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Deontological theories: What is right and good are separated one is independent of the other. Right is not defined in terms of what is good; producing a favourable outcome is not the goal. Acting in a moral way means doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong. The consequences of an action are unimportant in establishing whether an action is right or wrong. Humans have a duty to act morally even if their actions produce unfavourable consequences. For example if lying is wrong then telling a lie to a person is wrong, even if the lie would prevent a death. According to deontological ethics morality is absolute. What is right and wrong are objective moral principles that do not change over time or culture. Humans have a duty to obey these moral absolutes in order to lead a moral lifestyle without regard for any consequences those actions might produce.
An example of a set of deontological rules are the 10 commandments. Actions such as lying, stealing, adultery and murder are inherently wrong. So for deontologists the important thing is not the result or the consequences of an action, but the action itself.
Think it through
A politician has to make a decision about a terroristwho is in police custody. The terrorist is suspected of having information that could result in the death of a large number of innocent people, but he refuses to talk. The police argue that the only way they will get the terroristto reveal his information is to torture him. The politician argues that torture is always wrong, no matter what the consequences. Consider which viewpoint is teleological and which viewpoint is deontological. What would you decide and what reasons would you give to support your decision?
two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing wonder and awe....the starry heavens above and the moral law within Immanuel Kant, Critique of Practical Reason 1788.
Key concepts
The categorical imperative. The principle of universalization Furthering the ends of others Good will Duty The kingdom of ends Gods necessary existence
Before discussing Kants moral theories it is important to note his beliefs about the difference between human nature and animal nature.
He believed animals were dominated by instinct and desire. Animal behaviour is shaped by these compulsions.
They eat
They fight
Of course human beings are no different to animals and Kant believed we shared their instincts and desires
We eat
Fight
Have sex
However what separates humans from animals is our ability to REASON. It is this faculty that enables us to act freely and against our instincts and desires if we so choose. It is also the reason why we are superior to the rest of the animal kingdom.
Well most....
So a categorical imperative is the moral obligation to act in a certain way. But how are categorical imperatives to be known? In any moral dilemma Kant stresses that the right way to act is known to us. Our thinking (reason) as long as it is not corrupted will always light the path we ought to follow in order to be morally virtuous. Kant stated that by applying the principle of universalization categorical imperatives are known. By applying this formula morality becomes as self evident as the stars above. we all have the ability to know what categorical imperatives we ought to obey as we all have the ability to reason. Reason enables us to determine the difference between rightand wrong by applying what Kant called the principle of universalization. This States Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.
So only those actions that conform to rules that could be adopted by all people at all times are moral.
Quotable quotes
So act that your principle of action might safely be made a law for the whole world. Always recognize that human individuals are ends and do not use them as means to your end. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Always recognize that human individuals are ends and do not use them as means to your end.
In this quote Kant is arguing that human beings have intrinsic worth. Every human should be treated with dignity because we are all rational agents, free to make decisions, set targets and guide our conduct by reason. Kant believed that human beings embodied the moral law within and that if they disappeared from the planet so to would the moral dimension of life on earth. Human beings therefore have value beyond all price and must be treated always as an end and never as a means to an end. Therefore we have a duty to treat others well; respect their rights, treat everyone as equal, promote the welfare of others, never manipulate others or use them to achieve our own purposes (no matter how good those purposes might be) we should in the words of Kant try as far as we can to further the ends of others.
Think about this in relation to the man on the quiz show asking his friend to sit in the audience and cough when the correct answer has been presented.
Kant argued that human beings occupy a special place in creation and have an intrinsic worth that makes humankind valuable above all price. Other animals, by contrast have value only in so much as they serve human purposes. According to Kant humans can use animals in any way they please. We do not even have a direct duty to refrain from torturing them although Kant thought it wrong, especially as it was far more likely that he who is cruel to animals becomes hard also in his dealings with men.
Or this
Human beings on the other hand, could never be treated or used as a means to an end.
Human being are to treated with dignity. Kant considered human beings Holy.
Suppose a shopkeeper sold his goods at a very reasonable price and gained a good reputation with his customers as being honest and fair which led to his financial success based on customer relations. Kant argues the shopkeeper is acting immorally if his intention to sell his goods at a low price is a business strategy that guarantees him prosperity due to a large number of customers choosing to buy at his shop. Kant argues an honest approach to low price goods should be done from a good-will without any regard for business prosperity. It is the shop keepers duty to trade with honesty and integrity because people are not to be treated as a means to an end.
There is no answer to the question Why should I do my duty? except because it is your duty. If there was an answer to the question it would represent a reason and would make the imperative hypothetical and not categorical. Kant stated duty should be done for the sake of duty and duty alone. It is here we can see the importance of a good-will. Even when reason enables us to know what categorical imperatives we have a duty to follow it is not always easy to act on ones duty when the consequences could be disastrous to us or other people. A good-will is neccesary in order for us to act dutifully. Consider Faramirs obedience to duty in Return of the King.
Suppose you offer a safe place of hiding to a woman who is on the run from her husband who is threatening to kill her. The crazy husband has knocked on your door looking for his wife and asks you if you have sen her. According to Kant .... 1. What is the right way to act according to Kant ? 2. Why?
Kant argues your actions are irrelevant for morality if: You do something from which you expect to benefit, even if you are doing things that benefit others as well. You are motivated by natural interest as this would make your actions essentially selfish. You act because ordered to do so by someone in authority. Hence, it all that counts for morality is the rational choice of actions based on a disinterested sense of duty.
Kants ideas can be compared to Jesus ethical teachings consider Jesus teaching of do unto others as you would wish them do to you. It is very similar to Kants idea of only acting on the maxims that you would want to become a universal law.
Both value the ultimate dignity and worth of all people irrespective of class, colour, race, age or gender.
Rights
Kants theories have helped us to shape our legal system and our sense of moral law. Certain political conclusions follow from Kants ethical theories. Kantian ethics require individual liberty, since each memeber of society should be as free as possible to choose for himself or herself. Each member of a community, too, should consider himself or herself a member of the moral community a community shared by others with equal moral rights and equal moral responsibilities.
Kant focussed on the individuals right to choose for himself or herself. What distinguishes human beings from other animals or other objects is their dignity based on their ability to choose freely what they will do with their lives, and humans have a fundamental moral right to have these choices respected. People are not objects to be manipulated; it is a violation of human dignity to use people in ways they do not freely choose. Of course, many different but related rights exist besides the basic one; for example the right to truth, the right to privacy, right to not be injured.