion resultedindifferentdialects.Everyonespeaksaregionaldialect.Regionalvariations (dialects) are realized predominantly in phonology, i.e, we tend to recognize a differentdialectfromaspeaker'spronunciationbeforewenoticethathisvocabulary is also distinctive. Grammatical variation tends to be less distinctive. But all types of linguisticorganizationcanreadilyenoughbeinvolved. l,r,often,matter,water,box,interstate,territory flat/apartment;rent/hire;lift,elevator;post,mail. Ineversaw;Iveneverseen. b.EducationandSocialStanding: There is an important polarity of uneducated and educated speech in which theformercanbeidentifiedwiththeregionaldialectmostcompletelyandthelatter moves away from dialectical usage. Educated speech tends to be given the additional prestige of government agencies, the learned professions, the political parties, the press, the lawcourt. Educated English is referred to as "Standard English". Upper class English has more in common with Standard English than has lowerclass English. Forms that are associated with uneducated use are often called "substandard". Here the speech or writing of the person or group does not conform tothestandardvarietyofthelanguageinpronunciation,grammarorvocabularyand isthereforethoughttobeundesirable.Amoreneutraltermthatisusedbylinguists forformsthatdonotbelongtothestandardvarietyofalanguageis"nonstandard". e.g.: Idon'tknownothing (substandard) telly,chocs(chocolate), advert(advertisement), comfty(comfortable), veggy(vegetables)

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c.Subjectmatter=register A speech variety used by a particular group of people , usually sharing the same occupation (eg doctors, lawyers) or the same interests (eg stamp collectors, baseball fans). A particular register often distinguishes itself from other registers by having a number of distinctive words, by using words or phrases in a particular way (in tennis: deuce, love, tramlines, van), and sometimes by special grammatical constructions(eg:legallanguage). Most people have a repertoire of registers. The same speaker would switch to the appropriate register as the occasion arises. The switch involves nothing more than turning to the particular set of lexical items habitually used for handling the subjectmatterinquestion:law,cookery,engineering,football. d.Medium: Referstospokenvswrittenlanguage.Mostofthedifferencearisefrom2 sources:oneissituationalinwhichtheuseofawrittenmediumnormallypresumes theabsenceofthepersontowhomthepieceoflanguageisaddressed.Thisimposes thenecessityofacarefulandprecisecompletionofasentenceratherthantheodd wordsupportedbygesture,andterminatingwhenthespeakerisassuredbywordor lookthathishearerhasunderstood. Thesecondsourceofdifferenceisthatmanyofthedevicesweuseto transmitlanguagebyspeech(stress,rhythm,intonation,andtempo)areimpossible torepresentinawrittentext. e.Attitude: Thechoiceofalinguisticformmayproceedfromourattitudetothehearer orreader,tosubjectmatter,ortothepurposeofourcommunication.Theessential aspectofthenonlinguisticcomponentisthegradientbetweenstiff,formal,cold, impersonalandrelaxed,informal,warm,friendlystyles.Wecandistinguish sentencescontainingfeaturesthataremarkedlyformalorinformal. Formalspeechisastyleofspeakingusedtoinformanaudienceinimpersonal terms,markedbycarefulattentiontoorganizationofcontentandtogrammatical structureandpronunciation.Professionallecturesaredeliveredinaformalstyle. f.Interference: Itisthetraceleftbysomeone'snativelanguageupontheforeignlanguagehe hasacquired.Thus,theFrenchmanwhosays:IamheresinceThursdayisimposinga FrenchgrammaticalusageonEnglish.Butthereareinterferencevarietiesthatareso widespreadinacommunityandofsuchlongstandingandarestableandadequate enoughtoberegardedasvariantsofEnglish.InIndiaandPakistanandseveral

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Africancountries,efficientandfairlystablevarietiesofEnglishareprominentin educateduseatthehighestpoliticalandprofessionallevels. StyleMarker: Itisalinguisticelementinthetextwhichsignalsafeatureofstyle.Itisalso calledstylefeatureorstylisticdevice.Itcanbeofanysize:asinglewordphrase,a multiwordphrase,aclause,asentence,aparagraph,agrammaticalcategory,a particulartransformation,asetofverbs,asemanticfeature.Itisrecognized intuitively. EXAMPLES monosyllabicwords:I,one,streets,staight,what,where. disyllabicwords:problems,classrooms,subjects,passage trisyllabicwords:proportion,beatiful,frequently,separate. imperative: Comehere!. Openthewindow,please! finiteverbs=Verbsbehavingasverbssuchas:run,open, want,change,write. nounadjunct:anounthatpremodifiesanothernounina nouncompound,e.g.: windowshade,policecar,kitchensink,kitchentable,waterbottle, trueadjectives:canberenderedinthecomparativedegreeandcanbeused attributivelyandpredicatively,e.g.: tall,taller;interesting,moreinteresting. Aninterestingbook Thebookisinteresting. untrueadjectives=nounadjunctconstructions.Theycannotberenderedinthe comparativedegreeandcannotbeusedpredicatively. incometax,waterbird,goldwatch,silverspoon,homeeconomics. adjectivesmodifiedbyadverbs: veryquickly,completelyfull,definitelyright subordinateclauses: 19

Theboy,whoisplayinginthegarden,ismybrother. ThisisthebookthatIboughtyesterday.

5. LEXICALASPECTSOFSTYLE General: Nouns: Arethenounsabstractorconcrete? Whatkindofabstractnounsoccur(nounsreferringtoevents, perceptions,processes,moralqualities,socialqualities)? Whatuseismadeofpropernames? whatuseismadeofcollectivenouns? Isthevocabularysimpleorcomplex? Isthevocabularyformalorinformal? Isthevocabularydescriptiveorevaluative? Isthevocabularygeneralorspecific? Howfardoestheauthormakeuseofemotiveandotherassociationsof wordsasopposedtotheirreferentialmeaning? Doesthetextcontainidiomaticphrases? Withwhatkindofdialectorregisteraretheseidiomsassociated Isthereanyuseofrareorspecializedvocabulary? Areanyparticularmorphologicalcategoriesnoteworthy(compound words,wordswithparticularsuffixes)? Towhatsemanticfieldsdowordsbelong?

Adjectives: Verbs: Doverbscarryanimportantpartofthemeaning? Aretheystativeordynamic? Dotheyrefertomovements,physicalacts,speechacts,psychological statesoractivities,perceptions? Aretheytransitive,intransitive,linking Aretheyfactiveornonfactive? 20 Aretheadjectivesfrequent? Towhatkindofattributesdoadjectivesrefer(physical,psychological, visual,auditory,color,referential,emotive,evaluative)? Areadjectivesrestrictiveornonrestrictive? Areadjectivesgradableornongradable? Areadjectivesattributiveorpredicative?

 Adverbs: EXAMPLES referential: Therelationshipbetweenwordsandthethings,actions,eventsandqualities they stand for. Reference in its wider sense would be the relationship between a wordorphraseandanentityintheexternalworld.foreample,thewordtreerefers totheobject"tree"(thereferent).Referenceinitsnarrowersenseistherelationship between a word or phrase and a specific object, eg. a particular tree or a particular animal. eg, Peter's horse would refer to a horse which is owned, ridden by , or in somewayassociatedwithPeter. Denotation=conceptual=cognitivemeaning It is the part of the meaning of the word that relates it to phenomena in the realworldorinafictionalorpossibleworld,e.g.:thedenotationoftheEnglishword bird is a twolegged , winged, egglaying, warmblooded creature with a beak. In a meaning system, denotative meaning may be regarded as the "central" meaning or 'core"meaningofalexicalitem. dogchairtreecartrain emotive=affectivemeaning=connotation The additional meanings that a word or a phrase has beyond its central meaning. These meanings show people's emotions and attitudes towards what the word or 21 simple vs complex = number of morphemes in the word, e.g.: unfriendli ness,sleepless,unproductive formal:pray(please);beget(produce);behindhand(late) informal:get(receive);beggar(fellow); descriptive&evaluative:thin,slim,skinny,slender,round,boring. general:animal,food,sports,vehicles,country. specific:mammal,fastfood,watersports,lorry,Egypt. veryspecific: cow,hamburger,Frenchfries,swimming. Areadverbsfrequent? Whatsemanticfunctionsdotheyperform(manner place,direction,time, degree? Isthereanysignificantuseofsentenceadverbs(conjunctssuchasso, therefore,however,disjunctssuchascertainly,obviously,frankly)?

phrase refers to. e.g.: child could be defined as a young being but there are many other characteristics which different people associate with child , e.g., affectionate, amusing, lovable, sweet, mischievous, noisy, irritating. Some connotations may be shared by a group of people of the same cultural or social background, sex, or age; others may be restricted to one or several individuals and depend on their personal experience, i.e., connotations vary from age to age, from society to society, from individual to individual within the same speech community. For example: candy swingdressfootballmoneyEnglish idiomatic=anexpressionwhichfunctionsasasingleunit and whose meaningcannotbeworkedoutfromitsseparateparts.Shewashedherhandsofthe matter.(meansSherefusedtohaveanythingmoretodowiththematter)makeup one'smind dialectical: lift(elevator),hire(rent), register: lambent(lit...havingsoftlight) scapula(med...shoulderblade) larceny(law...stealing) quark(tech...thesmallestpossiblepieceofmaterial) specialized: riverbed, base(math,architecture,tech,chem,pol,geometry) system(medicine,astronomy,education) wing(bio,politics,hotel,house,airforce,aircraft,sport) compound:twowordsusedasoneunit. separate:UnitedStated,Postoffice,AtlanticOcean hyphenated:swimmingpool,selfconfidence. agglutinated:flashback,manpower,sunflower ConcreteN=referstosomethingthatyoucansee&touch,&whichhasapositionin time and space. They refer to things, animals, places, gases, liquids, substances, e.g.: house, car, table, garden, man, Spain, Henry, water, sugar, oxygen,iron,crowd. abstractN=standsforgeneralfeelings,ideasorconcepts.

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happiness, beauty, health, honesty, whiteness, unity, education, manhood, childhood,difference,weakness. events(actions):act,answer,change,fight,laugh,shout,victory,start,examination. perception: smell, taste, vision, touch, process: changes of state that happen to people or things, such as: change, aging, growing, deterioration, weakening, dehydration, recovery, moral quality: honesty, truth, goodness, socialquality:helpfulness,friendliness,sociable,loneliness,selfishness, proper names: Names of specific people, places, countries, lakes, mountains, rivers, universities, months, days, holidays, magazines, festivals such as: Shakespeare, Chicago, Australia, Ontario, Amazon, University of London, January,Sunday,Christmas,Time,Thanksgiving. Collectivenouns=groupnouns team,crowd,peple,committee,staff,class, Adjectivesreferringtoattributes: physicalattributes:tall,short,slim,round,blonde, psychological:excited,aggressive,depressed,upset visualattribute:roughsea,windy, auditoryattribute:noisy,loud,soft. color:red,brown,greenish,dark. referential:thin,fat,big emotive:sad,excited,aggressive,depressed,angry. evaluative:difficult,careless,interesting,bad,beautiful. restrictive: nonrestrictive: gradable adjectives: can be modified by an adverb which convey the degree of intensityoftheadjectives. verytall;soyoung,extremelyinteresting taller,younger,moreinteresting nongradableadj:Technicaladjsarenotgradable. atomic, hydrochloric, enormous, American, annual, mental, physical, final, various,electric,unemployed,particular.

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attributiveadj: Aninterestingbook Thetallboy predicativeadj: Thebookisinteresting. Theboyistall. stativeV=Vofinertperceptionandcognition. adore,believe,desire,dislike,doubt,feel,forgive, guess, like, hate, hear, imagine, impress, intend, know, love, mean, mind, perceive, please, prefer, realize, recall, recognize, regard, remember, satisfy, see, smell, suppose, taste,think,understand,want,wish. dynamicV:canformtheprogressive. ask,beg,call,drink,eat,help,learn,listen,lookat,play, rain, say, throw, work, write, change, grow, mature, slow down, widen, ache, feel, hurt, itch, arrive,die,fall,land,lose,hit,jump,kick,knock,nod,tap. movement: walk,run,enter,leave,fly,land,move,go. physicalact: cut,dig,eat,drink,wrap,bend,stand,sit,work. speechact: say,state,announce,report,declare,request,refuse, psychologicalstate: annoy, amuse, astonish, calm, concern, disgust, excite, frighten, horrify, humiliate, hurt, impress, grieve ,impress, satisfy, offend, relax, scare, satisfy, sadden, perception: feel,hear,notice,observe,see,smell,watch. transitive V = takes a direct object and sometimes an indirect object, e.g.: write, play,give,show,take, intransitiveV=doesnottakeanobject: walk,come,run,sleep,stand,sit,

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 linking Verbs = expresses condition or status. It takes no object. E.g.: be, seem, become,appear,feel. factive Verbs: believe, admit, agree, answer, declare, deny, expect, hope, insist, know,report,say,see,suggest,suppose,think,understand,ascertain, discover,realize,regret. SemanticfunctionofAdverbs: Manner:actively,calmly,carefully,gladly,quickly, sincerely, late, anyhow, together,still,how. Direction:towards,out,inside,up,along,across,by. Time:always,never,often,seldom,sometimes,already,before,immediately, lately, once, presently, shortly, soon, still, today, tomorrow, tonight, when, yet. Degree:absolutely,thoroughly,extremely,greatly,deeply, completely, much, entirely. Sentenceadverbs: Adjuncts=partoftheclause Theyarewaitingoutside. Icannowunderstandit. Hespoketomeaboutitbriefly. disjuncts: certainly, obviously, frankly. Fortunately, I remembered in timewhohewas.Indeed,Iwon'tdoit. conjuncts:so,therefore,however,yet,though. We have complained several times about the noise, and yet he does nothingaboutit. Useofslang: Casual, very informal speech, using expressive but informal words and expressions. for some people, slang is equivalent to "colloquial speech" but for others,itmeans"undesirablespeech".Usually,'colloquialspeech'referstoaspeech variety used in informal situations with colleagues, friends or relatives, and 'slang' is used for a very informal speech variety which often serves as an 'ingroup' language

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for a particular group of people such as teenagers, army recruits, popgroups etc. Most slang is rather unstable as its words and expressions can change quite rapidly, e.g.: Beatit!Scram!Rackoff! (forleave) fag (cigarette) fedup (boredwith) UseofEuphemisms: The use of a word that is thought to be less offensive or pleasant than another word.e.g.: indisposedinsteadofsick topassawayinsteadoftodie seniorcitizeninsteadofold.person laidtorestinsteadofburied sanitaryengineerforjanitor Useofcliches: A word or expression that has lost its originality or offensiveness because it hasbeenusedtoooften.Soontheybecometriteandlosetheirforce.e.g.:impacted on;viable,upbeat,beinto(I'mintodieting) UseofStandardvsnonstandardWords nohow (nonstandard) don't (nonstandard) Useofrarewords: wireless(meansofsendingmessagesinsound) Useofobsolete&archaicwords: Theyarewordsthatarenolongerusedsuchas: verily (bibl,olduse....truly) thine (bibl,olduse&poetic....yours) thouart (bibl,olduse....youare) tothee (bibl,olduse....toyou) beget (bibl,olduse....becomethefatherof) behold (lit&olduse...tohaveinsight) ort (fragmentoffood) yestreen (lastevening) Tautology Tautology is wordiness = use of different words to say the same thing Commutersgoingbackandforthtoworkorschoolformedcarpools.(wordy) 26

 Commutersformedcarpools.(concise) Each writer has a distinctive style, and he or she uses this in his or her own works.(wordy) Eachwriterhashisownstyle.(concise) Needlessrepetition: Thisinterestinginstructorknowshowtomakeauninterestingsubjectinteresting. Usingunnecessarywords: Intheeventthatthegradingsystemischanged,expectcomplaintsonthepartofthe students. The reason why we honor Lincoln in these various ways is because he saved the Union. High,MiddleandLowStyles: Highstyleaimsatloftinessandgrandeur.Itwasusedmorefreelyinthepast, but nowadays it is considered too ornate and ceremonious. It is characterized by its solemnity, its resounding rhythms and its elaborate sentence structures. It uses unfamiliarwordsandisthusdifficultforthegeneralreader. Middlestyleaimsatclarityandsimplicity.Itsoundslikeconversation.Itrelies on familiar wording. It is the style in which most of the world's writing gets done. Sometimesitischaracterizedbyuseofforeignexpressionsorvoguewords(onethat becomespopularthatitisusedtoofreelyandwithtoolittleregardforitsmeaning), use of jargon which specialists use to write for other specialists more clearly and concisely.However,thewritermustkeepthejargontoaminimum,replacingit with everydayEnglish.Ifhemustuseajargontermheshoulddefineit. Low style is plain and ordinary like the wording of casual conversation. It is appropriate for notes to the milkman or babysitter, letters to friends, and letters or articlesforacampusnewspaper.Itsoundslikecasualtalk.Thecharacteristicsoflow style are: use of colloquial or informal diction, use of slang words, use of first and secondpersonpronouns,useofcontractions. Semanticfeatures They are also called semantic fields; semantic components; or semantic properties. Semantic features refer to the basic unit of meaning in a word. The meanings of words may be described as a combination of semantic features. e.g.: thesemanticfeature<+male>ispartofthemeaningoffather,andsoisthefeature 27

,<+adult>, but other features are needed to give the whole concept or sense of father. The same feature may be part of the meaning of a number of words, e.g.: <+movement> is part of the meaning of a whole group of verbs and nouns such as run, jump, walk, gallop. Sometimes, semantic features are established by contrasts andcanbestatedintermsof<+>or<>,e.g.: child <+human> <adult> man <+human> <+adult> <+male> boy <+human> <adult> <+male> Nouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives and prepositions have semantic properties. Each word has at least one semantic property. The meaning of nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and prepositionscanbedefinedbysuchproperties,e.g.: Nouns Abstract:idea,truth,thought,action,flight,attachment. Action:movement,vibration,battle,fusion,flight, attachment. Chemicalcompound:sodiumchloride,vitaminC, benzene,laughinggas. Concrete:water,air,child,attachment,Plato,galaxy,motor,molecule. Form:circle,sphere,square,ellipse,cylinder,cone. Human:man,child,sister,Plato,chairman. Male:man,Plato,uncle,rooster,king. Measureunit:centimeter,mile,kilogram,liter,second,degreeC,lightyear. Physicalobject:flower,motor,Plato,galaxy,molecule,attachment. Vertebrate:man,fish,salmon,bird,Plato. Verbs: Causative:(blowup,break,kill,open,put,...) Factive:(ascertain,discover,know,realize,regret...) Inchoative:(break,grow,mature,rise,stop,...) Defect:(crack,deteriorate,rot,rust,scar,...) Adjectives: Degree:(bright,happy,large,useful,young) Defect:(bad,corrosive,defective,rusty,sick) form:(angular,circular,oblong,polygon,round,...) Adverbs: Locative:(afar,centrally,here,nearby,there,...) Time:(now,soon,today,tomorrow,yesterday,...) Degree:(extremely,quite,rather,too,very,...) Defect:(badly,excessively,harmfully,poorly,...)

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Prepositions: Locative:(a,in,infrontof,on,under) Movement:(bywayof,into,onto,toward,via..) Time:(after,at,before,during,priorto) 6. GRAMMATICALASPECTSOFSTYLE: GrammaticalAnalysisandDescription Sentencetypes: Sentencecomplexity: Clausetypes: Clausestructure: Frequencyofobjects,complements,adverbials. Frequencyoftransitiveandintransitiveverbs. Arethereanyinitialadverbials,frontingofobjectorcomplement? Useofpreparatoryitorthere? Whattypeofdependentclausesareused(relativeclauses,adverbialclauses, nominalclauses) Arereducedornonfiniteclausescommonlyused? Aresentencessimpleorcomplex? Whatistheaveragesentencelength? Ratioofindependenttodependentclauses? Arethereanyanticipatorystructures(subjectsprecedingverbs, dependentclausesprecedingsubjectofmainclause)? Doestheauthorusestatements,questions,commands,exclamations?

Nounphrases: Aretheysimpleorcomplex? Ispremodificationbyadjectiveorpostmodificationbyprepositionalphrases complex? Arethereanylistings(sequencesofadjectives),coordination,orapposition.

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Verbphrases: Arethereanyspecialusesoftheprogressiveaspect,perfectiveaspect,modal auxiliaries.

otherphrasetypes: Isthereanyspecialusesofprepositionalphrases,adverbphrases,adjective phrases. wordclasses: General: Areanygeneraltypesofgrammaticalconstructionsusedtospecialeffect (comparativeorsuperlative,coordinativeorlisting,appendedorinterpolated structures(puttinginadditionalwords). Whichfunctionwordslikeprepositions,conjunctions,pronouns, determiners,auxiliaries,interjectionsareused? Areanyfunctionwordsusedforparticulareffect?

Partsofspeech: nouns:London,Peter,sugar,people,team,tree. verbs: go, come, give, stay, seem, like. be, can, will, shall, may, might, have, do,ought. adjectives:small,beautiful,circular,polite. adverbs:quickly,slowly,definitely. pronouns:I,we,you,he,she,it,they. prepositions:in,on,to,up,into. articles:the(definite),a,an(indefinite). conjunctions:and,but,or,although,yet,however, interjections:Oh!Ohdear!Oops,Hooray!Wow!

Sentencetypes: questions: o WhatdidIbuy? o WheredidIbuythebook? statements: o Iboughtagrammarbookatthebookstore.

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o Whoboughtthebook? o DidIbuyabook? commands o Closethewindow,please! exclamatory: o Whatanexcitingmovie! o Howinterestingthetripwas! o Sheissuchagoodfriend!

Sentencecomplexity: o simple:IspentmysummerholidayinAlaska. o compound: IwenttoAlaskaandvisitedanEskimovillage. WhenIwenttoAlaska,IvisitedanEskimosvillage. IwenttoAlaska,butIcouldnotswim. Iboughteggs,bananas,orangesandapples. ImetSara,MaryandDavidbutnotSteve. Icam,Isaw,Iconquered. I'llhave,coffee,eggs,cheesecake. Iknowit,youknowit,sheknowsit,butdoesanybodycare? o complex: ThisisthebookthatIboughtyesterday. Theboywhowontheprizeismyyoungerbrother Australia,acountryofgreatdistancesandwidely separated centersofpopulation,hasaveryimportantnetworkofinternal airlines. anticipatorystructures: o The form it used to displace the real or original subject of a sentence. (subjects preceding verbs, dependent clauses preceding subject of mainclause)? o Runningarailroadcanbetroublesome. o itcanbetroublesomerunningarailroad. o Havingadayofffromworkisnice. o Itisnicehavingadayofffromwork. o Marysavedthebaby'slife. o ItwasMarywhosavedthebaby'slife.

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Clausetypes: (a)relative:adependentclauseintroducebyarelativepronounand modifyingsomeelementinthemainclause. o Themanwhomweallmetlastweeklostallhismoneyin thestock marketcrash. o keepingupahousethatyoureallyloveisnorealproblem. (b)adverbial:adependentclausethefunctionsasanadverb,modifyinga verb,adjective,oranotheradverb. o Althoughheisalone,he'sneverlonely. o Iwillbuyyourticket,unlessyouwanttouseit. (c)nominal: o Weknowhowhedidit. o ThatFredkeptpigeonsiswellknown. (d)reducedclauses: o Thebuswewerewaitingforneverarrived. o Thebus(which)wewerewaitingforneverarrived. o Doyourememberthedaywefirstmet. o Doyouremembertheday(when)wefirstmet. o Whenangry,sheblushed. o When(sheis)angry,sheblushed. o Althoughhorriblyembarrassed,hesomehowgot through the speech. o Although (she was) horribly embarrassed, he somehow got through thespeech. Clausestructure: clause=anygroupofwordsthathaveasubjectandaverb. objects: Ireadabook. (directobj) Igaveherapresent. (indirectobj) Don'tchopdownthatoldtree! (clause) Iwanttofeedthedog. (objofinfinitive) IgavethebooktoSally. (objofprep) Iheardofthestory. (objofprep)

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complements: Thegirlishappy. Sheisateacher. Thecatappearsconfused. Wearepleasedthatyoucouldcome. Theyelectedhimpresident. initialadverbials=adjuncts,disjunctsandconjuncts. frontingofobject=thematicfronting HisnameisJoe. Joe,hisnameis. Ilikecoffee Coffee,Ilikeit IwasborninLondonandI'lldieinLondon. InLondonIwasbornandinLondonI'lldie. Tenfurtheritemsofimportancemaybeaddedtothislist. Tothislistmaybeaddedtenfurtheritemsofimportance

Samcansolvemostoftheseproblemsinasecond. MostoftheseproblemsSamcansolveinasecond. preparatoryitorthere=(asadummyorfillersubject) Thereisnothingleftforustodo. Thereweretwentyofthemalltogether. Itlooksasifitwillraintoday. Itisgoingtorain. Sentenceconstituents: nounphrase(NP),verbphrase(VP),prepositionalphrase(PP). TheHausaswearflowingwhitegarments. Ironisthemostimportantindustrialmetal. Manylargecitiesdependonlakesfortheirwatersupply. Inthelessdenseforestthepeoplecombineprimitiveagriculturewiththeir huntingactivities. Most of the capital cities of Europe have become the centers of networks thatconnectthemwithotherkeytowns. Simple&complexNP

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Johnboughtthehouse. Anoldmanboughtthehouse Theboyonthebicycleismybrother. Thethin,tall,blondeboyismybrother. anoldman,awomanandtheirsonboughtthehouse. ThattheFrenchrevoltedin1789wasnewstoEric. Wewanteverythingyoucanpossiblyget. Thebeliefthatvolcanoeshavetheirorigininahotliquid interioroftheearthisnowconsideredtobewrong.

Apposition o The guests angry at their hosts' rude behavior, left without saying good bye. o Tooilltogetoutofbed,heaskedhiswifetocalladoctor. o Theman,awarethathemadeamistake,triedtocorrect it. Ellipsis: Wedonotknowwhethertogo(ornot). Wedesirethework(tobe)doneimmediately. Iboughtsomebooksandacomputer. Although(shewas)inahurry,shestoppedtohelptheoldlady. Mostpeopledon'tworkhardbutapersonwhodoesgetsahead. Focus,themeandemphasis Hedidwalk,Itellyou. (emph.aux) Hereallydidsellhishouse. (emph.aux) Dopleasesitdown. (emph.aux) Imyselfwillseethatitisdoneontime. (emph.appos.) Youyourselfareresponsible. (emph.appos.) Whatatimewe'vehadtoday! (exclamation) acertainwinner (intensifier) agreatmistake (intensifier) Sheissopretty. (intensifier) Sheishighlyintelligent. (intensifier) RedwasmyfaceasIexplainedtheembarrassingsituation(extraposition) TokeepgoodtimeiswhatIexpectfrommyclocks. It is the girl that I was complainingabout. Itwasbecausehewasillthatwedecidedtoreturn. Whatyouneedmostisagoodrest. Whowasitwhointerviewedyou? Agoodrestiswhatyouneedmost. Itisagoodrestwhatyouneedmost. 34

intensifiers: actually, definitely, indeed, certainly, clearly, obviously, really, surely,honestlycertain,complete,extreme,entire,great.

SentenceVariety: Too many sentences of the same size and structure can lead to boring prose, even when the message is far from boring. The power of style comes from its emphatic variations. Good style is characterized by uses a variety of sentence structure, sentence types, sentence length, sentence beginnings, avoids loose sentences, (1) Varying sentence length = avoiding choppy sentences (a series of short sentences): o Douglas wrote a quick note. It was to Nora. She is his former employer. (choppy) o DouglaswroteaquicknotetoNora,hisformeremployer. (better) o Twodayspassed.Thenhelicoptersheadedforthe mountaintop.The blizzardhadstrandedseveralclimbers.(choppy) o Aftertwodays,helicoptersheadedforthemountaintop, becausethe blizzardhadstrandedseveralclimbers.(better) (b)Varyingthebeginningofthesentences: (c)Avoidingloosestringysentences: (d)Varyingsubjectverbsequences: (e)Usingquestions,commandsandexclamatorysentencesinsteadofstatements.

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(3)SemanticAspectsofStyle FiguresofSpeech=figurativelanguage=imagery Afigureofspeechisawordorwordsinanimaginativeratherthanliteral sense.Thetwochieffiguresofspeecharethesimileandmetaphor.Asimileisan explicitcomparisonbetweentwothingsofadifferentkindorquality,usually introducedbylikeoras.Ametaphorisanimpliedcomparisonofdissimilarthings. Inametaphor,wordsofcomparison,suchaslikeoras,arenotused.Singlewords areoftenusedmetaphorically.Similesandmetaphorsarespeciallyvaluablewhen theyareconcreteandtendtopointupessentialrelationshipsthatcannototherwise becommunicated.Sometimeswritersextendametaphorbeyondasentence. o Thefirstthingthatpeoplerememberaboutfailingatmathisthatitfeltlike suddendeath.(asimile) o TheBowieknifeisasAmericanasahalftonpickuptruck.(asimile) o Successfullivingisajourneytowardsimplicityandatriumphoverconfusion. (ametaphor) o Thewolfpupsmakeafrothyribbonofsoundlikefatbubbling.(ametaphor &asimile) o Aman'sfeetmustbeplantedinhiscountry,buthiseyesshouldsurveythe world.(asinglewordmetaphor) o Somewomenhavemanagedtoshapeupandshipoutintothemainstream oflife,handlingthecurrentsandtherapidsandthequietpoolswithgracious, confidentease.Othersaretrappedinoneeddyafteranother,goingnowhere atall,hungupinswirlingpocketsofconfusion. Hyperboleisadeliberateoverstatementorexaggeration. Personificationistheattributiontothenonhuman(objects,animals,ideas)of characteristicspossessedonlybyhumans. o I,forone,don'texpecttillIdietobesogoodamanasIamatthisminute,for justnowI'mfiftythousandfeethighatowerwithallthetrumpets. (hyperbole) o Timetalks.Itspeaksmoreplainlythanwords...Itcanshoutthetruthwhere wordslie.(personification) Cliches:Awordorexpressionthathaslostitsoriginalityoreffectivenessbecauseit hasbeenusedtoooften.e.g.: o It'sacryingshame. o I'mheretotellyou... o Inthisdayandage... 36

o fromthefryingpanintothefire o tothebitterend o getitalltogether o cleanasahound'stooth Exercise: LieutenantBlueberryAdventure (1) BLUEBERRY:SoIhavetoseetheGeneralcommandingoperationsagainst theIndiansandtellhimthetruthabouttheStantonRanch,sir... (2) COLONEL:Hm...Ireckonyou'reoveroptimistic,Blueberry. We'retoofarintostopthekillingnow! (3) BLUEBERRY:Wemusttry,sir. (4) COLONEL:There'salotofpeopleinfavorofthiswar...andtheIndians themselveswon'tnegotiatewithanyone. (5) BLUEBERRY:Letmetry. (6) COLONEL:Obstinate,eh?Well.GeneralCookisincommand.He'satCamp Bowie. (7) BLUEBERRY:Andyou'reinluck!Ihavetoprovideanescortforan ammunitiontraingoingtherefromDallas. (8) COLONEL:I'mshortofofficers...soI'llgiveyoucommandoftheescort.You takechargeoftheconvoyfromPecosonward. (9) BLUEBERRY:Thanks,sir! (10) COLONEL:Don'tthankme...this'llbenopicnic!It'salongdangerousway fromPecostoCampBowie,andIcan'tgiveyoumanymen.Youleavefor Pecosintwodays'time.Maybeyoudon'tknowthearea,butyou'llhavean Apacheguide.Now,getsomerest. (11) BLUEBERRY:Thanksagain,sir...

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(4)COHESIONANDCOHERENCE Cohesion: istherelationshipbetweenmeanings.Itreferstothetiesbetween sentences.itisindependentofsentenceorgrammaticalboundaries.itisachieved throughrelationshipsinwhichtheinterpretationofoneideainthetextdependson successfulinterpretationofanother. Cohesiveties: linksthatestablishcohesion. TypesofCohesion: 1. Cohesionbyconjunction:itsuppliesthelogicalconnectionbetweenpartsof thetext.Itmarksthewayonesentencefollowstheotherandhowthetext asawholeismovingforward. 2. Lexicalcohesion:anindividualwordthatrefersbacktoanotherwordinthe developmentofthetext. Lexicalset:wordsofsimilarmeaningthatformastitchworkthroughthe textandcanbesetoutasaset. generalcommandingoperations,Indianskilling,war,Indians, negotiate,GeneralCook,command,escort,ammunitiontrain, command,escort,dangerous,CampBowie 3. Reference=anaphora=Thewayinwhichspeakersreferbacktoanother partof thetext.Itisachievedthroughpronouns&demonstratives. 4. Ellipsis=partoftheutteranceisleftunsaid. Coherence=Factorswhichhelpusseethetextasawhole.Itrelatestogeneral knowledgeastowhatgoeswithwhat,e.g.:knowledgeofhistoricaleventsinwhich theeventsaretakingplace,therelationshipbetweenIndiansandwhites,how armiesworkedthen,whata"wagontrain"is,what"operations"standfor. o cohesionisatextrelatedphenomenon,coherenceisatextandareader relatedphenomenon. o cohesionisonecomponentofcoherence. o tobecoherent,atextshouldhaveorganization. o Parallelstructureisanaidtocoherence.

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o Parallelsentenceelementsappearinlists,series,andcompoundstructures. Connectiveslikeand,or,but,yetlinkandrelatebalancedsentenceelements. o Parallelwordsandphrases: o Peoplebegantofeelbad,facelessandinsignificant. o Shehadnotimetobehuman,notimetobehappy. o Thetwomostpowerfulwordsintheworldarenotgunsandmoney,but wheatandoil. o Therewardrestsnotinthetaskbutinthepay. o Wejudgeourfriendsbothbytheirwordsandbytheiractions. o It'seasiertolovehumanityasawholethantoloveone'sneighbour. o Itisthethingsthatwethinkweknowbecausetheyaresoelementaryor becausetheysurroundusthatoftenpresentthegreatestdifficulties. Parallelclauses: o Whattosayandwhattodoseemoutofjoint. o Topsoil,onceblownaway,canneverbereturned; virginprairie,once ploughed,canneverbereclaimed. Parallelsentences: o Thedangerofthepastwasthatmenbecameslaves. o Thedangerofthefutureisthatmenmaybecomerobots.

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(5) EMPHASIS Someideasvaryinimportance,expressionofthemshouldvaryinemphasis.Ideas maybeemphasizedthroughthefollowing: 1.Byplacingimportantwordsatthebeginningorattheendofthesentence. o Totaldeafnesshoweveris,inmanyways,worsethantotalblindness. o Anundergroundblastrockedthewholearea. Thecolonandthedashoftenprecedeanemphaticending. o Wehavedevelopedsomethingnewinpolitics:theprofessionalamateur. o Mostcommercialtelevisionstationstalkabouthelpingtheir communities,butitisinthemainjustlikethattalk. o Sincethesemicolon,sometimescalledaweakperiod,isastrong punctuationmarkwhenusedbetweenmainclauses,wordsplacedbefore andafterasemicolonhaveanimportantposition. o Apennysavedusedtobeapennyearned;now,afterfiveyears,itisonly halfapenny. 1. Bychangingloosesentencestoperiodicones.Inloosesentences,themainidea comesfirst;lessimportantideasordetailsfollow.Inaperiodicsentence,the mainideacomeslast,justbeforetheperiod. o Suchstickylabelsdonotaccuratelydescribeanygenerationfor example,labelslikelost,beat,now,silent,unlucky,orfound. Loose o Suchstickylabelsaslost,beat,now,silent,unlucky,orfounddonot accuratelydescribeanygeneration.periodic 2. Byarrangingideasintheorderofclimax(orderofimportancewiththestrongest idealast) o Summingupforthedefenseofthesmalldiesel,onecansaythatitoffers excellentfuelconsumption,itislonglasting,ithasnoignitionsystemto causetrouble,anditslevelofpollutionislow. Anticlimaxanunexpectedshiftfromthedignifiedtothetrivialorfromthe serioustothecomicissometimesusedforspecialeffect. ButIstillfearitwillallendbadly,thisProtectiveSyndrome.Iseeafuturein whichthegovernmenthasstrippedusofallworldlygoodsworthhaving; clotheshangers,toothpaste,AlkaSeltzer,toasters,pencilsharpeners,and maybeeventhumbtacks. 3. Byusingactivevoiceinsteadofpassivevoice.

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o Littleattentionisbeingpaidtocheap,nutritiousfoods by theaverageshopper o Theaverageshopperispayinglittleattentiontocheap,nutritiousfoods. 4. Byrepeatingimportantwords: o It is impossible to be simultaneously blasted by a revolution in energy, a revolution in technology, a revolution in family life, a revolution in sexual roles,andaworldwiderevolutioninrecommendationswithoutalsofacing soonerorlaterapotentiallyexplosivepoliticalrevolution. o It is impossible to be simultaneously blasted by a revolution in energy, in technology, in family life, in sexual roles, and in world recommendations without also facing sooner or later a potentially explosive political insurrection. 5. Byputtingawordorphraseoutofitsusualorder. o Onlyrecentlyhasthishumandeficiencybeenturnedintolaw. o Basictoallachievementwasfreedom. 6. Byusingbalancedsentencestructure. Asentenceisbalancedwhengrammaticallyequalstructures are used to express contrasted or similar ideas. It emphasizes the contrast or similarity betweenpartsofequallengthandmovement. o TobeFrenchistobelikenooneelse;tobeAmericanistobelikeeveryone else. o Love is positive; tolerance negative. Love involves passion; tolerance is humdrumanddull. 7. Byabruptlychangingsentencelength. InthelasttwodecadestherehasoccurredaseriesofchangesinAmerican life, the extent, durability, and significance of which no one has yet measured.Noonecan. Exercise: Success We can learn by doing by doing anything. Even if we fail repeatedly there's something to be learned from the failures. Of course, one of the lessons we can learn is, "I want to learn some new ways of doing things so I don't have to fail so much". Perhaps you already are a successful doer and, like all successful doers, you know there is always more to learn about successfully doing. You will notice,

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however, that most tools can be used for either inner or outer learning. The same commitment that allows you to make a million dollars can be used for achieving happiness. The same discipline that allows you to focus on your selfworth can also be used to master scuba diving. The inner mirrors the outer. The outer mirrors the inner. Health Healthismorethanjustthelackofillnesshealthisaliveness,energy,joy.Byalways focusing on eliminating illness, few of us learn how to enhance health or even that enhancing health is possible. It is. You don't have to be sick to get better. Health is notjustforthebody.Healthincludes themind,theemotions,thewholeperson.Healthistheamountofvibrant,peaceful, lovingenergyflowingthroughyourbeing.Themoreenergy,thegreaterthehealth. Letthatenergyflowinyou,throughyou. healthisnotheavy.Healthislightwork. Wealth Unlike money, wealthis not just what you have. Wealthiswhat you can do without. who is wealthier, the person who is addicted to something and has plenty of money tobuyit,orthepersonwhodoesntdesiretheaddictivesubstanceatall?Wealthy people carry their riches within. The less they need of this physical world, the wealthier they are. They may or may not have large sums of money. It matters not. Whatever they have is fine. Wealth is health, happiness, loving, caring, sharing, learning,knowingwhatwewant,opportunity,enjoying,andbalance. Wealthisenjoyingone'sowncompany. Wealthisbeingabletoloveoneselffully.

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STYLISTICFEATURESOFADVERTISEMENTS Theaimofadvertisementsistopersuade. Theoveralleffectofpressadvertisementsdependsas muchonthedesign layout,includinggraphics,differentprintingfonts,asonthetext. Theadwillbefittedwiththepracticaltextswhichidentifyasubjectandwith whichthevieweridentifiedasamatterofeverydaylife. Theadisnotrealistic.Thecontextisimaginary.Thevoiceofthenarrator,the facesandthegestures,thechoicefthenamesforthecharactersareall caricatures. Thenarratorspeaksinthethirdperson,i.e.,fromthepositionofanobserver. T.V.commercialshavegreatlyincreasedtheuseofthespokenwordin advertising. Minoractorsinacommercialoveractinordertomaketheirpointinthevery shortspaceoftime.Thechiefresultsofthisoveractingarethatchangesin intonationaretoosuddenandfacialexpressionsaretoopredictable.Thereis alwaysa"feed"whohasthetaskofexpressingastonishmentatthelowpriceof theproductorwhoregistersinstantconvictionofbeingassuredofitsvirtues. Speakersareliabletoextoltheirproductwithemotiondrippingfromevery syllable.Affectationinpronunciationisverycommon. Thenamesofthecharactersarepartialdescriptionsoftheirworkand personalities. Practicalsettingoftheviewer:theviewer'shouse,class,party,kitchen. Advertisementsuseinflatedlanguagetomakecommonplaceproductsseem glamorous. richgoldenbrownseafoodwithsuperfineFrenchfriedpotatoesasaside dish. adwellinghouseofcharacter. Advertisementsseektoimpressthereaderbytheuseoflongwordswhose meaningheisnotlikelyunderstood.Theygiveanairofglamourbyusinglong wordstodescribepropertiesoftheproductthatareeithercommonplaceor disadvantageous. Afarmerboughtafieldonbeingassuredthat"itwas richlymegalithicisnodoubtuntrue". Weshoulddistinguishbetweenwhatisactuallysaidandwhatismerely suggested. Wordsareoftenmisusedinadvertisements.Butthemotivefortheirmisuseis notnecessarilyanattempttodeceive.Moreoftenawordthathasbecomea glamorwordisadoptedwithoutanyclearideaofitsmeaning:Anadvertisement describedacarpolishbysaying: "comesingenuinesimulatedalligatorgraincaseforcompactstorage".

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Advertiserschooseanamethatiseasytopronounceinmanylanguageslike: nylon,Kodak,Canon. Reductioninpriceforquantitiesisagenerallyacceptedcommercialprinciple whichtheadvertiserusestopersuadecustomerstobuylargerpacketsofthe goodsoffered. "buyone,getonefree!buyonegetone50%off. "largeeconomysize" Thewordsofanadvertisementneedtobechosenwithcareifaludicrouseffect istobeavoided. nodissatisfiedcustomeriseverallowedtoleavethesepremises. Loveofeuphemismisanadvertisementfeature. Thefullerfigureisnolongeraproblem. There is an appeal to the English love of animals in advertisements (pets seeking newhomes): Dear little Jack Russell dog, 3.5, having lost devoted lady owner, seeks another. Useofvoguewords.Oneofthevoguewordsinadvertisementsforsecretaries seemsis"top": topsecretary toptypist/topshorthand topflightsecretary toppeople The text as a whole is one clause complex or one long written sentence. Grammarandcohesionarecoextensive. Free structures are composed in such a way as to avoid this kind of complexity. Theyareeconomicallyworded.Theadasawholeislimitedinlength.Economyis achievedthroughellipsis,whichallowsthewritertoavoidrepetition.Ellipsisisa formofcohesion. Thetextisdividedintowrittensentencesmarkedwithcapitals and full stops, but some sentences do not contain a full complement of elements which make upa"completesentence".Theycanbecorrectedbychangingthepunctuationor by adding some deleted words. There are several paragraphs marked by indentation, but some of them contain only two or three words. The stylistic effect of this deviant method of punctuating and paragraphing is to convey theimpressionofspokenratherthanwrittenlanguage,becausethesentencesin factcorrespondtothetoneunitsofaspokenreadingofthetext. Youwillnoticeparallelisminthetext. 44

Thevocabularybelongstotheordinaryinformaltalkofcarenthusiasts.

OnethingEuropeseemstoagreeabout From Strasbourg to Brussels, London to Paris, Madrid to Rome, it was all smiles, handshakes,pleasantriesallround. Thereasonforthiscommunalchuminess? Ournewgolf. Fiftynine top motoring writers from eighteen European countries had just voted it Car of the Year. a welcome win, for sure. though to be frank, not entirely unexpected. Itjustgoestoshowthateverythingcomestohewhoimproves.andimproves. Andanticipates. Already, our new Golf is designed to meet evertougher safety standards set for1994. Already,over80%ofitspartsarerecyclable. allgoodstuff.Butwhataboutperformance?anytorquier?Maisoui. Thedragfactor.Anylower?Naturlich. Thehandling.Anysharper?Certo. Andthefuelconsumption.Stillgenerous?What,moregenerous?Claroquesi. AsmanyaEuropeanknows,suchthingsarecommoncurrencywitheverynew Volkswagon.

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STYLISTICFEATURESOFNEWSPAPERENGLISH ThechiefcharacteristicofnewspaperEnglishisthatitisbothwrittenandreadby peoplewhoareinahurry. Thewordingofaheadlineisaffectedby:theideastobeexpressed,the technologyofprintingandthekindofreaderassociatedwithaparticularreader. Thereare3criteriaforgoodheadlinewriting:simplicity,informalityandimpact. Itshouldbeaclearsignal,swiftlyreadable,economicalinreadingintimeand space. Newspaperheadlineshaveafamiliarandconventionallinguisticstructurelike telegramsintheirbrevity. Allgoodheadlinesfollowcertainrulesinwhattheysayandhowtheysayit. Sometimesthereisacombinationofmainheadlineandoverline(strapline): PoliceatLongbridgeasangermountsover500layoffs TroubleflaresasBLworkersdemonstrate Headlinesusenounsnotverbsforactions. EdwardestellsBLunionsthatstrikewouldbringclosure Twolinguisticconventionsthathavegrownupinheadlinesare:theuseofthe infinitiveinplaceofthefutureandtheuseofthecommawhenthereisnoroom fortheconjunction"and": filmstartowed. Netanyahu,ArafattomeetinWashington. Useofsurnameonlyisusualinheadlines: Newspaperheadlinesuseblocklanguagei.e.,alanguageoftheirown: bid=attempt trek=journey ban=toforbid rap=torebuke probe=investigation pact=treaty Tory=Conservative Headlinescanbeambiguous,havingtwopossiblemeanings.Awordcanhave morethanonemeaningandcanfunctionasmorethanonepartofspeech. StudentsPlanGrantsCutsProtestMarch. $1,900,000paidtoattackvictims. Blindmanexpectedtoleavegoal. Initialsareusedinheadlinestodescribecompanies: U.M.B.=UnitedBuildersMerchants. M.E.P.C.=MetropolitanEstateandPropertyCo. Useofpassiveclauseswithnoagent: ImportsinfluxfearedasPostOfficeprofitsarecreamedoff 46

Useofwordswithemotiveassociations(connotationsofimportantlexical items): mountingangeratsilence. tightlipped abespectacledfigure (ifamanontrialwearsspectacles Muchofthesubjectmatterofnewspapersisrepetitivematerialinwhichthe journalisttakeslittleinterest.Hehasdescribedsimilareventsahundredtimes before,andhethereforeusesthephraseshehasusedahundredtimes. Journalistsoftenhavetobevaguebecausetheyarenotfreetospecifytheexact sourceofinformationorbecausetheyhaveverylittlerealnewswithwhichtofill upthespace. aspokesmansays..... wellinformedsourcesinParis... Journalistarefondofirrelevantdetail,suchastheagesofminorparticipantsin anincidentorthetonnageoflargesteamships. said50yearoldexarmycaptain Themostexcessivefeaturesofjournaleseare:excessiveuseofcliches,fondness forshortparagraphs,inversionofnormalwordorder,fondnessofirrelevant detail,sometimesexpressedbythepilingupofadjectivesandadjectivalphrases, andoccasionalbadgrammar. Thearticleisusuallydeletedinopenings: NewsagentJohnSmith... CertainpartsofthenewspapersuchastheSportspageuseaspeciallanguage: bullsbearsstags Theidiomaticuseofwordsandphrases: thestockwentfirmlyexgrowththesameyear. Thereisacertainmonotonyabouttheeventsdescribedinsportjournalism whichthejournalististemptedtodisguisebyfindingnewsynonymsforsuch words: football=theleather cricketbat=thewillow goalposts=uprights

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STYLISTICFEATURESOFTECHNICALTEXTS Sometypesoftechnicaltextsare:scientificpapers,reports,instructionsheets, advertisement,patents. Technicallanguageisusedtodescribeobjects,qualitiesofmaterials, appearance,apparatus,phenomena,processes,experiment;toclassify;togive instructions;togivecauseandreason;toreportactions,observationsand results;tostateconclusions. Scientifictermshaveassociationswithotherscientificroots,andtheuseof GreekandLatinrootshastheadvantagethattheyareinternationally understood. Scientifictermsareoftenlong.Alongscientificwordismadeupoffamiliar elementswhichcompressintoonewordfactsthatmighthavebeenexpressedin severalsentences: fibrosisleukemiaelectrocardiogramtonsillitis Namesofsciencestendtoendinology,ics: biology,technology,pediatrics,aeronautics,genetics Themaindistinguishingfeatureoftechnicallanguageisitsvocabulary.The vocabularyischaracterizedbyuseof:nominalphrases,compounds,derivatives, newapplicationofwords(bed,mouth,force,word,current). Technicaltextsarecharacterizedbyarigorouslydefineduseofwordsandahigh frequencyofpassiveformswithnobyphrasetospecifytheactor. Technicallanguagetendstobemorelogicalandlucidthaneverydaylanguage. Thestyleisformalandimpersonal.Technicalproseiswrittenintersesentences. TECHNICALTEXTS 1.Timeorder:Process The first man to produce a practical steam engine as Thomas Savery, an English engineer (16501715), who obtained a patent in 1698 for a machine designed to drain water from mines. The machine contained no moving parts except hand operated steam valves and automatic check valves, and in principle it worked as follows: Steam was generated ina spherical boiler and thenadmitted toa separated vessel where it expelled much of the air. The steam valve was then closed and cold water allowed to flow over the vessel, causing the steam to condense and thus creatingapartialvacuum.Thisvacuumpulledwaterfromtheareatobedrainedinto

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the vessel. Then by a further operation of the valves, steam was readmitted to the vesseltoforcewaterthroughaverticalpipetothedischargeelevation. 2. TimeOrder:Process CarriageandAssemblyRemoval: 1. Remove the snap rings from the chain anchors and pull the chain anchors out ofthecarriage. 2. Secure the carriage with an overhead crane. Remove the carriage by pulling it outthebottomofthemastchannels. 3.Removethetwomiddleandtwolowerassemblies. 4. Remove the two upper roller assemblies by removing the capscrews that connect the retaining plats to the stubshafts. Pull the roller assemblies off the stubshafts. 3. TimeOrder:Chronology Since the Middle ages the output and consumption of pit coal had been greater in English than in any other country of Europe. Already during the 13th century, domesticcoalconsumptioninLondonissaidtohavebeensogreatthatrestrictiveby laws became necessary to check the increasing smoke nuisance. During the 17th century,Englishcoalwasalreadyshippedtothecontinentinconsiderablequantities. Theactual'coalage',however,setinduringthesecondhalfofthe18thcenturywhen it became possible to use steam power for the drainage of collieries, thus permitting theworkingofdeepergalleriesunderconditionsofgreatersafety. 4. Spaceorder: The test section was constructed of a pure copper cylinder 2 ft 6 in long, 6 in id and 6.25 in od. Both ends of the cylinder were closed with removable Pyrexglass plates 1/4in.thick.Afluidportwaslocatedateachendofthecylinder. 5. Comparisoncontrast Many types of mathematical problems are similar in one way or another as are their methods of solution. However, there are also distinct differences in both types of problems and their methods of solution. For example, many interesting problems in maxima and minima can be solved by elementary methods: that is, by the methods of algebra and plane geometry. But there are many more maxima and minima problems that require the techniques of differential calculus for their solutions. Finally, there are many other problems of a more complicated nature in which

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quantities are to be maximized orminimized that cannotbe handledby the methods of the differential calculus: These require treatment by methods of the calculus of variation. Analogy Sound waves are created by the compression of the molecules of air, this compression generated by the origin of the sound. The resulting wave motion is analogous to that created in water when a rock is thrown in a pond. By studying the properties exhibited by water waves, we can become familiar with the properties of all wave motion. First, we note that the waves produced on the water by a rock striking it move away at a constant speed: This speed is called the velocity of propagation. Second, we note that the waves have crests and troughs. The distance betweensuccessivecrestsortroughsiscalledwavelength.Third,asthewavesmove past a given point, they cause up and down motion of the water at this point. This motionisthefrequencyofthewave. 7.Classification: All crystalline solids can be classified as members of one of fourteen crystal systems. Thenumberofwaysinwhichatomicarrangementscanberepeatedtoformasolidis limited to fourteen by the geometries of space division. Any one of these arrangements,whenrepeatedinspace,formsthelatticestructurecharacteristicofa crystalline material. These fourteen systems are ... For example, cadmium sulphide hasalatticeformedofhexagonalunits... We can classify the planets of our solar system by one or more of the following characteristics: average distance from the sun, Earth = 1; solar radiation received, Earth = 1; orbital period; eccentricity; equatorial diameter in miles; mass, Earth = 1' gravity, Earth = 1; escape velocity in mi/sec.; rotation period; inclination in degrees; andalbedo. 8. Definitions An arachnid is an invertebrate animal having eight legs extending at equal intervals fromacentralbody. An anamometer is a meteorological instrument that registers the speed of the wind onadialorgage. Anarachnidhaseightlegsextendingatequalintervalsfromacentralbody. 50

Ananamometerisusedtomeasurethespeedofthewind. Agronomy is a science which seeks improved methods of soil management and crop production. By crop production we mean new techniques that will increase the yield of field crops. By improved soil management we men the use of fertilizers which containthenecessarynutrientsneededforthecrops. 9. Descriptionofproperties: When substances are mixed without a chemical reaction, they do not change their properties. Thus a mixture of sand and salt is yellowishwhite in color. It tastes both salty and gritty. If we put the mixture in water, the salt will dissolve, because it is soluble.Butthesandwillnotdissolve. 10.Causeeffect: Heat causes substance to expand. This is because heat causes the atoms and molecules in the substance to move more quickly. As a consequence, they take up more space. than liquids, and liquids much more than solids. When a substance is cooled,themoleculesslowdownandasaresultthesubstancecontract. 11.Function: The endocrine system consists of various glands such as the thyroid and adrenal glands.Thefunctionoftheseglandsistosecretechemicals,knownashormones,into the blood. These hormones control various processes in the body, such as growth, and digestion. The nervous system controls the other systems and enables human beingstothink. 12.Structure: Matter consists of organic substances and inorganic substances. Organic substances include coal and oil. Inorganic substances include iron and sulphur. Organic substancescontaincarbon.Inorganicsubstancesdonotcontaincarbon.

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13.Measurement: In Calcutta in January the temperature ranges from 27 C to 13C; that is, the maximum temperature is 27C and the minimum temperature is 13 C. These are the twoextremes oftemperature.

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 STYLISTICFEATURESOFLEGALDOCUMENTS Some kinds of legal documents are: insurance policies, wills, drawing up of statutes, contracting of agreements between individuals, leases, petitions, investigations...etc. Lawyers have been doing the same thing for a long time, and for each species of transaction there has developed a linguistic formula (established formula). They relyonformswhichwereestablishedinthepast. Pronounreferenceisextremelyscarce. Legal English contains complete major sentences. Most of them are statements, with no questions and only occasional command. Statements are of a characteristictypewhichisreflectedinequallycharacteristicsentencestructure. Legalsentencesarelongandcomplex.Theyuseconditionalclauses. Legalsentenceshaveanunderlyinglogicalstructurewhichsays:'ifX,thenZshall be Y'. Every action or requirement, from a legal point of view, is hedged around with, and even dependsupon, a setof conditions which must be satisfied before anythingatallcanhappen. Adverbials tend to cluster at the beginning of the sentence. They are used as a means of clarifying meaning and avoiding ambiguity. Adverbial elements are oftencoordinated: ontheexpiration...oronthepreviousdeath subjecttoanyauthorizedendorsement...andtotheproduction... oncreditorwithoutsuchpayment Adverbialsareputinpositionswhichseemunusualbynormalstandards: aproposaltoeffectwiththeSocietyanassurance.. LegalEnglishishighlynominal(ituseslongcomplicatednominalgroups). Adjectives like splendid, wise, disgusting, and happy are much less frequent and intensifyingadverbslikeveryandratherarecompletelyabsent.

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The use of the modal auxiliary shall + be + past participle. Shall is not used as a marker of future tense; it is used to express what is to be the obligatory consequenceofalegaldecision. Verbsareselectedfromasmallnumberoflexicalsets: deem,accept,require,agree,issue,state,specify, constitute,perform, observe,exercise. Legal English is studded with archaic words and phrases of a kind that could be usedbynoonebutlawyers: witnesseth TheprefixingandsuffixingofprepositionsisacommonfeatureoflegalEnglish: herebyhereofhereunderhereinafteraforesaid A legal characteristic is the coordination of a number of synonyms or near synonyms: altered&modified transformed&altered ableandwilling madeansigned termsandconditions AgooddealoflegallanguageisofFrenchandLatinorigin: LawFrench:puisinejudgepuisneestoppelfeesimplelachesquash LawLatin:aliasamicuscuriaenollepeosequi resjudicata TheirFrenchoriginhasaffectedthewordorderofanumberoflegalphrases: maliceprepense maliceaforethought courtmartial heirapparent secretarygeneral Themostobviousfeatureoflegaldocumentsistheirprolixity.Theyareprolix becauseitsauthoristryingtosecurecompletecoverageofagivenareaof meaning.

Examples Whereas a proposal to effect with the Society an assurance on the Life Insured named in the Schedule hereto has been duly made and signed as a basis of such assuranceandadeclarationhasbeenmadeagreeingthatthispolicyshallbesubject to the Society's Registered Rules (which shall be deemed to form part of this policy) totheTableofInsuranceprintedhereonandtothetermsandconditionsofthesaid Tableandthatthedateofentrancestatedhereonshallbedeemedtobethedateof

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this contract AND such proposal has been accepted by the society on the conditions assetforthintheproposal. NOWthispolicyissuedbytheSocietyonpaymentofthefirstpremiumstatedinthe ScheduleheretosubjecttotheRegisteredRulesoftheSociety. WITNESSETHthatiftheLifeInsuredshallpayorcausetobepaidtotheSocietyorto thedulyauthorizedagentorCollectorthereofeverysubsequentpremiumatthedue date thereof the funds of the Society shall on the expiration of the term of years specifiedintheSchedulehereto.... IF UPON THE DEATH OF THE LIFE INSURED there shall be no duly constituted personal representative or nominee or assignee of the Life Insured able and willing to give valid receipt for the sum payable such sum may in the discretion of the Committee of Management be paid to one or more of the nextofkin of the life insured whose receipt shall effectually discharge the Society from all liability under thispolicy. IN WITNESS WHEREOF we the Secretary and two of the Committee of Management oftheSocietyhavehereuntoattachedorsignatures.

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STYLISTICFEATURESOFCOMMERCIALTEXTS Businesslettersmaybefullyblocked(alllinesbeginatthesamepoint)orsemi blocked(paragraphsareindented). Partsofabusinessletterare:theletterhead,thereference(thesenderofthe letter),thedate,thenameandaddressoftheaddressee,theattentionline (whenallcorrespondencesmustbeaddressedtothefirmandnotindividuals), thesalutationorgreeting(dear..),thesubjectheading(indicatedwhattheletter isabout,thebody(itismadeofseveralparagraphs,thecomplimentaryclose (yoursfaithfully),thenameofthecompanysendingtheletter,thesignatory,the designationorthepositionheldbythesignatory. Useofmanyconventionalphrases: youresteemedfavor=aletter youresteemedfavortohandandcontentsnoted=hehasnotonlyreceived theletterbutalsoreaditscontentsandwishestomakeitclearthatheisnot onlycourteousbutalsobriskandefficient. bestattentionatalltimes=usedtoconcludealetterassuringhis correspondence. enclosedpleasefind=Ienclose ult.=thelastmonth instant=thecurrentmonth prox.=thenextmonth replace"you"by"yourgoodself" somewordsandphrasesthatwereonceingeneralusehavesurvivedasfeatures ofcommercialEnglishafterbecomingobsoleteelsewhere: Somewordsserveausefulpurposeinthattheyaretechnicaltermstodescribe commercialpractices,buttheyareliabletobemisused: Proforma=doneforform'ssake=usedwithcourteousdifference incommercialEnglishtodescribeaninvoicewhichthesenderexpects tobepaidbeforethegoodsaresent.

EXAMPLE DearSir MessrsWillingandCo.,ofMarketPlace,Norwich,havegivenyourbankas referenceandweshouldconsideritgreatfavor,ifyouwouldkindlystatewhatyou knowaboutthestandingandfinancialpositionofthisfirm,especiallyinregardto theamountofcreditwhichmightsafelybeextendedtothem. thankingyouinanticipation. weare, YoursFaithfully 56

 DearSirs FurthertomytelephoneconversationwithMrSimpsonthismorningIenclosethe copyofInvoiceNO4635senttomeforcheckingandtheCreditNotereceivedfrom CrossleyLtd. IconfirmthattheoriginaldeliverywasreturnedtoCrossleyLtdandthat replacementsforthedamagedgoodswerelistedonInvoiceNo47869. YoursFaithfully RobertTibbitts BuyingOfficer ENCS

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STYLISTICFEATURESOFLITERARYTEXTS One defining feature of literature is its special use of language. I foregrounded, or made strange. Its style is different from that of other everyday uses. It deviates fromordinarylanguage. Useoffigurativelanguage. wordshaveaconnotativemeaning. Anumberofclichestendtooccur: loftyflightsofimagination heightsofmajesty organicunity Useofvagueadjectivesofapproval: fascinatingprofoundexcitingstimulatinglivelyimpressive

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