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nWRODUCTION PSYCHOLOGY

TO

BY

JAMES
Head

ROWLAND
of Psychology

ANGELL
in the University

of the Department

of Chicago

NEW

YORK

HENRY

HOLT

AND

COMPANY

1918
i

COFTRISHT,

1918,

BY

HENRY

HOLT

AND

COMPANY

THE

OUINN

BODEN

CO.

PRESS

RAMW.Y,

N.

J.

PREFACE
Psychology in after the appearance of my 1904 x I began to receive requests from teachers to prepare a briefer volume on the same general lines. This I finally agreed to do, but fulfilment has lagged so far behind
promise,

SHORTLY

that despite the

seems

continued

popularity

of

the older work, it

a

no

longer appropriate

to attempt

mere

digest of it. The present book accordingly represents an entirely fresh survey of the field,and attempts and concisely the Some psychology.
more

to set forth simply

important
upon

ciples printhe

of general

comment

relation of the two books to one another may be of interest. The prompt was welcome accorded the earlier work presumably due to the novelty of certain of its features, which
have since been adopted in greater or less degree by It emphasized for the first time, so far as other authors.
am

aware,

the distinction between

in psychology.

structural and

tional func-

methods
utilized
an

It adopted and consistently terpret essentially biological point of view in its inof mental life,this position being reflected in

part

in the arrangement
stages of

adjustment.

gressive of the topics to exhibit the proIt presented, provisionally

to be

sure,

students who

definite and teachable system, mastered it a sense of control

to observe and

which
over

gave

the material,

think psychologically for themselves and not least important afforded them a terminology and a point of view which rendered the litera"
"

enabled them

Fourth

edition, 1908.

iii

iv

PREFACE

of the subjecteasily accessible. Such changes as in the present text simply reflect alterations of appear emphasis and points of view which the development of the
ture

science has rendered necessary. to me The structure-function distinction still seems troversy of acute consignificant. But it is no longer a matter

and
is
now

so

requires

less militant treatment.

'

Polemic

behavioristic movement, the centered about methods and its crusade which, with its gospel of objective against introspection, presents an interesting blend of solid
seems contribution and adolescent exaggeration. Whatever It lends to me to be sound in its position,I have adopted.

'

itself readily to incorporation- into the biological conception getically of mental activity, which I have retained and ener-

pressed.
The
motor

organizing character of every level of our psychoactivitiesis more explicitly brought out than in the

older book, with advantage, I trust, to the depth and vividness of impression left on the reader's mind regarding
the real nature I have come
than I formerly
to environment. of our adjustments in recent years to assign more importance

in prurient
nor

our

did to the function of subconscious processes behavior. I do not for a moment accept the

implications of much doctrine, of the Freudian have I been greatly influenced by any of its contentions; but on other grounds I have come to the belief
a

that there is
control in many conscious

large element

of intrinsically intelligent

neural processes which escape our observation. This I hold to be as true

as

direct

of reflectiv

thought The

of the

more

overt control of

our

muscles.

text will be found

to reflect something

conof this viction.

PREFACE

the function of imagerj' have been a good This is hardly the place in which deal misunderstood.

My

views

on

critics,but I trust that the present text be found less open to misapprehension. With the may recently developed doctrine of 'imageless thought' I am warmly sympathetic so far as it has served to direct attention
to confront
my

to the meaning

aspect
mere

of

our

mental

operations, in

distinction from its pretense

their

sensuous

texture.
on

Much

of

to novelty

I think

is based

the misconstruction

of earlier doctrine. Its postulate of the existence of states of consciousness wholly devoid of sensorial or imaginal factors I regard as altogether unsubstantiated.

After extended conferences with teachers I have decided to omit any practical exercises. In the first place I find
instructors prefer to prepare that many their own; and in the second place there are now a number of admirable I consider manuals written to supply this precise need. such exercises essentially indispensable part of a wellintroductory course, but they need not be made
an on use

rounded dependent

For the
are

the teachings of any particular text. of a number of illustrationsacknowledgments

:

due to the following authors and publishers Nervous ton " Co., publishers of Barker's "The

D. Apple-

System";

Ginn " Co., publishers of "The" Elements of Physiology" by T. Hough and W. T. Sedgwick ; John Murray, publisher
by McKendrick of the Sense Organs" Sons, publishers of Loeb's and Snodgrass; G. P. Putnam's W. B. Saunders " Co., pub"Physiology lishers of the Brain"; ter and Walof Physiology"; of Howell's "Text-Book
of "The

Physiology

Scott, Ltd., publishers of Donaldson's

Brain."

"Growth

of the

vi

PREFACE

former students obligations to my and to my colleagues at the University of Chicago for suggestions and criticism. My wife has aided me greatly in the preparation of my manuscript.
am

under

many

J. R. A.

CHICAGO,
May
1, 1918.

CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE

I II
III

PROBLEMS INHERITED
THE

AND
AND

METHODS

OF

PSYCHOLOGY
.

ACQUIRED

BEHAVIOR

10

NERVOUS

SYSTEM
AND

18

IV V

CONSCIOUSNESS
ATTENTION

HABIT

FORMATION

49

58
.

J
.

VI
VII VIII
IX

SENSATION SENSE
MEMORY

76 114

PERCEPTION

"

137
.......

IMAGINATION REASONING FEELING

EMOTION INSTINCT

152
170 189 204
215

XI
*

XII
XIII

XIV XV XVI

ELEMENTS

OF

VOLUNTARY
AND

ACTION

226 237

WILL, SLEEP,

INSTINCT,
DREAMS,

CHARACTER

AND HYPNOSIS,

MULTIPLE
249

PERSONALITY

XVII

THE

SELF

263 273

BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX

279

AN

INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER

TO
I

PSYCHOLOGY

PROBLEMS
The

AND

METHODS

OF

PSYCHOLOGY
Old and
well to define

Subject

Matter

of

Psychology."

established sciences generally feel it unnecessary themselves for the benefit of the beginner. Young
on

the other hand, commonly

seek to make To the

which

they

propose
a

to

occupy.

sciences, clear the field beginner, any

be somewhat vague and formal, because he cannot intelligently interpret its real meaning in advance of a knowledge of the facts with which the no serious shall therefore make effort science deals. We definition of
science must

precise definition of psychology, of the biological sciences. It is, which is the youngest however, possible to give rough indications of a helpful
at this point to construct
a

kind

regarding

the general character

of the problems

to

be confronted. The older definitions of psychology spoke of it as 'the ' long ployed emscience of the soul, and this designation was at last because of the many and only abandoned
implications of the word soul. Then followed described as 'the science of a period when psychology was In its turn the word mind in this definition was mind.' confusing

abandoned
case a

more

in favor of the term 'consciousness.' term general and less compromising

one

In each
was
a

substituted
group

for

about

which
1

there had

gathered

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

of irrelevant or misleading associations. Consciousness fallen victim to the same itselfhas now movement, and in

its place we 'conduct,' or

are

urged to use 'intelligence/

such

terms

as

'behavior/
to
secure a

At

this

junctureit

is far less important

verbally precise and accurate definition than it is to gain idea of the general range of facts with a fruitful working which psychology deals, and the technique by which it
gathers, organizes, and interprets these facts. Broadly matter concernns speaking, then, the psychologist's subject

thinking, feeling,and acting. When

as

often

occurs

today,

as

psychology is defined, the science of behavior, it is to

be understood that the term behavior includes tfese three processes.1 We shall try in this book to point out what are the materials of which intelligence is composed, what
the conditions under which it arises,what the purposes for in which conwhich it is employed, and what the manner duct is controlled. The attempt to unravel all the strands

which are twisted together in this skein of life will take into the study of many facts seemingly remote from us those which we thus set out to explore. Physiological and Social Conditions of Human perience ExIn the firstplace, all life is built upon physical physiological foundations. It is quite impossible to
"

and

understand

human

nature,

even

in

common-sense

way,

without a knowledge of the bodily structure of the human being. Much less can one pretend to scientificknowledge to physiological materials. We without recourse shall
therefore find it frequently necessary
1

to employ
* *

informa-

few

advocates
a

would wholly entire attention to

ism* or of psychology pure behaviorobjective disregard thinking and feeling, devoting their

'

study of motor

activity.

PROBLEMS

AND

METHODS

OF

PSYCHOLOGY

tion about the body, and particularly about the brain and
nervous

system.

especially human It is idle to atlife, is lived among tempt social surroundings. human behavior without constant to understand Again,
some

all life to

extent,

and

regard
taught

to these social relations.

us

Our

modern

science has

conditions in the light These social conditions of their evolution from the past. quite as truly as those of a physiological kind are today interpreted from the point of view of development- and
to
see

all contemporary

adjustment. Life
the organism
food
on

has always the

been

process

of adapting

to
on

physical
one

conditions of climatex and and

man

supply

the

hand,

to social organization

the other.

iJKre conduct of

today reflectsthe

race-

each of these volves directions, and to understand any piece of behavior intaking into account to some extent influences which
to this illimitable racial past point backward .i-*" Facts in Psychology. Methods Gathering There of
"

long history of struggle and

adjustmentin

is
to
one

in progress
the
upon correct

at present

very

vigorous

controversy

as

method

in psychology.

The

traditional

which all the early accomplishments of psychology introspection. It consists in the direct as rest is known of self-observation. I ask myself to doing yesterday at this hour, and immediately recall what I was after bringing into mind the events in question, I in which try to discern and describe the particular manner
process
occurrences
are

systematic

the

example,

in my

I may, for portrayed in my thought. 'mind's eye' see myself walking to my

such
a

office. Evidently
anyone

is at the disposal of method it. It is purely observational, who chooses to employ differing from the usual forms of external observe

AN

INTRODUCTION
one's own

TO

PSYCHOLOGY operations
as

tion in having rather object,

internal mental
events

its

than

the facts and

of the

outside

world. A good

deal of mystery

has at times been

this introspective process^

and

been directed at it, ranging

unmeasured from all the way

attached to criticism has

a

denial of

its possibility on the ground that a mental state cannot ing observe itselfwhile it is going on, down to the less sweep-

but
to many

more

control.

pertinent criticism, that the method is prone forms of error which are extremely difficultto hardly be The merits of this controversy can

entered upon here. Suffice it to say that direct observation of the kind described, i.e., of mental experiences justpast, is a commonplace of everyday life^ and that, carried out

individuals, it has carefully and systematically by many of a very respectable body resulted in the accumulation of knowledge entirely worthy of the term scientific^

Over
the

against introspection

general

method

of

observation, subjective observation, which objective

or

is

is

essentially that employed in all the physical sciences. The defenders of the latter urge that it is the only really scientific method,

affording for verification of alleged facts unequivocal .opportunity than one and events by more observer.. Needless to say, chemistry, physics, geology, and the biological sciences in based entirely upon this method. As applied to to use the psychology, it necessarily involves the attempt
general
are

because

it is the

only

one

bodily expressions (e.g., gestures, words, facial havior, movements, etc.)as a basis for the understanding of beand its advocates maintain that one can accurately
external

describe and
activity

measure

the

significant facts
one

justin

the degree in which

can

of mental determine its

PROBLEMS

AND

METHODS

OF

PSYCHOLOGY

external manifestations. purely The

and subjective

All else, they say, is elusive, and incapable of scientifictreatment.

fact that mental states do ultimately secure expression in conduct need not be questioned; nor is anyone likely to doubt that many states of mind, such for example

be reflected immediately may embarrassment, and unequivocally in facial expression. But there is also to call in question the fact that at present, at reason no
as

anger

or

least, our
of

ability to detect accurately

the
great
our

majority of

our

the external expressions states lags mental

ability introspectively to describe and Who can say from observing my analyze them. external I am thinking about Napoleon or appearance whether
far

behind

Julius
common

Caesar?
sense

It

seems,

therefore, to be

to avoid the extremism

of of the partisans in possible,

the

part

this controversy.

Let

us

recognize that wherever

it is highly desirable to make use of the bodily expressions of mental states, because of their tangible objective character; but wherever this is impossible, as is at present

regions of mental trained scientific introspection. Scientific Organization

of Data.
"

the

case

in many

life, let

us

rely upon

It should be clearly

understood that both of these methods to which reference has justbeen made have to do with the gathering of data, This the collecting of the facts of intelligent behavior.
process

is the first step in any

science, but it is only the

first. There then remains the task of analyzing izing the facts, of classifying them 'in ways exhibit their relations to one in their entirety. practicable,
analyze
a

and organr
which

another Moreover,

and

make

will tellig them inthis is

wherever

and

modern science, in addition to trying thus to Analysis, ordescribe, attempts to explain.

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

cause ganization, explanation, the ability to predict events beof the knowledge of the relations of cause and effect
in
a

given group of every

of phenomena

"

these

are

the characteristics

Experiment

established natural science. in Psychology. Quitethe most

"

important

modern advance in psychology is to be connected with the development, in the middle of the last century, of the experimen in the other natural Progress movement. directly in proportion to their An development technique^ of experimental experiment is an observation made under conditions of control,' It
sciences has

been

rapid

gains its crucial importance

an

from

the fact that it permits

repetition of conditions, and thus makes possible facts are reverification by many observers of whatever ported
exact

It had
from

always

been

experimental control could not be secured^ Thanks largely to the work the possibility of psychoof Weber, Fechner, and Wundt, logical has been forever put beyond the pale experiment
of doubt.
than

excluded supposed that mind was attack because the necessary

While

some

mental

processes

are

more

resistant
any

others to experimental of

approach,

there is hardly

has been operations which mental found entirely obdurate. By far the greater portion of our extent explored by mental life has been already to some significant group

experimental Experiment

methods. has shown and

itself fruitful both in the range

observation. objective
so

of introspection
the
one
case,

in that of

In
to

the experimental

situation is

devised

as

assist introspective analysis, and

to permit

the reinstatement

time

after time

conditions. by repeating

of substantially the same After-images thus be of color may

mental

studied
case

the stimulus

again

and

again,

In the

PROBLEMS

AND

METHODS

OF

PSYCHOLOGY

of direct observation, the experiment

is designed

of behavior which can be observed and The promptness the experimenter. of a movement

modes

elicit recorded by

to

in response

by

sound, for example, can Although time-measuring apparatus.

to
a

made thus be determined

both

types

of

observation are thus involved in experimental procedure, type is tendit is probably fair to say that the objective ing
on

the whole Different

to displace the other.

The
text
we

Fields

of Psychology.

"

In

the present

shall be chiefly concerned

in

ordinary

human

behavior*

with the facts involved This field is commonly

It has to do with the general psychology. typical forms of behavior characterizing the normal adult. divisions of psycholThere are, however, other important ogy

designated

which
secure

shall invade from time to time in order to useful material. The mental life of children has
we

been rather extensively studied, and constitutes a reasonably distinct branch of investigation, sometimes called Similarly child psychology, sometimes genetic psychology.
the study of mental

abnormalities constitutes another

spoken

division sub-

generally
Despite

of

as

the fact that all mental

abnormal psychology. beings is life of human

lived annd_sojeial_surroiindings, possibl and that it is quite imhuman to understand behavior without regard to influences which arise from these relations, it has been

found

profitable to

social psychology. directed to a study

as special division known In this field attention is particularly

create

of the explicitly social instincts and tors attributes of the mind, and to an analysis of the mental facin social organizations and institutions. Race psychology is
attempt

devoted to the older division of the subject, to ascertain and describe those peculiarities of
an

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

temperament

and
races. concerns

different

behavior which ostensibly characterize Variational psychology, or individual

itselfwith the study of those personal taste, intellectualcapacity, idiosyncrasies of temperament, being from another. Much etc., which mark off one human
psychology,

interesting and significant addition to our has in recent years come from psychological knowledge the study of animal behavior. To this field is generally of the most

applied the term

term

animal

psychology,

or

sometimes

the

comparative psychology. There is a branch of psychology

which

known

has historically grown with experiment, and made incessant use of experimental procedure. Strictly speaking, it ought perhaps to be regarded psychology special psychological field. It is often spoken However it may a definite method. though it were
as

physiological up side by side

as

of

as

it consists as be classified,

of fact simply in the attempt systematically to study mental life in connection with bodily processes, particularly those of the brain and
a

matter

nervous use
"

system.

We

shall have frequent occasion to make

of its materials. Psychophysics is a

applied to a branch of psychology developed by the German It scientist,Fechner.

name

has led to the development which

of quantitative psychology,

is concerned with the attempt to measure mental processes. We shall have relatively littleto do with this division of psychological inquiry. and Other Sciences. In advance of any detailed knowledge of psychology, it is hardly profitable to dwell upon its relations to other natural sciences. Suffice
"

Psychology

it to say that like them, it has historicallydeveloped

out of philosophy, with which

it stillretains rather

more

PROBLEMS

AND

METHODS

OF

PSYCHOLOGY

intimate relations than

chemistry,

which

do those sciences, e.g., physics and separated themselves from the parent
at
an

(philosophical) stem
psychology
group, may

As earlier time. fairly claim a place in the

matter subject

science biological

because its
The

expressions.
measure

intimacy

is life in certain of its of the relationship is in a

ceives attested by the extent to which psychology conof its problems in evolutionary terms and in terms

of the

adjustmentof

the organism

to physical and

social

environment. Like other sciences, psychology has both a pure and an In its applications, it stands closely related applied aspect.
to education,

to medicine,

to

jurisprudence, and

to

of the professional and practical interests of life. These applications are still in their early infancy, and, interesting and valuable, must prealthough sumably extremely to completeness a upon wait for any approach
many

far higher

development
they
are

of the pure

science.

It is fair to

add

that

themselves

making

genuine

and

portant im-

contributions to this pure

science.

CHAPTER

II

INHERITED

AND

ACQUIRED
us we

BEHAVIOR

It will perhaps

assist

if, before

detailed study of behavior,

of its chief forms.
of the path analysis.

proceeding to pass rapidly in review some

us a

This will give

we are

rough

working
more

idea
exact

which

to follow

in

our

Classification of the
purposes
we

Forms

of Behavior.

"

For

practical

We

speak of it as

different ways. classify behavior in many ful, good or bad, as kind or cruel, as thought-

stupid,

or

clever.

Evidently
or

to mark
we

certain moral
as

signed such divisions are deintellectual qualities which

Again,
we

think of

attaching

to it.

from

the point of view

e.g., work
or

writing, havior of beskating, golfing, playing the piano, are all modes which might be thus distinguished.
For
our

of the special kind play. Walking, speaking,

classify volved of action inmay

present
one

purposes
we

the most

should keep stinct will be that which distinguishes innate, inherited, and informs of behavior from those which are acquired,
and
the

which

useful classification constantly in view,

and

we

may

profitably proceed

to

brief description of

these two

types.

of action are such as the nest-building activities of birds and insects, the seasonal migrations of habits of fishes,birds, and certain mammals, the homing
pigeons

Instinctive forms

and

certain marine
10

birds.

All

these forms

of

INHERITED

AND
common

ACQUIRED

BEHAVIOR

11

behavior have in

this native inborn character and

to the preservation

their fitnessto achieve certain ends necessary

an of the animal or the species. However much be influenced by the example set by others animal may of its kind, it is quite capable of executing these instinctive

acts wholly without

tuition. In this

sense

they

are

entirely

native, and

not learned.

popular conception does not always recognize himself possesses this fact, it is nevertheless true that man
many

Although

of these innate forms of behavior. The trembling of the limbs, the blanching of the face, the dryness of the
the
nausea

mouth,

and

faintness of terror,

are

instinctive

modes

of behavior, natural to every

child and

regard to either precept or the clenching of the fistin anger, the flushing of the or the shedding of tears in sorrow skin in embarrassment, in rage, are all indigenous modes of behavior, inborn in
quite without

carried out larly Simiexample.

like those cited from activities, some animal behavior, are all designed to secure tial end essento the welfare of the individual or the race.
every

human

being.

These

Some
acts
are

of the expressions of this character called reflex very simple and are called forth by relatively
situations.

simple

For

example,

the

contraction

of the

iris in the presence

muscular
movement

of strong light is a relatively simple made in response to the single stimulus,

act

light.

The

simple muscular the incentive

of coughing is similarly a rather dently response to irritation in the throat. Evito

the instinctive response

more

is somewhat
apprehension of
a

complex.

in embarrass It involves the

mere

an

entire situation, instead of the

single stimulation like light or irritation of the membranes of the throat. There is a very large group sensing of

12

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

of these innate forms

are

of behavior

of which
great

ordinarily

we

wholly

unconscious.

All

the

life-sustaining

bodily operations are of this character. The beating of for the most the heart goes on part entirely without attracting our notice. The normal processes of digestion
are

similarly unconscious.
itself upon attention.

Even

our

breathing

trudes rarely in-

It is clear, then, upon

the most

cursory

observation, that already

the human

being

comes

into the world

with an amazing number of muscular disposal. The maintenance of life is from the very first dependent the proper upon operation of these inherited activities. As we shall later see, these instinctive traits
constitute the foundation
upon

provided capacities at his

which

are

erected all the

acquired modes of behavior which we shall presently study. Acquired Behavior. As was tence, suggested in the last senstincti the acquired forms of behavior rest upon the in"

quite a nevertheless represent is born with the ability different order of affairs. Nobody forthwith to play the violin or to use the typewriter. Both achievements require long practice and painstaking effort.

types,

but

they

Speech
sure,

our

and walking both have an instinctive basis, to be fore but both require an extended period of learning bePractically all they are at all perfect or complete. dexterities and acts of skill are of this character. The
on

putting
the
common

and

of clothing, the manipulation utensils of daily life,our social deportmentoff of

our

expressive

of the conventional
"

etiquette of
our

our

own

time,

civilization, and set our habits, even in large measure

enunciation,
our

professional

moral

tices and religious prac-

and beliefs, are of this acquired character. As we shall discover at a later point with more

detail,

INHERITED

AND acts

ACQUIRED
all become

BEHAVIOR
as

13

these

acquired

have

result of processes

in which cidedly dea In this regard they are essenconspicuous part. tially different from the instinctive modes of behavior.
we

established has played the mind

the

Of these latter
owe

may

indeed be
to
were

awaue,

but they do not

which
so
we

their peculiar

form

any

thought
us,

have

accorded them. Obviously the

social forms
tutelage

As

they

born in
the

they appear.

execution

of

peculiar to every and a distinct conscious

proper

elaborate conventional civilization involves careful

effort of acquirement. of
a

The

gestures

to the greeting
are

lady by learned

man gentle-

in Western

Europe

not

to be

without

studious
the

to appropriate participant in a ritualistic service involves a prolonged before it can be successfully apprenticeship

effort.

Similarly

the

behavior

mastered. Acquired
suggest

Acts

Become

Automatic.

"

All these illustrations

truth later to be more what is a fundamental fully explored, i.e., that many acts which require in their after a early stages alert conscious supervision, become

and take care of themselves; essentially automatic that is to say, they tend to simulate the instinctive and innate forms of behavior. As a child, it requires a long time

and

tedious

course

table etiquette. practically

cares

the niceties of of training to master But once learned, it this is thoroughly for itself; and the
same

thing is true

of

all the other acquired types

to find how

of behavior.

It is surprising
one's

large

part

of the behavior of

is of this automatized, habitual kind, and of it involves immediate, thoughtful supervision.

day

working how little This is

but another way of saying that we are creatures of routine. It involves, however, explicit emphasis upon the fact often

14

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

unappreciated, to-wit, that well-established routine very littleactive mental control.

Instinctive Behavior
in Animals.
"

mands de-

As

we

have

already

intimated, the modern

conception teaches that those types of reaction which are effective in maintaining the life of the species inevitably tend to become fixed and Nature, it is said, cares nothing for the to be perpetuated.
evolutionary

individual, but everything for the species, and while this stances is no doubt an overstatement of the truth, there are inparticularly in insect forms, where the individual
generation. sacrifices its life in the act which creates the new It is certainly true, however, that no mode of behavior hope for survival which stands opposed to the can

successful maintenance of the species. The great body, then, of instinctive forms of behavior represents types of reaction which have been found useful in the past for the preservation of the
case, as

of the species. Many of these, in the nature dividu must make for the safeguarding of the inin our survey of well. But as we pass upward

the animal

forms

from

the lower

to the higher,

we

find

increasing opportunities for individualistictypes of ment, adjustit is in behavior this that and region of adaptive we the group encounter of actions which we have called

acquired. They, too, are broadly preservative in character, but they represent the region of unstable and incomplete

adjustment. The individual tries

out

for himself

new

line of action, which may prove a success or a failure. The simplest type of the known animals is represented by amoeba. The amoeba is an almost structureless speck of
seen

jelly-like protoplasm.
to consist of
a

Under

the microscope

it

can

be

nucleus surrounded by fluid protoplasm. This littleorganism secures its food by gradually envelop-

INHERITED

AND

ACQUIRED

BEHAVIOR

15'"

ing it with its liquid surfaces. If it be attacked by strong tends to flow acids, or similar stimuli, the protoplasm
away

from

the

source

of attack. simple

Its reactions

are

fore there-

activities of approach and retreat, with the assimilation of food and the rejection of waste products, all functions of this one simple cell-like Evidently the scope of structure. activitiesfor
confined

to these

adjustive

such

creature
to
a

is extremely
much

limited.

higher order of animal life, such as is represented by the fishes, we find again that the main forms of adaptive behavior have to do (1) with the securing including of food; (2) with the escape from harmful Passing

objects,

and unfavorable physical surroundings, e.g., water which is too cold, too salt, etc.; (3) with the propagation of the species. In the and amoeba, this latter function is brought about by a mere

both

animal

enemies

division of the parent cell. In addition to the commoner of instinctive expression in connection with the modes have listed, fishes, and particularly functions which we
birds, display designed
to

the most

amazing

afford them several stages of their life cycle.

migratory adjustments, favorable surroundings for the Practically all

our mon com-

birds migrate
territory, and end of North
some

annually

over

considerable ranges

of

of them journey from the northern America to the extreme southern end of
"

South
To

America.

activitiesof the kinds described, the more adjusting intelligent mammals (to say nothing of the fishes and types birds) add many of gregarious instincts, which
often
common

safeguard enemies.

the
In

members
some

of the
cases

group

from

their
action

this community

has

an

aggressive rather

than

merely

protective char-

16 acter.

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

Wolves,

for example,

hunt

domestic of wild animals. to some cattle live by preference in herds whose numbers from the assaults of their enemies. extent protect them In such group association they benefit by the leadership
other forms

in packs, as Buffalo, deer, and

do

some

of the stronger Modification

and

more

intelligent members
"

of Instinct in Man.

There

of the herd. is perhaps no

single
which

of these protective forms of animal behavior does not find a substantial counterpart in the behavior
one

of

man.

which
man

in almost every case a form of behavior, in the animals is primarily instinctive,is in

But

modified through and

often

various

the animal

perfected form. Against

kinds of acquired adjustments to a degree quite surpassing

the rigors of the winter the cave, the squirrel to his nest

bear retires to his den in a builds for himself the most in the tree, but man
shelters. Where of artificial

the bird migrates end of the continent to the other in search of equable be cool in devises his house that it may so climate, man in winter. In other words, he artisummer ficially and warm

elaborate from one

preferred climate. The animal in his search for a livelihood may be carried by conditions of degrees of latitude. Man, by his control climate over many
creates

his

own

over

agriculture and husbandry, assures food at his very door the year around. More striking still than his mastery

himself adequate

of those forms

of

adjustmentwhich
general
to which

relate to climate, food supply, and the characteristics of physical nature, is the extent

his instincts have

been

conditions, and the skill with he has learned to adapt himself to the demands
social circumstance. If
one

evolved to meet social intelligence which of his own

of
of the

disregard

appetites

INHERITED

AND

ACQUIRED

BEHAVIOR

17

hunger

and

thirst and
may
are

the instincts connected

with

their

satisfaction, one human

say that practically all the remaining

either dominantly or exclusively social Anger, hate, fear, love, sorrow, in their import. sympathy list may be drawn out almost indefinitely all point "the to social forms of adjustment. Arising primarily out of the great group of instinctive impulses, but with modifications instincts
"

man

introduced at various points by reflectiveintelligence, has evolved those great social institutions which we

designate religion, law, custom, government Even commerce the family and the church. and
modes
agriculture

and the state, and industry,

in which
to nature

in all its forms, represent concretely the has developed his processes of man
to his fellow-man.
serve

ment adjust-

These
range

and illustrations may

and

to suggest

how

in animal

human

life over

which

wide is the is distributed

the process of adjustment, and how manifold are the forms with which it clothes itself. It remains only to point out that while much of this adaptive process is carried out by instinctive and often unconscious inherited activities, a large part of it is the result of the play of thought and feeling flowing out into acts of will, constituting in their

Our commonly entirety what we call the life of mind. study in this book will be devoted to both these factors in behavior, i.e., instinctive and acquired characteristics, but
more

particularly to the last named

portion of them.

CHAPTER

III

THE

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

In the preceding chapter, attention was directed to certain to of the broad typical forms of organic

adjustment

environment.
the great

In the animal

kingdom
are

of majority
no

these acts

involve little or

direct mental
of

whole probably reflex in character and In man, supervision.

are

as

however,

the types
are

adjustmentwhich

of most

significanc

mind.
which

those which involve the definite use of the interest is naturally centered in the things Human
we

choose to do, or not to do ; the things which provoke our or strong feeling, which challenge our courage intelligence, which stimulate our ingenuity and test our
perseverance.

To be

even

superficial survey

evident that the mind knowledge through the use

in turn
it makes

of the situation it must into possession of its comes of the bodily senses, and that

itselfeffectivethrough

bodily muscles. Without it,would obviously be rather helpless. Modern

its control of the the body the mind, as we know

psychology

has therefore been disposed to learn all it could regarding tant those portions of our physical structure which are imporfor shall
now

our

mental

life. Pursuant
to gain
a

to this tendency

we

undertake

rough

working

conception

than any other part of system, which more of the nervous bodily frame is responsible for the peculiarities of our mental behavior. We shall make no pretense of entering
18

THE

NERVOUS
upon

SYSTEM
or

19

in any
the

detailed way
system.
so

the anatomy shall, however,

as

physiology
to

of

nervous

We

attempt

secure

impressions, which, of
our
a

far

kind to render

us

they go, will be accurate and constant assistance in the course of

study.

FIG. 1.
"

Diagram of an amoeba of protoplasm shaped mass CV, a contractile vacuole,

greatly magnified. is shown with N, and which expands

The

irregularly
and

its nucleus, contracts.

The
marine

biologiststell us
plants

that the earliest forms

of life were

of the simplest and animals, presumably possible structure, like the amoeba (Fig.1) to which reference was made in a previous chapter. In animals of this
type, every
to be sensitive to of the body appears Every part appears stimulation. capable of moving. There is no definite specialization of function. But as we part pass to higher forms,

that process which

with the beginnings of in the higher animals has resulted in the

we

early meet

differentiationof functions among are tissues. To some funcassigned digestive functions, to others respiratory tions,
while to the from excitement
These
nerves
one

falls the function of transmitting

part

to another. of the .organism last mentioned tissues have appropriated to themselves for their the functions of control which accounts

special claim upon our simple forms of nervous Main Subdivisions

attention.
systems.

Figures

2 and

3 exhibit

of the Nervous

System.

"

There

are

20

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

two

subdivisions of the nerves which share between One, the sothem the important duties to be performed. for the of the called 'central' system cares
great

adjustment

FIG. 2.
"

Nervous

surrounds

system the mouth;

of a starfish; 6, peripheral

central nerve ring that nerves (After of the arms.

a,

Loeb.)

-C.

s.

JL

FIG.

o, view of the central system earthworm; of an u, c, commissure; supraoesophageal ganglion; suboesophageal 8, pharynx; G, ganglion of the ventral cord. ganglion; (After
"

3.

Dorsal

Loeb.)

THE

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

21

The other, the world. * as the sympathetic system, more often known autonomic functioning of the bodily system, provides for the proper organism
to the outside physical
'

organs
one
as

themselves.

The

central system the various

connected
sense a

through such

set of terminals

with
ears,

organs

the eyes

and

the

and

through

second

set with

to move the muscles, enables the organism fully about successin search of food and shelter and in avoidance of danger. Meantime, the autonomic system keeps the digestion,

respiration, and of the reflexes and

circulation in order,
more

oversees

many

particularly the processes of assimilation and excretion, and in general assures tions condiof physical life and health. The central system may be thought of as the provider, the autonomic system as the housekeeper. for the two
are

Of

course

their functions somewhat

overlap,

intimately connected, and neither one could life is in some ways get on without the other. Mental immediately connected with the activity of the cenmore tral
system,
as

we

shall presently
system

see,

to the autonomic

in many

but it is also related important particulars.

great

Although
the them
nervous

the differences in these two

system
are

divisions of

to make sufficient
are

it wise to consider

separately, both known as neurones Neurone,

made

up

The The
very

which we the Element of the Nervous

neurone
or

tures strucof elementary must briefly describe.

System.

"

fully developed

nerve

end

slender thread with a knot near beyond the knot being frequently of brush-like endings.
nerve

resembles roughly a one end of it, the

number
of the

frayed out into a (See Fig. 4.) The part

knot is the

corresponding

to the

so-called

cell body,

which

which corresponds roughly to the seed out of plant develops. It is the vital center of the nerve,

22

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

will and if it be destroyed, the remainder of the nerve die. Like the plant seed, which gives off certain fibers that develop into the root and others which become the

FIG. 4. A, B, C, D of a young represent successive stages in the development fully developed E represents neurone. a cell from pyramidal the granular the cortex of the cerebrum, and nuclear showing D body. E both the differences the character cell and show of in the appearance dendrites, d, axones, ax, and and jP of fiber nerve exhibits the typical structure of a fully developed true the the ac, nerve, of axis cylinder, or of the periphery, m, the thick pulpy medullary axone; p, the thin membranous sheath; primitive sheath, both the sheaths protective and probably G, trunk. a nerve -a nutritive; cross-section of such shows H fibers of the symof the unmedullated exhibits segments pathetic from (Modified Cajal and Toldt.) system.

stalk, the
forms

cell body

of minute

of the nerve filaments. These shown

usually
possess
as

gives off two

a

rule certain

differences in appearance

in Fig. 4D, E.

The

nerves

THE

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

23

vary

enormously
or

in their dimensions.
feet in length.

Some
are

of them

may

the fibers which extend from the base of the spinal cord into the sole of in the brain) are only the foot. Others (examplesoccur

be two

more

Such

millimeter in length, and a cross-section of any short or long would of them ordinarily require a The to be clearly seen. are nerves which microscope fraction of
a

sometimes
an

exposed
are

operation

fibrils, brought circuit in

streets.
a

the result of an injury or in reality great bundles of these little together like the wires of a telephone
to view
as

cable, such

as

one

may

often

see

upon

our

Classification of the
nerves

Nerves.

"

For

our

purposes

the
great

may

conveniently those

be

divided

into

three

groups:

(1)

central system.

which carry impulses in toward These are called sensory or nerves receive sensory carry impulses from
or

the

receptors

because
The
out
nerves

they

stimulations,

(2)

which

to

the

muscles

glands.

the central system be called These may

effectors,because they produce specific effects of adjustment. nated Effectors entering muscles are frequently designerves. motor (3) Those which connect the first
group

with
or

the second.
connectors.

These

may

Although
seen

be called central adjuster the forms of the nerves

the microscope, ing accordto the particular portion of the nervous from system they are alike in the fact that, so far which they come, is known in the higher organisms as at least, normal
when

differ somewhat

under

nervous
one

impulses

always

flow

over

them
a a

in

one

and
which

only

direction.
conveys

This

means

that
from
an

neurone sense

customarily

impulses
never

organ

to

the from

brain

or

cord

can

conduct

impulse backward

24

AN
or

INTRODUCTION

TO organ.

PSYCHOLOGY

the cord which

brain to the

sense

Similarly the effector,

carries impulses out toward the muscles, can never impulse back from the muscle to the center. an convey We may express the situation in magnetic terms by saying that the only in Each
nervous

system

is polarized.

Its currents

flow

one

direction.
receptor

sensory

terminates

at the surface of the

body

in contact
as

with

some

kind
a

organized
or

to be sensitive to

of specialized tissue so particular form of physical

chemical

stimulus.

Thus

the optic fibers terminate

in

of the retina, of which we with the rods and cones in a later chapter. These microscopic shall learn more they are stimulated, structures are sensitive to light. When in them (probably of electro-chemical charchanges occur
contact

acter)
then

that set up
transmit the
nerves nervous

impulses

in the

nerve

fibers,which

terminate

excitation to the brain. The auditory similarly in the internal ear, about the
known
as

bases of minute
thrown
into

structures

hair cells,which

are

the ear. sounds fall upon vibration when Again, the nerves to an distributed to the skin come end in the dermis, which in contact with minute structures

sensitive to contact, or to heat, or to cold. One form has not i.e., the so-called "pain nerve" nerve, of cutaneous thus far been found to have any special terminal organ.
are

But

this is

an

exception

to

which

we

shall return

in

another

chapter.

The

effectors or
system

motor

nerves

leading out from

surfaces
one

the central

terminate
impulse

in the

of

the

muscles.
nerves,

When it

nervous

travels down

of these

the muscle with which it is connected to contract, of the and this in turn brings about a movement When the part of the body in which the muscle is found.
causes

THE

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

25

reader raises his hand to turn the page is brought about by justsuch movement originating in the brain and passing
through muscles the spinal cord of the hand

of this book, the

a

nervous

impulse that

from
nerves

and
arm.

over

motor

point into the

may

and

Similarly, an

impulse

FIG. 5.
"

to illustrate synapsis of arborization of axone of from SK, dendritic terminals the a with skin, sensory receptor 1, 2. The synapses neurones, axones, of motor of central system in terminating M, 3, 4, with dendrites of an a muscle, effector

Diagram

are

similarly

shown.
a

be sent out into

gland, which is then thrown into activity, whether of secretion or excretion. A cinder in the eye will thus occasion a flow of tears. As we shall see in more detail at
to great
a

later point, certain of the glands

are

excited

activity by

the

more

powerful
are

emotions.

The

central

nerves adjuster

located within the great

26
masses
a

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
we

of the spinal cord and the brain, and

shall give

brief description of them presently. into connection Neurones come with

points

one

the terminal

of their fibers
or

as

shown

at another in Fig. 5.

Whether
events

they actually touch they

are
are

not

is unknown.

At

all

very

close to

one

another.
are

Such
great

junction
tance impor-

points

called synapses

and

of very

in the operation of the

themselves, they
can

nerves.

Like the
so

nerve

fibers

are one

seemingly

polarized,

that impulses

pass in only

direction.
Pattern

The

Sensory-Motor
fundamental
system

of the Nervous

System.

"

The
nervous

in accordance is built up involves, as

pattern receptors,

with which the have already we

(1) a system of effectors, and (3) a system

means

indicated,

(2)

system
nerves

of

of interconnecting
are

by

of which
with

the various muscles the various

one
sense

brought
so

into communicatio
that

organs,

(4)

stimulation of any of any

lower
types
one

ment of the latter may occasion a move(See Fig. 6B, C.) In the of the former.
are

fixed and innervated are

lying in the

of organism, these connections rigid, and in the first instance

by impulses which

relatively muscles

the

same

is represented
sketch.

organs arise from sense This arrangement region of the body. diagrammatically in the accompanying
use

of such an arc, or circuit, as it is called, would be illustrated by the reflex withdrawal In such of the hand when it is cut or bruised or burned. impulse passes up the receptors into the a case the nervous
the spinal cord, where it is turned about and sent over effectors into the muscles of the hand and arm. The brain and the cord in their entirety represent very elaborate complications of this basic pattern,

(Fig.6 A.) The

of such

THE

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

27

conceivable combination of The hand organs and muscles. relations between sense be moved not only in response to stimulations from may the skin of its own surfaces, but also in response to s-timu-

kind

as

to permit

almost every

FIG. 6. the arc, a pattern of simplest sensory-motor where pheral periexhibits immediately the a stimulus movement elicits region of 1 is the receptor, 2 the connector stimulated; and 3 the effector. In some directly l_mav_be very simple reflexes conjoined with 3, "omitting ". The Th the dotted line a diagrarn alsosuggests fact, i.e.,that the contraction of M sets up kinvery important sesthetic sensory impulses which pass into the nervous centers, in turn, perhaps, eliciting other a new opening circuit, and
movements.

illustrates how

two sets of muscles may be innervated from either two The sense same sets of of organs. pattern can be elaborated to include all the senses It is purely the and muscles. all diagrammatic. The involve more actual paths would many
neurones.

illustrates rudely
The lowest,
r,

three levels of circuits in the nervous system. is purely reflex and does not necessarily involve It is typified by the conditions in the spinal consciousness. lower These brain neurone cord, medulla, and centers. circuits The are the level of congenitally open. second, p, represents learning, mere reactions and crude perceptual sensory-motor

The as such most animals exhibit. sensory-motor regions of the cerebrum in these are circuits. presumably represented The ideational circuits are scious represented by i and involve conference. imagination, memory, and rational inreflective thought this circuit In addition to the sensory-motor zones, highly use regions of the cerebral makes of the most i.e., frontal, areas. the cortex, other association parietal and See the later part of this chapter.

developed

28

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
as

lations from

other cutaneous
remove

regions,

when

one

liftsthe the left be

right hand to hand, or some moved

seen,

some

objectpressing
surface. which

upon

other body
to
a

Similarly, it may
is heard,
or
an

in response
etc.

sound

object

As

we

have

muscular appropriate The

movements

of these already observed, many inherited, and are, the are upon

stimulation, executed without simplest of such

acts
are

previous

training.

coughing,
among

sneezing,

crying). Many

called reflexes others, however,

(e.g.,
and

them
or

the acts of most

part

wholly

psychological interest, are in The flexible acquired, that is, learned.

nerves organization of the central adjuster learning possible, because it permits the

renders

such
any

of conjoining

effector. If the hand, for example, could not be controlled by stimulations from the eye but only by those from the skin, it would be extremely difficultto
receptor with any

learn to write,

cr

to

use

the typewriter,

or

to perform

any

diof the other acts of skill in which the hand is largely rected in contrast to the by vision. Moreover, in man
"

conditions found

in many

animals

"

arrangements

exist for
as

the control of the muscles from sensorial, centers.

ideational, as well
in mind
up

from

If the reader will bear constantly of the central

nervous

this notion

system

as

of sensory
to throw
we

and motor

of elaborate combination elements, it will be found

made

light upon
now

may

the general anatomical situation, which to describe in a littlemore detail. attempt

of the

Main
nervous

Divisions
system
great

Central

System.

"

The

central

comprises

the brain, the spinal cord, and

the two

groups

of receptor

and effector nerves.

(See

Figs. 7 and
masses

8.) The

of

nerves

cord are nothing but gathered together and held in place partly
and

brain

THE

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

29

Cer.

FIGS. 7 and
central

8.
"

Fig. 7 at the left shows the general relations to the bones nervous of the skull and system

of the spine.

30

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

by the veins and

arteries, partly by

tissue called neuroglia, and strong, firm membranes enclosing though

connective supporting partly by a series of

these
great
masses
as

within the walls of an irregularly shaped bag. In the case are of the brain, these containing membranes attached to the bones of the skull, and in the case of the cord
are

supported

within the central canal of the spinal

the essential features The
outer

vertebrae. Figure 9 illustratesin

in the structure
the cord
near

rude way

fibers which
on

regions of its surfaces are exclusively occupied by nerve carry impulses to and fro. The inner regions,
are

of the spinal cord.

the other hand,

as we

largely
are

composed

of cell bodies,

which,
the

nerve

earlier learned, fibers spring. The

the centers
great

from

which of the

two

functions

cord are at once suggested by its anatomical appearance. It is first a great reflex center, receiving impulses from sense organs, and immediately sending them out again into
muscles

and

glands.

If the sole of the foot be tickled

or

Fig. 8 at the right displays the general contours of the central from in front. The as seen system great ganglionated cord of the sympathetic is shown to one system attached side of the Cer., the the other side has been cut away. spinal nerves; hemispheres; P, the pons 0, the olfactory centers; cerebral Varolii; M, the medulla Sp. C.t (76., the cerebellum; oblongata; the spinal cord; /, the olfactory nerve; //, the optic nerve; ///, the oculo-motor like IV, nerve, the trochlear nerve connected VI, the abducens nerve, the muscles and with of the eye; V} in fibers from the trigeminus, made coming up part of sensory face and fibers supplying scalp, partly of motor neighboring regions; VII, the facial nerve, similarly in part giving sensory fibers to the face, tongue up of motor and neck, in part made fibers; VIII, the auditory IX, glossopharyngeal nerve, nerve; both fibers X, to throat tongue; and sensory and motor giving both sensory and motor, very complex the vagus nerve, tion, distribuand other viscera; XI, spinal chiefly to heart, stomach XII, hypoconnected with accessory, sympathetic system; to fibers tongue. nerve, motor glossal

THE

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

31

pricked, there is at once a reflex jerkof the foot for which the spinal cord is responsible ; and this is typical of other
of reflex action under the control of the cord. In the second place, it is the great channel through which impulses from many receptors flow upward into the brain,

forms

Anterior

root"

Central
Motor

motor

pathway
cell

-"

Posterior

root

ganglion

._

,''

Ascending and descending branch fiber sensory

of

Motor nerve in muscle ending

Sensory
Sensory

collateral

fiber

"

Cell and fiber of lateral column

Peripheral sensory ending
nerve

"

"

Bipolar cell of spinal ganglion

FIG. 9.
"

representation of sensory and of the connection the motor with spinal cord, and their synapses with one inside the gray matter The cross another section of the cord. at the top of the diagram exhibits clearly the difference between the white marginal fibrous material center and the H-shaped 9 Reference to Figure of gray cellular matter. will show how the combined their sensory-motor exit between strands make the vertebrae.
nerves

Schematic

and through which these impulses are returned from the brain to the muscles. The outer regions of the cord are in this conductive function. those principally engaged
The
central regions contain the arrangements reflexes are brought about, i.e.,the contact whereby the

of terminals

32

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

from
are

the receptors

with terminals of the effectors. There

similar synapses with effectors. Thus

of central
the motor

or adjusters,

connectors,

nerves

from

the cerebrum

OB

OB

RFC

SC

FIG. 10.
"

brain seen from below. FL, the frontal lobes of the TL, temOB, bulb of olfactory nerve; poral cerebral hemispheres; lobes; ON, hippocampal I/PC, EG, nerve; optic gyms; left and right peduncles, or legs, of the brain, great masses RFC, necting of fibers; P, pons Varolii, or bridge, great band of fibers conthe two sides of the cerebellum; MO, medulla oblongata; C, cerebellum; SC, spinal cord; OL, occipital lobes. (Modified from Edinger.)

The

discharge

over

neurones

which

jointhem

in the gray matter

of the spinal eord. It will, no doubt, be understood

that the upper

regions

THE

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

33

of the cord are connected with the upper portions of the body, and the lower portions with the lower parts of the trunk and with the legs. This is true both as" regards the and the effectors. These are both gathered up into bundles which are given off from the cord in pairs between the vertebrae. As shown in Fig. 9, the sensory or
receptors

receptor group

enters the posterior lateral part of the cord,

OJV

sc
FIG. 11.
Diagrammatic sketch of a vertical section from front to the central regions of the hemispheres, cerebellum, back through CH, brain stem CQ, corpora and cord. cerebral hemispheres; the Cb, SC, ; cerebellum; spinal cord; P, pons quadrigemina The sketch indiON, optic nerve. Varolii; T, optic thalamus; cates from a few of the neurone Edinger.) (Modified paths.
"

the motor

or

effector group

is given

off

on

the anterior

lateral surface. At the point where the cord leaves the spinal vertebrae to enter the skull, it broadens out to form the medulla oUongata. important
This structure contains
a

number

reflex centers.

For

example,

of extremely here are located

34

AN
nerve

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

centers primarily responsible for the control of breathing. The rate of the heart beat may also be altered

the

tion the medulla. Furthermore, the distribuof the blood in the body, e.g., as between the skin and the viscera, is controlled from this region.

by impulses from

GB

SC
FIG. 12. A thalami.
"

location of the optic been The entirely removed T, and all but a portion of the right side of the cerebellum. Figure 11 should be compared with this. GB, optic thalami. geniculate bodies; CQ, corpora quadrigemina ; P, a segment of M, medulla the pons Varolii; C, cerebellum; SC, oblongata;

sketch

indicate the general cerebral hemispheres have

to

spinal cord.

(After Edinger.)

As

we

pass

upward,

we

encounter

number

of other

conspicuous parts of the brain, such as the cerebellum, the bridge, the corpora or the optic pons quadrigemina, thalami, etc. (See Figs. 10, 11, 12.) The functions of
many

profitabl of these organs are stillobscure, and it will be unfor us to give them consideration, with one or ,

THE
two

NERVOUS
case,

SYSTEM

35

exceptions.

In every

however,

that they consist of masses similar to those in the spinal cord and

it is to be stood underof cell bodies and fibers

The

cerebellum,

whatever

other

medulla. part it may

play,

is

quite certainly responsible for the orderly control of muscular

our

our

particularly such as are involved in maintenance ample, of bodily balance. As we walk, for exit is clearly essential, if our gait is to be effective,
movements,

that each

of the muscles

controlling the foot, knee,

and

hip should contract at justthe right time and to justthe Were the muscles controlling the knee to right extent.
contract
too
soon or

too

violently,
a

one's

balance

obviously be disturbed, and impossible. The cerebellum

sensory

well-ordered pace receives from moment

would would be
to moment

reports

of the bodily position, and

the requirements.

orders

the motor

discharges to meet

In general those parts of the central system lying below have to do with our the cerebral hemispheres reflex and instinctive behavior. They operate under the general

supervision of the cerebrum,

fact which

is shown

by the

are the hemispheres exaggeration of their activitieswhen destroyed, as may happen in certain animals without causing death. The acquired acts depend more definitely upon

the cerebrum. The Cerebral

some

Hemispheres.
on

"

Omitting

for

few

moments
us

brief comments

the thalami, this brings intimately

then to that part with mental the organ

of the brain most

connected
This is

life,to-wit, the cerebral hemispheres.

whose great size, relative to the other parts of the brain, distinguishes the nervous system and of man the higher animals like the apes, from those lower down in the scale. In
man,

too, the association regions, to be

36

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

FIGS. 13 and 14. lateral shows surfaces of the right hemisphere of the figure inner the 14 cerebrum, mesial surface of the left hemisphere. The latter section is made through the corpus callosum, the right hemisphere being removed. Surfaces covered by colored dots are the so-called motor in control regions, whence originate neurone's There are some of voluntary muscles. small and relatively portant unimareas in the cortex, e.g., in the motor elsewhere occipital region some the receiving connected with vision. The sensory areas, for impulses from the periphery, are indicated by stations sensory black dots. The regions most heavily dotted, both sensory and motor, those most indispensable are for the given function. The areas less heavily dotted are those which less uniformly are in the employed function, the or derangement exercise of whose affects the secondary more' or use For example, complex of the function. visual images be disturbed by injuries in the visual areas and ideas may which do not seriously impair The areas free crude sensations of sight. from dots are the association regions, which Flechsig has divided into a number districts. of subordinate R, Rolando, deep fissure separating the convolutions a of M, the from B, the principal motor regions, somaesthetic sensory regions for impressions, bodily sense kinaesthetic. The e.g., touch, temperature, right half of the body is in general controlled by the left side of the cerebral cortex as regards both sensory and motor In processes. the motor-somsesthetic area body the are specific parts of controlled by special regions of the cortex, e.g., the muscles of the legs are controlled from centers lying just under the letter M in Figure 13. The speech muscles are the lower edge controlled from regions near in this figure. Injury to the left side (in of the motor convolution inright-handed motor aphasia, i.e., ability people) is likely to produce is to articulate correctly. The but not paralyzed, patient his words A center higher cannot somewhat pronounce correctly. in hand-writing. These controls up relations are all suggested 19. V, visual center. Figure Injury here may produce various Total its to location blindness depending on extent. and effects is half the field of view, inability to read or understand seen, what of occipital without actually being blind, are all found as symptoms In right-handed lobe injuries.H, auditory center. persons injury in this region is likely to result in sensory to the left hemisphere heard. Complete inability to understand when words aphasia, destruction of the region on both sides is said to be followed by total 0, the olfactory center which deafness. exends in a great loop up is quite uncertain The extent of the area the corpus callosum. over facts drawing the the at present generally recognized. and simply suggests to the region The confinement and somsesthetic areas of motor is also tentative, alcallosum though above the limbic lobe of the corpus O.B., the olfactory investigators. by competent asserted FIG.
13 the

bulb;

O.T., the olfactory tract; O.T.A., occipito-temporal association the area, A.P., area; with occipitocontinuous parietal association /., the A.F., frontal temporal area; area; association association the to area Island of Reil, another cortical which show association surfaces just above the fissure of Sylvius have been lifted up; C.G., the two sides the corpus callosum, a great band of fibers connecting of the hemispheres.

AP__

FIG. 13

AP

--AF

--OB or

\o
FIG. 14

THE

NERVOUS
are

SYSTEM

37

explained in
most

moment,

relatively much

larger than in

his superior apparently owes animals. However, man intelligence more to the organization of his brain than to its size. As is indicated in Figs. 8, 13 and 14,1 the hemi3

ROMG

'"SOC

Ml

from sense shortest pathways to cortex, to muscles No doubt the cortex organs are more actual pathways generally complex. Taking the skin nerves as an we example of the sensory pathways find, first, an end-organ in the skin, then a cell in the ganglion fiber out to the end-organ a outside the spinal cord sending has its cell-body to the cord. The next neurone and another in the medulla located in the one communicates with and turn thalamic in region, which with a cell in the communicates from thus the cerebral cortex, skin to cerechain completing brum. Passing downward find a long from we motor centers fiber extending the so-called pyramidal through (of pathway the principal in Fig. 18) and which crossed tract is shown in the gray matter terminating somewhere of the anterior horn it the neurone of communicates with another spinal cord, where fiber A to a a muscle. which similar arrangement sends out of the head, such obtains in the case of certain of the muscles
"

FIG. 15.

Diagram

to

illustrate from and

the

These

figures

and

the

legends

accompanying

them

The the understand very carefully studied. should student figures and diagrams part of the text, constitute a highly important their use. be mastered which cannot without

should that

be

38

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

spheres constitute by far the larger part of the human brain. Although the nerves them belong to which compose our to distinguish on third adjuster group, it is common the
surfaces of

the

hemispheres,

known

as

the

cortex,

(1) sensory, (2) motor,

means come

and

(3) association
from

regions.

This

that
to fke

nervous

pathways

the sensory

receptors

in surface

certain definite zones,

that effector

tracts leading to muscles

and

that the remainder

of
nerves

originate similarly in other zones, of the cortical structure is composed

which

join the

several regions
are

another.1

Except

that all the

senses

with one represented in the

cerebral cortex, as they are not in the cord, this general distribution is similar to, although very much commore plex than, that of the cord. To be sure, in the cord, the
'white' fibrous matter
'gray'

cellular matter
the

is all on the outer surfaces, and the is wholly surrounded by this fibrous

diately the immeocular muscles, for example, where, however, issue from the neurones not controlling spinal cord, but from the brain With this explanation the legend stem. and follows, the diagram will be easily understood. which I, the visual tract; Ro. and Co., rods and cones; BC, bipolar retinal large TC, RG, cell; retinal ganglion; cell-body in the thalamic in the VC, region; of the occipital region. cell visual cortex 2, the auditory tract; HC, hair cell of the cochlea; CC, ganglion cell in the medulla oblongata ; TC, as cell of the cochlea ; MC, in the visual tract; AC, cell in the auditory cortex of the upper in the tract; 3, a cutaneous ES, end-organ temporal region. the SG, the on skin; cell of spinal ganglion posterior root of the cord; MC and TC as before; CS, sensory cell in the cortex 4, an olfactory tract, different region. posterior to the Rolandic in character from OC, olfactory other sensory sensory paths; in in BC, the cell of nasal part cavity; cell upper olfactory bulb; COl, cell in the -olfactory cortex of the hippocampal tract; RMC, 5, a motor motor cell of the Rolandic region. 8C, the a procmotor cell of ess region; spinal cord, sending down to H, a muscle.
as
1

Figure
and

the number exhibits certain interesting facts regarding important in the location the neurones sensory and of
15

motor

paths.

THE
cover,

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

39
are

whereas

in the cortex But

the conditions

(See Fig. 16.)

exactly reversed the great outstanding differ-

FIQ. 16.
"

Diagrammatic section of the cerebral cortex taken at right illustrates to the angles surface. The right side of the drawing illustrates The the left the fiber system primarily alone. side

40
ence

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY processes
a are connected seems

is found

in the fact that mental

with the action of the cortex in

not to be true of the cord.

way

which

Our

knowledge

of the facts which

are

now

to be briefly

stated rests in part upon the teachings of anatomy, which has by dissection worked out the topographical connections
of the different portions of the brain, in part upon

evidence

gained by experimental
upon

physiology

as

animals, and finally in part of pathology, with its discoveries of the effect upon human mental life of injury to particular regions of the brain.

result of tions observathe findings upon

While
general

not

in every

detail harmonious
the

indications of
sources are

evidence

consistent, the these gained from

and

various

Consciousness
memory

remarkably uniform. Cortex. the Cerebral and dependent

upon

"

Conscious

is apparently

the integrity of the

cerebral cortex.
or

If the retinae are destroyed by accident disease, blindness is the inevitable result. But memory

of visual

need objects injury occurs

not

be impaired.

If, however,

extensive

in that part

of the cortex

in which

is obliterated the visual pathways terminate, visual memory or Injury to other of the so-called sensory gravely invaded. regions
sensory

exercises

corresponding

effect upon

the

memories

appropriate

to the region

affected. On

the other hand, if the tissues of the so-called motor zone is lost, destroyed, control over are particular muscles temporarily, if not permanently. Injuriesto the association irregular have more regions ambiguous and
is so complex that it is difficult The structure cellular layers. 1, molecu^r to display both sets of facts in a single sketch. layer next the surface of the brain ; 2 and 3, layers of pyramidal cells; 8.F., fiber of a sensory cells; 4, layer of polymorphous in layer. to terminate the outer neurone molecular entering (Modified from Morat.)

THE

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

41

consequences. suggest

Interesting

experiments with
these
our

upon

monkeys
whose

quite

definitely that
closely

animals,
own,

brain

organization

resembles
zone

injuries
acquired

in the frontal association

tend

to destroy

habits, which then be re-learned. Many must observations human beings had led to the frequent on conclusion
that these frontal regions
were

actively involved

in the

use

of attention. The significance of tEe other association is at present somewhat less clear, but brain zones

diseases indicate quite definitely that coherent connection at these of ideas is materially impaired by derangement
points. For instance,
a

patient suffering from

disorder

Fig. of this type in the parietal association region (see might find it quite impossible to recognize the meaning
a

13)
of
are

knife

or

fork,

or

to remember

the

uses

to which

they

there would be although in such a case no question of failure to see the object. In the disease called dementia, the tissues of the brain disintegrate and

ordinarily put,

with the disintegration disappears all mental organization. The attempt has sometimes been made to establish a corresponde between the three great divisions of the nerves
which mental
to
we

have

described, and
The The
receptors

the fundamental
are
are

forms

of

action.

thus said to correspond

sensation.

effectors

alleged

to

correspond

to the will, and memory,

are the central adjusters set over against In so imagination, and the reasoning processes.
serves

far

as

this formulation

roughly

to emphasize

certain

physiological activitiesessential to each of these great But if modes of mental expression, it is

unobjectionable.

understood

in any

literal and

seriously misleading. for sensation, the cerebral cortex

be precise fashion, it may pensable indisAlthough the receptors are

is also indis-

42

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

pensable;

and

similarly, while

the

requisite to
motor cortex

secure

actual expression
as

is quite

necessary,

are effector nerves for acts of will, the These considerations

the real truth about the connection of mental with that while certain elements in physiological processes, i.e.,
suggest

mental

life depend

in

measure

upon

specific

nervous

structures,

the entire
occurrences.

nervous

system

is really involved

in

all mental
serve

few

illustrations will perhaps

to make

the matter

clear.

If with closed eyes one recalls the appearance of some have every reason familiar to believe that the we object,

visual regions of the cerebral cortex are active and that indispensable for this particular kind of more they are
mental

action than

any

have also many

reasons

But we other part of the system. for believing that the very process

by which

attend to these visual pictures of the object over, Morerecalled, involves the action of the association areas. the securing and maintaining of a bodily attitude
we

carrying out this undertaking, e.g., closing the eyes, while holding the large muscles of the body firm and quiet, involves the cooperation of the motor regions of the cortex and the innervation of many of the muscles.
our

favorable to

Again,

to give

our

attention to
we

and
primarily
as

distance

are

faint sound whose direction attempting to determine involves

a

the auditory
we

put

now

regions of the cortex; but, arily, secondthat upon this interpretation and now
association regions Moreover,

what
are

we

hear, the

of the

cerebrum

certainly involved.

it is perfectly obvious
we

that the movements

us

of the head which

the
source

employ

to assist

in determining

about by impulses which

motor

of the sound, are brought in part, at least, originate in the

cerebral

zones.

The

reader

can,

no

doubt, supply

THE

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

43
same

abundant

other instances to support

the

general

conclusion,

to-wit, that the entire cortex is in greater or lesser degree involved in every mental act. The complex interconnection of different regions
cortex, and
on

the

same

side of the

and and

of the two sides of the cortex with one another with the lower brain centers is indicated in Figs. 17

18.

FIG. 17.
"

Diagram front to back section from of a vertical cross through the central region of the cerebral cortex to illustrate the system the cortical centers with one of fibers connecting (James after Starr.) another.

it by which 'integrating' action of the cortex brings into a unified organized whole the processes going forward in various of its parts extends also to its supervision

This

over

the lower here

centers.

Impulses

spinal

with other combine like the eye and organs of special sense, in coordinated motor The responses.

cord

coming impulses
the
ear,

from

the

from and
of

the issue
these

highest
engage

forms

of coordination

occur

when

we

in

pro-

44

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

longed and abstruse thought process, involving presumably large demands the frontal and parietal association upon
areas.

Such

process

may

then

issue in

decision,

an

FlG. 18.
"

the Rolandic

brain through transverse section of the human fibers in the to the motor region show crossing of In the the right side of the medulla. neighborhood of general brain controls the left side of the body and vice versa. sure 8, fisC.C., corpus callosum; 0. T., optic thalamus; of Sylvius; M, medulla (7., peduncles, or legs, of the brain; P, the pons; facial from VII, their nerves the nucleus oblongata; passing out in the region of the pons. (After James.)

Schematic

of will, given effect through speech. Fig. 19 illustrates some

act

the muscles

controlling

simple

excoordinations ecuted

by the brain in response

to sensory

stimulations.

THE

NERVOUS

SYSTEM

45

Possible

Functions

of

the

Optic

Thalami."

Recent

clinical studies have given ground to believe that certain regions at least of the great group of nervous elements known as the optic thalami (seeFigs. 10, 11, 12) are per-

FIG. 19.

"

Diagram
or

speaks auditory speech.

involved when one to show the cortical pathways is A the in is heard. or to seen writes response what for E, that V, the W, the writing, and center, visual,

(After James.)

haps
mental

the

centers

upon

experiences

which the affective parts depend, i.e., the agreeableness

of
or

our

dis-

agreeableness of our sensations and ideas. The evidence hardly be called conclusive, but it is certainly very can

46

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

will have observed that no region of the cerebral cortex has been made responsible for factors in mental life. these conspicuous

suggestive

and

the

reader

The

Autonomic
our

System.

"

While

our

sensations,

our

memories,
true

and

acts of will are, reasonings, and our dependent upon the central sense, proper

in
nervous

system,

and particularly upon

system

autonomic
mental

plays

very

the cerebral cortex, the important in our part

comment.

further experience and deserves some This division of the nervous system got its name

because self-

supposed directing.
The

it

was

to be essentially self-controlling,and

like the central system, is composed These nerves, of groups although they of nerves. in appearance from the nerves differ somewhat of the central
autonomic
system,
system, ture. nevertheless of essentially similar struclargest, and in many the most important ways
are

The
group,

consists of the so-called sympathetic system, which is made up of two great strands of fibers and cell bodies,
one

placed
they
are

fibers.
nerves

either side of the spinal cord, with which connected by very complicated arrangements of (See Fig. 8.) Other groups of these autonomic
on

the viscera and at various points throughout the skull cavity. For example, highly important group is located in the muscular walls one
are

found

distributed through

of the heart; another

stomach. muscles

is connected

with the walls of the

Still others control certain of the glands

of the eye.

and

the operations of the sympathetic system that all the great vital processes of digestion, respiration, The beating of the and circulation are carried forward. heart is brought about by nervous impulses which originate

It is through

THE

NERVOUS in its own

SYSTEM

47

in the autonomic

walls, although the rate of the contractions is influenced by the medulla. The contractions of the muscle fibers of the stomach and

nerves

muscle

intestines, the secretion of the various

the digestive process,

these and the assimilation of foodstuffs and the excretion of waste asmuch Inof this system. products are carried out by the nerves as these vital functions, including respiration and
the circulation of the blood,
are

fluids required by all the other features of

ordinarily unconscious,
system
can
were

it

might

seem

as

readily understand that only on the basis of reasonably healthful organic conditions may one expect to live a normal mental life,and in so far the dependence of our conscious processes
upon
a

unimportant

this part of the nervous for mental life. Of course, one

though

the autonomic
more

much

is self-evident. But there issignificant set of facts to be taken into

system

account.

The

most

found

exciting parts of in our emotions.

we

our

experience are undoubtedly So long as our affairs run

remark

along smoothly, But

hardly

ever

their mental
way

acter. char-

the moment
cause
us

they become

in any

exciting,

whether

they

apprehension

and

thrilling anticipation, we cognizant of a group tions of factors which under other condiemappear to be wholly lacking. In fear, and even barrass to atthe heart misbehaves itself in a way tract
our

delights of

solicitude,or the become suddenly

painful

notice.

This misbehavior
system,

is occasioned pating antici-

by the

nerves

of the autonomic
more

and without

at this point the

shall have
content

occasion

to make

detailed analyses which we in a later chapter, we may

of in

that many ourselves with the general statement the characteristic features of emotion are to be found

48

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

is very bodily reactions for which, the autonomic system largely responsible. Kecent investigations have shown that in emotions like anger and fear, the secretions of certain

internal glands, the adrenals, play a very important part. The activity of the salivary glands and the tear-producing glands in certain emotions will suggest other instances of
the glandular accompaniments of states of excitement. The facts presented in the last few paragraphs will
serve

to give point

to the statement

made

early

in this
system

chapter, that the central system are most intimately related to

are

and the autonomic

one

another, and

that both

fundamentally

significantfor the activities of the mind.

CHAPTER

IV

CONSCIOUSNESS

AND

HABIT

FORMATION

Relation
Acts.
"

of Consciousness

to

Instinctive

and

matic Auto-

One

fundamental

conception

runs

through

be conveniently introduced at once. this book, which may This is the theory that conscious acts arise amid the hereditary reflex and instinctive acts, like swallowing, crying, sleeping, and writing
The
pass
over

into non-conscious
now

We may and walking. justwhat is meant by this idea.

general

habits, such as fully explain more

conception

of consciousness

as

part

of

the

of the organism has prepared the tary reader to appreciate the fact that if the reflex and heredito its environment were responses of the organism
equipment adjusting

satisfactory for the maintenance individual and the race, there would be
wholly for the appearance

of the life of the

no

particular

fication justi-

of consciousness, and certainly It no available explanation of it on evolutionary grounds. is a natural consequence of this view to look for the of conscious processes at those points both in individual and racial development tary where reflex and herediautomatic acts are inadequate to meet environmental
appearance

demands.

So far
conception

as

concerns seems

the history of the individual, this In so far as the needs sound enough.

are of the organism adequately met in the early life of infancy, consciousness is present in only a fleeting and

49

50

AN

INTRODUCTION
way.

TO
as a

PSYCHOLOGY

interrupted
organism which

But
to

development
large

takes

place, the

is exposed

equipment to cope with the situation. At such points consciousness is always to be found.

the hereditary

variety of conditions in is hopelessly inadequate

Similarly
which
the

in

the

history

of

the
are

race,

the

points

at
are

evidences of mind
a

most

unequivocal

those in which

mechanical, stereotyped response of the ordinary hereditary kind, is obviously ill-adapted to steer its possessor and his offspring through the vicissitudes
of life.

purely

general doctrine of this chapter, then, is that once neuro-conscious process has contributed to the establishment of needed coordinations, it leaves its accomplishments

The

behind for

by the non-conscious devices of the nervous tasks. system and itselfgoes forward to new Attention has been called in a previous chapter to the
use

fact that
group

the human

organism

possesses

of motor

and

which serve life. These acts

are

activitieswhich are immediate the more

are

considerable supplied it by nature

purposes

of supporting

which

illustrated in the various reflexes for the most part unconscious, and in those digestion, circulation, respiration,

automatic

acts by which

the other life-sustaining bodily functions are carried Over against these forms of action are the acquired on. habits, such as walking, talking, writing, and the like.

and

All of these when

perfected exhibit a,t times a considerable degree of freedom from conscious supervision. Acts. in Learning Part Played, by Consciousness New While
one

"

in the most
the hand,

is learning to write, consciousness is involved The position of alert and intense manner.

the mode

of grasping

the pen. the model

to be

CONSCIOUSNESS

AND

HABIT

FORMATION

51

to form each part of the necessary copied, the movement letter all these things, one after the other, are the objects As is mastery of vivid attention. gradually gained of now one another step in the process, conscious superand now vision
"

becomes

more

and

more

indirect and incidental, until

finally, with the acquirement of complete control over the coordination, one is able to give almost exclusive attention
to the thoughts

retaining only the most general oversight of the writing act itself. An acquirement of this kind is spoken of as a habit, and
once

which

are

to be put

upon

paper,

such

habit is thoroughly of Thus

a

up

into the formation

a

a member. soon a fairly fixed routine for his daily work, which becomes habitual; but in this larger habit are included

becomes

mastered, it can be taken larger habit in which it then bank clerk is likely to establish

such less automatized acts multiplying and dividing. This illustration may what
is meant
seems

as

writing, adding, subtracting, in

homely

serve

way

to exhibit

by the doctrine formulated

always
to find its appropriate

above.

Mental

process

place in connection

the upbuilding of just such these have become sufficientlyperfect, they

with

habits.
are

When
over

passed

system, almost entirely to the automatic control of the nervous to the itself free to go forward leaving the mind

creation of other habits, or to the construction of groups find a may of habits in which these smaller components

place.
change

Our

social and

physical
us

enough

to prevent

generally surroundings from reducing our actions

are

wholly to the habitual type.

to make
new
on

We

constantly

challenged

adjustments.The
to
new

moving
new

conquests,

then, is always mind itself, is always literally seeking

worlds

to conquer.

This at least is true

in

bona

52

AN
as

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

fide way
natural
we

long

as

we

continue

to grow

mentally.
a

In the

course

of any human
to grow,

life,there

comes
a

period when
our

literally cease

followed by

period when
about

mentality growth

begins to decay.

All statements

mental

therefore be made implied in this situation.

must
are

subjectto

the qualifications

There acquiring

certain interesting aspects

automatic

habits

or

of this process of coordinations which it will

be profitable to pass in brief review. Origin and Utility of Spontaneous

Movements.

"

In

the firstplace, then, it should be understood to the strictly reflex acts, there are
movements

that in addition

innumerable

of the muscles of the limbs and body made by little babies long before they are really able to control their actions. During their waking moments the muscles of the face, hands, and feet of the youngest These spontaneous often in active motion.
movements,
as

children
or

are

random

they

are

material largely

of

which

the
In

sometimes called, constitute the later controlled movements are

some

composed.

details of which we are intelligence steps in and organizes these miscellaneous and into effective coordinated somewhat accidental movements
acts.

other, with the frankly but imperfectly acquainted,

or

fashion

Certain general features of the process we can describe, partly on the basis of our observation of children during the process of their growth in muscular control, own adult performances and partly by analysis of our
when

learning

new

act of skill.

control in a of the first expressions of voluntary baby is found in the process by which it learns to extend There seems its hand and grasp which are seen. objects

One

to be

general disposition

for all strong

sensory

stimula-

CONSCIOUSNESS

AND

HABIT

FORMATION

53

tions to drain

into off
to

fact

seems

natural

This widespread bodily movements. in view of the tendency enough of

impulses
more

sensory

nerves

carry

forward

into muscles.

widely we may reasonably find its expect to results distributed in the muscle Whether groups. all the movements of hands and arms which one may observe in immediately sense present
of them
may
we
a

The

stronger

the impulse, the

young

child

are
or

occasioned by
some

stimulations,
a

proceed from do not know.

whether sort of internal nervous all events

explosion

At

it is intelligible

that bright and shining objects, such as are first to catch and hold a baby's visual attention, should elicit among other responses vigorous movements of the arms and hands. As
occur
a

consequence,

it is almost

certain

sooner

or

later to

that

some

the

objectseen
are

will result in bringing of these movements into contact with the hand. Indeed, parents
to expedite

sure

and
can

facilitate this outcome

by

be readily seized. It so that in early infancy there is an essentially reflex tendency to close the hand upon which stimulate objects
putting happens where objects
they

So strong is this reflex the skin of the fingers and/palms. that newly born infants can weight by sustain their own
grasping small rod. Establishment of Successful
a

Coordinations.

"

There

is

a as

good

deal of diversity of opinion among psychologists to the processes which intervene between this initial
of

experience
achievement

grasping

an

object seen,

and

the

final

of the

There

can

be

no

skilful control possessed by adults. question that in the early stages of the
a

habit there is often a condition of Such conditions great excitement and keen pleasure. favorable to the rapid stamping in upon the nervous seem development
of such

54
system

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

of

those

impressions

quickly to the securing of an is that either lack of interest, or

sensations at any

most will conduce automatic habit. Certain it which

the presence

of painful stage of the process, tends to discourage

and disintegrate the growing coordination. in It must that success not be supposed

one

attempt

in all succeeding attempts. necessarily implies equal success In general, the progress from the initial stage to the perfected

habit is slow and irregular, and

great

in the

case

accomplishments to psychologists children is brought about by a process known as trial and error, and in ordinary parlance, as 'try, try again.' In certain forms of adult learning, of which

majority of

the

motor

of the of little

we

shall have

something

to say

at

later point, there is

ing, obvious attempt to make use of reflection and reasonto see how and why a particular movement ought to be made and then to go about the making of it. But in
an

control, the first primitive forms of acquiring method is chiefly in evidence. In one the point to be carefully and all these cases, borne in mind is that during the learning stage there is

these

very

vivid consciousness

of what

is going

on

step

by

step ; whereas may

after the act is substantially mastered

there

be only the most

indirect and casual conscious supervision.

Movements.

Elimination

of Useless

"

One

ture Striking fea-

distinguishing the earlier from the later stages in these learning processes is found in the presence at the some outset of large numbers of superfluous movements,
of which
progress.
are

merely

useless, while

others actually hinder

In the perfected habit, almost all of these have been eliminated. It is as though Nature called out from

CONSCIOUSNESS

AND

HABIT

FORMATION

55

a surplus the organism among of movements, which may indispensable for the haply be found the little group

specific purpose

in hand.

The

process

of establishing the

tion coordination consists, then, first in the selection and fixamoveamong elements from of the essential motor ments actually occurring, and second, in the gradual

elimination

of those which

are

of these statements
a

conneedless. Abundant firmatio be found in observing may

child while he is acquiring control over almost any motor dexterity. Writing, as we have already suggested, is apt at
the
outset
to

involve

great

movements

of head, tongue,

of perfectly needless Slowly shoulders, and body.

are

mass

these
such

fall away,

until there

motions as are been declared to depend sometimes

essential movements.
may

left substantially only Gracefulness has really required. of only true this definition,it certainly
upon

the

use

However

be adopted as a just description of economic maximal efficiency. It underlies all the attempts to secure efficiency in industrial occupations.
Habit
and
the Sensory-Motor

Circuit.
"

The

mechanism

of many
short
seems

of these habitual coordinations which stop just of becoming entirely automatic and non-conscious, to depend the linking together of sensations upon in
a

and

movements

manner

which
a

may

well be briefly

described.

In learning to ride
groups

bicycle, for example,

are

considerabl

of muscular

movements

necessarily

combined.

Everyone

who

has

gone
one

will probably recall that to consisted in remembering

the ence experiof the early difficulties

through

with one foot at justthe appropriate moment, as sations reported by senfrom various parts of the body, particularly from
push

downward

the knees and

ankles and

soles of the feet.

One

quickly

56

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
to make

learned, however, to respond downward the corresponding As

to these signals and

thrust with the proper foot. as soon this interconnection of sensations and movements is firmly established, the process of pedalling largely
care

of itself, and the entire attention may be given to learning to balance. Until this point is reached, many

takes

beginners

The

pedalling with feet in the air or 'backto the entire defeat of their forward progress. diagram (Fig.20) may serve rudely accompanying

find themselves

FIG. 20.

to illustrate a series of motor discharges in response to sensory or ideational stimulations. 81, a sensory or H, ideational stimulus; turbance a S1? a sensory dismotor response; M; M2, a motor discharge occasioned by the movement Slf etc. In an act like skating consequent upon the stimulation two be repeated movements sets of alternating general may In an as one's* name act again and again. such signing each of be different from the others. the movements may
"

Diagram

to illustrate this situation.

we
are

When

movement

is made,

become

aware

of it partly through

the sensations which

of the member aroused in the muscles and joints moved, and partly by means of sensory effects impressed upon Either type of sensation may be used organs. other sense
to
a

In playing the signal for the next movement. sations musical instrument there are thus aroused not only senin the skin of the hand and in the muscles of the
serve
as

hand
eyes

and
are

arm,

but

also sensations of sound;

and

if the

properly

directed, there may

be

visual report of

CONSCIOUSNESS

AND
or

HABIT

FORMATION

57

serve all of these sensations may habits have Where as signals for the series of movements. become highly automatized, it seems probable that this same

the movement.

Any

type
some so

of sensory-motor
manner

that

we

is employed, but that in it short-circuits the higher cerebral regions, less definitely conscious of the are much
mechanism

process.

CHAPTER

ATTENTION
The previous chapters have brought to the reader's notice the conception of life as adjustment, and have explained the

dependence
upon
now

of the mental

parts

of the

process adjusting

We the organization of the nervous must system. intensive and detailed analysis of this turn to a more When
is

process.

Attention
to subjected

as

Adjustment.
"

an

animal organism

physical stimulus, for example, an acid, it instantly displays protective movements, generally
a

strong

of retreat.
character.

Such
Man,

movements

are

obviously of

an

adaptive

under

similar conditions of stimulation,

temperatures,

by strong

lights, extreme

the like, also manifests adjustive however, as we from personal all know
adaptive which
we

loud sounds, and In this case, responses,

experience, these
state

reactions

are

accompanied Attention

by

the mental

call attention.

is, indeed, the most

we more

general attitude of
our

and adjustment,

may

thought

to certain of its

rect profitably diimportant characteristi

We

seem

to be

so

organized that, regardless of

any
sense
over

our

momentary

occupation,
may

stimulus

of sufficient violence

force its way

cerebral cortex, where it may activities and itself take possession. Such a assault upon the brain results in our becoming aware
acting object
as

and into the displace the dominant nervous

the receptors
nervous

of the

stimulus, produces
58

what

we

call attention

ATTENTION

59
as

to it. Now process

it is

an

interesting fact that, the action

part

of the
system

of attending,

of the

nervous

as a consequence evokes certain muscular of adjustments, definitely and distinctly aware which we become more of the

stimulus. from

To

illustrate, if

strong

light strike the eyes

the side, there is a rotation of the eyeballs and often a turning of the head, as a result of which the eyes are distinct vision. put in the position of clearest and most At the beginning only of the vague of the process,
we

may

have

been

aware

but strong

impression
see

As the eyes turn and we afe able to an impression of the luminous

clear.

of light and color. distinctly,we secure is both vivid and

which object

erful affords us, as the original powbut indistinct impression did not, information as to
an

Such

impression

the character of the object, and we are forthwith to determine intelligently our next movement. Any
strong

in

tion posi-

stimulus
an

constitutes

more

or

less imperious

invitation to

response. adjustive
a

Figuratively, at least, is in the nature of a Certainly it

must
surmount.

and

often literally,such

stimulus

problem
presents

which we in a fair
The

are
sense

called upon to solve. difficulty which we a

of mental

firststep in the process

as

adjustment
volve to in-

is always

attention, and

our

previous
normally
to put
us

discussion has
be found
in
a

suggested, this
motor
more

adjustment will

reactions designed

position of

distinct and complete perception of the situation. Attention Activity. Our ordinary Organizing as an
"

language

somewhat misleading impression concerning attention, because it suggests that attention i" force or entity which may a separate suddenly step in and

tends to create

direct

our

mental
or

processes,.

Thus

we

say

that attention

wandered,

that it was

concentrated,

and properly

under-

60

AN

INTRODUCTION
are

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

stood such phrases

expressions
imply

perfectly correct. attention

Evidently

these

that

is simply

preparatory

mental and motor adjustment. It is an act, not an agent. It is the process in which is mentally organized whatever is
at the moment

presented.
may

This fact is made

clear by observing

that

we

in

number

physical object attend to one and the same of different ways, depending upon the manner

FIG. 21.

in which mentally Fig. 21 may

as a

we

organize

its constituents.
as a

For

example,

be attended to

picture frame,

or

or

truncated pyramid, with the apex toward the observer, as a square tunnel into which one is looking. So far as is concerned, object
same.

the physical
one

the lines

are

in each

case

the stimulation of in the be wholly unchanged the retina the situation may three instances. But our mode of attending is in each case

and the

So far

as

concerns

quite distinct,because we organize and interpret the lines from three different mental points of view., The Field of Attention. Psychologists have been ticularl par"

interested in
few words must

one

aspect of attention about which

one

be said. When

is reading, at any

given

ATTENTION moment
a

61

certain word

or

group

of words

stands out with

on

greater

clearness than

the rest of the words

the page,

be dimly conwhile outside the page altogether, one may scious in the outer part of the fieldof view. Moreover, of objects as one or less disconnected with the reads, ideas more
words
to which
one

is dominantly This

attentive may

from

time

to time

intrude themselves.

situation has been

scribe de-

by saying that the fieldof attention has a focus and The focus is comprised of whatever may be at a margin. distinct in consciousness. the moment clearest and most

Outside this focal region there is

extent, made
as

margin
are

of indefinite

one

of materials which from the focus. passes away

up

decreasingly clear Observers differ as to

the number

of discernible zones regions,

one

of clearness.

Some

persons

report only two

the central region of maximal portion

of the

clearness, the other the entire remaining

field. Others maintain that three or four or even more tinct disbe distinguished, differing in clearness all areas may
the way
from

the central focus through

and less distinct regions to a margin Fig. 22 will suggest the sort of thing here unconscious. described.
The
as
a

mer progressively dimwhich is essentially

Range

of Attention. of

"

The

conception
us

of attention
to pect ex-

process

adjustmentwould lead
one

naturally

that
to
a

we

should at any
of

small group
we can

or objects

instant be able to attend only ideas. It has often been urged

that

is perhaps

attend to only one thing at a time, and there in which this is true, but it involves a sense

recognizing the fact that this 'thing' may be quite complex, and may involve what under ordinary conditions we should A few illustrationswill perhaps regard as a number of

objects.
clear.

make

the matter

62

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
a

A
seem once.

person

playing

the piano
to
a

from
many

to be attending

great

may printed score different things at

The
are

eyes take in several groups

quickly turned to glance In looking at the music, a considerable number keyboard. be taken in at a glance, each of of separate notes may
perhaps

and then at the hands and

of notes

which

indicates

particular movement

of

particular fin-

f-/**\\\\ ( ) !
' ;
:

Sr^

1, the focal region of attention; 2 and 3, zones FIG. 22. of less 4, the region of subconscious distinct awareness; processes.
"

ger, together with the time value and the stress with which

Such a situation appears the key is to be pressed down. to a large group to involve attending simultaneously of
but objects,
as so

it would

involve

misapprehension
one

of the actual
they
were

situation to suppose
many

that in any
separate

moment

perceived

and

distinct things.
to take in groups

By

long

training the eye has been taught

of notes of letters

in

single sweep,
compose
a

exactly

as

it takes in the groups The

same

which
to what

short word. the eye sees is in the

response way

of the fingers

the result of long

and painstaking practice, and the proficient performer

not

does

require to give separate attention to each movement. Obviously there is a very real difference between attend-

ATTENTION

63

ing at any doing

at
one

one

moment

to
same

large number
a

of

and objects

and the

instant limit of

considerable number
ability to perform

of different things.

The

our

as a result of practice complicated simultaneous movements would be hard to set. Certainly the least skilful of us can

master

good many
which

such movements.
we

But

however

complex

the

attend, apparently the process of attention to bring together into a sort of mental unit serves many such parts can actually all the different parts. How be united is only to be determined by experiment. Four or

to object

five dots placed close together on a piece of paper can be in a single glance. If they be gradually spread someseen what further apart, it will soon be difficultor impossible
to
see

them

groups.

without breaking Similarly, six or seven,

them
or

up

into successive

even

eight very

rapidly

succeeding sounds may be heard as a unit. If the sounds be given more slowly, they will begin to break up into
smaller
groups.

There

is

no

serious difficultyin determining

are

by experiments
or

what
scope

the facts about

when
more we

this so-called range

of

difficultto speak with certainty 's one about our ability to attend to groups of ideas. When mind is engaged upon the solution of a problem, ideas may flow through it with amazing rapidity, and we often speak

objects.

attention It is much

are

dealing

with

physical

as we

though

while thinking about certain parts of a problem, kept the rest of it constantly before us. Suffice it to
that most

say

psychologists

are

is substantially identical with the

may
case

that the situation in that already examined

agreed

of attention to

objects.However
idea and

complex

an

idea

be, attention at any

with
one

given instant is probably its immediate

always

occupied

such

relations.

64

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO
"

PSYCHOLOGY

The

Duration
to

of Attention.

This discussion leads very

has
we

attend to any one thought or thing ? Common opinion would lead one to pose supthat we may attend almost indefinitely. Certainly we speak of having had this, that or the other thought in we way say, "I have mind for a long time. In the same been watching
that that period.
statement
are

another issue which long can psychologists, i.e.,how

naturally

always

interested

that bird for ten

or

fifteen minutes,"

plying im-

our

through all attention has been unchanged In a practical sense, no doubt both types of But brief a very sufficiently accurate. will give
occurs. us

scrutiny of the actual facts in such cases it is that a different impression of what

quite

Careful observation will show

enough speak of
to
an as

attending the bird.

that what we might justly ' ' attending to a bird involves in reality ever changing series of facts about
now

We

note

the color of his wings,

now

the

the movement of his head, and now shape of his tail,now If we his change of position from one branch to another. to focus our any attempt single attention rigidly upon feature, such as the shape of his beak, suddenly and without

intending it, we
our

are

surprise,

we

may

noting find that in

our

some some

other feature; or, to totally disconnected and taken

what

thought

has bobbed
In the

up
same

minds

off

our

attention.
when
our

way,

if

we

examine

occurs

some particular riveted upon idea, we shall discover that in actual fact a great series of ideas has passed through our minds, each of which

thought

is supposedly

was

related to the thought with which we were ostensibly occupied, but each of which is quite certainly In other words, our attention moves a separate thought.
perhaps
very

rapidly and

never

in any

literal sense

lingers long

ATTENTION

65

it remains it is very difficultto Experiments say. would indicate that a few seconds is ordinarily the outside limit. in
one

place.

How

long

Attention

and

Organized

Reaction.

"

If

we

now

turn

back and
a

recall the assertion that attention is essentially

process

of

adjustment,we

shall

see

very

good

reason

why
a

the attentive act should

tend to bring together

into

single mental
to

elements

as many as possible of the separate object We can which adjustment must be made.

also discern a reason brief in its duration.

why

attention should

be relatively

In primitive animal conditions, adjustmentimplies an immediate to a present situation, and generally response localized stimulus demands a a situation in which some

localized response.
sensory
a an

stimulus localized reaction. danger.

The

in the life of demanding an

Even

man,

the ordinary
requires

adjustiveactivity
upon

blow

the hand

demands

adjustment which
of response

hand
a

from

the remove will promptly sight of food similarly requires

localized type

designed to

secure

it. In the

higher

adjustments
which
every
must

many animals, and particularly in man, find their crucial significance in

of these

future reactions
each

in delayed responses.
you
case

You

make

decision today
In
or

cannot

execute

until tomorrow.

the

reaction, whether

immediate
it must

and delayed,
relation that it

be organized
to
a

to be effective, and

have

situation which is a unit in the sense To attend to putting requires a particular kind of response. air in your automobile tires involves attending not to the tires in general, but to each one separately, and to
a

series of particular
out

acts

in each

case on

"

unscrewing
pump

the

valve cap, blowing

dust, screwing

pipe, etc.

66

AN
so

INTRODUCTION
as we

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

In
the

far, then,

attention represents

the first step

in

should expect to find it grouping together all those elements in a situation to which we can
act, adjustive
a

profitably make For

much

single organized
reason, we

response.

the
so

same

can one

dwells

briefly on

any

atunderstand why tention feature of a situation.

It is itself the preliminary

stage of psycho-motor
as

ment, adjustthe

and
elements
to which

its work
a

is done

soon

as

it has stamped

of
a

situation with that kind of organized unity It is, therefore, quite be made. can response
move

inevitable that attention should rapidity. That we are its behavior in this respect
can

forward
wholly

with

considerabl

unable

to control

be readily shown by a simple type of test. Put a pencil dot on a blank sheet of So simple paper and try to attend to it uninterruptedly. a thing ought readily to be retained in the focus of the field of attention.
what actually
occurs can
a

The

reader

can

easily convince

himself

for not

variant less than

by making the experiment. also be tried by attempting

minute
one

An

structi in-

to fixate
on

of the shorter words An interesting

this page.
Motor Aspects of

Attention.

"

confirmatio

is found

of the conception of attention we are presenting in a consideration of certain of the motor accompaniments ent dependof attention. Clear vision is normally
an

upon

elaborate set of muscular

acts.

The

eyes must

be and the muscles controlling the lenses must innervated in order that we may see distinctly. Similarly, listening we tend to turn the head so as to are when we
converge

catch the sound

more
our

distinctly, and breath.

ear

in the

case

of faint
commonly an

sounds,

we

hold

Our
to

animal

ancestors

turn

the external

assist their hearing,

ATTENTION art which

we

67

have

largely lost. Odor

cannot

be detected

up into the nosunless the odorous substances are drawn trils, by a vigorous and this is ordinarily accomplished inhalation. To get the taste of an clearly, we press

object

it with the tongue the

contours
over

against the roof of the mouth.

or

To
pass

tect dethe

surfaces

of

an cases

we object, a

finger tips

it. In all these

maximum

tinctne of dis-

Less

clearness is gained by motor activities. obvious, but not less real, and probably not less

and

significant, are
are

the motor

expressions

in

cases

where

we

attending to ideas and thoughts rather than to physically here more difficult present objects. The facts are
access,

of

and

the reader must

expect

to be left with

less

of certainty

regarding

them.
us,

ever, little observation, how-

will show
to adopt

that each of

when

thinking hard, tends

are more
or

certain bodily attitudes which in some characteristic and which seem thinking.
others walk

less

way

to

aid the

Some
up

people

frown

under

these

conditions,

their feet up

nails, Still others bite their fingeror tap with a pencil upon the table. Most of these habits. are performances attributed merely to bad nervous
But
that.

and down, in the air.

others wish

to be seated with

fundamentally
They
may

they

are

probably

much

more

than

well represent

the thinker

against

protective devices to guard interruption, partly by putting him

ing position of physical comfort, and partly by supplyhim with a group but reasonably of self -controlled serve perhaps vigorous sensory stimulations which may to overwhelm any purely outside sensory disturbances. A
a

into

be regarded as occasioned of these reactions may energy, which simply by the overflow of unused nervous There can be little might possibly be saved to advantage.
portion

68

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

question, however,

that

whatever

the

individual

history

activities have been taken on, fort discomtheir absence or suppression is a source of marked and disturbance to the thinker.

by

which

such

muscular

There

of these motor to ideational processes which has

group
more

is another

longing reactions bea

different and
people the the

somewhat
attempt

obvious explanation.
closed eyes
a

For many of
some

to think with

objectto

right

or

to the left will occasion

movement

of the eyeballs

in the corresponding direction. Similarly, to think fixedly of a sound as coming from a point behind and to

side will produce in some the muscles of the head and

one

persons

strong

tension in

neck, if it does not, indeed, occasion an actual turning of the head. Clearly this type into ideational of motor expression is simply a carrying over havior forms of beprocesses, as a matter of habit, motor which have
an

evident

value adjustive

in the

case

of sensory attention. It is rather the usual custom

as

for psychologists to speak,

done, of these motor reactions as already once 'accompaniments' of attention. In point of fact, while in a true enough sense, it would they are accompaniments
we

have

be

to an mistake to think of them simply as companions It is a truer view to regard entirely different process. them as in a genuine sense merely the external expression
a

attenwithin, is tion. 'The stretching out to meet' which is the original linguistic meaning of the term attention, is precisely and exactly embodied in these preliminary motor

of the

agency adjusting

which, felt from

whereby
to which types

we we

organize and hav* to

in

sense

adjustments determine the object

more

adjust. In

the lower and

motor

reflex exhausts

of reaction, this immediate

response

ATTENTION

69

and

completes

the

adjustment. In

the higher

and

more

conscious types of behavior, it simply sets the stage and determines what is the or the situation to which in object
a

larger

way

immediate

or

delayed

adjustment is
Attention."

to

be

brought

about. Classification of

the

Forms

of

Various
proposed,

classificationsof the forms of attention have a few of which deserve- brief mention.

been

distinguishes sensory classification/ ideational attention? the former illustrated/ by any

(1) An

old

from
case

of

attending to sensations of color, sound, contact, and the like, the latter exemplified by attention to a train of Obviously this division is based on differences thought.
in the
of objects
attention, rather than
on

differences inside

the attentive process itself, (2) Another distinction marks

off immediate

from

derived

because a thing attracts the mind attention. When of its intrinsic interest, or its capacity to excite, attention is immediate. When we ary secondattend because of some
To attend to consideration, attention is derived. is interested in high marks study because one
an

one's

affords
to
a

illustration of

thrilling narrative

Attention attention. attention. will illustrate immediate

derived

(3) A
are

distinction is often drawn

The

between

active and

passive attention.

cation significant points in this classifiimproved upon in the preserved and somewhat

division of attention into three classes (a) spontaneous, (b) involuntary or forced and (c) voluntary is substantially synonymous Spontaneous attention
v

with

immediate
given

tion attention and is illustrated in the attenby babies to bright lights and loud sounds, by

70

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

adults to hunger, to crowds, and to innate tastes, such for It is undoubtedly the primitive form as example music. of attention, out of which the others have grown.
Involuntary,

forced,

or

passive attention is illustrated

exercised over the mind by very intense be absorbed in a good book sensory stimulation. One may (spontaneous and suddenly be shocked into a attention) forced attention by a clap of thunder. Morbid ideas sometimes intrude themselves Voluntary
in the
same

in the compulsion

way.

represented effort. Anyone

a

attention (closely resembling derived) is by attention given as the result of definite

who

succeeds

in

holding

himself
in

to

distasteful task

meaning

exercises voluntary This is a form of the term.

whenever

attention

this

of attention that
mature

develops

the mind

appreciate and entertain two Choice must be made. One must be for the of conduct. taneous Spontime at least put aside and the other encouraged. attention early provides these competitive bidders for attention, and voluntary attention springs from such a

to enough conflicting interests or lines

becomes

disturbing appeals to forced ment attention obviously offers another field for the developpeace of voluntary attention. Fortunately for our of mind, many attend at first experiences to which we
soil. The

effort to suppress

only with effort and discomfort become after a littletime intrinsically interesting and agreeable, whereupon we give
them

essentially spontaneous and

great

Analysis
two

Synthesis

attention. in Attention.

"

Attention

serves subcommonly

functions which

psychologists have
or

designated

(1) analysis, discrimination,

or

sociatio dis-

and
attention in
a

(2) synthesis,
sense

association. Every act of involves both of these processes, al-

ATTENTION

71
one

though
seems

at any

given

moment

or

the other generally he will, in

to be dominant.

As

the reader's eye

act

passes

across

this page

of reading, necessarily separate the printed letters into words to which he attends either singly or That his attention is given to the separate in groups.
of the page, the color of the paper, the details of the background against which the book is seen, is a consequence of the fact that out of all

the very

words

at all instead of to the shape

the possible

before his vision objects

special parts which correspond turn given his attention to them

than in isolation. At
are

he has selected those to the words, and has in

in their context

rather of

any

given moment,
the various

vast numbers
sense
are

stimulations

attacking

organs.

Sounds,

colors, contacts

of various
ear,

kinds,

neously simultayet
we

impressed
are aware

upon
a

eye, and

skin; and

of only

trifling fragment

of all these stimuli.

range

The

organism

selects from

out this great

attention those which shall at any heeded, and neglects the rest. From the descriptions which of objects have

of possible be moment

preceded, the reader will readily comprehend

an

that

are certain objects chosen for attention and others neglected is to be found in The for the demands process can

the clue to

understanding

of why

adjustment.
this element

hardly be carried out in response

requires that
now

to

adjustive in general. objects

It

that shall be given

in the situation and now consideration. The primitive form of

or

analysis, discrimination, of
a

dissociation,is simply

lating the iso-

an

particular portion of the environment to which organized motor reaction can be brought to pass. One

cannot

adjust to
a

make

movement

visual things in general, but of the hand designed to grasp

one

may

some

par-

72

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

ticular visual
to step
a

fully object.Similarly one cannot adjustsuccesscan miscellaneous jumble of sounds, but one
the annihilation foreshadowed automobile horn.

back

to avoid

by

the

screech of an It should be fairly obvious from these illustrations and the dozens of others which will readily suggest themselves,

that effective guidance

of

an

organism

amid

we

we

of a physical and social world such as live, necessitates such a selective analytical process as have described. Every act of attention, when nized, scrutiwill easily be
seen

the tudes vicissithat in which

to involve this

same

type

crimina of dis-

this
complex

same

breaking

up

into parts

of the great

world

of

with objects,

smell, taste, touch, sight, and

their various appeal to hearing. Our illustrations

have

all been

sensory

instances of chosen from adjustment to dissociative or analytical situations, but the same
our

attention to ideas of all kinds. This fact is peculiarly evident in cases where we difficult are thinking intently in the attempt to solve some
process

is to be discerned in

problem.
the

In such

case,

our

thinking is often directed to

themselves. present analysis of the thoughts which The more intimate description of these ideational processes will be taken up later after a study of some of the simpler phases of
our

Contrary

organization. to the formerly accepted

mental

views, the prevalent of

opinion of psychologists today

the new-born organisms,
or

is that the consciousness

that of the simpler presumably is characterized by a somewhat blending vague

child, and

fusion of many

elements, like colors and

adult appear clearly separate and transition from the conditions of infancy to intellectual dependent upon the execumaturity is in large measure

to the

sounds, which distinct. The

ATTENTION

73

tion of these acts of discrimination

and

analysis

scribed just de-

Conditions

of

Discrimination.

certainty that colors are by babies imperfectly

with, great at firstdistinguished from one another

"

We

know

or

not at all. There

is similar

evidence for believing

are

the |;hat

components

of many there
an

thus

undistinguished;

and
fuse

in general

sounds is good

reason

to suppose

that at the outset

may

of life

indefinite

together, provided only that the stimulations occasioning them fall simultaneously Even in adult life certain of these upon the sense organs.

number

of sensations

fusions persist in the most

only

obstinate
which

manner. are

Apparently

those sensations separate

forced to do
owing

so

by the exigencies of
the proximity

adjustment. For
sense

example,

to

of the

organs
comes

stimuli affecting them, it

and the character of the tion about that a large propor-

of the food substances

taste

stimulate The

both the organs

of

and

those

tastes of many

supposedly characteristic familiar beverages and foods are as a matter

of smell.

of fact due to sensations of smell and not to taste at all. lose almost all Coffee, tea, onions, apples, and asparagus

agreeable and individualistic features, if by reason of the nostrils, of a cold or by artificialstoppage is prevented from getting any odor sensations. Other one
their
more

instances o2 fusions which

persist

even

in adult life may

with
one

readily be found
pressure

in the combinations

another

of

and temperature

sensations from

the skin, and of

both with sensations of movement tendons, and joints. We have already mentioned
sensations separate
as are

musoriginating in the cles,

the belief that only

so,

such

forced to do

but the conditions about

under

which

such

dissociation may

be brought

74

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

remain to be stated. If a sensation or group of sensations is to be separated out from a larger matrix so that we may adjustto it independently, it is apparently necessary that it shall be experienced alone or in a different group. We

by supposing that three The together. principle sensations, x, y, and z, occur formulated would require that if x is to be successfully it shall be either experienced analyzed out of the compound
may

express

this in

symbolic way

alone
case

or

in

some

other group,

such

as

xrs.

In the

that if red, of colors, for example, this would mean blue, and green were always experienced together, they

be differentiated,and the conditio preanother is that of their dissociation from one they shall be experienced singly or in other combinations.
would presumably
never

If
we

we

translate this formula

see

into terms that

we can

of

nervous

activity,

shall

that it
the

means

only

discriminate

ent. circuits involved are differthe changing conditions in the physical world must speedily bring about the necessary variety in the combination of sense stimulations required by this differences when Obviously
nervous

theory actual

of analysis in order satisfactorily to explain It need hardly in discrimination. success

our

be

pointed out that at an early stage of its development the human to bring the power organism, at least, secures
artificially many of these conditions of changed It is its own movements. stimulation by its control over about thus possible, for example, by pinching the nostrils,to cut mentally off the larger part of our odor sensations and thus experito split up the smell-taste fusion to which we have

referred. Reciprocal
"

Relations

of Association

and

Dissociation.

Every

process of analysis may

from

one

point of view be

ATTENTION

75
or

thought

of

as

an

act of synthesis
one

process

by which
this page

colors

on

is

one

association. The mental distinguishes the black and white in which, by the very nature of
are

the

case,

the two

qualities thus distinguished

one

brought

together

and
are,

associated with
therefore,
Nor

another.

Analysis

synthesis
every

conjointprocesses

and involved in
story.

act of attention.
one

does this tell the whole

When
mental

gives his attention to a word on this page, his act unites into a single mental whole, each of the
goes to make

The process of dissociating the word from the rest of the field of vision is one the components of the word are also integrated whereby into a single object.It will be found that this conception is applicable to all types of organic
letters which

it up.

adjustment.

and synthesis, association and dissociation,are thus, as it were, the two blades of the scissors which we call attention. Both are invariably involved in every attentive
act.

Analysis

Sometimes

we

are

more

interested from

the

practical point of view in analysis ; sometimes in synthesis. But in either case our actual mental procedure depends, the employment upon of both.

CHAPTER

VI

SENSATION

In the account

of

processes adjustive
man

we

have constantly sensitive

referred to the fact that

organs

is supplied with

which

physical is able illustrations of the stimuli to which the organism forms of physical No doubt there are many to react. are entirely insensitive. Magnetism action to which we
is
an

capable of responding to various kinds of Light, heat, sound, contact, are stimulations.
are

example

of such a force, for which Connected with the receptor.

are

we use

have

no

appropriate
sense

of these

organs,

the most

rudimentary
we

of

our

mental

processes,
our more

and
exact

it is therefore natural that

should begin

analytical study of the mind at this point. The If we Development to turn of Sense Organs. evolutionary history, we find that our equipment of sensory
"

organs

presents

most

interesting picture of the development

senses

of highly general

specialized
The

out

of

very

sensitivity.
are more
or

simpler

organisms,

crude like the

amoeba,

stimulation which contact, but

any

less sensitive to the various forms of beings, e.g., light, temperature, affect human there
pass up
are no

specific

sense

organs

kind.

As

we

the scale in animal

life,we

of find

the rudimentary vestiges of the specialized organs later become the eye, the ear, and the otner senses.
present

which These

the most

of devices for accomvaried assortment plishing their purposes. The eye, for example, which makes
76

SENSATION

77

its irst appearance

as

littlepigmented through
on
a

speck
great

on

the surface of

of the organism,

passes

number

different forms

before

it takes

the

character

of the

highest vertebrate eye, like that of man, with its system lenses for bringing light to a focus upon the surface
the retina.

of of

There

is,

moreover,

very

in the
forms

structure

of the eye

considerable variation in different vertebrate

the mammals.
a

like the fishes,the birds, and The other sense display organs
some

history, although
very

much

of them, further away

similar evolutionary like the ear, have developed

from their primitive

forms

than

have others, such as those of contact and temperature. We may conveniently begin our study of the

sensory

with vision. The Organ of Vision and Its Stimuli. A complete knowledge of vision implies a detailed acquaintance with
"

processes

the anatomy the

present

and physiology conditions,

we

of the eye.
must

Evidently, under
any

forego

exhaustive

study of the subject, and content ourselves with relatively be secured in the time at rough impressions such as can
our

disposal.
The
stimulus
the
vary to vision consists normally

of light

waves

constituting These
waves

sunlight

spectrum

from

red

to

violet.

in rate from

approximately

435 to 769

billions a second. An electrical current passed through the head will also produce sensations of light, as will a violent geneous blow. The light stimulations are classifiedas either homoor waves

mixed.

Homogeneous
equal

light is made

up

of

of approximately

length, and

is represented Mixed light finds its most such as red, blue, green. frequent exemplification in the ordinary white light of the

vibration rate and equal by the pure colors of the spectrum,

78

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

FIG. 23.

Opt., fibers of the optic nerve entering the back of the its inner surfaces; Fov. c., fovea ceneyeball to spread over are tralis, the point of most acute vision in the retina on which is looking. light from one at which centered rays of any object in this region. Scler., the The cones contains retina only its on anterior sclerotic coat, tough and opaque, transformed Chor., the choroid cornea. coat, surfaces into the transparent blood dark Ret., heavy the a vessels carrying and pigment. little from lens. distance Pr. the a terminating at retina, oil.,
"

the cilary muscle control the convexity of the processes which ligament in which be lens. The the lens is suspended may " left letter the seen at the of the sketch just under p," which Cam. ant., the posterior chamber behind the iris and marks humour. the anterior chamber, both filled with aqueous Corpus humour the the the vitreum, Conj., of main cavity of eyeball.

the

a very conjunctiva,

thin

mucous

membrane.

(After James.)

SENSATION
sun.

79

As

matter

of fact, there is always

under

conditions of vision
even

when

we

are

appreciable amount looking at the simple

we owe,

an

ordinary of mixed light

To the

colors.

homogeneous

lights

able then, the various distinguish-

hues

of the spectrum

(each one

corresponding

to

length or vibration particular wave rate),and to mixed light the series of colors from to gray white through black. The amplitude of the light vibration determines the intensity of the resulting sensation.

vertical section front to back It reveals, with through the center of the human eye. important structures. reasonable clearness, all the more
represents
a

Figure

23

The

eye is

roughly

spherical

camera,

into which

light is

a at the center of the small aperture admitted through front surface. The general form of the eye is preserved by the sclerotic coat, the tough outer covering of the eye, its front surfaces, known as on the which is transparent

Inside it is the choroid, a absorbing light rays and carrying

cornea.

dark
many

pigment ed coat

blood

vessels.

The

rays

of light

are

surface

of the

cornea come

lens, so that they

refracted by the spherical and again by the surfaces of the together upon the retina, lying just
or a

bent

inside the choroid, to form

appears
on

well-defined image,
plate of
a

such

as

the photographic

camera

when

the

lens is properly its focused upon object. Unless this image is clear and sharp, vision will be blurred. In the by moving the the focus is photographic camera,

adjusted
as

plate toward,

be required. In the eye, the distance between the lens and the plate, i.e., the retina, is fixed and unchangeable. The focusing is in this case brought about by an extremely ingenious device.
or

away

from, the lens,

may

The

lens is

an

elastic, gelatinous

structure

of spherical

80

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

parent enclosed in, and suspended by, a very thin transis attached to This bag-like membrane membrane. tissue on the inner surface of the eye-ball. By muscular

form,

the contraction

or

relaxation
more
or

of these muscles

the membrane

is rendered change
more or

less taut.

As

manner

of tension, the lens is made more less spherical in shape. Anyone familiar with the in which lenses bend or refract the rays of light
through

result of this less convex, or

passing

them

will understand

convexity

permits

the securing

that this changing of clearly focused images

FIG. 24.
the

to illustrate the mechanism A, of accommodation. its for a near anterior accommodated surface object, for a distant B, the lens at rest, accommodated advanced; object. C, the ciliary muscles controlling the ligament, L., supporting D, the vitreous 6, the anterior chamber; the lens; c, the cornea; McKendrick humour the the (After main of eyeball. cavity of Snodgrass.) and
"

Sketch

lens

on

the retina,
camera,

just as readily

as

is the

case

in the photographic

plate is moved
more come

where, the lens remaining stationary, the to and fro. The more convex the lens, the
are

sharply the rays

to
a

bent, and the

more

focus.
more

As

an

approaches object
more

quickly they the eye, the lens of the

must

become

and

convex,

if the image the retina.

.

is to object Fig. 24.) The

remain

sharply focused upon

(See

Retina.

these images

The central part of the retina, upon*which fall, is known as the fovea, and is the region
"

of clearest vision in the eye.

It is characterized by

slight

SENSATION

81

depression and the presence of a slightly yellowish pigment. From the fovea toward the lens, the retina becomes progressively less capable of affording clear, distinct
vision. As the optic
nerve

sketch
enter

indicates

(Fig. 25),
its

the
rear

fibers of the
surface, and

the eye-ball from

FIG. 25.
Ch,

8, sclerotic; of retinal fibers. Nop, optic nerve; 7?, blind P, no retina; retinal structure choroid; spot, The retinal fibers present; F, fovea, point of clearest vision. the back layer of the to meet are turning shown pigment in through lens and The the cornea, light coming choroid. humours, the fibers it through before optic reaches passes optic the rods and cones the inner surfaces of the retina. on (James
"

Scheme

after

Kuss.)

there spread themselves in cup-shape, all over the surfaces The fibers turn toward the of the inner part of the eye.
ture outside of the eye, and terminate in the very complex strucconstituting the retina, of which Figure 26 gives a

cross-section. The vertical

actual

sensitive organs

which

the light stimulates after passing through the optic fibers and the inner parts of the retina are the so-called rods

82

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

and cones, whose shapes explain the names given them. In the fovea, cones In the forward realone are found. gions
of the retina
near

the lens, the rods

are

practically
cones

alone.
are

In the intermediate

regions, both rods and

found.

FlO. 26.

The layers of the retina. A, layer of rods and cones next the choroid; a, rods; 6, cones. E, layer of large bipolar nerve cells; G, layer of large ganglion cells; H, layer of optic nerve fibers over impulses travel toward the brain after nervous which light has stimulated the rods and cones; s, a centrifugal nerve fiber permitting impulses to reach the retina from the brain. is Unlike other sense itself really a portion organs, the retina of the brain, pushed out to the periphery of the body.
"

of the region where the optic nerve enters the eye-ball there is no retinal structure, and in no consequence ence vision. This is the blind spot, whose prescenter
can

In the very

be easily verified by closing the left eye, fixating

SENSATION
a ten the other upon pencil point held some inches directly in front of the face while one like a coin, slowly to the right away small object, about three or four inches away pencil. When

83
or

twelve
a

moves

from from
a

the

the
moment

point

fixated, the

objectwill suddenly
again.
a

disappear,

later to appear

The
way.

retina is sensitive to colors in

curiously irregular

daylight conditions, only the central parts of the retina in and immediately about the fovea are In capable of reporting all the colors to us. Under ordinary individuals the regions lying thirty or from the fovea are incapable pf arc away These two sensations of red and green.
most
more

degrees
us

of giving

colors, when

they
as

fall upon

the outer
or

margins
as

yellowish, bluish,
comes
a

grayish,

of the retina, are seen the case may be. Then

there

zone

in which

yellow

compounds,
seen,

and

with white, finally there is a narrow

of the retina where
or

together

and blue, and their black, and gray, are band in the extreme
all colors
at all.
are seen as

anterior

part

white, black,

gray,

or

not

seen

Meantime,
are

though al-

these peripheral parts deficient in color vision, they

of the retina
are

relatively

very

sensitive to white
can

light and to movement of any kind. Stars in * indirect vision' by these peripheral seen retina, where the rods predominate,
cones

often be

parts

which
are

are

of the invisible by

direct foveal vision, where the have Binocular Vision. We

"

in charge. vision is
we a

two

eyes, and
some

binocular process.

Although
we

objectsdouble,
must say
a

normally

under have

conditions

see we

single vision, and

about the conditions which produce result. Each eye is controlled by six muscles, by means which it is mo^ed right and left, and up and down. word

this of The

84

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

controlling muscles are so move or downward upward

that is,turn

adjustedthat
together.

the eyes
may

always

They

converge,
not diverge

in, at the

same

time, but they may

their
axes are

beyond

the position at which

parallel.

The

the movements practical upshot of these limitations upon the gaze is fixed upon a given of the eyes is that when

FIG. 27.
"

lower circles represent the retinal surfaces of the from behind. F is the fovea, B, the blind spot eyes the nerve the divided where optic enters eye. The retinae are into four quadrants. Each to its geoquadrant corresponds metricall in the other (not anatomically) similar quadrant bears the The half of one same eye, which nasal number. to half the Corthe respondin temporal retina corresponds other. of
two
two
as
seen

The

located

The

points whose produces stimulation single vision are in geometrically similar quadrants. the upper part of the diagram represents the eyes fixated on F images fall foveal two the on ff point whose regions and Rays 0 is the optic nerve. produce single vision. of light from such points as E and D fall on the corresponding points

SENSATION

85

point, the rays of light proceeding a focus upon the fovea of the two
the entire
over

from

it

are

brought

to

eyes, and

object at which
a

one

is looking

of is distributed

the image

each retina in such

are

way

regions

stimulated
apparently

by

that geometrically similar from rays any given point.

Single
Figure

vision
27

results wherever
statement

this

occurs.

will illustrate the

were

just made.
across,

If

the retina of the right eye

lifted, moved

without

rotation superposed

upon

and the retina of the left

eye, quadrant

UN

LT
any

over

quadrant

would be over quadrant UT, quadrant LN, etc. A pin put through any part of
then mark
are

quadrant

would

what

are

known when The

as

correspondi

points, and these together normally of other points

points which
single vision.

stimulated

produce produces

lation stimuor

either double

vision

blurred vision. No doubt the fact that approximately one half of the fibers of the optic nerve of each eye cross over and joinfiber tracts from the corresponding region of the
Such a line as EFD, and dd and also produce single vision. it may be a surface, all of whose as seen points are single, is known fixated F, horopter. When the eyes are as a on lie respectively behind and in front points like B and C, which F, The from double. them are seen rays proceeding will of in non-corresponding the be found of retinae at 66 quadrants The rays from B fall at 6 and 6 which both inside are and cc. these both the foveal points, whereas e are e and points. outside ' heteronomformer The homonomously,' the latter produce ously,' doubled images. If in the experiment 86 an on assistant pass a page suggested in front of one image the double on the the screen eyes, of disappear the nearer the same screen when side as will object ' ' The image. is fixated. homonomous This is the case of a heteronomous image ) on the side opposite to the screen (i.e., is fixated. disappear farther the will when object form the illustrates in an extreme Such a figure as the prism EXD facts of binocular The sees right eye only stereoscopic vision. by The figure as seen the surface XD, the left eye only EX. field mon comboth eyes appears there is a as a sol'id. Ordinarily to both eyes as in looking at a sphere.
ee
or
'

86

AN
on

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

other eye

their way
on

to the occipital cortex

of the brain

(Fig.28) bears

this matter If
one

points.

of single vision from correspond holds up two pencils in the

LO FIG. 28.
"

RO

R, the right eye, L, the Diagram of the optic pathway. left; T, Ti, N, NI the temporal and nasal halves respectively the temporal fieldof view of the left and right retinae; TFL, left by the that the seen the half of nasal eye, of eye; NFR, by the the seen temporal nasal fieldof view of right eye side OFR, of the retina; C, the optic chiasma; optic fibers from the left nasal) passright half of each retina (i.e., right temporal, ing in the geniculate LOG, through the lower visual centers bodies and the corpora quadrigemina, to RO, the occipital cortex the fibers from the half the OFL, of right of cerebrum. left halves of the two LO, to the retinae proceeding similarly left side of the cerebral occipital cortex. Obviously tion destrucof one side of the visual cortex, or of the optic pathway half of the blindness to one (7, will produce anywhere above field of view in half of destroying by one (hemianopsia) vision from Seguin.) (Modified each retina.

median
eyes

plane

of the face,

one

and the other fifteen or by fixating the further pencil, to

about four inches from the twenty, it will be very easy

see

the other

one

double.

SENSATION

87

Fixation

of the

nearer

of the further one. object are falling upon retinae.

will similarly produce doubling In this case, the images of the doubled
one

dissimilar regions Sensations.

of

the

two

Classification of Color
more
we

"

Turning

now

to

immediate
remark
great

analysis of the color qualities of vision, that our at once optical sensations fall into
groups,

two
or

natural

black-white-gray

to-wit, those of the achromatic, light to mixed series, corresponding

the spectral and those of the chromatic series, i.e., geneous homoto pure colors, from red to violet, corresponding Psychologists and painters have varied waves.1
waves,

in their view elementary colors. It

somewhat
a

regarding
was

the number

early observed

of so-called that by taking

few

primary mixture,

colors, all the others

could be produced

through

rigidly confined over, to one group of colors in selecting these 'primes.' Moredepend very largely secures the results which one Yellow the methods chosen for making the mixtures. on
in certain pigments, produce green, blue, if mixed if they are mixed by reflection or by rotating whereas disks, they produce gray.

but

one

is by

no

means

and

Common
1

language
phenomenon

recognizes

seven

distinct shades in the

the

curious
'

of visual processes and daylight vision.

made sometimes in the is found When

the

basis

difference

of a classification ' between twilight

spectrum

sunlight, remaining

the brightest for

a

time

region in the

is in the yellow. dark the retina has

is viewed in full however, by When,

been

very

subdued of the

the yellow;

end

green and the blue appear dimmer, and if the light is progressively made be discerned can after the red end spectrum lights, the
in
a

to adapted brighter than

the

blue

has

disappeared

Seen
a

faint light, therefore, the

with the

series of bands blue zone.

of gray

brightest

as appears spectrum region in the green-

88

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

i.e.,red, orange, yellow, green, light blue, indigo blue, and violet. Psychologists have generally

sunlight

spectrum,

maintained

that there

are

only

four

genuinely

different

to-wit, red, yellow, green, and blue. Orange is alleged to be an obvious compound of red and yellow. Violet is held to be similarly an obvious

colors in the spectral group,

adds a littlemore red, one procures a shade of purple, and if the process be and we continued, the blue is finally altogether overcome, compound red.
one

of blue and

When

get back

to red.

Moreover,

each

of these spectral hues

FIG.

The line WB to the corresponds color pyramid. the Bl.RYG represents the plane white-black series of colors; blue, The most red, green. spectral colors, e.g., saturated lines joining W and B with the letters representing the several spectral colors, e.g., Bl. represent all the transitional tints from blue through through all the shades pale blue to white, and the dark blues to black. Ebbinghaus.) (After 29.
"

The

may

be

more

or

less 'saturated.' We

can

thus start with

a

by adding more of pinks, or by adding red and

can

and

more

white produce
amounts

series

increasing

series of deepening exhibits these relations. It will be recognized, too, that

produce

of black, we Figure 29 browns.

SENSATION

89
as

colors vary chroma

or

in brightness hue.

as

well

in saturation

and

Whatever
elementary

view

be taken

regarding

the number
some

spectral qualities, there them

are

of the esting very inter-

relations among color vision, and

to which
"

Color Mixtures.
are

When

definitely affect our which brief reference may be made. colored lights (not
are

pigments)1

colors mixed together, new with definite principles which

can

produced in accordance be formulated. For

orange,

example,

red and yellow will produce

blue and red

will produce violet or purple, and all the combinations be readily ascertained. One of the most interesting can of these mixtures is that of the so-called complementary Every color colors, which when combined produce gray. has a complementary, in the spectrum also in the spectrum,
except

green.
gray

Yellow,

if combined

with blue, produces rotated

on
a

whitish wheel
are

when
as

pigmented
the
source

papers

of the colors. Red and green similarly produce gray, but green must be combined red and with colors from the two ends of the spectrum, i.e., 30 exhibits these relationships blue, or violet. Figure used graphically. Color Contrast. also
serve

color blue-

"

There

are

other color phenomena

which

these.

the intimate relations of these complementary Color contrast is one of another. colors to one If a patch of yellow be placed beside or upon a field
to show

of blue, and the eye be focused upon a point where the two it will presently be noticed that along the margin of join, brilliant and of the two colors are very much more junction

deeper hue than elsewhere.

1

The

reason

for this will be

on

ex-

produce different results. They depend mixtures be formulated. effects of light absorption and can of course

Pigment

the

90

AN
a

INTRODUCTION
moment

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

plained in

in connection

with,

brief account

of

if instead of placing the yellow after-images. Meantime, in immediate contact with blue, some other color, like red, or green, be selected, a different and less intense result is The maximal effect of this kind is produced produced. This type of by complementary colors upon one another.

FIG. 30.

Colors at opposite ends of any diameter of the circle produce is if Purple, the one which mixed another. gray, with in is the found to not spectrum, color complementary green,
"

but

is produced by a mixture of the end-colors of the spectrum, Colors are alleged to red and violet. opposite blank segments do i.e., be psychologically they not suggest pure and elementary; distinctly suggest Some other colors. colors like orange Colors opposite other hues, e.g., in this case red and yellow. this are of character. shaded segments composite

contrast

is sometimes
one

spoken

of

as'

eye passing from

color, which

successive contrast, the has been fixated, on to

sure

another.

The

visual quality of the latter is

to

be

affected by the preceding retinal stimulation. for a color phenomenon Simultaneous contrast is a name

SENSATION

91

less often
ways

observed
more

in ordinary

experience, but

in

some

much

striking when
same

patches of the

gray

If two small encountered. paper be placed the one upon a

a

blue field and

take
on a

the other upon

yellow
a

yellowish, and the other

field,the first will bluish tinge. If a thin

both colored piece of white tissue paper be spread over surfaces, it will be quite impossible to convince any uninforme
observer that the patches are less thart they really match of
a

actually pure
one a

gray,

much

another.

This

tendency

colored surface to induce

small colorless
area

complementary

shade upon

any

within its boundaries

gives striking evidence

complementary colors.
"

again

of the

interdependence

of

After-images. that which

a

It is true exercises
an

in the

case

of all the

senses

stimulus
somewhat

effect upon

the

sense

organ

outlasts its actual contact

Vision affords the most conspicuous in the so-called after-images, which ought, perhaps, rather to be called 'after-sensations.' These are of two main kinds, the positive and the negative. If the eye be closed
for
a

with the organ. instance of this fact

few

moments,
an

instant upon

there will be seen intensity only image of the light, and at first with an sensation. This is an slightly less than that of the objective It takes its name example of the positive after-image.
from
the photographic

opened and fixated for an electric light, and at once closed again, for some littletime thereafter a distinct and
then

of light and shade objectitself. The positive image is due simply to the continuation of the
retinal excitement

positive plate, in which and color are as in the

the relations

after the removal of the stimulus. The involves a reversal of these light and negative image a point in the color relations. If the eye be fixated upon

92

AN
a

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
or

center of

small red field for fifteen

some

twenty

seconds,

and then turned upon

there

will presently

or closed, neutral colored field, bluish-green image a cor-1 emerge

originally fixated. In genresponding to the red object eral it will be found that in the negative image all colors of the colors in the stimulus, and the relations of light and shade will be inverted; what was light in the will be dark in the after-image, and
are

complementaries

object
"

vice versa. Color-Blindness.

Attention

was

called at

an

earlier
portions

point in the chapter

of the normal

to the fact that the peripheral

less color-blind. or retina are more Some persons suffer from a form of color-blindness which affects the entire retina. This is a difficultywhich seems

much

more

common

in

men

than

in

women.

It is hardly

tail practicable to describe pathological color-blindness in demoner at this point. Suffice it to say that in one of the comtypes

the spectrum

half greenish.
cases are

often

seen

half yellowish and The region of the green itself is in these Persons belonging to this group as gray.
seen as

is

said to be red-green blind. In general, it may be added that like the peripheral color-blindness of the normal eye,

pathological color-blindness suggests that the color pairs spectiv red and green, blue and yellow, and black and white, rebelong
of color vision.

together

as

more

or

less distinct parts

Theory

of Color
sense

Phenomena.

"

Many

different theories but there is

In
as

of the color
yet
none

have

been propounded, of Mrs.

which

enjoys universal
the theory

acceptance.

the
is

writer's opinion,

Ladd-Franklin

cause preferable to any of the others at present available, beit presents fewer conflictswith recognized facts. It

SENSATION
may

93

be said, indeed, that all the theories are simply attempts to formulate the several varieties of facts in a
consistent way. Franklin
assumes
we

mutually Mrs.

that vision
now

was

conoriginally fined

to the qualities extreme

call gray,
The

with white

at

one

and

black at the other.

outer

regions of the

evolucondition. As tion proceeded, the chemical substance in the retina which ferenti originally occasioned our sensations of gray has been dif-

retina still represent

this primitive

so

that it

now

is stimulated which

by

spectral

colors, each

of

of it. The corresponds

produces a first differentiation which and

the various integra partial dis-

to the sensations of yellow

occurred blue. It will

well
out

be

recalled that

these

colors

are

seen

pretty

toward

the anterior regions of the retina.

The

ferentia last dif-

corresponds
are

to the colors red and green, which

seen

over

relatively circumscribed
process

central region.
as

This

red and
out

green

she thinks of

having

veloped de-

The explanations of the older yellow process. resemble in many of the several forms of color phenomena may particulars those proposed by other theorists. We

of them very briefly. Color mixture is brought about by the disintegration of one or another part of the chemical substance in the retina
formulate
some

whose

For action directly stimulates the rods and cones. example, when red and blue are combined, the result, i.e.,
a a

purple, corresponds to

red-green process

and

splitting off of the red part of the similar splitting off of the blue

The gray of complementary of the yellow-blue process. colors is brought about by the entire disintegration of the original visual substance, just as occurs when white light

itselfis

seen.

If, for example,

yellow and blue

are

mixed,

94

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

each color disintegrates a part of the original color substance. The two together effect a complete disintegration of it. After-images of the positive kind simply represent,
as

in all theories, the continuation of the original effects of the stimulus. Negative after-images are explained by that after the eye has been stimulated for a assuming

considerable time by a color like blue, and one portion of has been shattered, the color molecules in consequence there is a tendency, after the blue is removed, for the rest
of the molecular this particular
process
to go to pieces in its turn.

In

the secondary part of the process represents yellow. Consequently the after-image for blue is yellow. Successive contrast is of course image simply an aftereffect. If the eye has been fatigued for yellow, and
case

is then turned to look at blue, the blue is seen

more

as

deeper and

vivid than otherwise, because there is a combination blue. blue with a negative of actual objective after-image ing Contrast phenomena are assigned to the progressive breakof the chemical substances, probably assisted by the capillary circulation. The gray patch in a yellow field is seen as bluish, because the molecules which the circulation

down

the retinal region corresponding to the gray are already disintegrated as regards yellow and are undergoing the process of disintegration which is seen as carries
across

blue.
Auditory

Sensations.
sense

"

Psychologists have been wont

great groups
as
"

to

divide auditory

noises and tones.

experiences into two This is to be regarded

working division, rather than as implying distinction. It so happens that the sounds which we .iast call tones arise from regular, periodic vibrations of the non-periodic vibrations. air, while noises arise from

convenient any hard and

SENSATION

95
some
a

Nevertheless,
noise, and

most

tones

have

many

noises present of
a

accompaniments of distinctly tonal acter. char-

piano are primarily tones, but the striking of the hammers the wires produces alupon most inevitably a noise which is heard with the tone. The

The

sounds

rumble of cart wheels in the street is a noise, but at a littledistance there is often a definite impression of tone. Certainly one notices the change in pitch as such a noisy vehicle disappears in the distance.
Pitch, Intensity,

and

Quality of
our

Tones.

"

There

is

relatively simple and

relation between

experiences of tone
them. Thus

the physical stimulations occasioning

the

pitch of a tone corresponds to the frequency begin to hear these vibrations We

they
occur

of the vibrations.
as

tone

when
to the

at the rate of about

we
or

sixteen
as

or

twenty

second, and exceed forty

musical

cease

to discern them

tones

when

they

fifty thousand
are

to the second.

Most
a

of

our

experiences

brief compass, running four in the second to some

While

comprised from about

or

within

relatively

sixty-four vibrations

five thousand.

of pitch corresponds to the rate or frequency tude vibration, the intensity of a tone corresponds to the ampliof the vibration. The tone quality corresponds to
the form

of the sound

wave,

as

determined

by the number,

character, and relative intensity of the partial tones which German are present. writers, in particular, speak of tones

clangs, and distinguish between simple and complex clangs. English writers sometimes speak of pure and mixed tones, or simple and complex All these terms are tones.
as

designed to apply to the same that a tone set of facts, i.e., may arise from a vibration of a single rate, as in the case of vibrations made up of a tuning fork, or from a group

96

AN
a

INTRODUCTION
tone

TO
a

PSYCHOLOGY

of
the

fundamental
case
or
a

of

In series of partial tones. stretched string, for example, like a piano

with

wire,
not

only

violin string, there are vibrations corresponding to the entire length of the string, but also to

segments

of one-half, one-quarter, one-third, etc., of the length of the string. Each of these segments occasions a separate tone which blends with the others, and the quality
mass

of the entire

of sound
or
or

will depend
over-tones, not with
one

upon

the number
are

of these partial tones, whether they harmonize

strong

which

present,

each is in relation to the others. quality of different instruments, e.g., the piano as contrasted with the cornet, or the flute, is entirely dependent this composition of the sound
waves or

another, and how The peculiar tone

upon

given off.

The
upon
enter

ability to analyze complex

into

tones,

chords, depends
which

the capacity to pick out the constituent tones

one

tonal masses, of these complex and the ability to differentiate and identify familiar combinations trait. The human of tones and noises depends on this same
up of both noises and voice is made illustrates this fact in the language tones, most

and

spoken

The

vowels

are
are a

consonants

essentially tonal elements intrinsically noises. Each

precise way. The of speech. individual voice of

represents

peculiar

and

characteristic combination

these two
The

elements.

Auditory

Sense

Organ.

"

Although

the main

facts

and

the general
of the

principles involved
ear
are

in the anatomy

and

physiology

tion, quite capable of simple formulais extremely the minute anatomy complicated and difficultto follow. We can accordingly make no pretense
such detailed exposition.
ear

of any The

consists of three main

divisions

(seeFig. 31) ;

SENSATION

97

(1) the
a

external

so-called meatus wedge-shaped

of which the conch and part of the is visible; (2) the middle ear, or passage cavity with the broad edge of the wedge
ear,

above, the sharp

edge below, and

the long

axis roughly

FIG. 31. Diagram of ear. B, tympanic membrane

"

auditory canal of the external ear; the external from the middle separating C; D, Eustachian to the tube leading from the middle ear, ear throat; E, one internal the the ear, canals of of semicircular the as arising out of the utricle upon which, upon adjacent the vestibular branch saccule, fibers from of the eighth nerve The are terminating. region shown of the internal ear posite opthe vestibule. the end of the stirrup bone is known as F, the spiral of the cochlea, through the central pillar of which the is shown the auditory nerve entering to spread out toward 32 in Figures the indicated hair cells of and cochlear canal; as 35; Or, the main trunk (After Hough and of the eighth nerve. Sedgwick. )

A,

From this a tube parallel with the sides of the head. leads down into the throat. At the point where the external opens into the middle ear a large membrane meatus

98

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

fillsup

is of this membrane attached the firstof a chain of three bones extending from in it across the cavity of the middle ear to an aperture the inner surface of the chamber, which opens into (3)
the passage. To the center

FIG. 32.
en,

"

Vertical section through

trunk

the bones

the main tympani; sv,

cochlear scala vestibuli; c, cochlea

of the

nerve;

containing the cochlea; g, ganglion; st, scala (After Gray.) canal.

"SC

PC
EC
B

PC

FIG. 33, A

Sketch of left bony labyrinth viewed from outer and B. to show the internal In B part of the bones are cut away side. EC, exC, SC, canal; ternal cavities. cochlea; superior semicircular 0, AM, PC, ampulla of canal; canal; posterior canal; into which window oval window stirrup bone fits; R, round into 8T, tympani, the ear; with connected scale middle opening Cunningham.) R; SV, scala vestibuli, connected with 0. (After
"

the internal tunnels

or

throughout

elaborate system of cavities in the solid bone of the skull, lined sac, with an extremely irregular membranous
ear.
a

This last is

very

SENSATION

99

fluids and supported upon bony appropriate Inside the sac are mounted innumerable little structures. hair cells, whose bases are in connection with the minute filled with
terminations of the sensory When
a

nerve.

See Figs. 32, 33, 34, 35.

ear,

vibration from the middle

sound wave the drum

ear.

reaches the

it first throws

into

membrane Attached

separating
to the center

the

external
mem-

of this

sc

FIG. 34.

Diagram labyrinth [supported within the of membranous bony labyrinth shown in Figure 33], filled with lymph and surrounded by it. C, cochlea; S, saccule, united by a small duct, with U, the utricle, out of which canals, spring the semicircular in the SC. The the nerve connection with the end organs of is in indicated Figure 31. labyrinth ningham. (After Cunmembranous
"

brane is the first of the chain of bones, whose motion is in turn transmitted to the other two bones in the chain, and
thence by the impact
of the latter upon

the liquid

(found

both

outside and
ear,

inside the membranous

ternal sac) of the in-

vibrations are set up which stimulate the tiny hairs of the hair cells. At this point originate the nervous impulses which, traveling back up the auditory nerve,
finally reach the auditory cortex of the cerebrum (see is heard. Fig. 13),whereupon a sound Semicircular The The vestibular portions of Canals.
"

the internal

ear

(seeFigs.

31,

34)

may

possibly have

to do

100

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

with the perception

of noise, though
are

this is very

doubtful,

but the semicircular canals bodily movement and for

They have
ear we no

organs

the

for the detection of preservation of balance.

real auditory function at all. In the primitive find a rude sac with littlepebble-like otoliths
the organism

which, when

is moved

or

jarred, strike against

the sensitive walls of the sac and so give a sensory warning ferenti and the higher animals this organ has difsignal. In man
into two
"

the

one

the

cochlear

structure

we

have described, sensitive primarily to air vibrations outside

.c.

FIG. 35.

Diagram of a S.T., cochlea. scala from a round window,

"

section of one of the whorls of the tympani, lymph-filled a leading passage in the wall of the closed by a membrane, This membrane ear. to and some middle movement permits fro of the liquids of the internal ear, are when set vibrations in through by the air waves the external up in them coming 8.V., scala vestibuli,. a channel leading from ear. and middle in the wall of the middle the oval window into which ear the base of the stirrup bone is inserted. These two S.T. passages, C.C., the and S.V., join one at the top of the cochlea. another lymph-filled canal of the cochlea, separated by R.M., Reissner's from the scala vestibuli and by B.M., the basilar membrane, from T.M., the tectorial memthe scala tympani. membrane, brane by some thought to be the ' body reauthorities sponds which by sympathetic in the to the waves vibrations produced by external sounds. The theory assumes endolymph of the ear that the membrane th"3 tips of the hair cells strikes against impulses in the auditory nerve. Most and thus sets up nervous that basilar think the tion functhis serves authorities membrane its vibrations directly to the hair cells restand transmits ing it. LH.C. on and O.H.C., inner and outer rows of hair cells respectively; 8.C., supporting cells; R.C., rods of Corti; A.N., (Modified from Stewart.) auditory nerve.
cross

SENSATION

101
ves-

the organism

; the other the

semicircular canals and the developed

tibular apparatus, body.

The

sensitive to gross movements

of the entire

three canals have

approximately
to the three

at right angles to each other and

main

planes of the body.

to movement

Each in

corresponding is presumably
one

most

tive sensiLike

of the body

of these planes.

vice. the vestibular arrangement, they retain the old otolith deThese otoliths are suspended in the liquids of the sac the head or body is moved membranous and when
quickly, they lag somewhat with the hair cell terminals
as

behind found
a

in the cochlea.

This sets up

into contact and come in these regions, as well impulse, which, sensory

instead of passing to the auditory cortex and so occasioning a sensation over quite a different of sound, is conveyed
pathway
to cerebellar and

muscle
compensatory

groups

"

tain and thence to cerof the eyes, the head, and trunk and other centers
"

movements

are

released tending to preserve conditions the

bodily equilibrium. It is doubtful whether

semicircular
are as

under

normal

produce any sensations of which we directly conscious. But if they be violently stimulated,
canals
we are

in rapid whirling,

made

dizzy.

We

thus learn
contact

of their action through

the sensations of vision and

which they reflexly stimulate, rather and movement, There than directly by a conscious quality of their own. is no question of their practical importance, for if diseased, they
cause

dizziness, loss of balance, and

coordination. As Sensations.
"

general

ance disturb-

of motor

Gustatory

the result of

discussion and
generally

experimentation,
that there
are

good deal of psychologists have come

a

to agree

four, and

salt, sour, qualities of taste, i.e.,

eleonly four, mentary sweet, and bitter.

102

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

observers would add to this list metallic and soapy They are tastes. with one another and often combined

Some

with

contact, smell, and sensations of temperature, have By means of such combinations we

movement.
a

very

large number

which
constituents. involves sour,

ages of characteristic tastes of foods and beverhowever, capable of analysis, into these are,

Lemonade
sweet,

in its ordinary
contact.

forms

cold, and

obviously Coffee involves

to
a

Both involve odor bitter, sweet, heat, and contact. degree that the uninformed person is utterly unaware

of.

that when suffering from a cold in the head the tastes of foods are apt to be dulled. This tion is commonly attributed to the direct effect of inflammaIn of the mouth. and congestion of the membranes

Everybody

has observed

point

of fact it is much

more

largely due

to the

suppression

and

of sensations of smell. By blindfolding the eyes age stopping the nostrils, it will be found that the aver-

individual is quite at
common

loss to identify many

food substances, and taken of reducing them to fluid form

at the

of the if the further precaution be

temperature

of the mouth,

and presenting them it will be found that

only the four qualities already mentioned can as a rule be detected, and even for them there is often great uncertainty. There
are

several kinds

the really elementary

of evidence tending to confirm character of these four tastes. One in

the

of them

is indicated

suggestion

above.

If the

and reduced stimuli are all made of uniform temperature, to fluid form with the elimination of smell, there is almost to mention never a tendency any other kind of taste quality.
These four
seem

to every

observer adequate.
taste
sensations

It is commonly
may

supposed
on

that the various

any part

be experienced

of the tongue.

As

SENSATION
matter
to

103

of fact, the center

taste, and

of the tongue
P

is very

from

one

another Thus

(Fig.36.)
to sweet

of sensitivity possessed. the tip of the tongue is peculiarly sensitive

the marginal in the kind

regions

littlesensitive differ decidedly

and
a

bitter.

It is

salt, the sides to sour, curious fact, suggesting

and

the base to

the existence of
sense

special receptors

for the different kinds of

qualities,

FIG.

36.

"

Surface
the

which of 1 and

from The taste buds in seen of tongue above. lie terminate in the walls nerves mainly gustatory 3, fungiform 2, the circumvallate the papillae, and

papillae. (After Schafer.)

that

some

substances

produce

different parts of the tongue. sweet, at the base it tastes bitter. There
indications also of interrelations of
an

different taste upon At the tip, saccharine is extremely

very
are

some

intimate kind
there
are

tween be-

the

elementary

qualities.

Thus

drugs

which

if applied to the surface of the tongue

sweet

will paralyze

the sensitivity for bitter and

without

affecting the

other tastes.

104

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

The
may

Gustatory

Sense

Organ.

be tasted at all, it must and no solid,if taken into the mouth, is soluble by the saliva. The reason
to understand

In order that a substance be presented in liquid form,

"

can

be tasted unless it for this seems easy

it is remembered that the receptors for taste stimuli terminate at the base of very minute cell in structures shown in Figs. 37, 38, 39, which lie imbedded
when

deep crevices in the walls of certain papillae. Direct contact cept with these organs is thus rendered quite impossible exfluid. As has been pointed out in the preceding paragraph, these papillae, whose form differs considerably in different regions of the tongue, are distributed over for
a

the sides, tip, and base, the center of the tongue There are some substantially destitute of them.
nerves

being
taste

borhood occasionally found in the cheeks and in the neighof the palate. Attention has already been called designate taste is in to the fact that what we commonly
point of fact
a

fusion

and
with
movement.

movement. receptors

contact, of smell, taste, temperature, inneris very richly vated The tongue for contact, pain, temperature, and

Olfactory
have
This

Sensations.

"

Sensations of smell

are,

as

we

noticed, intimately connected with those of taste. very ancient and represents connection is undoubtedly importance as the fundamental of these two senses
of the food Despite

guardians

ditions. supplies in primitive animal conthis intimate connection, smell presents

to taste.

some are
on

very

striking contrasts

The

taste qualities

in number the other hand,

few

and

relatively easy
an

to isolate.

Smell,

presents
can

almost

endless complexity
certogether in tain

of qualities, which roughly

at best be grouped

separable classes. The

taste qualities appear

SENSATION
to be connected

105

regions.

tinct general way with anatomically disSmell, so far as can be detected, offers no
a

in

FIG.

section of circumvallate papilla of a calf. Af fibrils terminating nerve in and papilla; M, the gustatory T, buds. the taste Engelmann.) (After about

37.
"

Vertical

the

FIG. 38.

"

with

Vertical section through taste a hair-like terminals; 2, supporting

bud. cells.

1, gustatory

cells

(After Cunningham.)

FIG. 39.

Diagram of the cells found in a taste bud. cells; 6, supporting cells. (After Cunningham.)
"

a,

gustatory

106

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

topographical

differentiation. The

stimulus to taste must

be

fluid. The

stimulus to smell must

be

gas,
a

or

at all

events,
as

finely divided particles suspended

in

gas

such

the air.
The

accompanying qualities which is now

table contains the grouping

most
a

of smell
a

division.

It is

generally employed by modification made of

an

as

working

the

Dutch by

physiologist Zwaardemaker the botanist Linnaeus.

1 2 3

older table proposed

"

"

"

Ethereal Aromatic Fragrant

peas.

smells, including fruit odors. smells, e.g., camphor, spice. flowers as smells, e.g., such

violets and

sweet

4 5 6

"

"

"

Ambrosiac smells, e.g., musk. Alliaceous smells, e.g., garlic, chlorine. Empyreumatic tobacco, burnt smells, e.g., burning Hircine smells, e.g., cheese. Virulent smells, e.g., opium. Nauseous smells, e.g., decaying

toast.

7 8 9

"

"

"

animal
or

matter.

The
to
a

difficulty of grouping

odors

small number the

a

of elementary

of reducing them types is suggested by the

of designating

fact that

ordinary

method

them

volves in-

either which
or

reference to the

names

of the
the

they

come

lemon odor, (e.g.,

from objects odor of roses, etc.)

from
taste,

characterizing them when

we

by
sweet

borrowed adjectives

as

odor or a sour odor, or finally, grouping them as agreeable or disagreeable. Receptors for smell terminate Olfactory Sense Organ. speak of
a
"

about

the bases of littlehair-like

or

bedded thread-like cells importion

in the

mucous

membrane

of the upper
most

of

the nasal cavity.

organs

(Fig.40.) Unlike
apparently

sensory
true

nal terminerv-

these cells are

themselves

SENSATION
ous

107

tissue.
may

how

location of this olfactory membrane be seen in Figure 41. This figure shows graphically in gentle breathing the air currents may pass The general

FIG. 40.

olfactory region of the rabbit; st, supporting cells; short, stiff cilia, or, according to some ties, authoricones of mucus resembling cilia; r, r, olfactory cells. (McSnodgrass Kendrick and after Stohr.)
"

Isolated cells from

s,

FIG. 41.

to show the location of the olfactory end-organs breathe. 0, the we and when of the air currents into the the of right nostril olfacolfactory membrane which tory black The down through the bone nerve comes above. line, numbered 1, indicates the the course air in usual of The breathing. lighter line, numbered 2, indicates the natural inhale strongly. course we (Modified from of the air when Zwaardemaker. )
"

Diagram

the

course

up

the nostrils and into the lungs without coming into violent contact with this olfactory region. In vigorous inhalation, on the other hand, the currents of air are through

108

AN up

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

drawn

sharply

against the membrane

and

we

secure

vivid and distinct sensations. As in the case of taste, but to

uncertainty

less degree, there

is

regarding the exact cortical terminations of but the best modern is emknowledge the smell nerves, bodied in Figure 14, opposite page 36.
Cutaneous
the skin
true that
were we

Sensations.

"

It is usual to speak

as

though
course

itself a sensitive organ,

and

it is of

in contact protective
receptors

feel the various kinds of stimuli which come with it. But in strictness, the skin is simply

deeper layers the real covering within whose imbedded. By common are consent, pressure,
pain
or are

heat,

cold, and Ordinarily two

forms

mediated
are

by

skin

sensations. together

more

of these

aroused

by

the usual

there

are

from hand

of stimulation, and as a matter of fact generally added the kinaesthetic sensations arising Thus, if I reach out my movement. muscular
grasp

and

the book

lying upon

the table, I obtain

sensations If I burn

of contact, myself, I

of temperature,
secure

and

of movement. sensations

simultaneously

of

heat and pain.

Contrary

to the usual impression, these various not

forms

of

sensitivity are
surface. The
one

distributed evenly
a

over

the entire bodily

points

skin presents

sort of mosaic, with

sensitive to

kind

of stimulation

interspersed between

points sensitive to other forms, and with adjacentpoints insensitive to all kinds of stimuli. Of course if a stimulus

be made

sufficiently intense, almost Nevertheless, the statement

any

region

rewill spond.

just made

is essentially

true.

(See Fig. 42.)

If
then

blunt metal point, even a pencil point, be cooled and be gently passed over the skin of the back of the

SENSATION

109
a

hand,

there will be spots

where

perfectly distinct flash

on

of cold will be felt, and

alone
or

other spots

which

coneither tact

nothing

at all will be sensed.

similar result

be slightly heated. Warmth will be clearly sensed now and then, but will be found quite lacking at other points. The spots sensitive
to

will be encountered

if the point

pressure

are

more

numerous

than

those
More

sensitive to
numerous

warmth

and
either

cold of moderate
are

degree.

than

the

spots

sensitive to painful

pressure,

*/*/ """" :..V. "".v:.:V"V**

C
"

ff

C, cold spots; H, hot spots from an area FIG. 42. the back of on Similar to pain the wrist. and spots sensitive to pressure been charted. (McKendrick and Snodgrass respectively have after Goldscheider. )

like that of
cornea

needle.
on

There which

are

some

regions, like the pain

are
some

of the eye,
can

practically only
enough,

sensations
regions

be aroused.

Oddly

there

quite insensitive to pain from puncture. which seem There is a region of this kind on the inner surface of the cheek.

The
as

surfaces,

sensitivity differs very is illustrated, in the case

widely

on

various

by the tip of the tongue,

the skin

sure, of contact or presthe tip of the fingers, and

justabove

sensitive to which
can

the elbow. differences much

The
more

first two minute

surfaces than

are

those

simple

be sensed demonstration

by

A the last mentioned region. by lightly touching be made may

110

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

three such

points set a regions with a pair of compass A similar type of disparity quarter of an inch apart, characterizes the distribution of sensitivity in the case of
senses.

the other skin

Cutaneous
not
as

Sense

Organs.

"

Although

the

evidence
reason

is
to

yet absolutely conclusive, there is strong

believe that the receptors

mentioned Figure organ.

have

for the different kinds of sensation each a different type of terminal

43

exhibits the

different terminals

now

ent plausibly regarded as the receiving devices for the differkinds of cutaneous stimulations. The cortical receiving stations for these various sensations [withthe possible exception of pain, which is perhaps
represented in the thalamus] are pretty well localized, as in Figure 13, in the region posterior to the fissure shown
of Rolando. The
close proximity
to the great motor
zone

(an
must

arrangement
not
one

of that in the spinal cord) be overlooked, and will not be thought strange suggestive

when

remembers the most

that these cutaneous

experiences

are

probably Behavior simply

primitive and in its earliest forms was

motor

ancient of organic life. in considerable measure

to stimulations

adjustment in
type.

response

of

the cutaneous
Kinaesthetic occasion
to

Sensations.

"

We

have

frequently

had

refer to sensations of movement. generally refer to these as kinaesthetic.

gists PsycholoThere

has

been littlesuccessful effort to analyze them, and isolation is particularly difficult because they occur almost without exception in conjunction with other kinds of sensation.
Various illustrations have

been

given

from

time

to time

sensations. of these combined kinaesthetic and cutaneous When one moves the hand, there is almost inevitably a

SENSATION

111

H.L.

A X.

FIG. 43.
the

H.L., diagrammatic cross section of the skin showing layer or epidermis, C.L., the clear layer, G.L., the layer, P.L., the papillary layer, H.L., the mucous granular N.E., nerve layer, forming the outer border of the dermis; endings, B, N.T., trunks diagrammatic the the cross nerves. and of the nerve a hair and winding about section of the skin showing 2V., layer of the epidermis; its base; H., the hair; H.L., horny T., terminals, trunk, nerve contact sensations, with mediating C, a tactile corpuscle of Meissner. about the base of the hair. AX., the axonic processes wrapping puscle. about the tissue of the corKrause, A. C., naked D, axis cylinders. end-bulb of possibly organ of sensations of cold. AX., axones entering the bulb; N.F., naked fibers; T.C., so-called touch cells; C.T., axone E, Pacinian tissue of the skin. connective corpuscle, probably in contact AX., axone concerned puscle entering the corsensations; A. C.T., C.; terminations connective at with axis cylinder F, Ruffini's nerve tissue. warmth endings, possibly mediating C.T., conAX., T.O., terminal axones; nective sensations; organs; to mediate tissue. The free nerve pain endings, thought thin out terminal the fibers simply sensations, have no organ; to a point, or blunt end, and stop. (Modified from Cunningham, Retzius and Toldt.)
"

A,

horny

112

AN

INTRODUCTION
so
as

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
a

stretching of the skin which

to produce

pressure
or

sensation,

tends to fuse with

or

the kinaesthetic

motor

sensations, thus confusing, the

at least obscuring, somewhat

sensation itself. characteristic quality of the motor It is the general view today that these kinaesthetic sensations due to the stimulation of receptors which terminate in the muscle surfaces, or in the insertions of tendons and ligaments, or in the cartilaginous surfaces of
are

joints. Obviously, under

from these three they practically always

ordinary

sources occur

tions conditions the sensawould tend to fuse because difficult together. However

X.

FIG.

Termination 44. of sensory nerve T., tendon; T.O.f terminal organs.

"

AX., tendon; axone; from Morris.) (Modified

a

in

of isolation and

analysis, there

can

be

no

doubt

that the
part

sensations of this group play an extremely important in our control over our movements. But of this more be said at a later point. Kinaesthetic
type

will

Sense

Organs.

"

Figure

44 illustrates the The

of terminal organ
receiving

for the kinaesthetic receptors.

cortex

central

station in the

is by with

clinicians
the cutaneous

located in the post-Rolandic

group

region

along

of sensations.

Organic

Sensations.

"

One

group

of
are

sensory

remains
general
way

to be described.

These
To

experiences designated in a
strictly

organic

sensations.

this group

considered

should be assigned the kinaesthetic sensations,

SENSATION

113

because
are

like the general

class of organic

sensations, they

caused by changes occurring inside of the organism. It is convenient, however, to distinguish the kinaesthetic
group

from

the others, despite this

origin.

common

property

of

intra-organic

Ordinarily
hearing
are

sensations

of

touch,

taste, smell, vision, and

aroused

by

objects

outside the body.

Illustrations of these organic sensations are such experienc as arise from respiration and circulation. The consciousness of feeling choked or close is an instance of this kind.

stifledwhen
The

the air is

congestion example.

head

when

one

is ill affords another

are

of the Hunger,

thirst, and

nausea,

still other

instances.

Dizziness

tions mentioned in connection with the semicircular canal funcis sometimes included. The list is a rather long one, The reader can and need not be given in detail here.

doubtless supply
Receptors
some

many

other illustrations.

for Organic

Sensations.
are

"

The

receptors

for in

of these experiences they

no

not

well identified, but

general

doubt

belong to the cutaneous

and

kin-

In many of them pain is represented, and aesthetic type. in these cases the receptor is similar to that presumably The experiences. already described for painful cutaneous
also problematical, except cortical receiving stations are in- so far as the sensations are identifiable with those of

kinaesthesis and

the cutaneous

sensation group.

CHAPTER

VII

SENSE
Sensation
chapter,
with
we

PERCEPTION
Throughout
the

and

Perception.

"

previous
processes
arouse

have discussed the

sensory adjustive

regard to the different kinds of stimuli which them, the different qualities of sensation which are forth, and
nerves

called

the peculiar structure

upon

which
as

they

organs of the sense and Psychologists depend. often

speak

of sensations simple

mental

elements, because

they

are

apparently

qualities which

resist further

analysis,

justas

do oxygen
are

and

the other chemical

elements.

sations Sen-

tal with other kinds of menlater, elements called simple feelings, to be mentioned to produce mental compounds shall deal with such as we from this point on.

supposed

to combine

We
which

now

pass to another

phase of these sensory

psychologists
as

commonly

activities, call perception, defined by

James
present

"the
sense.

consciousness
"

to

While

of particular material it is true that these

objects seem objects

sense

in

certain

sense

to be simple combinations

of

nevertheless
not

what

we

see

when

we

open

our

qualities, eyes is

the

mere

color quality green,

but green

leaves, green
when
we
car,

grass, and

other green

objects.Similarly,
perception is of
a

hear
or

sounds,
a

our

immediate

street

of

of these whistle, or of a class bell. Each peculiar sensation quality as noise or sounds has its own hearing any one tone, but the immediate^ reaction upon

locomotive

of them

involves

our

identification of the sound

114

in the

SENSE
manner us.

PERCEPTION

115
conveys
some

mentioned. It involves our

The

perception of

apprehension

to meaning at least of the

to other e.g., its relations sustained by the object objects, direction, distance, etc. The other senses will all illustrate

the

same

thing.

We

perceive

book

in part

by

pressio the im-

of contact

hand
even

as

we

though

from the and temperature which come grasp it. We perceive a violet by its odor, it. However we see the sensory cannot meager
which
an

data with
tend
to perceive

we

are

object

we supplied, in each case less definite or with a more

fringe of relations. It is, then, to an analysis of certain features of these perceptual operations that we must next

proceed. As contrasted with sensation, in the psychologist's ing meanas the consciousness of the term real and perception is relatively more get at a sensation of color involves our

of
more

sensory

quality,
To

concrete.

abstracting it from
The color

the general

complex

in which

it is imbedded.
from

of

ribbon may

thus be considered apart

the special

texture

of the fabric in which it appears and apart from the other colors surrounding it. We can only direct tion attento the color itself by thus disregarding all the other
circumstances.
we

accompanying
mental

In

perception
a

we

have

state in which
as an

apprehend
this
case

group

qualities
as was

in object,
out
we
or

pointed

when

the ribbon. discussing attention, the very

one

of sensory To be sure,

process

by which
more

perceive

less all other

objectinvolves our objects.Even here,

disregardi
then,

there is

certain sort of abstraction and

isolation. But

from

point of view sense perception gives us the real of daily life,the tables and chairs, cats objects and dogs, sticks and stones of every-day experience.
common-sense

the

116

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
"

Organization

of Sensations

in Perception.

As

an

ad-

justive process,

very distinctly an perception represents organization of sensations into units such that we can make An apple, as a mere practical motor responses to them.
matter

of sensation, appeals
no

to

touch,

sight, smell, and

a

taste, to mention

other possibilities. As

all these qualities are centered in the object can an make extending the hand we effective and satisfactory As response. compared with animals, human

perception to which by

beings undoubtedly
much

make

far less
as

use

less of taste,

guides

of smell, and probably to their larger bodily

reactions.

Vision, hearing,

and

contact

afford the predominant

Experience.

Part

foci of human perceptions. in Perception by Previous Played in

an

"

We

earlier chapter that constant modification is taking place in our reactions by virtue of our ability to from one moment to the next that which we carry over
saw

have

obvious in all the instances of gross general behavior, such as the learning of The habit like skating. new same a motor principle
learned.
This applies, however,
processes.
to perception
man as

fact is perfectly

to

all other

conscious

To

the plain

it

seems

obvious that what and sees a is before his eyes.

room no

he

perceives

when

he looks

across

the

square-topped table is simply that which As a matter of fact what he perceives is in

that which
more

sense
a

merely
much

is physically present

to his retinae, but

complex

and object

one

which

in certain particulars

To differs essentially from that presented to his eyes. take but a single feature of the situation : if he be standing
across

the which

room,

as

assumed
as
"

in the illustration, the table

"

top

he

sees

square,

that

is, with

four

right
as

angles

and

equal sides

is

on projected

his retinae

SENSE

PERCEPTION

117

figure with two

saw

obtuse and two acute angles. If he really simply what is optically before him, he would perceive a figure of the rhomboid type, and not a square at
truth of this statement tries to draw
a

all. The
one

becomes
as

apparent

the moment
a

position. If one uses actual right angles in the sketch, the drawing will be a failure. Moreover, when one looks at a polished tration, wood or metal surface, as in a case like that of our illusone

table

seen

from

such

gets

coolness, and that somehow

may
sense

something of the feelings of smoothness, hardness, all of which are tactual qualities fuse with the visual impression. A perception
qualities belonging
to other

thus involve sensory than

organs

that directly stimulated

at the moment.

It is sometimes
or

said that

we

see

what

we

expect

to

see,

what

much

to see, and this is true in a accustomed intimate and thorough-going more than is ordiway narily We tend to interpret every sensory appreciated.
we
are

stimulus, like the table top, in terms

of similar
assume

of

our

previous
most part

experienc

and objects,

for the
which

we consistent

that

that

sort

of perception

is most

with all our its 'true' presents

experiences
or

of the

objectin question
is
a

'real' form.

Language

particularl

our

striking instance of the effects of experience The words of a strange language perceiving.
the
a

upon may

strike upon they do at

The

fashion in which in absolutely the same later period after the language has been mastered.
ear
cases

sensations elicited in the two

may

really

identical; but the percepbe to all intents and purposes tions are radically different. In the firstinstance we hear
simply
a

melange

of meaningless
a

experience which

furnishes
are

whole

sound; in the second, host of interpretative meanings

in the first case.

entirely missing

What

118
we

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
as
our

is quite perceive at any given moment by our interests, by momentary

much
past

termine de-

experienc

and the modifications which it has impressed upon the nervous system, as by the particular object physically
present
to
our senses.

Perception

and

Illusion.
"

Certain illusions, which

are

simply

erroneous

perceptions, furnish

additional evidence

of the dependence

of perception

upon
on

The figure

(45) sketched

ence.1 preceding experithis page, like that on

FIG. 45."
1

(After Gordon.)

Illusions may be roughly grouped as (1 ) from habits, arising (2) from expectancy, and (3) from sense organ structure. (1) We distant train because a that is a noise as perceive a rumbling
common
source

thunder. hear

(2)
"

of such We waken

In the present case it may be sound. in the night, fear burglars and distinctly

are as a the sounds matter which of fact simply of the creaking of boards caused by wind or change of temperature. (3) Figure 47, page 127, exhibits illusions which belong at least in

footsteps

part to this group. Like illusions, hallucinations

are

no apparently external physical due to derangements in the sense

false perceptions, but in this They stimulus is present. may organs or of insanity
in the

case

be

They of the

are

common

in certain

forms

and

cerebral cortex. involve any may

senses.

SENSE

PERCEPTION

119

page

60, may

be

seen

in at least three different ways.

as
a

The

figure may

be perceived
or as
"

uppermost,

surpile of cubes with black faces is looking at cornice which one a

from for

below,
more

or

finally
an

though
"

than

instant

as

this is difficult to observe flat mosaic of black, white,

reader will note that in each case the retinal stimulus is absolutely identical, and yet three quite distinct objectsare Clearly this perceived. and
gray

diamonds.

The

result

can

only be explained by the fact that

one

's

previous

experience affords the three different contexts for one and the same set of lines. Which particular group shall be brought into action at any one moment is evidently more
or

by

-overlooked cause the ordinary reader unless they are very serious, behe sees what he is in the habit of seeing, and not in the phrase Thus the error what is really before him.
Pacific Ocaan
The
extent
'

less accidental.

Typographical

errors

are

'

will by many

readers be entirely unnoticed.

reactions acquire it clear should make

to which

these perceptual

meaning

from

previous

experience

that the organization of sensation which is represented, is To in the cortical neurones. in large measure embodied perceive
a

couple

of dozen lines
an

as

pyramid

the arousal in

organized
nerves,

and and

volves of cubes insystematic fashion

it is evident that

of large groups
the type

of cerebral

of motor

pyramid required

reaction appropriate to dealing with the experience would be decidedly different from that

by

the

therefore, of our in a corresponding The

two

organization, flected sensations exhibited in perception is recornice experience. organization Both

we are

The

of motor
to subject

response.

things go together.

the general

principle of habit, which Chapter IV.

discussed rather fully in

120

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
"

Perception

of Time

and

Space.

Perception

not

only

contact with the physical world of objects, gives us our we but it is also the channel through gain our which knowledge of space and time. It is sometimes said that in time and imbedded to us perceptions come all our most

of
that

them
we

in

space.

Our
time

common

phrases
space

gest sugwe

perceive

both

perceive

objects.Philosophy

and has from

just as

the earliest times the ultimate

must try to

busied itself with the attempt to understand We nature of these two forms of experience.
steer clear of the

but psychology

we

can

metaphysical hardly forego some

more

aspects

of the problem,

slight study

of the

of the processes. in a medium occur

our

Our

to adjustments

our

surrounding

the effectiveness of

of both time and space, and reactions is largely conditioned by

ability to factors.
our

make

intelligent

allowance

for

these

Space

Perception
controversy
senses are

and

the

Several

Senses.
as

"

There

has

been

some our

among

psychologists

to whether

all of

capable of mediating experiences of Vision, touch, and the kinaesthetic sensations have space. of space generally been accepted as self-evident sources
perception.

and particularly hearing, have been the chief centers of discussion. William James, for example, was wont to maintain that all sensory experience
The
other
senses,

that certain sounds are tained massive, and others thin and fragile. Similarly, he mainthat some odors are big and expansive as compared

is 'voluminous.'

He

held

sion, of discuswith others. Taste is hardly a profitable source by its connection with conbecause it is compromised tact The precise meaning versy of the controand temperature.
can

perhaps

be better understood

after

we

have

SENSE

PERCEPTION

121

analyzed

some

of the conspicuous

features in the perception

of space. In animal life, and

space

particularly

in its lower

stages, the

adjustmentto

relations hinges very

largely upon

the

factor of direction. The creature needs to go in the general direction of its food supply and needs to retreat from locations where its enemies are found. Another important
capacity, from which the sense of direction has perhaps developed, is the ability to localize stimulations upon the

Bodily surfaces.
lifts one

Behavior

of this type,

as

when

frog

of its legs to wipe off an injurious substance from its body, obviously involves a form of spacial The perception size
are

adjustment.
of shape

of distance and presumably of

the

the perception
later
seem

and

somewhat lower

acquirements,
to

although

many

animals

have
near

relatively accurate hand. If

we

ability to estimate

distances

at

consider first the capacity to detect direction, L hearing, and is fairly clear that vision, touch, movement,
smell may varying degrees of accuracy, and that possibly taste would also be found in this group If we to make if it could be separated from touch. are
all
serve us

with

the

detection

of direction

our

criterion, of
our

we

can

hardly

deny

spacial character
we

not if
we

turn

sensations, at least But when permit the cooperation of movement. find ourselves we to the other factors mentioned
to any
a

led to quite Visual

qualities
we

different conclusion.
have
as

objectsclearly
perceive
them. who
a

shape
truly

and
as a we

size, and
perceive they
are

these
the
one

quite

objectspossessing
and
the
same.

Indeed, would

in
ever

sense

But

think
or a

of the possibility

of perceiving

square

sound,

round

odor?

122

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
to

Certain

psychologists

maintain,
some

be
are

sure,

as

we

have others,

already implied, that

some

sounds

larger than

drum

Thus the sound of a bass odors more voluminous. is alleged to be bigger than the shrill whistle of a

fife,and the odors of garlic, onions, and

are

illuminating

gas

thought

of

as

more

pervasive,

more

than the odors of violets,sandalwood, There are certain obvious sources of possible confusion In in such supposed evidence as has justbeen advanced.

space-occupying and lemons. /^

the

case

of the bass drum,

more

our

veys naturally conimpression of bigness. Associated with this is often* an ment knowledge proportions of the instruof the majestic from which the noise proceeds. One or both of these
or
are

of the sound, less general bodily

tensity there is to be mentioned the inof its results a which has as one

jarringwhich

likely to affect our impressions of the volume of the sound. But even admitting the strong suggestion of spacial character which the sound brings us, no one would
factors

undertake
estimate

to

describe the shape

of such

sounds,

or

to

their exact
may
we

One

sound

size with reference to other sounds. tense, inbe louder than another, that is, more
to estimate
measures

and

often venture of such sounds, but

never

the

tensity relative in-

of their size and

shape

undertakes. be urged kind of consideration may Exactly the same find them Undoubtedly we suggestive of about odors. or spacial qualities, and we certainly localize them more But the complete

one

less accurately.

including size and

list of spacial characteristics, tures shape, which are so clearly fea-

space experiences, are of the visual-touch-movement We hardly, then, deny to them can certainly lacking.

whatever

of space

character belongs to the ability to dis-

SENSE
cern

PERCEPTION
can

123

direction, but

we

certainly not attribute to them

the full quota

of space
turn

We

must

now

properties. back to examine

in

more

detail the
as

important
space

peculiarities of the several from

senses

media

of

perception. Perception

Space
suggestion

Smell.

"

Apart

from

its vague

of space relations, to which we have already referred human beings secure through smell only very crude impressions of direction. If we wish to identify the direction
from that
we

until we intense. atrophy

there
can

odor is coming, it is almost essential should turn the head in this direction and that have determined at what point the odor is most
which
an

Whether
or

the human

sense

of smell has suffered

our

not

in the evolution from

animal

ancestry,

be
excel

no us

animals

question that at the present time many hopelessly in the accuracy and delicacy

with which Auditory

perhaps,

they make use of this sense. In even Space Perception.

"

greater

degree,

than

smell, hearing

conveys

suggestions of many

kinds

of space relations, but its only unequivocal spacial function is the determination of direction, in which it is distinctly superior. Within certain limits, to be described,
we can

localize sound

promptly

accuracy.

the
come

This capacity fact that we have two

to
us

and with a measure is dependent in largest part

ears
as

of
on

and

that

sounds
one
ear

often
more

in such

way

to stimulate

This is obviously true of all other. sounds except those in the median vertical plane of the In this body at right angles to the line joiningthe ears. plane localization is extremely inaccurate, and with closed strongly
than

the

eyes

an

inexperienced
whether

person
are

determine

sounds

is generally quite unable to in front of, or behind, the

124

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO
are

PSYCHOLOGY
up
or

head, and

whether

they

high

low

down.
on

On

the other hand,

sounds
and and

originating
a

from

side of this plane

few

degrees

either outside of it are

points

localized instantly side from

which

with great confidence as to the cult, diffithey come ; but it is often extremely

the assistance of vision, or without movement of the head, to determine whether the sound is somewhat in front of, or somewhat behind, the line joining the without
ears.

difficultyof these localizations is related in part to the character of the sound itself. While with normal ing individuals there is never any difficultyin determinThe
ease
or

the accuracy of the which side a sound comes, localization as regards the more exact position is far higher with noises and with complex tones than it is with for simple tones, like those of a tuning fork. The reason

from

this
tones

seems
are

to be that the overtones

so

of noises and
of the
ear

complex

affected by the conch

(some being

ently dampened) that they sound differreinforced and some heard, for example, at a point somewhat to when the left and in front of the face and when heard at the left but toward the back of the head. Pure tones, being

devoid of overtones, are not cannot be so distinguished.

In practical daily life we

thus

affected and

therefore

of sounds as well as faculty which is very unreliable except familiar with the sounds. It is easy enough

tance able to estimate the distheir direction. But this is a

are

where

we

are

to demonstrate

that with the eyes closed a very faint sound near at hand is readily confused with a stronger sound further away. Gently sounding tuning forks afford the most convincing

and

ready

proof of this fact, and

everybody

must

at

one

SENSE

PERCEPTION

125

time

or

another

have

been

deceived

into thinking
was

some some

faint sound, like the hissing of a steam radiator, in this case perhaps a locomotive distant object, off steam.

blowing

Visual

Space

Perception.

"

In point of range

and

cacy deli-

of spacial perception vision easily surpasses any of Its range in distance is limited only by the other senses.
the clearness of the air and

the curvature

of the earth's

It detects direction instantly and accurately. It enables us to judge with great precision both the size and Thanks to the binocular nature shape of of the surface.

objects.
we

sense

orgaVi

get

direct visual experience

a

of solidity,
as a

for the right eye

pencil, hidden

sees

part

of

solid

such object,

The and vice versa. stereoscope takes advantage of this fact and presents photographs this feeling of depth because they which exaggerate the
are

from

left eye,

taken from

repositions further to the right and left spectiv than those normally occupied by the eyes in

looking at the Although

object.
of
our

most

probably
touch

influenced

and movement, detecting distance changes, to-wit, alterations in the muscular

sensations

visual distance are by factors involving experiential for the eye has its own mechanism

judgments of

of convergence
on

and

accommodation,

the

former

depending

the movements

cles of the external mus-

of the eye, the latter on the ciliary muscles controlling the lens. The size and distinctness of the retinal image the larger the also gives us a clue. The nearer

object

and

more

distinct the image.

can

If

we

know

we object, we

estimate

the
we

distance;
can

the size of the and conversely if

the

know

the

distance,
accuracy

estimate
estimates

size of the

object. The

of such

of

course

varies

126

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

with different conditions. Figure relations involved.

46 illustrates the essential

We

also learn very

readily to

judge of distance

by light and shade effects,as seen in the contours roof. Color aids us, too, and aerial perspective, but
only when
we

relations tant of a dis-

have

learned how

to interpret what
on

we

see.

Distant mountains, purplish hues.

for example, tend to take

bluish and

Accurate

and

sensitive

as

vision is, it is nevertheless

FIG.

is of evidently retinal image ab of the objectAB XY farther tant disimages the the as much of size object hand. Unless LM the nearer our at much and object for to knowledge make allowance enabled us about the objects their the different distances, we should be at a loss to know
46. the
"

The

same

relative size.

to subject

shown

certain striking illusions of which a few in Figure 47, with no attempt to explain them.
Perception
as

are

Space

from

Touch.

"

Touch
sense,

has from

figured
which
an

historically

the fundamental
are

spacial

all the others

in

way

derivatives.

We

have, at

ment earlier point, indicated the limits within which this stateis true. It is a fact that while under ordinary conditions

vision is much purveying

we
are

more

important
in
cases

to

us

as or

space

sense,

nevertheless
to

of doubt

tion hesitaas

wont

accept

the verdict of touch

the

final index however,

of reality. In the spacial world

one

of daily life,

touch is simply

of

group

of factors which

SENSE

PERCEPTION

127

FIG.

47. they

The horizontal lines in A are of equal length, although do not so appear. In B the line which a really continues does not appear to do so. In C the lower figure appears clearly in area. larger, although lower are upper exactly equal and In D the parallel lines no In E the longer appear parallel. filled spaces, 06, appear longer than the equal unfilled spaces, be.
"

128

AN

INTRODUCTION
one

TO
to

PSYCHOLOGY

cooperate

with

another

give

us

our

actual space

world. In the firstinstance, touch is the great medium through which we locate stimuli upon our bodily surfaces. It will be remembered that in our system study of the nervous
we

found

it
are

so

surfaces
with
same

connected in the central system effectors leading out into muscles controlling these is obviously designed cutaneous regions. This mechanism
to enable the immediate
movement

arranged immediately

that the receptors

from

the skin

region.

Genetically there

can

be

no

of a stimulated doubt that the protective

has been very

value of tkese localizing movements

great.

In

the human

being

the power

on skin varies enormously On the finger was suggested in the preceding chapter. tips and the palms of the hand, it is relatively delicate, on on the back of the arms, the back of the trunk, and on

of localization on the the different body surfaces, as

large parts of the legs the localization is crude The

and

coarse.

truth by

of these allowing
touch

statements

can

be promptly
while
pen
one's

strated demoneyes

another

person,
a

are

closed, to

lightly with

point

the

skin

of the hand

and the back of the forearm,

a

and

immediately
one's
own

thereafter trying with

skin
on

similar point to touch

The differences stimulated. in the sensitiveness of the surfaces for localization wrillbe Another interesting immediately to be very great. seen
the spots

previously

kind of thing is to take a pair of dividers, separate the points by about an inch, touch the skin of the cheek with the two points just in front of the ear and then draw them lightly across the method of demonstrating
the
same

face, passing with

one

point

justabove

and

the other

just

SENSE

PERCEPTION
across

129
ear.

below
points

the lips, and

a

so

to the other
a

With
may

the be

littlecloser together

similar experiment

by starting with the points on the tip of the inner side of the middle finger, thence passing up over the finger the palm across to the and up the wrist and forearm
made

In both experiments the points will be felt to shoulder. be spreading and coming together again in the most amazing fashion. This is because the sensitivity of the regions
explored is so very

in the traversed.

different, a fact explicable by the tions variain the areas richness of the nerve supply

In addition to the power

also the capacity
accuracy.

of localization, touch possesses

size and the only
to
a

to report

shape
sense

It arises from of conforming

grasp
a

with reasonable organ which is

itself capable
e.g., when
we

three-dimensioned
and

object,
it has

golf ball in the hand,

one

been
are

favorite doctrine at
to touch

time
our

and

another

that

we

indebted

alone for all

or

of the third dimension,

with

distance.

original knowledge fare it may However

this particular view, no one is disposed to question that touch, in connection with movement at least, does give
us

tri-dimensional experiences. In speaking of touch in this way

that
temperature

it is generally
are

sensations

included.

understood As a
some cases

matter

of fact, practically all touch

elements

temperature

experiences have attached to them, and in some

our

this

substantially instance, an
pressed
upon
"

affects

object which
the

spacial judgments. For is distinctly hot or cold, if

"

and heavier A coin may

course

than
serve

skin, is likely to be judged larger if thermally indifferent. the same

object
an

to make

such

it frequently

happens

Of with. experiment a that in passing from

130
warmer

AN
to
on
a a

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
as

colder temperature,
one

when
a

one

goes out
mass

of of

doors

cold day,

encounters

considerable

temperature

touch sensations without any accompanying In these cases we get a general massive temperature experience. impression, which has a certain vague spacial
character,

but

unless

it be

combined

with

contact,

we

possessing shape or definite size. Practically, therefore, we make littleor no use of thermal sensations as sources of space experience save for purposes
seldom

think

of it

as

of very general orientation, as when we approach from a source away of heat. Cutaneous pain is significant as a factor in space perception.
Motor
movement

or

move

even

les"

Sensations
gives
us

in

Space

Perception.

"

Although
it immediately

through
vague,

the sensations which

evokes

only

the utmost

importance
spacial
senses.

the other

crude space perceptions, it is of in the exact use of practically all In the first place, it is to be

that kinaesthetic sensations are, as a matter remarked of fact, all but invariably connected with other sensations, If one moves and particularly with the cutaneous group.

the hand, the

thus

occasioning

sensations of movement simultaneously

a

from

muscles

and

joints,one
be moved,

through

changes tin skin tension

group

produces sions. of touch impresa

If the eye
vague,

there

is again

group

of

of the retinal changes which also set up visual sensations. The bring about this anatomical conditions which conjoint excitation of kinaesthetic with other sense stimulations are
nothing
no

but real contact

sensations, to say

doubt

movement

responsible for the widely is largely employed as a

recognized
measure

fact that

of the other

forms

of spacial sensation. of experience in which

we

In those types

gain

control

SENSE
over

PERCEPTION

131

the larger space sensations play

moverelations it is fairly clear that ment some

such part

as

that

justintimated.
side It is in

For

example,
a

the child learns the real distance from

room

to side of terms

only by

creeping

or

walking.

effort required to pass from one point to learns to give some another, that one precise content to the basis of all such a distance as the mile. In one sense these spacial experiences is resident in the contact sensations

of the

coming

from

the soles of the feet, and

in the visual

changing point of sensations arising from the momentarily from But the sensations which come joint and view. These serve to punctuate, muscle are quite as fundamental.
as

it were,

with each rhythmic

movement

of the limbs,

the amount what

of the other sensory data, visual, tactual or tance. not, which is ultimately translated into terms of dis-

Upon

the product

placed the conventional

of these several factors is finally label in terms of feet or yards or

miles. It is interesting to remark

commentary
on

in connection the organization into from

eral with this gena

of
there

our

space

perceptions

working different senses,

system

that

always

remain

outstanding

For
so

example,

paritie certain unreconciled disthe cavity in the tooth which feels

a

huge

to the tongue

is

poor

thing when

the

by the eye. examined Doubtless they represent similar instances could be mentioned. discrepancies in the reports of the several senses
tip
or

finger

explored by Many other

which

have too littlepractical importance

to occasion their

reconciliation. Organic
other

Sensations
than
those
case,

and

Space.

"

The

organic

sensations,
can,

of the kinaesthetic group

us

in
our

the nature

of the

give

only space perceptions of

132
own

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY part the spacial

inner bodily conditions.

For the most

impressions thus aroused, e.g., visceral sensations from the in character. Certainly are vague extremely abdomen,
they play
no

important

part in

our

general spacial orientation. the

The

reflex functions

of

semicircular

canals

while and
so

highly

significant for the preservation

give adjustments,
so we
us

of balance,
no

for space

ordinarily littleor
not

direct conscious report,

this connection.
The taken
our

need
We

consider them

in

Perception

of Time.
one

"

have
senses

seen

that although

literally every

of

our

may
a

contribute to selected few,

appreciation

of space

relations, it is to

are that we particularly vision, touch, and movement, tion, indebted for our more accurate estimates of distance, direc-

shape, and

size. In the

same

way

all the

senses

may

appreciation of time. contribute to our of the passage But it is especially to hearing and movement that we owe vals our more accurate estimates, at least for the briefer inter-

for which we direct perception.

general
or

have

The

fairly to be something longer intervals of time

means

called in are kind

are

judged indirectly by
Under
contact

of symbols

of

one

another.

civilized conditions of life, we

watches
a

in

constant

with
measure
mere

who

live in any

clocks, and all of us routine life are frequently reminded

and

by the of time
which

progress

has

similar purpose. long to forget the accustomed

changes

bodily rhythms elapsed. Hunger, for example, does not

periods for which
our

of The

our

work

of the amount
serve
a

allow

us

meals.

The
sun's

of light and give

us

temperature

mark

the

daily

course

other indications of time.

as

For

the

longer periods, such

we

the week, the month,

measures,

and

the year,
the two

rely upon

various indirect

although

SENSE

PERCEPTION
are

133
more
or

latter named the

one

intervals

marked

less definitely, the other by

seasons.

by

the shifting phases

of the

moon,

the climatic changes incident to the rotating in ordinary circumstances Though have we
nor

neither opportuni

need
we

for

judging brief
if
we

intervals directly, we conditions

to
use we can

find that when

set up

experimental
are

judge
Thus
more a

most

accurately,

permitted
to
measure

sensations

of hearing

and

movement

off the time.

series of rapidly succeeding sounds can be judged accurately than a series of flashes of light. All such

direct time
up
a

judgments are
interval into
not

periodic, that is to say,

a

we

break
These

time
are

series of geometrical

'moments/

moments

like the

points, i.e.,places

are real durations, and may extend without size. They from a fraction of a second to several seconds in length. Whatever treat it the actual length of such a moment, we directly one a as time interval unit, and in comparing

with another is longer or

more or

we

judge whether
units in and
a

or

not
or

one

of these units
are

shorter than

another,

less of such

there whether total interval.

"

Perception

of Accent

Rhythm.

Our

judgment of

these immediately
to
our

sensed of
are

time

perception

rhythm,

intervals is closely related in which evidently both

Here again hearing
seems

duration
movement

and accent
are

involved.
although

and
son rea-

paramount,

there

good

contribute something. Our estimate of the duration of one interval in comparison An with another is much affected by this fact of accent. interval bounded by two loud sounds seems shorter to us
than For
an

to believe that vision, too, may

equal

interval bounded

by weak

sounds.

certain of the arts, for example, music, poetry, and dancing, it would be quite impossible to over-estimate the

134

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

significance of rhythm.
the soul of rhythm

In

sense

these arts

are

simply

embodied

in different kinds of sensory

the apprehension
are

But so far as concerns media. it is fairly clear that while we

always

more

or

of time, less conscious

mass

of its passing,
our

we

judgments about

tend to make it indirectly and

we are

the great

of

by

means

ficial of arti-

ness

of esting fact of time itself. Five minutes spent in interthe mere work passes literallybefore one knows it. The same
vividly

indices. Only when of a situation, do we

overcome

by the tediousaware

tend to become

interval spent train, takes

knows
on

in

dingy

railway

fairly portentous
serious
a

station, waiting One dimensions.

for
never one

justhow

trial it is to be bored, until

encounters

such an experience. Conditions Affecting Apparent has often been drawn, of attitude which
commoner
we

Length

of Intervals.
reason,

"

Attention the change toward

and

with good

to

the

time
appears

undergo as we grow older intervals of daily life. In

an

childhood

the

year

interminable

prospect,

spreading out in the affords in its turn a

dim

distance

majestic

ahead. outlook. Even

month the week is

The

big with possibilities, and the day itselfis not to be taken lightly, especially that part of it dedicated to the strenuIn later life the perspective is wholly altered. Not only when we look backward, but even turn our we gaze forward, the year becomes more when a trifle, and more affording only grudging opportunity for
osities of the schoolroom.

of the absolutely essential thing. The in shorter intervals tend to get wholly lost. To be sure, some tedious lives, especially those which are lived under
the accomplishment the shadow of ill-health, the month and the week may take impressive dimensions, but even on more so, as contrasted

SENSE

PERCEPTION

135

with the conditions in childhood, all these intervals tend to

shrink. In
general,

this phenomenon of routine

seems

to
our

be

due

to

the

increasing

domination

in

lives, and

to the

execution of the of our attention in the mere monopolizing daily obligations of life. In childhood the world is fresher, often whetted, the future is more anticipation is more is less intense and prolonged. uncertain, preoccupation All these factors make for a more ing vivid sense of the pass-

of time
the mood

and

tend to interrupt
prospecting.
our

it

more

frequently

in

of uncertain

deestimates of time which serves memory mention relates to our of the length of intervals, depending in which they were the manner upon
peculiarity of passed.

Another

It is

common

despite the tedium

memory
no

that experience', for example, of prolonged illness,we carry away in

such vivid recollection, as a rule, to make long in retrospect. intervals seem We well remember that bored to the verge of distraction, and that it often we were seemed
as

though

the

morrow

would

never

come.

But

in

retrospect

it all shrinks

completely

its original dreary

which
pass

length.

On

of resemblance to the other hand, intervals

out

like

absorbingly This inversion of the memory

as

flash when we are keenly interested and long. in memory loom as very preoccupied
a

estimate of

time interval

appreciation of it when in progress, obviously relates itself to the fact that in retrospect an interval is likely to seem long or short depending upon compared with
our

whether

we

can

give it much
or

or

littlecontent,

can

read

back into it few

Peculiar Forms

many

events.

of Time

which

has

phenomenon often attracted attention consists in

"

Judgment.

curious

136

AN

INTRODUCTION
some

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

the ability which with

individuals possess to tell the time

accuracy without appealing to quite extraordinary do this watch or clock. The most skilful individuals can even out of sound sleep in the middle of when awakened

the night. It is often combined with the ability to awaken from sleep automatically at any hour desired. We are at by present rather in the dark as to the exact mechanism
which these results
a
are

achieved.

Recent

experiments

cate indi-

some

by

of factors may be involved, by one individual and some of which are employed be wakened in the night, his If the another. subject
that

considerable group

judgment
fatigue
or

of the hour

may
or

be based
the number

on

the feelings of of dreams since

freshness,

on

falling asleep, etc., etc.

the
on

But

for

some

gifted individuals

judgment is direct and immediate

any

and

not

dependent simply impressive

such data. it
serves

Reference
to

is made in
a

to the matter

because

suggest

somewhat

fashion the extent temporal changes.

to which

the organism

is sensitive to

CHAPTER

VIII

MEMORY

The
a

analysis of the perception of those

mental

of time leads naturally to

consideration
we are

which
our

able to transcend

of time, to bring back into

processes

by

means

ourselves minds events which are past, and to project in fancy into the future. We shall therefore turn to a

discussion of memory
we

and

imagination, by first let

means
us

of which examine
the

achieve these two

results; and

main At

characteristics of memory.
several previous

points

experience

modifies present

observed how past Instincts reflect experience.

we

have

the successful struggles of thousands of former generations, ing and while it is not usual to think of them as involvin any usual sense, be regarded as they may memory Similarly we have disclosing a form of racial memory. already
constant

observed
use,

that in

our

perceptual

processes

we

make

unconsciously, of past experience. But neither of these instances comprises the special kind of This is best to examine. conscious memory which we mean represented whereabouts in acts such
a

however

as

those in which
what
puts
or

we
we

recall

our

few hours
with
us,

ago, remember

did, who
proper
"

was

etc.

As

James
event

it:

"

said and Memory

which

is the knowledge
we

of

an

fact,of

meantime

have

not

been

thinking

with

have thought, or consciousness that we is generally before." The term 'memory'

137

the additional it experienced

used

more

138

AN

INTRODUCTION
common

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

loosely than this in It

covers

parlance

and

even

in psychology.

the

broad

ability to

former

experiences, without much point emphasized in the last two

and recall regard to the important tion. clauses of James' definiretain

So familiar

are

operations

of this sort that miraculous

we

become

quite insensitive to their altogether But a miracle it surely is that we

months
once

character.

and

again

after an event into the focus of the mind's

years

should thus be able has passed to bring it

eye. superficial

Retention

and

Recall.

"

It appears

to the most

inspection that memory

processes,

involves two
recall.

distinguishable
a

retention

and

After

thought

has

be absent for years and of the mind, it may it still at any time be within the range of recall. When is actually recalled, it lives again, not precisely as it did passed
out at first,but may

nevertheless

genuinely

and

in

way

which

lead to practical consequences quite like those which flowed from it on its first appearance. If one asks where is when one is not thinking about it, the quesa thought tion
may
a

strike the average

individual

as

in the nature

of

In point of fact it is not only a conundrum. perfectly fair question, but one whose answer carries with it highly significant consequences for one's general conception

fatuous

of the nature

of the mind.

To

discuss the matter

practicable within the limitations set by the present book. Sufficeit to say that in the judgment
of the author
this phenomenon the most

irfdetail is hardly

Presumably,
take up

as

we

convenient way of thinking about of retention is in physiological terms. have previously seen, the brain tissues

them modifications impressed upon by sensorial stimulations. When the stimulus is removed,

and

preserve

MEMORY

139

the modifications persist, some of them long periods of time, others in a

evanescent
manner. we

When
assume

tenaciously and for fleeting and more the process we have designated
some

recall

occurs,

that in through

way

or are

other these
once more

old

nervous

pathways

the

brain,
over

set in activity by

impulses

traveling

them,

and

we

become

We

again conscious of the situation earlier experienced. shall presently discuss certain features of memory

training and point out some of the qualifications of a good Obviously, retention and recall will play an memory. important first, turn part in any such discussion. We
however,
to certain other facts about
as a

the memory
"

process.
to the

Forgetting
common

Factor

in Memory.

Contrary
a

impression^

forgetting

is really

very

essential

part

but one must choose with of effective remembering, intelligence that which is to be discarded. Obviously, if
our

memories

were

freighted
we

with

the

entire

mass

trivial details of daily life

a

should

be

swamped.

of As

matter
a

get

which

of fact, when we recall any ordinary episode, we highly schematic and abbreviated recollection in important aspects present as a rule only the more

themselves.

All the rest has disappeared, and unless it be it will not ordinarily be essential for the purposes in hanc^ The kind of forgetting which naturally attracts revived.
our

attention

is that which
we

impedes

or

cripples
moment

our

conduct,

because
the just

cannot

at the appropriate

recall with
cases

required information. of the phenomena

As compared,

however,

the great body

are

of forgetting, these

trifling in amount. Many

interesting studies have something of the
manner

in recent
in which

years

showing

been made forgetting proceeds,

are

and

here

again

ordinary

impressions

apt

to be

140

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

48 illustrates graphically the rate at If one a process of forgetting goes forward. which memorizes a list of numbers so that they can justbe successfull most repeated, the process of forgetting
quite wrong.

Figure

proceeds

rapidly in the first few hours after the act of learning. Then, as the curve shows, the process tends to slow up until finally a point is reached, after which it becomes practically

impossible to
100*

measure

the further loss. Most

people sup-

24

48

144

FIG. 48. Curve of forgetting based on Ebbinhaus' study of memory for nonsense to the point where they could syllables memorized The be correctly repeated once. the vertical line represents
"

recalled after lapse of increasing of the material percentage intervals of time indicated on the horizontal line, to wit, 1, 9, 24, 48, 144, 720 hours The for material curve respectively. learned be quite conveying verbatim meaning and not would different. Under kinds such conditions association of various far more the permanency than enters to modify of the memory in the case it there nonsense even can material, although of in increasing to exercise some be shown duration the effect of (Modified from Pillsbury. ) retention.

pose that there is very

littleforgetting immediately
a

the

completion

of such

learning

process,

but

after little

experimentation Distribution

will disabuse the mind of this conviction. Clearly this of Effort in Memorizing.
"

MEMORY

141

fact has
attempting memorizing.

important
to master

implications
new

are students who that call for verbatim subjects

for

There

is

considerable

amount

of

supplementa

experimentation
this
one's
same

dealing with other aspects

to show

of

matter,
a

tending
matter

that the distribution of

consequence,
not

effort is

of prime

only in

the economizing

of time and
results.

energy,

but also in the securing experiments

relate not
as

of permanent
only to the mastery

These

of intellectual materials, such

would

be represented
acquirement

in ordinary

college studies, but also to the

of acts of skill,involving muscular dexterities have thus been made dealing of various kinds. Experiments with the acquirement of a language, as an illustration
of
an

ordinary

intellectual task.

Others have

of skill in the throwing in the mastery shooting of arrows, of the typewriter, and Although so on. the precise time relations naturally vary
the attainment with the special task, all the experiments
story

dealt with of balls, in the

tell the
a

same

general

in making

clear that there is

very

wide

choice

among

the various methods to learn. All students

are

of distributing

one's

attempts

familiar with the process

even

of cramming,
are

by

means

of which

the most

neglectful

sometimes

able successfully to survive the rigors of an examination. There can be no doubt that for practically all persons, and for some favored souls in high degree, it is possible, by
the devotion of
many
a

closely sustained effort of memory

covering

hours

just preceding

an

examination of
to

(if it be
carry

of the type
a

chiefly testing accuracy

of facts in mind

to recall),

sufficient body
with
some

come

through

the

for the vestige of credit. Meantime, great majorityof persons there is equally no question that ordeal

142

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

under these conditions is lost almost as memorized rapidly as it is gained. Exceptions must be made for the occasional individual who can under these conditions not
matter

rapidly, but retain the facts acquired with be mentioned at this tenacity. Indeed, it may moderate be divided into four fairly distinct point that people may
only learn
memory

groups:
a

(1)

those who

learn slowly

and

retain

well

tive and on the whole a generally effectype; (2) those who learn slowly and forget quickly (exceptin pathological cases not a very frequent type);
"

not

uncommon

(3)

those who
common

learn

quickly and forget quickly, American type; and (4) those who
a rare

an

extremely

learn

quickly and retain well, fortunate type.

but bona

fide and

eminently

While
any

it is impracticable at the present time to lay down hard and fast rules, valid for all kinds of work, it is

quite possible to indicate the general principles which ously, Obvishould be observed to secure effective memorizing. if the process of forgetting goes on most rapidly
soon

after the completion

be well to repeat so far as to require

the original labor.

effort at learning, it will the process before the forgetting has proceeded of
an

On

disproportionate repetition of the other hand, a too long continued

a

will effort but also because

group

not only defeat itselfbecause of fatigue,

(ifwe

may

amount of recognized time is required for the modifications impressed upon

nervous

judge the import facts)a certain

of

considerabl

of the

at sink in and set. If the attempts learning be so distributed as to coincide closely with these beneficial periods of 'setting' in the nerves, we sumably shall presystem
to

get the best results in terms

of economy

of total

time and energy

expended.

In the preparation

of ordinary

MEMORY

143
one,
one's

academic

work, these considerations would lead to the cramming method, to distribute relatively long

in contrast study with

to

over

period

of weeks
one

or

months,

frequent
master.

repetition of the material

is attempting

The

problem

confronting

the

ordinary

college student
rather than
to

relates to the arrangement

of daily work
a

the

organization
case

of the tasks covering

same

series of days.

In this

exactly the

doctrine holds true, but the

seem

foregoing illustrations may

relevant.

perhaps

ately to be less immedigets

over

The

average

student

hardly

the

daily assignments
the exercise,
so

once,

leave alone any

a

question of repeating

that to urge

the ground advantageous

true
as

that
seems

distribution of effort on repetition at interrupted intervals is beside the mark. It is cersomewhat tainly
so

that if the student cannot

arrange

his work

to

cover

it

more

than

once,

the principles under

to him

considerati

cannot

be made

to apply

very

obviously.
go

But
over

in practically all cases industrious student can an his assignment twice, the second time by way in this
case

of

review, and

he will find the permanency of his such a repetition retention decidedly enhanced by making from or review at a time separated by a few hours perhaps

his first encounter. different forms

a

Needless

to say,

and history are likely each to present certain idiosyncrasies not common to the others. Certainly a littleconscious experimentation
situation.
on

matter of subject Languages, mathematics,

the peculiarities of play a real part in such

this matter

will be found

of unequivocal

benefit by any

serious student. Many students, and

are

among

them

generally the most peculiarly

conscientio

apt

to

suppose

themselves

vir-

144

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
as

tuous

if they devote themselves

work
as

for

many
cover

hours of consecutive
a

they find necessary

a

to

particular
a

assignment.
grotesque

As

matter

of fact, this often results in

's

waste

of time because the student

at anything

dull and tired and fails to work level. It would be much more work
to
some

mind becomes like its normal

the

sensible to interrupt

at that point where

other

or subject,

genuine fatigue sets in, to turn better yet, to get the air and some

moderate form labor itselfat

which is no largely negatived by the psychological viciousness Our schools and colleges are as yet very of the process. largely oblivious to the increased efficiency possible in the of stude'nts by Nor periods of work.
work
an

of recreation, with a return to the mental The moral virtue a later period in the day. doubt inherent in the course described is unfortunately

intelligent organization
a

of their

is it simply

is also

matter

which

of efficiency; it involves fundamentally the joy and

matter
one's
"

satisfaction of a proper use of Typical Defects of Memory. it

occurs
:

mind. Fallacious

memory,

as

in normal

forms

(1 )

individuals, usually takes one of three facts may be recalled in an order different from
they originally occurred, altogether,
or

that in which
may

(2) certain facts

never

be

forgotten

(3) facts which

of memory
may

occurred

will be inserted in the memory These

errors

of those which all be

or

actually did happen.

easily verified by attempting ten digits. In recall some

to memorize

lists of eight
occur

of the

digits will

in

changed order, some will drop out and

without

will be omitted altogether, and substitutes present

themselves

others

quite

of the experimenter. Certain diseases of memory give us an interesting insight into the principles of its organization. In the disease

the knowledge

MEMORY

145
a

known
memory.
as

as

dementia, The
same
an

there is practically thing is met

complete
case

loss of

with in the
a

the result of

accident, like
shock, caused

railway

of shock collision. Even by

the pected unex-

severe

emotional

for example

may receipt of bad news, produce this result. Aged in time to suffer from much the same people come complete

destruction of memory. Partial

cases or

destruction

of memory

may

be

illustrated by
of time, the imagery

which

affect either special group

a

(1)
of

special segment

(2) some
are

or (3) subjects,

connected with

several

peraccident, sons often unable to recall anything which occurred for hours preceding the event and for appreciable

particular

sense.

After

an

intervals of time thereafter. In this information of every kind covered by

case

the loss affects

involved.

Quite different
or a

from

the p'eriod of time this is the loss of memory

Here there

for music,
question of

for

foreign

language.

is

no

entirely to
may

an

special interval of time; the defect relates interconnected Again, there matter. subject
or

be
one

more

less complete

loss of visual images,

so

that facts

cannot

recall the appearance

of

objects.These
which hold

suggest

the

various

kinds

of

bonds

memories

together.

The

disintegration of memory is a familiar phenomenon

in old age

already

mentioned

closely related to the facts

to of memories it may appear,

just described.
disappear abstract ideas
those of
true
a_more

One

of the first groups

names.
more

is that of proper
seem

Odd

as

to be

tenaciously retained
In any
event,

than

concrete

character.
we

this is ideas.

of the words which Nouns tend to disappear verbs.

This may
mean

use

to

designate

such

in advance
we use

that

and of adjectives the latter oftener and

146

AN
more

INTRODUCTION

TO
so

PSYCHOLOGY

in

varied

connections,
upon

that

we

have

larger

reservoir of experiences
means

which
use

to draw.

Perhaps

it

that

we

can

conveniently

other kinds of memory

material for the

consequence
our we

designated objects

by

nouns,

and is not

that in
so

verbal memory
can

for them

well

drilled. Thus
means

recall the appearance

of

table by the

of
are

a
as

visual image.
we

Whatever

the explanation,
are

facts

have

stated.

Elderly people

also often
great

forgetful of very

recent

events, while recalling with

This fact is no vividness the experiences of childhood. doubt due to the loss of plasticity in the brain for new impressions.
The
. . .

Conditions
would
seem

of

Good

Memory.
upon

"

"A

good memory
rapidity of

to depend

(1) ease and

acquirement,

(2)

permanency

of retention, and
promptly

(3)

the

ability to recall information

wanted. These

and accurately when

act act

results clearly involve

of impression,

(b) the
The

process

(a) the original of retention, and (c) the

and
the
act

of recollection.
recollection
are

original impression
our

of

under

immediate

control.

The

process

a stimulation is given, depends the upon of retention, once brain tissues, whose condition we improve only indirectly can by giving ourselves healthful habits and hygienic
' '

surroundings.

So far

as

concerns

the highest

degree

the original act of impression, it is in is to be accurate essential, if memory

centrati and tenacious, that there shall be the greatest possible contion of attention. There can be no reasonable questhat the variations in the efficiency of the memories of ent different individuals are largely occasioned by their differpowers
or

habits of concentrated
attention naturally

attending^ which

We

give

concentrated

to things

interest

MEMORY
us

147

and to things which are emotionally degree the power through also to some
and resolution to focalize our

exciting.

We

have

sheer effort of will attention for a time even upon

nor

which subjects
The

are

per

se
a

neither interesting

exciting.

attention given to

student V work
or

considerable part of the ordinary is likely to have in it something of this more

of
one's our

less heroic mastery

mind,

vastly easier to attend

where
reason

it is obviously interest is sincerely enlisted,

a

but

and pedagogical
as

it is for this
theory
to appeal

has

littleof modern insisted that education be so organized

that not
stage to the natural

at each

interests

of the average
The

boy

and

girl.
can one

original impression
to
a more

sometimes
sense
avenue,

be augmented
as

by
for

appealing
example,

than

when,

word
a

Chinese

secure

is spelled out loud and also written. The form of intensified attention by reading

their lessons aloud.

Impressions

can

obviously

be made
must

much

deeper

by repetition, and

for materials which

be mastered verbatim continued repetition will practically however tedious the process. always bring success,
Much
more

important

in retaining

an

impression

is the

fact with other logically related facts. association of one A date in history which is in this way knit up with a great

sequent of antecedent circumstances and a similar set of subevents, becomes part of an of organized system ideas and is not likely to- be lost, unless the entire group
group to which

it belongs disappears.

to minimize side, anything which serves from disturbing Freedom distraction will be helpful. draughts, from uncomfortable chairs, from noises, from is of signal importance. unduly interesting scenes,

On

the negative

It is of

course

evident that while the points touched

upon

148

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

in the last few paragraphs all relate to the matter of securing desirable original impressions, the practical consequences for the memory process are to be found at the
moment

of recall. In this connection it will be remembered that, earlier in the chapter, in discussing the process of learning and the connected process of forgetting, the significan for retention of
recency

of

stimulation

was

is be readily commanded likely to be more sions serviceable in securing tenacious impresthan the immediate practical application of any item

pointed out. No single procedure

which

can

of information

which

has been memorized.

Obviously the

special kind of application will depend upon the character It may be something relating to the of the information.
in the it should be embodied actual manipulation of the tools. It may have to do with stration If so, it should be put into immediate demongeometry.
use

of tools, in which

case

If of a more with models or drawings. character, it may at least be discussed or embodied

abstract in some

It is of much less consequence what special written form. is made of it, although this is important, than that it use The conception which get prompt application somewhere.
was

introduced
us

in the opening
exactly mental

chapters of the book would

a

lead
we

to

expect
our

such

result

as

this, because

saw

that all

processes take their rise out of

conditions of motor control, and it is therefore natural to we expect that the best results will be obtained wherever realize the translation of sensory and ideational processes
into effective motor activities., An interesting question is gested Transfer of Training. sugin one subat this point. Does training the memory ject improve the memory ? Until a process for all
"

subjects

MEMORY

149

few years
question

ago

almost
a

everyone

would

have

answered

this

with

vigorous

experiments,
to
an

however,

of the first initiated to investigate the facts led affirmative. More

Some

equally positive denial.

seem

careful and exhaustive

experiments

to show

training secured is greatest for

in any
closely

that the general value of memory special field,e.g., language study,

similar

subjectmatter,

that

it

diminishes rapidly for subject more rematter mote and more in character, but that some effect is traceable in practically The same thing holds any other task undertaken.
for other kinds of training, e.g., muscular sometimes learned
more

encounters

to

speak

one

negative transfer. foreign language may

a

skill,where A man who

even

one

has

find it

to learn difficult

than he would

second of very different structure, have, had he not learned the first. In general,

however, any
seems

systematic, controlled discipline of attention likely to leave behind some positive benefit for of intellectual work,
principle.

other forms

and

memory

is

no

exception

to the general

Improvement

of Retention

been pointed out the brain and nervous

and Recall." It has already that retention is primarily a matter of

system,as

over

which

we our

have

only
a

such indirect control

measure

is represented

by

ability in

to gain and

maintain
securing

has been said about

conditions of health. What effective original impressions

is to be said about recall itself. To be most effective, it usually requires conditions of high concentration of attention.1 If baffled at any point, it must comprises most
of what
common curious exception to the general rule is found in the not unThe more forgotten to name. a trying recall experience of be directed to some tries, the less one If the mind one succeeds. These more back the name comes ado. without other matter, often in the due blockage to temporary are cases synaptic conprobably
1

150

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

show

itself flexible and

alert to utilize every

are

trail of suggestion,

to neglect quickly those which

to follow relentlessly those which

promise

unfruitful, and If we success.

have

built up
our

our

material

on

well organized

lines,

we

shall find
memory

memories which has never

commonly

serving

been

subjected

well; but a to persistent discipline

us

is always
to supply

likely to prove

ing treacherous, both in fail-

wholly be remarked In this general connection it may that hypnosis gives us evidence that normal recall has access to less memory very much material than is actually preserved in the brain.

that which is needed and in often presenting fictitiousmaterial as fact.

In hypnotic

sleep it is found
are

possible to tap

reservoirs of memory A

rough

analogy

the supernormal
some

ordinarily closely sealed. to this situation is perhaps afforded by power muscular evinced in mania and
nervous

which

other forms

of

disease, when

the

nervous

and

violent muscular systems are often forced to a far more discharge of energy than usual. Mnemonic Systems. Certain readers will have seen
"

training, and will advertisements of systems of memory wish to know something of their value. It is impossible to
enter fully upon

the matter

here.
as

Sufficeit to say that in

have

addition to such
the most

considerations

been

already

rehearsed

successful systems

exploit the creation of

means

great varieties of arbitrary association, by

one

may

pass from
may

one

fact to another.
on a

of which list of forty or

fifty words
virtue

thus be memorized them

so as

single reading by

of arranging

to

exploit such

associa-

nections in the brain, of the character, perhaps, of passing fatigue. Effort of attention only aggravates the inhibitions, which generally time. themselves a pass away after of

MEMORY

151

tions.
point.

Four
House
"

or

five words
chimney
"

will
"

serve

to
"

illustrate the
cigar
"

smoke

tobacco

Cuba
user

"

Spain

"

King.
a

Other systems

memorize
as

very

begin by obliging the elaborate framework, which then by

means

to

serves

the rack upon

are

which

of these arbitrary associations

It may

all specific facts to be remembered.1 be said in general of systems of this kind hung

that

for but
are

some
as

very

limited purposes
thorough

they may

be of real value,

bases for any

development

distinctly less useful than an assuming equal investment of training.

has

they of memory have described the methods we

of time and

energy

in the process
"

a occasion to remember great many unrelated like the street addresses large a One numbers, of group of people. facilitate feat first by "form," a a may greatly such memorising in which each digit is connected with a consonant, e.g.,the 1 with t, 2 with 1, 3 with d, etc. is to The next step a make word easily is to be remembered, in by the person whose suggested number Mr. in For letters these occur which example, shall proper order. is tall. The word is 122, Mr. Smith tall in the Smith's number for 122, form the are means vowels neglected." number

Suppose

one

CHAPTER

IX

IMAGINATION

At
upon

the
man's

outset of the previous

backward
time. We

commented remarkable capacity to look either forward or far beyond the limits of the present moment of
then described certain important general aspects

chapter,

we

Now we must turn to a discussion of a more of memory. intimate kind regarding the psychological material employed in the memory This undertaking will be process.

found
mental

to

lead naturally
we

to

study

of imagination,

the

device by which
the
an

anticipate the future. of Recall. of memory

"

Imagery
we
us

Medium

We

have

seen

that for

possess
as

organic form

which

preserves

reflex and instinctive acts, certain useful adjustments time in the remote ancestors acquired at some which our has relatively littleof past. Much of this type of memory
now

the psychological
largely made
up

in it.

Conscious memory

is very

of imagery, experience
on

that is to say, of the reinstatement

of sensory
at
a

in ideational form.

Looking

book lying
to

attempting
most

see

the table, and then closing the eyes and it mentally as it was before, a moment

in ing produca mental visual picture of the book, which for many of them possesses considerable fidelity of detail, both as regards color and form, and which for others, although
people succeed with reasonable promptness
vaguer

and less distinct than the original, is stillunequivocally have Interesting experiments visual in character.
152

IMAGINATION

153

shown images

that
out

some

persons

are

able to

these project them

may

visual

into space
to

and

hold them comparing

before the attention

with
actually
convince

fixedly enough
present

permit

physical

objects. The

reader
or

readily

himself

projection,

by trial whether and if so, in what

not

he

can

achieve this

manner

the
seen.

images

thus

differ from the objects actually projected

Similarly, if
individuals
tune
are

melody be played upon the piano, many ' hear the thereafter to able immediately
the head.
'

running

through

The

tonal quality of this

persons perfectly experience is for many as unmistakable, and it involves what psychologists know It is quite likely to be combined with auditory imagery.

secondary

mental

more

or

less definite throat and

lip movements,

such

as

be used in singing or whistling. Practically every in this way be repeated in the form of sensation may imagery, although there is very great variety among viduals indiwould

form.
or

two
or

or one another regards their ability to command Certain persons have a marked preference for one be quite lacking in varieties of images, and may

as

some

all of the others. the kinaesthetic

Generally speaking, vision, hearing,

senses
l

and

are

most

sented. richly repre-

The

cutaneous

group,

together with certain organic sensations,

next,

probably comes for last place.

In
all
cases we

with

smell

and

taste

competing

of detailed revival of past

make
use

experience

in

memory,
1

of

one

or

another

variety of these
images
are ever

psychologists doubt whether experienced, because they believe that

results

Some

kinaesthetic

to secure every attempt it may be, of the in the contraction, slight though kinaesthetic sensation. muscles, thus arousing

them
corresponding

154

AN
as

INTRODUCTION
means

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

images

the

particular event or however, that we necessarily recall events in sense quality to the nature
sensory

reinstate mentally the which we fact to be recalled. This does not mean,

by

by images

correspondi

of the original
case.

experience, the memory

although

this is often the

For

back in come may of a street scene the form of visual images, but this is not inevitable and for persons who have but little control over visual images, some be employed. ably Probother type of imaginal material may
example,

substitute imagery is linguistic; that is bring back in the form of words, facts and to say, one may events which may originally have teen visually experienced. In this case the words are apt to be embodied in
the commonest

auditory
movements two
are

imagery,

or

in the form

of the throat, tongue,

of motor images of the The and lips in speaking.

with most persons regularly conjoined.This conjuncti is a natural expression of the law of habit, much inaswhen
we
an

as

speak,

we

necessarily hear

our

own

voices

and the
occurs

so

intimate association between the motor and Sometimes the recall auditory linguistic elements. in the form of nascent spoken words. We 'talk to
set up
as

of revival. Again, the memory may consist almost wholly in assuming the motor attitudes to discuss we come of the remembered experience. When reasoning processes, we shall have occasion to describe in
ourselves' the method
greater
we use

detail
one

some

of these substitute devices by

which

kind of mental material to represent another. It should also be added that some psychologists believe that they recall events by 'pure thoughts' having no imagery and
no

elements about them. The present writer thinks the evidence for these imageless memories unconvinc especially where any attempt is made to recall
sensory
or

motor

IMAGINATION

155

precise details. It must

our

not

be forgotten, however,
for any
purpose

that

volves whatever inour apprehension of its meaning, and it is generally form of the the meaning and not the particular sensuous practical
use

of imagery

is significant and important. Relation of Imagery to Anticipation and Imagination All that has been said about the use in General. of imagery for the purposes of recall is equally true of the use which
"

imagery

of anticipation. When which we make of it for purposes look forward in making a plan, we we pose employ for the purmental imagery of one kind or another. Many people
"

and

the reader
true
a

can

readily
own

assure

himself
"

as

to whether
an

this be

in his

experience

in formulating drawing
upon

itinerary for

find journey,

tkemselves

their

visual imagery,
the
scenes

by

means

of which

they portray
to

to themselves

which

l^eyexpect

behold it is
a

several stages of their progress.

Again,

and the familiar

which, if confronted with the necessity of deciding between conflicting lines of conduct, has recourse to a sort of mental debate in which auditory

form

of mental

organization

and

motor

language

imagery

is drawn

upon

and

first one
so
a

This often goes side and then the other is defended. to be purely imaginal that it ceases but actual enunciation. Perhaps
the most

far

pressed and^Pbomessup-

which the ordinary in the dream. In waking

to be
sure

unequivocal individual

instance of imagery with in contact is found comes

persons

life many
have
any

find it difficult
at all.

whether

they

images

But

in

the dream and

most

everybody
persons

acknowledges the presence of imagery can readily describe it. In the more
seems

exciting dreams
to

the vividness of the experience

quently fre-

exceed

that

of ordinary

waking

perceptions.

156

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

reader who finds it difficult quickly to identify his images, turn to his recollection of dreams.

We

suggest, therefore, that any

The

term

imagination

is apt, like the connected

persons

terms
unreal

fancy and fantasy, to suggest to many Of course, forms of experience. which this implication of the term is
speak

wholly
a sense

there is

in
we

as when justified,

But ailments, or of castles in Spain. of imaginary this is a very small part of the psychological story. Imagination, which is simply a general term to cover our use of imagery, is obviously one of the basic realitiesof our

by which we remember the past and anticipate the future could be nothing else. The fact that we also use it occasionally to up fiction
mental

life. The

chief

means

conjure
to
some

in

no

way

lessens its essential importance.

Ideas

and

Images.
our
a

"

on Beforeggoing

of the

details regarding
well to dwell for
connection

methods
moment

of using imagery, it will be the term idea and its upon

with the term image. One of the difficulties which the beginning student psychology encounters arises from the fact that in common
language
we

of

speak of recalling ideas, or of having ideas about the future, while we say nothing at all about images. Nevertheless is entirely justithe psychological usage fiable,

and
clear.

brief explanation

will make

the

matter

When
which
we

we are

speak

the ideas in of understanding reading, or in an address to which that

we

a we

book
are

listening,

we

imply

that which is written or been thinking about a we tion often describe the situasubject, ' by saying that certain ideas have been running in our

the meaning of apprehend Similarly, when we have spoken.

IMAGINATION

157

In neither of these cases do we have any occasion less to emphasize, the special imagery to remark, and much minds have been filled in the process of with which our

minds.'

following But
upon

or
a

developing

the particular

meaning

involved.

closer scrutiny
a

find that to
constant
an

greater
one or

use

of

of the actual situation, we shall less degree we have been making or another form of imagery, often with
of sensations arising from be used as carriers of may
when
our

appreciable

admixture

motor

attitudes, which
"

our

meaning

e.g., the attitude of expectancy

thinking

about

an

approaching

event.

Image

like sensation and

mental

perception, are, states, but one and the

idea somewhat diftherefore, not two ferent and

same,

described
texture

now

from
now

the point of view of particular sensory from that of organization and meaning. the

and
wish

If

we

to

emphasize

fact of

sensuous

auditory, visual, or whatever, we use is the important meaning of the imagery

composition, whether the term image ; if the

matter

and

the

we use the may special sensory texture is unimportant, idea. For ordinary purposes, the latter is nearly term

always

the significant matter,

and

consequently

we

tend to

overlook its actual basis in

sense

perception

or

in imagery.

But

when

we

take the psychological

quite essential to note and in which the idea or meaning is embodied.

comes point of view, it bedescribe the special form

With
we

this in speak

mind,

we we

may
are

always

understand

that when

of

ideas

referring to the meaning

that

but
imagery
A
very

in the particular

tions, of images or percepimmediate context the

is unimportant.
common

and
of

fundamental
as

distinction, which

is

sometimes

thought

distinction between

memory

substantially equivalent to the itself and imagination, is that

158

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

between

the

productive

and

the

reproductive

forms

of

imagination.1 Reproductive Imagination.

"

In

so

far

as

an

image

cedent other antesubstantially copies previous sensation or some image, it would be designated as reproductive. The involves some such direct and unmodifie usual notion of memory recurrence of an original experience. As a matter

absolutely literal a mere sense copy of a previous experience. Differences of detail,to mention only a single point, are almost invariably Nevertheless, were to compare total the sum we present.
of fact, probably
no

image

is ever

in any

of

our
so

images

many

should find closely resembling the sensory originals from which

with
our

past

experience,

we

they

as should naturally regard them images are clearly comcopies. On the other hand, many bination originals, while in the case of still of two or more find it practically impossible to trace their others we

spring,

that

we

sources.

clearly involves reproductive memory verbatim imagery, but as has been intimated earlier in the chapter,
we

All

may

in any

materials which would not vicarious memory It is thus quite be called reproductive. usual sense
use

possible to recall an event, such as an automobile trip, largely through agery, the medium word imof. auditory-motor impressive events despite the fact that the most
which
now

come

back

visual character.

into the mind were Imagery used in this way

themselves

of

not evidently can-

be said in any proper sense to copy the original experience as visual imagery perhaps might do. It is rather symbolic in character, it represents, or stands for, an experience
1

which

in its sensory

texture
on

was

quite different

See James'

definition of memory

page

137.

IMAGINATION

159

from

the imagery imaginal

almost
or

employed
channel

in its recall. Words, recalled,

are,

through

whatever

in the nature
as
concerns

of
the

the

case,

invariably symbolic
events
to which

so

far

acts, objects,

they refer.

Thus

the word

it be seen 'dog,' whether heard or spoken, whether it or into the mind as a sensorial or an imaginal process, come bears no more resemblance to the actual animal so named,
than

it does to any

other

whatsoever. object

It is

mere

symbol

and
will

the French
serve

word,

chien,
as

or

the German

word,

Hund,

the purpose

quite

bears the remotest

Productive

resemblance Imagination. Productive

"

well, although neither to the English word.

imagination

is

obviously the form which we employ for anticipating the future and for freeing ourselves from a merely slavish It goes without saying that adherence to past experience. inventions, like great works great scientific the
powers

of

constructive
may

of art, rest upon imagination. The actual kind whatever,

although

imagery
certain

employed

be of any
more

significant than others for particular arts, e.g., visual images for painting and is not so What sculpture, auditory and motor for music.
are

forms

obviously

clear, but nevertheless

equally true, is that all constructive

thinking, from

the most

practical to the most

theoretical, This
only

involves the utilization of productive imagination. The in a later chapter. matter will be touched upon qualification which
to

the

generally

needs to be imposed at this point relates accepted fact that practical results of
occasionally arise
as

crucial consequence

the outcome

of

brain processes represented

The

in the cerebrum which are not necessarily in the field of conscious imagination at all.
in the mental

results, but not the process

about, appear

by which they are brought field. The sudden flashes of

160

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

insight, the solution of problems temporarily given up and forgotten, are illustrations of the sort of thing referred to. of the principles determining the sequence of the successive links in a chain of thoughts images. This is a problem which has interested every or
It remains
to examine
some

generation
present

of psychologists, from
of Ideas. That

Aristotle down

to

the

time. Association been

"

The
any

reason

connected
so

tend to hang mind

and

together,

with that if

one one

ideas which have for another in the past

presents

itselfto the

the others tend to

again

with it, has attracted again the attention of even superficial observers. In
come

like fashion the tendencies of ideas to suggest others which resemble them has repeatedly been noticed. Psychologist! have tried on the one hand to analyze and describe all the
actual principles which thus unite ideas, and on the other to ascertain if possible the causes bringing these results to We briefly on both aspects of the pass. shall comment

situation. The dominant

tendency

today is to seek for

an

tation interpre-

and

of association in terms of the activity of the brain We have already commented nervous system. upon
that retention is primarily
a

the view
a

tion, physiological funcAs

nervous

of the nervous is generated in the sense

property

system. organ

ment exciteof
one

by

stimulus

or

another

nervous

kind, it is passed forward through the central in the system until finally it makes its appearance
movement.
nervous

field of muscular by such a

upon

The

precise pathway will of

course

traversed

impulse

depend
especially in contact

the permeability

of the chains of
one

neurones, comes

at the synaptic

junctions where
Thus
a

neurone

with another.

stimulus

upon

the skin of the

IMAGINATION

161

hand
a

may

be immediately

reflex impulse
up

transmitted in
a

moving into the cerebral cortex, thence to reappear of the entire body.
upon

in the spinal cord into the hand ; or the impulse may be

converted

movement

Which
the

quences of these conse-

follows will depend

synapses,

resistance at

the

and

this resistance, other things

has

equal, will be

low

if the pathway

been

frequently

used

before. In

other words, previously established habits will be influential

in determining Presumably
course
a

what the

shall
same

occur.

principles through

which
the

determine
centers

the
to

of

sensory

impulse

nervous

muscle,

control the action of the cerebral cortex

when

thinking of any
the
nervous

kind is in progress.

It is quite certain that

where

will tend to flow in the direction the synaptic resistance is lowest. Clearly a considerable enter in to determine these number of factors may
currents

rones resistances^ For instance, if an extensive system of neuis already in an excited condition, the resistance in is likely to be lower than in an inactive such a system

Again, there is good reason to believe that a chain dition of neurones which has been recently excited presents a conof lowered resistance relatively to other chains which have been more remotely stimulated. Again, the evidence
system^

is entirely conclusive excited, tends to take

that
on
an

such

almost

chain, if repeatedly reflex character. All

these considerations and some others can be translated into psychological terms of imagery and ideas, and this we may at once proceed to do. Let it not be forgotten, however,
that these principles
were

first worked
More

out

by

a
a

study

of

the

strictly mental

processes.

recently

certain

amount

and

of direct neurological evidence has been gathered, present day tendencies, as stated above, favor a rec-

162

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
as

ognition of the neural

principles

basic for

an

understanding

of the temporal order taken by thoughts. All the principles Association and the Law of Habit.
"

be considered as in one way or another of expressions of the general law of habit. Frequency connection is the most obvious instance of the principle. Ideas which have been frequently united tend to recall

of association may

one

another

at the

expense

thoughts.

The

date 1492
an

of less frequently connected is in this way associated with

experience may
elements The
serve

Columbus.
permanently

Intensity in
together
never

to bind

psychological
one

that

otherwise

would

suggest

another.

thoughts

of

the several moments

escape

of

very

terrifying experience, e.g.,

thus become
a

from

sinking ship, may the recency

permanently

fused.

Again,

of

may conjunction

bring

it

about that the train of ideas reflectsthis connection, rather frequent, and even than others which have been more some
which
may

have

been

more

intense.
were

Evidently

these three factors,if they

ences the only influto

at work,

might
case

make what

it substantially impossible associations should

predict in

given

actually

dominate, because it might well occur that a particular idea have been frequently connected with h, recently a should connected
with

with d. that the idea

succeeds
a
a

time vividly conremote and at some nected Synaptic conditions would therefore permit
c,

should lead to b, c,
upon
no

or

d.

Which

one

actually

will depend
we

the momentary
means

condition

the brain, which

have

it is clear enough

of determining. mined that the sequence of ideas is detera

of time, Mean-

if we are not in by perfectly definite causes, even position to state in a given case justwhat they are. Undoubtedly
among

the

most

important

determining

IMAGINATION

163
or

factors

are

our

interests,temporary

permanent,

and
with

our

emotional exciting
or

mood.

If

our

minds

are

preoccupied

some

entertaining

train of thought,

it is practically

impossible for ideas connected with wholly different topics to arise. Similarly if we in the clutch of any strong are emotion, only such ideas
get
a
as can are

relevant

to its

course

can

hearing,
at all.

or

indeed,

reach the field of consciousness

On
of
an

emotion

or

the side of the brain the presence of an active interest involves the activity of

considerable
systems.

groups

of

neurones

belonging

to

connected

of association would that the- succession of ideas one

No account

be correct which
upon

implied

another

explained in terms of single ideas. For that idea " follows idea a is probably never

could be example, the fact

completely
to

be accounted
all ordinary

for by the presence

of

alone.

Certainly in

instances the appearance

entire context amid which a appears. brings up an entirely different group

occurs

of " is due to the Thus the idea wood of associates when it

words
thing. The have

nection with the search for fuel and in conwith an examination of furniture. The memory of instances of the same kind of affords innumerable in connection

Association
more

of Similars.

"

Few

forms

attracted significant for resemblance,

or

attention, and thought

perhaps

of association is more none

than

human

processes,

that

of

ogy older writers on psycholused to group the various forms of association under the headings contiguity in space and time, similarity, contrast, cause, and effect. The reader will readily recognize that
we

similarity. The

have

already
some

in substance
extent

dealt with
cause

the

case

of

contiguity and to

with that of

and effect.

164

AN
our

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

original comments upon association were cited instances in which ideas which had previously occurred together, or in immediate succession, tended to recall one
another.

In

Associations involving contrast, e.g., black-white, large-small, etc., are closely related to the cases tiguity of conand
we

shall not pause

must

to discuss them, to

but

few

further words

be devoted

associations involving

similarity. It is in this type of associative sequence that we break most completely with past experience and achieve freshness and originality in the order thought.

seem

to
to
our

seem

of

It has often been said, and probably with much truth, that it is our wide and subtle use of this kind of

associative nexus which marks Ideas which from the animals. though they have another, even
way

us

off most

unequivocally
recall
one

are

similar may

never a

before been in any

process.

immediately

conjoinedin
have

thought

The

resuscitation of ideas which experience

been contiguous

in previous

seems

affords an obvious illustration of the operation of the law of habit, but the association of similars at firstsight to violate this principle absolutely. An
or

instance

two

of the type of thing involved may

profitably

be cited.
When
whom
we

we

are

walking
to be
a

on

the street,

we

may

pass

person
at
once

know

stranger,

feel resembles that of an are we able to recall and identify the suggested individual, but in be quite at a loss thus to place the other instances we may
resemblance.
as

but whose face we Sometimes acquaintance.

In such circumstances

the order of events

is
of

follows:
or

(1) perception

of stranger,

(2) feeling
some-

familiarity
person.

resemblance, The third step is, as

(3)
we

thought have

of the suggested

justremarked,

IMAGINATION

165

times wanting.
may
occur

Just the
an

same or
an

sort of sequence

of events
a

when

idea

image,

rather

than

perceived

initiates the object,

type

of

ease

train of associations. Another is represented by having idea succeed one

we then notice a similarity another in the mind, whereupon For example, while looking at a painting, between them. into the mind, and the memory of another suddenly comes

at
case

once

we

remark

their similarity to

one

another.

In this

the appreciation

of similarity occurs pletion afterthe comof the association, instead of as a preliminary step

in the process.
The
neural

explanation

which

is

now

generally

accepted

for associations of the similarity type

that thoughts

which
at

resemble
some

involves the supposition one another involve

have ments. identical ele-

brain

processes

which

point

This
one

means we

that if two

individuals really resemble

them, employ
to
some

another

shall, in perceiving
nervous

extent

identical
one

pathways.

Consequently,
experienced, the
same

when

the idea of
processes

of them

is again in

the brain
as

involved

will be

part

those

brought

of the second comes into the mind. There will thus be the possibility, from the neural point of view, that one of these brain systems may,
when such
a

into action when

the thought

active, suddenly
process
seems

stir up the other. Strictlyspeaking, to involve a departure from the usual

activity, but it clearly frees
that
ever,
us

habitual type

of

nervous

from

the

thoughts

of admitting is frequently, if indeed,

necessity

the

succession

of

novel.
on

Some
always

connection
to

pletely altogether and comin previous experience is

this theory

be discerned

in associations of

ideas. All the great minds, especially those of the scientificand

166

AN

INTRODUCTION
are

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

artistickind,

apparently

marked

by

very

ment high developThis is

of the capacity
particularly true often in large
metaphors wholly

of -association of similars.

is of poets, the witchery of whose verse due to the subtle delicacy of measure the use of resemblance, in forms resting upon

foreign to the prosaic mind.

"

Widened
A

little, as

little breeze

when to creep between

yet his eyelids bids Zephyr

the fans

Of careless butterflies:"

Certain it is that the great constructive achievements of drastic demands the most make science and philosophy
upon

the mind

for

large

use

of this type
a

of association.

of association of similars characterizes the thinking of little In these children and persons with disordered minds. latter cases the associations are devoid of fundamental significan

It is also not

without

interest that

certain variety

lead to littleor no practical and in consequence depend largely on similarity assoresult. Wit and humor ciations,
with other words, the pun the great
as

perhaps

the lowest

form.

In

accomplishments

sense are

require not simply the use for the distinction between

really pregnant

intelligence of human of similarity, but a nice those forms of it which

are

and

those which
"

futile.
has

The
at
an

Training

of Imagery.

Attention

earlier point
vary
as

in the chapter

called viduals to the fact that indiover

been

regards their control

as

different kinds

of imagery
use

of

one

recognized

regards their native preferences in the It will be or another in their thinking. that within limits there may well be considerable and kind
in the

advantage

ability to

use

special kinds

of

IMAGINATION

167
sorts

imagery
The

in the solution of particular

of problems.
one can

question naturally arises, therefore, whether train imagery, and if so, how to go about it.

The
very

to show best experimental that a evidence seems of specific imagery may be considerable development to make
use

achieved by the voluntary attempt there be a reasonable body

of it, provided

One with. imagery by

simple

can

thus

by

very
one's

of it available to start little effort develop visual

Nobody
imagery

to solve self, for example, by means of such images. geometrical problems has as yet hit upon any reliable method for eliciting

compelling

substantially lacking. Owing to our ability to substitute one form for another, it is found very difficultto create conditions which in any

which

is at

the

outset

complete

way

compel

us

to

use

particular type.

interest in connection with this general to note that the forms of question of training imagery imagery which are preferred do not necessarily correspond It is not without
to the sensory

processes

which

are

preferred.

One

may,

for example, learn most easily by the ear, and stillmake little use learn most or one may of auditory imagery;

readily through the eye and yet rely but littleupon visual imagery for recall. After all, the great point is that whatever forms of imagery one employs, they shall be flexible and reliable.
Practice is the only
these ends.

road which

one

can

travel to

secure

In concluding

known

this chapter two curious groups of phenomena be mentioned. The first relating to imagery may as synaesthesia might just as properly have been
with perception.
the ordinary
person

mentioned in connection Synaesthesias. When

"

hears words

168

AN
or

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

spoken,
nantly
may

hears

musical

sounds, the perception

sense

is domi-

auditory, and while various other

experiences

be suggested by the sound, no one of them is in any But for certain persons the so vivid as the auditory. way sounds produce forthwith a consciousness of color. The
sometimes of sensory vividness. More often they But they come instantly and resemble imagery in texture. over, Moreblend with the sounds, and are native, not acquired.
colors
are

they

are

substantially constant,

the

same

shades

10

FIG. 49.

always

occurring

with

the

same are

tones

or

auditory-visual
other
senses
are

synaesthesias

the most

The words. frequent, but

involved, particularly taste. Number Forms. The second peculiarity has no single forms.' but is illustrated by the so-called 'number name
sometimes
"

Sir Francis
account

Galton gives

most

entertaining

and

tive instruc-

of them Inquiries into Human graphic

mental

and of the synaesthesias in his Faculty. form is a The number

picture

(seeFig. 49) used by its possessor

The

to exhibit numerical

relations.

numbers and
are

are

mentally

in projected

sort of visual frame

always

thought

IMAGINATION

169
are

of in

this way.

The

months

of the year

often placed

in such forms, although of quite different shape, and many tendency might be cited. The other instances of the same number
forms, however, by their amazing variety, intricacy,

in childhood present the appearance and early appearance not invented or consciously of being natural phenomena, tion adopted, while most of the others suggest artificialinven-

for amusement,
or

the adoption
an

of forms

actually

seen,

perhaps

involve

form,

something

effort to render concrete abstract not to be otherwise

in visual
so

easily

memorized.

CHAPTER

REASONING
in

Having

analyzed

separately

and

some

detail several
processes, e.g.,
we

of the main

divisions of

mental adjustive and

sensation, perception,
now

memory,

imagination,

must

examine

the concrete
are

processes

which

all of these merely

involved.

of actual thinking, in Practical thinking is never

or one

processes or imaginings of memory perceivings taken singly. It implicates all of them in

comprised

way

or

another^
as

Adjustment
chapters

Problem
we

Solving.
at
some

"

In

the

opening
upon process

of the book,

dwelt

length
a

the

of organic life/ and intelligence as We must now return to that same adjustment..conception

of

conception

and

it with the process1 of thinking, which is for problem solving. We shall turn first to another name a scrutiny of certain typical forms of problems front which conin ordinary life, and then inquire what are the us
connect/

usual varieties of conscious procedure such difficulties.

in meeting

masand tering

The
are

persistent kinds of problems connected with the immediate maintenance of life. In

earliest and

the most

infancy the gratification of hunger and thirst are cared for almost wholly by reflex activities, which, thanks to parental

supervision, make practically no tax upon the child's own intelligence^. A little later, however, there present themselves
great groups

of problems
no

connected with the control

REASONING

171

of the bodily muscles.

These

are

mastered
try

by

slow process

of 'trial and
of which
our
we

error'

(or 'try,

certain again,')
a

details

shall have

occasion to discuss

littlelater in
control.
at
once

account
over

of the development
we

of voluntary
may
come

Passing
to the

these achievements,

which confronts the child after he has of problem learned to walk and talk and exercise a reasonable control his movements. over
sort

The

earliest forms

are

undoubtedly

those which

involve

the child's other human

adjustmentto
beings.
He

his physical surroundings and to has to learn by actual experience

the size and the weight of objects ; to test his strength and endurance in terms of the resistance afforded by them; to learn their relations to
one

another.

With

human

beings,

he must

intricacies of deportment, and must of particular establish a nice discrimination for the prejudices individuals in a position to punish or reward him
master

the

for

success

or

failure in complying

with

their demands.
call for any

Problems
very

of these kinds do not

at the outset

elaborate processes of reflection. Life is cast in a decidedly experimental mold for the child at this stage. He cannot predict what will occur, and he is thrown back upon
an

actual test, for the making

of which

he has abundant

instinctive incentive. striking characteristic of the mental reaction of the child in this experimental process is his deeply rooted disposition to expect tnat both people and things will behave in the future
"

The

Primitive

Tendency

to

Generalize.

The

as

they have in the past.

He

is an

incorrigible generalizer.
teach

and

only the bitter fruits of experience

an

him

after

time to cultivate of both

man

edge attitude of skepticism, until his knowland beast can be relied upon for purposes

172

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

he is not unlike primitive of prediction. In this matter It will cost generations of scientific man when full grown. quate training to breed out this disposition to generalize on inade-

data.
Error ' Method in Thinking. Another and process is striking feature of the early types of adjustive 'trial their strong tendency toward the relatively random
*

Trial

"

and

error'

procedure!

which

will not open

littlechild confronted by is very likely to react, much as

a a

gate

dog

might, with violent assaults upon the impeding barrier and with littleor no attempt to discover and relieve the precise difficulty. Even
present
at
a are

later stage, when

more

themselves
there may

the problems which definitely intellectual in character,

same

be much

error

method

of arriving

trial and random In any event, at conclusions. of early

of this

practically all the

themselves

particular opened, in turn

a

childhood present as relatively simple, concrete issues, such as a cake to be secured, a particular door to be
problems
to be

particular parent
some

cajoled.The

solution is

apt to be
"

the trick is to
answer

relatively simple concrete act, and discover it. In familiar situations, the

may

the problem for it but to try

suggest

be given almost instantly after the nature of is recognized. In other cases' there is nothing
now

that solution which may this and now itself. There may be littleor no attempt to weigh
success an
or

the probable advance of

failure of any

of the suggestions in

actual test.

The result of this type of thinking is apt to be the tance, accepas a permanent mode of procedure, of the firstsolution
that
comes

to hand.
more

This may

by accident be the best

thus it
comes

solution, but

often it is not, and

out
a

about
an

that in carrying

definite reaction, the child, like

REASONING

173

animal,

may

incorporate

and

maintain

in it many

quite

useless elements.

In learning to write, for example, usually

is

type

of process

and

therefore under have been those we quite

carried out under favorable than more conditions much

which instruction,

discussing, children maintain indefinitely needless contortions of face and limb, contributin
at all to the elegance
or

nothing their chirography.

effectivenessof

Conception
the
cases

and

the

Analysis

of the Problem.

"

In all

thus

problem which upon him by the circumstances of the situation. Such problems are caused by the appearance of any obstacles in the path which he is following, and whether physical or mental,
they disclose at
once

far mentioned, we have assumed that the the child has to face is more or less imposed

their essential nature.

littlelater,

quite
which

different set of circumstances is encountered, in it becomes necessary firstto determine with exactness of the problem which is to be solved, to proceed to its solution. Social life is full

the real character and thereupon

One becomes aware that of experiences of this kind. for some reason things are not going welL undefined Before the cure can be applied, one must analyze the situation and determine, if possible, at what point the difficulty
is located.
In many
types

situation is encountered, a solution, one must first make the trouble.

the same of scientificproblem toward and before one can move

sure

of the real nature

of

identification of the character of the difficulty previous and plainly consists in connecting it with some familiar experience. Psychologists speak of this process as
This
'conceiving'
case

the

of many

In the situation in a particular way. purely intellectual problems this description

174

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO
cases

PSYCHOLOGY

where the situation is perception, as in the inspection of a primarily one of sense disabled machine where one wishes to discover the defect not seem and repair it, the location of the difficulty may

is appropriate

enough,

but in

so

naturally
character

to

the justify

term

conceiving.

Nevertheless essentially the

the
same,

of the process
may

is at bottom
as

and

we

neglect such differences

the wholly

ideational and
in Problem

arise between the partly perceptual forms.

"

conceive aright the difficultywith which one is confronted is,then, in a thinking process, the first essential step toward a solution. In certain very
come

Stages

Solving.

To

simple

types

almost

immediately, For

of problem, the solution may in a preas has been intimated ceding

a new

paragraph,
throw

instance,
to
us

door key

fails to

the lock.
a

It

occurs

that possibly it should be

withdrawn
works.

triflefrom
complex

the guard, whereupon

it instantly

In

more

problems
more

represented of
may

in almost all the

these would be serious reflective forms

(and

the thinking),

of the difficulty(which itselfbe secured only after much leads at once effort)
correct conception

after of association, to a survey of one another of the ideas which are suggested as possible solutions. The thought has commonly process, then, which
the
process

by

been

called reasoning,

involves

as

its first two

stages

(a) the correct concept of the problem or difficulty,and (b) the securing, by means of association, of an idea which
will meet
us

the difficulty. Evidently

come

the thought
a

which

gives

the solution may

only after

long process, in which

away
as

many

ideas offer themselves and are turned This process of selection and

fective. inefupon

rests rejection

psychological activity which designated judgment.

psychologists have generally

REASONING

175

final step which

is involved

in

an

entirely complete
consists in the
as

process

of reasoning of
one's

is known

as

proof, and

organization
the

evidence in such fashion of the solution upon

upon

to establish
one

correctness

which

has

pitched.
matter moment to every
a

certain phases of this littlelater in the chapter. Let us return for a shall comment
to consider the first two

We

stages which

are

peculiar

~bona
Nature

fidethinking
of the

process*
"

The
process

Concept.

If

we

stop

thought
confronted

and

examine

that part

with a concept, we consists in some significant image for instance, in

use
a
'

of it in which we are shall find that commonly

or

this

group
one

geometrical
'

problem,
persons

If, of images. has occasion to

the concept

triangle, many
a

arises in the mind

a

more

or

will find that there less distinct visual image of

process to represent

triangle, which

serves

in the thought
to

the

relations peculiar

that

special geometrical

form.

Other kinds of or relations may also be conceptually objects edly symbolized by other forms of visual imagery. But undoubtfar the most
thought
or

frequent

type

of imagery images

processes

is linguistic. Such
motor,

visual

or

and

the apparently

for employed be tory may audiforms motor tions, enuncia-

may

in fact be actual, though and

not

partly suppressed, all. The

real images

at

special sensorial

form is entirely indifferent,but the use of words as thought indifferent, as a moment's considerati material is by no means
will clearly disclose.

Words
the word,

as

the Material

of Thought. the

"

In the first place, the relation to

in distinction from

or object

it refers, is relatively free from the limitations of any one of dozens particularity. It can be used to cover

which

of particular instances without

to prejudice

its accuracy.

176

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

foundland applicable to the Newas to the poodle, to the terrier as to the hound, sequently Conto the dog seen today as to the one seen a year ago.
The

word

dog, for example,

is

as

the word image 'dog' (whatever sensorial form free from any disturbing it appears in) is measurably

limitations of particular animals

places.

or

particular times and

a

If
may

one

which

wishes, therefore, to have be used with great freedom

thought
a

symbol
term,

as

general

the advantages A

of the linguistic form

over

others

are

dent. evi-

reflection will also make clear that just this kind of generality in a concept is of the utmost value It serves in thinking. to represent the essential features
moment's
common

to all the

or objects,

all the relations, of

class

in

way

which

no

relations could so in attaching any desired particularity to

single instance of either the conveniently give. There is no

a

or objects

difficulty

linguistic image
"

by

of other modifying adverbs, and the like.

Again,

the

use

word-forms between
important

adjectives,
men

the fact that communication chiefly in the form of words has an the matter.
are

goes

on on

bearing

To

be

sure

gestures,

the most

highly developed
as

of which spoken words form, are also employed for

animals.
By using guage lan-

this purpose,
as

they

are

among

the material of thought we carry on our individual thinking in the same medium which we use to communicate
our

ideas to others.
our

Were

this not the

case

we

should have
medium
to make

to translate

thought

to the other. constant

use

We
of two

back and forth from one should be obliged, as it were,

languages,
one

for thinking

and

one

for communicating.

When

we

remark

the overwhelming

preponderance of social interests and social relations in lives, the advantage of the use our of a single medium

REASONING

177

for

both

of

these

purposes

is obvious.
the

Indeed,
process not

some

psychologists
out

maintain

that

thought

arises

of

social

situations

and

would

otherwise

appear.

Other
make

Materials
use

of Thought.

"

Many

people

apparently

large

of motor

these conceptual

attitudes and images for handling situations. To persons whose thinking is

it is hard to make
goes forward.

not cast in such terms,

clear in

justwhat
to the

materials such thought

But

to revert

illustration of the triangle, persons type of the motor would, instead of employing either visual or verbal material, find themselves tending perhaps to make the movements to trace the triangle, or simiof the hand necessary larly tending to follow with nascent movements of the head
or

eyes the outlines of the form.

In
motor,

any

case,

that

form

of imagery

(visual, auditory,
tends
to dominate

natural etc.,)

to the individual

his method

of thought.

Experiments
an

have

shown
use

sential with esone

conclusiveness that

individual may

type

for one kind of problem, and quite another of imagery The writer, for type for problems of a different sort. example, in trying to solve a geometrical problem without

inevitably falls back upon of pencil and paper visual imagery, constructing in his mind justsuch figures as he would at hand. actually draw if the materials were
the
use

But
some

in dealing with

consideration of guages lanacademic issue, e.g., the point at which modern best be introduced into the school curriculum, may problem
tend to take the form
There

involving

his thinking would language imagery.

would

be

of auditory-motor sort of mental debate

will
serve

carried

on.

Peculiarities of this kind

any

trate to illusabout

the difficultyof making

sweeping

statement

178

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

the

predominance

in

given

mind

of any

one

kind

of

imagery.
ideas are apt to move forward In actual thinking, our what forms rapidly that it is often difficultto be sure
material
are

so

being used. But a littleintrospective practice will readily identify them, especially if on" is dealing one processes in which select for examination
of thought

with very difficultissues where the progress is slow. It may Solving. in Problem Elements Non-Conscious
"

perhaps

be mentioned

at this point that

no

highly important
proper
sense
conscious

part of many

thinking processes is in
is cerebralistic, or

at all, but

physiological.

This

applies perhaps
next

more

to the stage of the mental

operations all.

to be mentioned,

but it is measurably

true of them

To

illustrate, one

problem, and one the brow is wrinkled,

all the external symptoms
one

is suddenly says: "Let me

confronted
think
a

by

difficult
upon where-

moment";

the breathing
are one

is checked, and

may

even

say that
so

those of profound tion, abstrac' is thinking hard.' During

-any strictly conscious
a

the whole

process,

far

as

concerns

process, the mind

vacuum

may

have been essentially

a

blank,
or

a mere one

and yet at the expiration of

to
come
a

moment

two

may

give utterance
or

there may

perfectly sane into the mind

solution of the lem, probgroup of ideas satisfactorily

meeting appropriate

the difficulty for which one then seeks thinkexpression. This kind of non-conscious ing

has probably led certain psychologists to the belief in There is no what they call 'imageless thought.'
to this phrase, provided

objection
meaning which is

it be not interpreted
awareness

as

that

we

have

form

of

of meanings

entirely devoid either of imaginal or of sensory bases. The present writer does not believe that there is any convincing

REASONING

179

evidence of this type of thing, whereas the subconscious brain process is frequently responsible for the solution of difficulties. Such solutions are reached both when asleep
and when
awake.

The extent to which form is a

is really carried of wide disagreement. subject thought

on

in unconscious But not a

ablest psychologists are disposed to urge not only that some of our thinking is unconscious, but also that practically all of it which is fundamentally significant goes of
our on

few

in this way.

It is easy for anyone

who

speaks

readily

to gain convincing

evidence that the particular words used to express a thought were often in no sense mentally anticipat The field of just prior to their actual use.
pathological
is full of instances tending to suggest the same general conclusion, i.e.,that large parts of our so-called thought processes are in no proper sense phenomena

definitelyconscious.
The
"

Use

of Relations,

Especially
stage
a

Similarity, in Thinking.
in
our

Arrived
and

at the second

reflective operations, of the

assuming has by

that

satisfactory concept
we

problems
mechanism

been
means

formed,

revert

to

the

associative

imagery the conceptual of which brings before us ideas to be scrutinized and tested as solutions This is the point at of the problem confronting us. which

If of similarity is encountered. we were confined to the use merely of ideas suggested by contiguity in previous time and place, the solution of any
the supreme value

given
our

problem
past

would

depend had

solely upon

whether

or

not

own

experience

chanced

to

anticipate this

special difficulty,so that the reexcitement of the previously as a associated ideas might serve solution in the present instance. Thanks to the use of similarity, as between either

180
or objects

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

relations, we are, however, enabled to transcend these limitations of particular time and place and to draw
upon

the entire
to any

resources

of

our

special space

and

life,without regard This simitime sequences. larity

previous of

link

(covering many

forms

enables relations)
by

us

by
one

an

essentially creative process to bring into context

with

another
even

portions of experiences

separated
us

months them

and

years
one

of time, and thus permits

another

to make

supplement

In

simple

problems,

in the solution of our difficulties. has been mentioned, as the mere

carry

appearance

of the crucial idea may This would

with

it

satisfactory

solution. problem,
such
as

be true, for example,

in any

that of certain puzzles, where

a

the solution But

consists in the discovery of

particular word.

in other

problems, and
then

there is often need another

for the selection of first one

of these into solution.
a

idea and

the combining the complete in many

significant whole, comprising type of thing is represented economic and in many

considerable
to
one

This problems,

mathematical

group

another must only

and political issues, where a relations of factors and their mutual In other words, there be kept in mind.
a

is not
ready,

need

in

complicated

reasoning

process

for

subtle associations, but a continuous is also indispensable until process of selection and rejection the finally successful combination is achieved.
profuse, and There is no made
royal road to
can

success

in this matter,

no

ready-

rules which

be learned

and

applied

forthwith.

Practice within a given field undoubtedly produces a certain experience furnishes the requisite skill,but unless one's ideas, there can be no solution of the problem; and
even

if the ideas

must

be

available, for successful thinking there certain dextrous control of the processes of
are

REASONING

181

choosing
cumbrous
The

and

rejecting.Otherwise
ineffective.
Element

the

thought

will be

and
Habit

in

Thought.

"

Thus
suggest

far,

our

analysis has been couched

in terms

which

the solving

of particular problems without regard to their bearing further problematic situations. As a matter of fact, upon in the processes of the simple organism, to which adjustive directed in the opening chapters the reader 's attention was of the book, as well as in the more complicated thought of human beings, the formation of habits of response is constantly in process. In the thought process this fact of

habit is reflected partly in the concept and partly in certain 'general principles' of which we make use. Attention was called at an earlier point to the intrinsic
organic
a

tendency

to repeat

on
on

the second

presentation

of

stimulus

the reaction made

its first appearance,

provided

this reaction had been satisfactory. This was spoken of as resulting in a generalizing tendency, and while there doubt exceptions, there is also no doubt that this is are no the usual rule. The concept may form of a psychological tends in its turn The
type
to

be regarded reaction, and definite form

as a

as as

the generalized such it

lead

to

of motor
to
a
us

response.

concept

table

serves

cue

generalized
an

of motor

adjustment. It
we

represents

for

objectin

whose

presence,

peculiarities,
e.g., write upon

it, serve classes of

vidual regardless of any trifling indido certain standard things, can food upon it, etc. The concepts
render objects
us

of all

common

similar service,

thing is true of the concepts of the more and the same The familiar relations, such as those of time and space. for certain concept above, the concept below, both stand
kinds of motor

adjustment.

The

concept

earlier

or

the

182

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

ment concept later similarly stand for a certain temporal arrangebe said that, behavior. In general it may of our

although

primarily in which

psychological

so

far
are

as

concerns

the

medium

they exist, concepts

bona

habits fide

and tend to express themselves eventually in motor forms. The same thing is true of general principles, e.g., water
will not
women,
more

rise above its source, etc. Indeed, the general

a

men

are

stronger

than

expanded Thus, the principle in accordance formula for conduct. ward with which, in a process of multiplication, one carries forthe left all but the right-hand digit in each partial product, is obviously a rule of procedure which

than

concept

principle is really little into a by verbal means

toward

rests upon

The

of the process of multiplying. tion general principle which formulates the observed rotaof planetary bodies in elliptical orbits is again an
the conception

could be called a concept almost as well as a general principle. Similarly the principle of gravity formulates the behavior of bodies in their mass relations to one another in a fashion which
expression

of

mode

of procedure

which

could

as

appropriately

be designated

concept

as

general

principle. general

Many

instances might

principles, taking them science or of practical life,but in each the

same

be cited of the use either from the range

case we

of

of should find

thing true.
the example
set by writers
on

Following
have reasoning

logic, psychologists their analyses

been wont
to give
as

in connection

with

of

some

attention to the two

processes known

respectively

induction and deduction. Without attempting to enter with any detail upon the problems thus presented, a few brief comments. we may venture
Thinking.
"

Inductive

Induction

is

name

for

the

REASONING process

183

by

which
we

we

arrive at such

those

which

have

general principles as The result, when just mentioned.

attained, evidently
or our

has the value

are a more

of

'habit' of thought
use

behavior, which we habits, in motor

then able to
or

much

as

we

do
at

less automatic

way,

and

least without the behavior

to

serious reflection. Thus, of physical and

we objects,

in thinking

about

do not find it necessary

of
unsus-

stop

speculate

upon

the tendency

to fall to the surface of the earth. This pended masses habit of theirs, which we take for refer to gravity, we granted whenever occasion demands.

There

are

various ways

in which

we

come

into possession

of these general principles. (1) Many plied of them are supto us by our elders, or by books, in the process of our formal education. (2) Others we come gradually to acquire for ourselves in
well represented
any way
a

sort of rough-and-tumble

mental

process

in the harsher

will cut, These ones are and that smooth agreeable to the touch. into genless promptly or more convert eralized experiences we have previously indicated, motor reactions as we
are time we very and at the same directly into intellectual terms as

special reflection on that hot objects will burn, that sharp

out experiences of life. Withlearn in this we 'the subject,

ones

apt

to translate them

principles to be used

when

needed in our thinking. (3) Differing from both these methods is another peculiar to the more abstract generalizations of the sciences. These
are

based upon

upon
a

more

elaborate trains of thought and much subtler inferences. The whole process involves the printo formulate and justify ciples purpose specific
much
more

involved, than methods

by which
we

is the

case

achieve

in either of the first two generalizations. Darwin's

184

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

in regard to establishment of the evolutionary hypothesis illustration of this higher form as an organic life may serve

of generalization. considerations

It would

take

us

too

far into logical

grounds on which the validity of scientificinductive inferences has been based and we must pass on to other matters. Deduction.
"

to attempt

to explain

the various

Over

against of habit

induction

which

represents

broadly

the process

formationin
represents
we

the region

of

thinking, stands deduction, which

the application have

as

of habits already established. After and demonstrated gravity,

any
we
can

lated formuthat of

such

general principle

at

once

infer deductively

the behavior

of

under specificconditions. A very specificset of masses ing large part of our practical thinking is directed to determinparticular principle or specific instance is to be brought.
the
consequences

the

concept

When

a which under this is determined,

follow almost

automatically.

Nowhere,

perhaps,

is this type in the

case

with than

frequently met more of procedure of moral issues. Here we often find

a

be Once we can particular act. perfectly clear that it is to be put under such a heading for our as 'lying' or the practical consequences 'stealing/

it difficultto classify

thinking
are

or

our

conduct

immediately

follow.
our

certain what

to apply, classification

until we thought is held

But

in suspense.

Combination
Thinking.
that
our
"

of Induction
a common

and

Deduction

in Practical

It is

thinking

deductive.

to suppose misapprehension is either exclusively inductive^ or exclusively In actual fact, practical thinking commonly

involves both types

admixture.

of process in somewhat of general

ones

intimate

We

make

use

principles
course

and

we

set about the forming

of

new

all in the

of the

REASONING
attempt to solve
are a

185

that

we

This does not mean overtly conscious of the intention to apply particular problem.
or

general

principle

to create

new
we

in dealing
carry
on

with

practical issues
our

but simply that do, in point of fact,

one,

parts of

thinking by way

of applying

concepts

and general principles, and other parts of it in such a fashion as to create the beginning of a new general principle,
or
a new

conception.

This

fact will be

readily

enough

if it is compared with the ing corresponduse motor of an already situation, where in making it to deal with a employ acquired habit like writing, we In so far as we solve this, we gain possesfresh problem. sion

appreciated

to

some

extent

of

a new

at

later time employ Reasoning

more

capacity, which we can in turn or less in the habitual way.

of

The

Powers

Animals.

"

In

concluding

the reasoning powers this chapter, a few words upon of brutes may be of interest. The writers of a generation ago disposed to contrast instinct with reasoning as two were

radically distinct and

Sometimes

they

urged

characteristics. essentially opposed that brutes were guided solely by although

at times under

instinct,whereas man, of instinct, was rational kind. Always, of animal behavior who but all animals

tion the domina-

chiefly controlled by motives of a however, there have been portrayers insisted that wild animals
to
some

in particular,
esses of proc-

extent, made
reason.

use

essentially like those of human are wholly free of dogs or

owners

Few

neighborhoods if their

cats, which,

be believed, evince at times all but superhuman intelligence. To be sure, these Nietszchean super-brutes have rarely been caught in the act by critical outsiders,
may

but their conduct is accepted more

soon or

neighborhood myth less uncritically at its face value.

passes into

and

186

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

It has been the ungracious observation the anecdotal

duty of contemporary to strip from the brute world

the previous

mental experimost

laurels which

generation

of had

accorded.

When

subjectedto

thorough-going

scientific

controlled conditions, it becomes quite certain that whatever may be true of the occasional genius among animals, at least the rank and file of those lower in

observation under

type than the apes solve their problems

are

in

no

sense

identical with

which those of reflective human

by methods

thought.

method to place the animal in

some

The

common

simple problem
as

such experiments is a situation which requires it to solve appropriate to its supposed capacities

of conducting

possible simulating the conditions with which it has to cope in its natural habitat. This problem is generally so arranged as to have the securing of food for example, its solution. This would mean, hinge upon and
closely
as

that

rats
a

and

mice

through

tortuous

be obliged to find their way set of paths to their food which they would

could not see, but the odor of which could readily reach Animals of all degrees of complexity, from the very them. simple marine animals, like amphioxus, up to the higher
quadrupeds and the anthropoid apes, including on the way both reptiles and birds, have been to experimental subjected investigation. A wholly unexpected wealth of
new

information

has been

accumulated as the result of studies of this kind, and our features of knowledge of animal instinct and of many animal behavior has been immeasurably enlarged. But at no upon point have we come mals conclusive evidence that anican

in any

definite way

in

problem

and

abstract the essential point then bring to bear upon it in the mind

REASONING

187
a

the fruits of experience,

experimental
a

as

can

human

being.

Under

conditions at least the animal method of ing solvpractical difficultyis substantially that of blind trial
All kinds of violent movements hither and
elsewhere,
yon,
are

and

error.
runs

made

the

animal

attacks the apparatus

here,

there, and

and

finally, as

the result merely

of

its exuberant
upon

muscular

the solution.
were are

activities,it succeeds in stumbling In a human being, even though the in

some

problem

solved the first time

such

manner,

that the solution could be repeated a second But not so with the animal. The time almost immediately.
the chances

shorter, or it may be longer. second trial may be somewhat In either case the ability to reach a solution with certainty requires
many

repetitions and

considerable
no

period evidence

of

time.

words, the animal gives the relation between really comprehending

other reached and the several steps necessary It would
never

In

the end

of to be

to attain it. to say

no

be too broad

statement

that animals

perceive relations. Indeed, it is

any

doubt

dangerous

to make

sweeping

statement

without
one

distinguishing the
For it goes

different genera without

apes

and species from

another.

saying that the adaptive

and of some is far higher than

intelligence of the higher like the elephant, of the other mammals,

that

of the reptilian and cretaceous But after making ences forms. due allowance for these differinside the brute kingdom, it still remains true that in his ability to analyze, to abstract, and to generalize, and to use language as an accessory to especially in his power
all these processes,
man so

far excels the animals important

particulars
one

as

to

render

his behavior

in many theirs.

essentially mean

different from in
a

Of

course

does not

statement

of this kind

to urge

any

radical discon-

188

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

child gives abundant its earlier years of behavior which is substantially identical with that of the animals. But one can allege that, considering behavior
as an

tinuity of development because the human man,

between

the higher

animals

and evidence in

expression
man

break between
than

of intelligence,the evolutionary and the animals is far greater

a

would

be suggested

by

To anatomical organization. differs in important particulars from

casual observation of their brain be sure, the human

even

the most
are

highly

developed animal
as

such ligence, would ever have suggested the gross disparities in intelwhich the study of behavior clearly discloses.
not

brain.

But

the differences

CHAPTER

XI

FEELING

Simple

Feelings.

"

In

our

descriptions thus
have

far of the
the

processes adjustive

of intelligence, we of which
we come

emphasized

sensations by

means

and world of physical objects

into contact with the to repthe ideas which serve resent the originals
a

these sensorial experiences when

present.

are

not

This procedure
group

has involved

temporary
was

neglect

of another

of factors of which
to which
we as

mention

made

at

the outset, and

must

now

return.

Psychologists

often refer to these

there
as are some

simple

serious

objections

feelings, and although to the term, it is perhaps

may

convenient as any other, and at least, be employed. When

sets up
a a

for the time being,

stimulus

falls upon

sense

organ,

it normally into
muscular

nervous
nervous

excitation which
system,

is then transmitted it issues again

to
as a

the central

whence

movement.

But

it is apt

occasion

other

consequences

besides those thus described.

to produce

It is likely immediately

either pleasurable
the
ear

or

painful results.
as

sound
or
as

thus striking upon

may

be sensed

agreeable
to which

disagreeable.

Secondarily, the movement

a

it gives rise may be followed by in their turn- agreeable

visual stimulates object it. If it be
are
a

sations, subsequent group of senThus, a disagreeable. or

is extended

the retina, and the hand

to grasp

thistle, or

burr, the disagreeable

consequences

likely to be
189

extremely

vivid.

Thus

it

190
comes

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

stimulaabout that from the very beginning sensory tions for the most part not indifferent, but already are

come

freighted with

favorable prejudices,
types

or

unfavorable,

to their repetition.

In

the life of the lower

of animals,

and

in the

experience
apparently
must

of the human
play
an

child, these psychological factors important part, and they extremely

therefore

human

In adult be examined care. with some ences, life,they become complicated with many other influso that the immediacy of their operation is screened littlechild the
or

or

lost. The

the animal

seek to repeat

pleasurable

will unhesitatingly stimulation as long as it

agreeable, and will similarly shrink from the painful being, on the other hand, stimulus. The adult human has learned that it is the part of wisdom to curtail the remains

repetition of pleasurable experiences before satiety has been reached. He has also learned that the endurance of forms of painful stimulation may be the price of many
more

lasting

or

more

words, experience

satisfying future pleasures. In other the implications complicates enormously

of the pleasure-pain experiences of primitive life. The Varieties Feeling. Among of Simple
"

recent
to the

writers there has been

number

some

divergence

of opinion

as

The and character of these psychological elements/ great majorityhave recognized only pleasantness and unpleasan (physical pain, as was pointed out in Chapter

VI, which
commonly

itself be at times agreeable, though disagreeable, is undoubtedly a

may

it is

The sensation).

eminent

recognizes two other psychologist Wundt groups of elements, which he designates strain-relaxation and excitement-calm. These he thinks of as combining with
one

German

another

in various ways,

although

only

one

member

of

FEELING

191

pair would The experience. each

ever

be present

in

single moment and

of

American

philosopher

psychologist.

excludes strain-relaxation but accepts the The present writer, for reasons groups. other two Wundtian to discuss in detail, is which he feels it unnecessary

Josiah

Royce,

disposed to adhere to the older view, and to treat pleasantness

and unpleasantness different from sensation.
a

as

substantially Indeed, in his judgment there is

as

the only elements

good

deal of evidence
are

to suggest,
even

not

few

modern

writers
are

now

urging, that
vague,

these forms of experience

themselves

this last doctrine

diffused, organic sensations. Even if established, it should finally become discussion

still be convenient to accord a separate to these factors in our mental make-up.

would

Among
present

other

reasons,

the view

generally

prevalent

at

distinguishes from
feeling

the sensations these two

forms
may vary
occasion

of simple

(1) psychologically, because they

to any

attach themselves

sensation
same

or

idea, and
may
on as are

may
one

independently,
be felt
as

so

that the

stimulus and
on

pleasurable

another
they
a

unpleas-

urable; and of
as

(2) physiologically, because

the stimulation of
neurones,

thought
sense

arising not from

particular

organ

from

with its connected chain of in which the nervous the way

but
as

as

system

arising whole is

The alleged fact stimulation. affected by any momentary do not localize them as we do sensations is urged that we in support of this view.1
1

Of

course

if they

prove

special sensory nerves physiological device of being

upon

finally to be sensations, they must depend be capable some through must which
reflexly excited from of the central system. organs activities in the The possibility

in other parts or cerebrum, the central that the thalami are

not

be irreconcilable

with

responsible for them See page 45. this conception.

would

192

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
"

Explanatory

Theories

of Feeling.

In connection

with

the physiological conception, two have been advanced. The

general types

esis of hypoththat

first maintains

all

experiences which
pleasure, whereas

are

organically beneficial tend to elicit

those which are physiologically harmful tend to occasion pain. The second is substantially a modification

ences of the first, and urges that pleasurable experiare system such as involve activitiesof the nervous well within the limits of its physical powers, whereas unpleasant

experiences involve excessive drain

or

at

one

point

another

upon

the

resources

of the system.
pleasure with mental
an

Another

widely held view connects

progress
as are

activitieswhich

smoothly

toward
or

with such
course.

impeded

pleasure end, and disobstructed in their

immediately

Obviously
cases

this conception

is most mind

applicable to

in is engaged processes of problem-solving of a rather definite kind. In of differences in such instances, we become readily aware

in which

the

the

and directness with which our thought attains its For example, a student trying to study finds the goal. interruption of a neighboring piano extremely disagreeable,
ease
even

though

the music

itselfbe intrinsically pleasant.

act

On

of studying, provided the thought processes involved go forward smoothly and effectively, is likely to be found agreeably stimulating. In such situation the theory mentioned would find an explanation for the appearance of agreeableness or disagreeableness in' the absence or presence of material interruption to the
a

the other hand,

the very

thinking.
to give a satisdifficult factory of theory finds it more forms of sensory for the appearance reason of some If one strikes a discord pleasantness and unpleasantness.

This type

FEELING
on

193

disagreeable, and tones, when one suddenly shifts to a group of harmonious the result is forthwith pleasing. In both cases one's pose purhave been to detect the qualities of the tones, may

the piano, the effectmay

be markedly

and

in this

sense

both processes
one

go

forward

more

or

less

successfully ; nevertheless the

agreeable.

Similarly there

are

is disagreeable, the other degrees of pressure, degrees

are

of illumination, degrees Clearly such

of noise, which
cases

always

disagreeabl
to

occasion

embarrassment

cussing distheories couched in the form of the one we are now Facts of this variety evidently lend themselves more much readily to description either in terms of the biological utility (negative or of the stimulus, or

positive)
sense

in terms
system

of the capacity of the

to respond.
a

organ

and the

nervous

accept

Nevertheless, while one may refuse to formulation of the kind under consideration as

a complete theory of the conditions affording in any sense of feeling, one must frankly recognize that a very large part important of our human rectly experiences are corof the more

characterized by it. One of the early formulations

one

essentially similar to the

pain and whatever ness unpleasant-

we

are

now a

examining tendency
pleasure

connected
to

with

change
a

conditions
such

obtained, and

with

tendency

to continue

readily with the conditions. This notion falls in very disbiological hypothesis of agreeableness and general ing indicatindices, the one as protective agreeableness
a

need

of

instant

fresh

adjustment, the
the
moment

other going

endorsing forward.

whatever

process

is at

A variant of this view identifiespleasure with expansive, pain and displeasure with conappropriative movements,

194

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

lation of retreat. The formuand movements is roughly correct in its application to simple sensory but cannot be pleasantness and unpleasantness, pressed very far without breaking down.1
tractive movements It must
are

be frankly

admitted that all these conceptions

speculative and that while they correspond to certain broad features of common experience, they are none none of them free from difficulties, of them affords
a measure

in

It wholly conclusive explanations of observed phenomena. is hardly to be supposed that any species of animals could

survive, which

sought, rather than shunned, because in general such experiences

painful experiences,
are

simply

the

conscious side of physiologically disastrous conditions. Any

creature

which
of

gratuitously sought

out

the circumstances

productive
scarcely

headache,

toothache,

and

earache
a

could

be expected
was

to thrive.

Clearly, too,

creature

which

wholly
expect

oblivious
to
secure

to

could hardly
physical Whether

pleasurable experiences the best conditions for its

with other

well-being, and
and species would pleasure

in competition

viduals indi-

almost certainly be out-distanced.

and pain have, therefore, been prime factors in the development of animal behavior, it is at all
events

clear that they

part.

can

hardly

have

failed to play

an

important

modes
1

their lower levels,they certainly represent of guiding the organism in advance of the

On

Wundt

alleges in the

that

there

are

certain

definite and
have

constant to his

changes

simple changes

respiration and Some feelings. other

for the

circulation corresponding psychologists

unpleasantness. The

six

reported

such author

pleasantness

and

present

these views rest as open to grave regards evidence upon which strate have been unable to demondoubt. Many experimenters competent in the connection states of the affective mental any constancy with
the

alleged

physiological

reactions.

FEELING

195

lessons of experience and in advance critical intelligence.

of the development

of

Complex
which which

Feelings.

"

distinction may
been

now

be drawn
earlier, but

logically should

have

mentioned
more

readily understood if postponed to this point in the chapter. This has to do with the difference between the simple elements of feeling, sometimes
'

seemed

likely to be somewhat

designated

affection,'and the complex these elements but sensations and ideas beside. The simple ' feeling, or the * affection, is clearly gotten only by tion. abstracWe never experience pure agreeableness devoid of
other

literature modern feelings which involve not only

the

in

What we conscious accompaniments. experience is always an agreeable idea, or an agreeable emotion, an agreeable
memory,
or
us

possible for

It is perfectly agreeable perception. to isolate the agreeableness in our retrospective

an

Indeed, scientifically analysis of any particular experience. it is quite essential that we should do this, for an idea, emotion, memory, or obviously be perception may experienced either with an opposite feeling, or to all intents
and purposes with
no

feeling at all. Thus

use

it has

come

about

that psychologists who

term

the word feeling as a technical disposed to apply it to the entire concrete expeare rience in which agreeableness or disagreeableness is a conspicuous
element, but in which

other mental

factors
or

are

also

present.
tone,
are

The
then

terms

simple

feeling, affection,

feeling-

used to designate the special part of the ness, process which is represented in its pleasantness, unpleasantand the like. (See Fig. 50.)

Strictly speaking
into-such rudimentary
our own

one

can

hardly
as

groups

are

classify feelings except already represented in

acceptance

of agreeableness

and

disagreeableness

196
as

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

primordial

distinctions.

Despite

this assertion,

good

classificationshave, as a matter of fact, been proposed One of the older of these distinguishes and adopted. higher from lower feelings. In the application of this distinction
many

it appears

that the lower

feelings, so-called,
use

are

chiefly those connected with the immediate

most

of the

senses

closely related to the nutritional processes

(e.g., agreeable
to those
connected

and

disagreeable tastes and

the

odors) and
and

with

physical

appetites

passions.

The

FIG. 50.

illustrate the relation of simple feeling to total feeling feeling, or affection, like 8F, may a represent simple states. be Se, sensory, or /, with combined may which pleasantness, ideational, elements to constitute a total complex imaginal, or state of feeling.
"

To

higher feelings

are

on

this showing

such

as

have to do with

moral, intellectual, and

aesthetic experiences.

For
has

some

purposes

justification and
and

distinction of this kind undoubtedly value, but it may well be questioned misleading. smell, for example,
The and

whether
pleasures
those

it is not psychologically somewhat

pains of taste and

are

and with the relief of hunger be thought of as lower than the pleasure and thirst, may seem that the pains of moral experience, because it may latter have a more for society and the direct importance which connected relations. But if,as we believe instance is tively to be the case, the pleasure in the one qualitakind with the pleasure in the other, and of the same
general character of human

FEELING

197

find ourselves obliged to admit a peculiarly rare and fine type of pleasure elicited by the fragrance of spring flowers, or by the play of beautiful colors the
we

especially if

upon

retina,

we

begin to call in question not only the psychologic but intrinsic truth of a distinction value, also the
may
over

which inner
mean cases

sets

against

one

another facts that

are,

in their

We do not of essentially the same order. to assert for a moment that there are not in such differences in the sensory and ideational abundant
essence,

however, to settings of these simple feelings. We do mean, urge strongly that intensity and duration apart, the agree-

ableness and the disagreeableness of one group of experiences is quite of a piece with that of the other. Another classificationostensibly different from that just described, but in point of fact working
many
sensuous

out

to

result in

particulars similar, recognizes a distinction between and ideational or intellectual feelings. The basis

of this distinction is too obvious to require discussion, and like the one just examined, it clearly involves a division
not

based upon
upon
or

the feeling-tone

or

the 'affection' as

such,

but simply

its cognitive accompaniment

in the form

reference to personal feelings, to social feelings, to ethical and aesthetic feelings. All these divisions are perfectly legitimate, and all refer
encounters to groups

of sensation Again, one

idea.

frequently

of experiences which
one

the exigencies of practical

life, or have

of

and
that
as

another
we

required
so

of the philosophical sciences, should recognize. But to each and

all, in

far
same

they

are

the

comment

classificaoffered as psychological tions, They are classiis appropriate. fications which

certain sorts

either of the conditions under of complex feelings arise, or

they
are

of the classifications

198

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

concomitants of our feeling-tones, rather than fications classiThis entire of the feeling elements themselves. of the problem presented by classificationexhibits one be essential characteristics of pure feeling, which may now
mental

profitably mentioned. Feeling, Sensation,

vagueness

and

Attention.

"

It is exactly the

and the undifferentiated character of feeling so is which sets it off from sensation and idea. So much this the case that it is commonly agreed by psychologists
that
we

cannot

in any proper

sense

attend to

feeling-tone.

Certain it is that, if in the midst of an agreeable experience one attempts to fix attention upon the pleasantness as such, forthwith finds that the whole experience has been one transformed
process.

the agreeableness has evaporated in the In order that we should be able to attend to any and

item

of

should This is exactly what we cannot do in the case of these elements of feeling-tone. They are apparently homogeneous,
themselves in the most and while they connect varied fashion with all other psychological materials, they never in themselves become focal. They are always, as it were, the margin of consciousness. There we may observe them

experience, it is apparently essential that it be possible to discriminate differences within it.

our

by

sort

moment to make

in the indirect vision, and we are, of experience, keenly aware of their presence, but to them the of attention is apparently of mental

objects
which

destroy them

forthwith.

They

seem

always
a

to function
or

as

or adverbs, adjectives

demand

substantive

kind to which they may attach. verb of some This hostility of feeling-tone to attention has led some authorities to the interesting suggestion that attention and
feeling-tone
are

really the two opposite sides of

one

and the

FEELING
same

199

process.

This

is perhaps

another

way

much the
we
we

that sensations and older doctrine, i.e.,

elements objective

of stating a ideas give us

we
can,

of

our

experience

which

if

will, share with others. By looking at the both get what is practically the same may
and
we

same
sense

object,
Feeling,

perception,

get this by

process of attending.
our
we

on

the

other

hand,

represents

purely

individualistic
This share

experience, the way

part

in which
we can

react. subjectively
no

of

our

experience

in

immediate

sense

with

others.
part

In any

event,

it is the purely makes

of the experience, which

vidual unique indiit mine rather

than yours. Feeling and

Personal

Attitude.
as

"

Whatever

the

final

validity of such

in the mentioned it is unquestionably true in a broad, previous paragraph, that feeling represents in a very real and general way vidual. the personal mental attitude of the indipeculiar sense distinctions
those

In what
one

one

feels much

more

truly than

in what

actual character and about, is revealed one's 's This is not equivalent to saying that a man temperament. is in any way a thought matter of indifference in the thinks formation and
more

of his character.

It

means

simply

that deeper

's body edge, of knowlsignificant than the items in one deeper than the particular content of one's and even thought, is the personal attitude toward all these ideas and

their meaning.

Before
may

leaving

properly

the specialized discussion of feeling, we to a consideration of devote a few moments

certain of its relations to the control of conduct. We indicated at the outset of Feeling and Conduct. to the the chapter that one important view is committed
"

doctrine

that

feeling represents

the

primitive

guide

by

200
means

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

of which conduct is steered away from harmful and trine toward beneficial types of reaction. So long as this docis confined to the behavior of the simpler organisms
whose
are

environment

is relatively simple, and whose

seem

activities

relatively stereotyped, it is likely to

enough.

plausible Certain it is that the observation of animals low

in the scale of intelligence distinctly suggests reactions of kind in terms of the agreeableness a reasonably immediate
or

disagreeableness of the stimulus and the ensuing response. Fishes, for example, seem about often to wander food is offensive whatever somewhat aimlessly,

rejecting

and unhesitatingly accepting that which is appetizing, and in the meantime evincing littleor no evidence of behavior controlled by ideas or any other kind of process involving

If agreeable but poisonous food be offered, it is Behavior immediately on this level, then, suggests accepted.
foresight. rather strongly
are
a

that whether
are

made

because they

general
are

parallelism
apparently

between

beneficial reactions agreeable, there is at least those types of behavior

or

not

which

satisfying and

those which

are

logicall bio-

useful, with a corresponding parallelism between the disagreeable and the injurious. If one adopts the implications of this general point of view and applies them forthwith to the higher ranges of
human

conduct,

one

instantly

comes

upon

that of the ethical hedonist. form,

Taken

doctrine stantial subin its crudest

this view maintains that our conduct is always controlled, directly or indirectly, by a regard for pleasure and pain such that we tend always to avoid the latter and seek in facing the actual complexities of Of course, the former.
human

behavior, it has
a

endure

be recognized that we often present pain for the sake of a future pleasure, but
to

FEELING

201

only under

outweigh, pain.

the conviction that the expected either in intensity or permanency,

pleasure

will

the momentary

It is possible

so

to formulate

successful
nature
as

contradiction

this position as to make its decidedly difficult. But human

to accept

is generally very unwilling

accurate

such

tion descrip-

to the facts. Whether

this unwillingness

reflects a universal moral vanity, or whether it is insight into the actual facts, a keener really based upon
merely

it remains
any

true that this view has

never

secursucceeded in ing

large following.
on

Ethicists and

psychologists alike
one

have

criticized it

the ground

that if

is to describe

the situation in terms

present

sciously of the actual motives that are conbeings, an explicit control by to human

tainly Cerconsiderations of pleasure and pain is relatively rare. no tired mother, sitting up through the long hours
of the night with to have her
the pleasure which
a.

sick child,

can

for

moment

be supposed
thought Nor

conduct

controlled by

any

of

she is getting from

it be fair to her actual mental

would processes to say that she is

the act.

controlled by the pleasure which she hopes to experience Such acts as a result of her care when the child recovers. be called instinctive, and in part no doubt they are may
such, but they
concerns are

none

the less voluntary,

and

so

far
as

as

their conscious motive, pleasure

ever

and

pain

such

are

hardly

in the horizon, except

perhaps

tiently to be impa-

banished.
Between
to urge

the two

extremes

that pleasure- and behavior,

them
are
as

tending of doctrine, the one in pain, if not the sole motives

least the

voluntary

at

dominant

ones,

the

other regarding

be found

to is perhaps of no consequence, the real truth. It would surely be idle to main-

202

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO
no

PSYCHOLOGY
part in the early stages
we a

tain that pleasure and pain play of

our

acquaintance

live. That

with the physical world in which the burned child dreads the fire has become

designed to exploit the moral consequences of sin. On the other hand, the adage which teaches that to spare the rod is to spoil the child postulates
of
sermons

text for hundreds

the value of pain

as

an

element

kind.

The

entire modern

in education of the formal doctrine of interest as essential

in education and the abundant experiments exhibiting the dynamic effectsupon children of approval and other pleasurable incentives, imply a conviction that widespread pleasurable conduct in
experiences
some serve or

to

energize

and

motivate

fashion

other.
that agreeableness the direct ever
or

It is of course absurd to suppose disagreeableness merely as such are

of reflective choice, when lines of conduct. For one
we

objects

deliberating about our thing, it is generally agreed by

are

psychologists that we have no power imagination these pure or memory

elements.
untrue
or

thus to

summon

from affective
equally

disembodied
it would be

But

on

the

other hand,

to the facts to say

that the expected

agreeableness

disagreeableness of a line of conduct has no weight whatever in determining a decision. We may not formulate the

decision to ourselves in terms that stress the consequences in feeling. Indeed, we may be more or less oblivious at the time to such consequences. But
so

closely knit is the fabric

we

of

our

entire thought

process

that

very

special effort divorce from our of feeling. Feeling and Voluntary Action. It has been
"

without thinking all influence

could not

common

doctrine and is one for which so eminent a psychologist as Wundt stands sponsor, that voluntary actions always grow

FEELING
out

203

of feelings, or,
ever
occurs

act

expressed otherwise, that no to feeling. except in response

which Wundt

volitional The particular

acts

formulation

offers connects

of

will with emotion, out of which he teaches that they always familiar form of the doctrine implies The more spring.
that

choice is determined
to
our

analysis go back
lines of conduct

in the last motives which feelings. Either of two possible

by

be perfectly rational and entirely defensible, but for the one we feel a strong predilection and
may

powerful aversion. Our choice rests, in such a case, not upon the sheer rationality of the act, but feeling regarding the alternatives. While there our upon toward
the other
a

be decisions which lectualistic,and while

may

are

entirely cold-blooded and intelof

our

many

acts

are

essentially

habitual and carried out without any particular reflection, there can be no doubt that in great ranges of our conduct such
a

moving

description is correct, in that the psychologically factor which determines us to choose one rather
course

than
our

of action is to be stated in terms and feelings, rather than prejudices subjective

another

of in.

terms

of pure

reason.

CHAPTER

XII

EMOTION

Feeling

and

Emotion.

"

Most

of feelings are the emotions. loosely used in ordinary parlance, is naturally somewhat by some it applies in general to states of mind marked by the noticeable presdegree of excitement and commonly ence of pleasantness
or

familiar of all the forms Although this term 'emotion'

unpleasantness.

Despite

the fact

tend to shade off into tions condiof a relatively neutral kind, so that there is no sharp between line to be drawn emotional and non-emotional
that these states of excitement
states, it is nevertheless profitable to devote
to the
more
some

eration considcertain

overt

emotions

which

possess

definite peculiarities tending to set them

distinctness from

other

mental

off with reasonable conditions. Anger, fear,

may
serve

hate, love, grief, embarrassment, more vivid and constant forms

shall
now

to suggest

the

direct

our

of emotion to which we This group Professor attention.

coarser

James

used to designate as the Emotion and Instinct. The

"

emotions. which mark is their intimate connection

outstanding

characterizes these grosser emotions with reflex and instinctive modes of behavior. Some writers have gone so far as to say that emotion is
simply

the psychological

side of

an

instinct, it is what

we

feel when we certain kinds of instinctive acts. perform William have James and the Danish psychologist Lange formulations to this view. They given the most extreme
204

EMOTION

205

essential details, but the main contention which each makes is that in an emotional experience the characteristic features are contributed by changes
sure,

differ, to be

in

some

in

our

consciousness

brought

about

through

movecertain ments

made reflexly or instinctively. To bring the doctrine out in the most dramatic way, James puts the
which
are

case

by saying
we

that

"we

feel sorry

because
we

we

cry, angry

because
The

strike, afraid because Theory

tremble."
"

James-Lange

view

held that the of emotional expression clenching of the fistand the distortion of the face in anger
are

of Emotion. has generally

The

common

the results of the previously

we are
now

existing emotion.

The

theory to which these muscular

expressions

movements

referring admits, of course, in a perfectly real are

that
sense

of the emotions, but it maintains

other
motor

that if these
are

and

all the

and

glandular

expressions

specific

eliminated everything which feeling of anger at

is most
once

of the experiment performance because in emotions obviously difficult,

characteristic of the The actual disappears. is this suggests which

of the violent kind, important muscular

like rage
movements,

and anger,
such
as

many

of the most

are those of the heart and diaphragm, control. Def enders_ of this doctrine not under voluntary lucid apprehension maintain that one may have an entirely anger, but that the emotion of a situation as one justifying

is only

feltwhen
of anger
"

some

all of the instinctive muscular in These comprise among others

or
"

the

case

muscles,
changes

violent tension of most particularly those of the hands,

of the voluntary
arms,

and

chest,

in the tonicity of the blood vessels, by virtue of becomes scarlet, changes in the power which the face often in the and rate of the heart-beat, and profound alterations

206

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

breathing.
muscular

Many

other

consequences

and glandular system these illustrations will suffice.

Each

might

affecting both the be mentioned, but

sets up sensory changes, many of these movements by changes in the feeling-tone, and of them accompanied total of these disturbances constitutes the peculthe sum iarly

If one looks at a of the experience. bear behind the bars of its cage in the zoological garden, be wholly lacking in any particular the experience may
emotional
part

emotional

color. But

the

same

bear, inspected at the

same

distance without the intervening bars, elicitsa great group of these instinctive reactions, which, fusing with the perception of the animal, constitute the emotion of fear.
particular group of motor reactions which are thus are called out by emotional objects native and inherited, No one has to be taught how to behave when not acquired. in the angry, when afraid, when embarrassed, or when
power

The

shows

of these commoner himself from the beginning

of any

emotions.
a

Every

passed master

child in the

expressions
are,

of anger, for example. therefore, fairly to be regarded

our

Thesejerformances
as

instinctive, and

it

is the modification of
these untaught

consciousness

view
mark

and unlearned motor doctrine constitutes the essential of the James-Lange The reader will readily infer, in the of emotion.
our

about by activities, which in the

brought

light of

previous

analysis of memory,

that individual

experience

reactions. in the nature

many will tend to emphasize of these native The original expression of fear or of anger is,

but after
of times, of
one's

one
one

of the case, has been

an

entirely unique
the emotion

experience;
a

to subjected

number

naturally learns what

to expect, and the effect enter

memories

of previous similar situations may

EMOTION to give tone to

a

207

situation which
way

does not

itself call out

of natural

in any

complete

the

full catalogue

responses

No

one

doubts
motor

that these grosser accompaniments

emotions
commonly

possess characteristi

debate real point under whether the emotional feeling is entirely prior to and independent of changes in the field of consciousness occasioned by the movements, or these changes so elicited whether
expressions.

The

called their is, therefore,

and Lange maintain, the essence of emotion as distinguished from non-emotional states. The racially hereditary or instinctive nature of the responses is not in question.
constitute,
as

James

Stimuli
is,of it
soon course,

to

Emotions.
sensory,

"

The

original emotional
we

stimulus But

e.g., something

see,

or

touch.

about, as a result of the development of memory and the ideational processes, that thoughts call out emotional reactions as vividly and as readily as do sense
comes

perceptions. quite
as

The thought
a

of

an

insulting remark

may

reaction of anger or shame as original experience. Moreover, an emotional reaction may

violent
1

elicit did the

There
on

has
the to

been

some

disposition
of certain intimate

to attack

the

validity

of this

theory
which

ground
show
an

tend

physiological experiments, part inter-relation between emotion

of
of

the

certain glandular activities, particularly line The of adrenals. of criticism is based upon other dogs, where the brain was on experiments prevented by operation impulses from from receiving incoming nearly all the viscera and

fear-anger
the

type

and

those

In this of the body lower than the head region. to suggest relatively little the behavior of the animals case seemed This is not the place to enter upon named. change in the emotions from
the surfaces

in detail. It is not the to consider these contributions attempt view of the writer that the criticisms are valid as against the main See an article by the author points of the theory under discussion.

any

in the

Psychological

Review,

Vol. XXIII,

1916,

p. 251.

208

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

readily be transposed from one sensory stimulus to another, a child learns to associate the sight of his bottle as when with the satisfaction of his hunger and the taste of the
milk.

Just how
way

far
to

we

inherit

disposition to react in the

emotional

of stimuli is not altogether clear.1 But it is clear that however various the stimulations kinds specific produce

emotions, the motor and glandular reactions are relatively fixed. It is sometimes alleged, for example, that babies are naturally afraid of darkness and of fur. which Neither there is of these reactions
some seems

to be at all universal, but

one
or

evidence
in the
case

to indicate that

both

are

represented
that when
a

of certain children.

Certain it is

stimulus is encountered that calls forth fear, the child's response is of the instinctive and fairly stereotyped form.
Ideational Element

in Emotion.

instinctive and the motor aspects not be understood that we intend in any way to overlook the ideational parts of the process. These are of the utmost moment, and they become increasingly so as mental life
evolves.

emphasizing of emotion, it must

"

In

the

Mental

disease apart,

one

does not

have

rected undi-

fear in general, impersonal anger or in general. One is afraid of a particular

one

embarrassment

objector
or

tion, situaone

is angry by
a

at

special individual

group,

is

embarrassed
one's

particular situation. intellectual apprehension

with
the various

In

all these
the

stances in-

of

stances, circum-

together

thoughts

suggested

in

Watson

in

an

unpublished
reactions

paper and

has their

tentatively
stimuli
as

primitive
anger
"

emotional
"

reported follows

three
:

(1 )
"

stimulus
"

any

stimulus

removal feeling

"

(2) constriction of free movement; of bodily support, possibly loud sounds; stimulus gentle stroking or tickling.
"

fear

(3) affection

EMOTION

209

total of the emoeach instance, enter to determine the sum tional state. Even in the simplest instances this intellectual

appreciation
:

is momentous.

To

revert

to

an

tration earlier illus-

the bear, which

case,
an

the be,

one
as a

amused interest in objectof horrified fear in the other, may

an

is

of object

sheer matter he

of visual sensation,
as

one

and the
source

same.

Only

when

is apprehended

a
an

potential

of

great bodily suffering does he become

to fear.

emotional stimulus

The

intellectual element
as
we

in emotion the

tends to become

more

conspicuous

pass from

coarser

to the finer forms

In the range of aesthetic appreof emotional experience. ciation, for example, there is likely to be distinctly less

evidence of

purely bodily

of the subtle forms however, where we

cognitive element highly
complex
are

with relatively more of intellectual pleasure. At no point, properly lacking.

speak

resonance,

can

wholly

of emotion, is this Emotion is therefore a

affections
Emotion

condition in which intricately combined.

Phenomenon of

sensations, ideas, and

a
"

Interrupted experiences,

Mental
as contrasted

Activity.

The

intensity of emotional

perhaps be connected with other experiences, may Professor with the fact of interruption to on-going processes. Dewey has defended the thesis that emotions are primarily

called out when two instinctive tendencies are in Whatever judgment may be competition for expression. be no doubt this particular view, there can passed upon
that all the
more

interruption
stimulus

to

violent emotions are incidents of vigorous life. The flow of mental the ordinary
calls forth
our

which thwarts

anger

is typically

one same an

which thing emotion

blocks
may

or

momentary

activity.

The

be said of fear, and in general the onset of

210

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

is marked
processes

by
are

the

invasion

and
going

dislocation of whatever
on.

at the moment

In the

joyfulemotions
by
a

this momentary

interruption

may

be succeeded

torrential flow of delicious excitement. In connection Darwin's View of Emotion.

"

with

the

presented, it may be of interest to mention briefly certain theories of Charles The Darwin about the origin of our emotional responses. bear in mind the fact that as a rule reader will, of course,
general view

of emotion

which

we

have

views rest on the doctrine that bodily structures, as well as the forms of behavior, represent the survivals of the fittestin the struggle for existence of millions of This conception naturally raises generations of ancestors.

Darwin's

the question as to the utility of our present equipment of instinctive reactions, some of which, like trembling when
upon
a

high

place,

Without

of the Darwinian There is firstthe contention

reaction
now

tageous. peculiarly inept and disadvangoing into complete details, one or two be pientioned. views may
seem

that many

of the forms

of

useful at a previous period of racial history. The stock illustration of this sort of thing is the elevation of the upper lip in scorn or in anger, a performance no which has now particular utility, but
encountered
were

which

in social conditions of a franker and less restrained character obviously may have been highly useful. A second

doctrine

so-called principle of 'antithesis/ The savage attitudes of an angry dog obviously have a certain utility. Over against these, as the expression of
the

involves

affectionate moods, are theory here implies not

group,
a
as

an

exactly

opposite

group.

The

so

its appearance
set of muscular

the utility of the second because it represents most nearly much opposites to the contrasting
emo-

complete

EMOTION

211

tioual state.
have
our

It cannot

be said that the Darwinian

tions explana-

at all completely

emotional

solved the riddle of certain of reactions, but they will at least serve to suggest

the lines along which

it may

perhaps

be found

finally

possible to render
now

intelligiblesome

of the responses
Many
none

which

perplex

us.

Classification emotion winning

the whole which
are or

of

Emotions.

"

have

been

permanent
most

suggested, but general favor.

classifications of has succeeded in which

seems
on

That
a

fundamental

involves

division into those

those which
are

historically primary,

and
a

position to apply this principle of classificationconfidently, it would presumably however, We are, satisfy all essential needs. obliged to secondary.
we
use

derived

Were

in

it

subjectto

appreciable

uncertainty

regarding

the

dividing line which it attempts to employ. It seems safe to regard such emotions as anger and
fear

(offensive)
sumably Pre-

(defensive)as

unequivocally

primary.

corthere should be also recognized something respondi to love or affection in a broad, general sense. Superposed upon these foundations are such emotions as

in many and gratitude, sympathy of its forms, remorse, pity. Each of these last-named experiences has obvious elements of instinct in it, and with the possible exception of
remorse,

each of them

finds

some

mal representation in ani-

behavior. first group

content upon

of the contrasted with the members it is fairly clear that they depend for their
as

But

elements
are

which

obviously grow
a

out of experience.
sense

They

therefore in

reasonable
extent

to

be

regarded

secondary and to some they involve one or another

as

derived.

Presumably

of the elements

of the

primary

group.

212

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
"

Mood,

Temperament,
we

Sentiment.

Side by

side with mood, and

emotion

must

put

the facts of sentiment,

are

temperament,

for they
emotion

all inter-related phenomena.

a

The

term

is usually applied to

relatively brief

experience whose beginning and end can be fairly marked is a term which we apply to a comparatively off. Mood permanent emotional condition. One may thus be cheerful
throughout
a a

while

such

that considerable period of time. This means is susceptible chiefly to mood endures, one

those emotions The term

to
some

which

are

temperament

closely related to the mood. is somewhat loosely used to apply

still more

The

emotional dispositions, but with reference also to intellectual habits and motor traits. familiar division of temperaments into sanguine, enduring and
phlegmatic
serves

choleric, melancholic,
psychological certain ''The sanguine
gross

has

no

very

mental funda-

basis, but

roughly

to characterize

differences in choleric types

individual
are

make-up.

and

stirred, the latter displaying a more feebler, interest. The melancholic and phlegmatic types are slow in response, the former evincing a strong and once aroused, the latter manifesting vivid interest when
a

alert and easily intense, the former a

persistent but weak

that there
are

It will naturally be understood considerable variations in individuals,

to these general

interest.' '

even

when

they

distinction.

conform roughly Moreover, there are

all kinds

lines of of individual

differences in imagination,
any

intellectual equipment,

attention, etc., which

affecting memory, be recognized in must

general
we

estimate of temperamental commonly

While

peculiarities. ent think of disposition as being depend-

is upon the prevalent emotional attitude, so that one likely to be good-natured who temperamentally responds

EMOTION
to most
or

213

situations with emotions of the buoyant and more less humorous type, it is equally true that emotions are dominant

likely to be affected by

At trains of thought. this point what we percall sentiment, i.e.,a relatively manent disposition or attitude, is of prime consequence.

Persons

whose

thinking

tends to dwell upon

abstract and

theoretical
to

are subjects

likely to be lacking in sensitiveness

social and

personal

situations.
when such

They

may
are

be

entirely kindly

character

matters

of an brought

forcefully to their notice, but they are not naturally alert On the other hand, persons whose thought to their appeal. tends to dwell upon the persistent underlying problems of social organization are human distress. When
as

apt to be emotionally
we

responsive

to

sentimental,

we

mean

designate particular individuals to imply an exaggeration of this in

one

permanent

emotional
an

mood

direction

or

another.

There

ments essentially reciprocal relation between sentitions and emotions, for the cultivation of any set of emotends to foster a prevalent sentiment favorable to

is

such

emotions,

whereas

conversely

and

obviously,

ment senti-

is itself an
Emotion and

invitation to the corresponding

Volition.
"

emotion.
entertain

Whatever

view
"

we

cussed disregarding the relation of feeling to volition a matter we in the previous chapter must recognize that our important relation to our emotional life sustains a most
"

forceful character character. A well-balanced-, conduct arifl implies strong normal emotions, responding without exaggeration to the demand relations. The wholly of human
unemotional
person
may
meet

occasional crises with great individual, is likely to be a cold-blooded, unsympathetic of the finer things in life. On the other oblivious to many

of some requirements distinction, but in general he

the

214

AN
some

INTRODUCTION persons suggest

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

hand

by their behavior
we

volcano

and from
or

such

can

active emotional hardly look for wellan

poised opinions
shall discuss
more

consistent and efficientconduct. ^ We fully in a later chapter the relation of

the will to instinct and

emotion.

CHAPTER

XIII

INSTINCT

Our
region
touched
must

analysis of emotion, of instinct, carries

upon at the very

leading
us

us

as

it did into the

back

to

matters

which

we

beginning

of

our

study.

We
our

now

look somewhat equipment.

Nature

more

closely into this part of

human

The

of

of precision

any making in definition, it may be said at

"

Instinct.

Without

tense preonce

that instincts, like reflex acts, rest upon the

nervous

the presence

in

system

(both
the

central

native

pathways

for the discharge

of

and autonomic) of of impulses into the perfect

at

muscles.

Some

instincts

are

birth.

In

all young

mammals

the instinct of sucking

appear

is of this

character.
later
stages

Others
of
the

to perfection at come and they whenever animal's life. But

appear,
are

they involve innate, inherited forms of conduct

no
sense

in

learned

or

acquired like the voluntary

are

and forms

of action.

In general, they

to be differentiated from

reflex acts in part by their complexity,

generally
a

the reflex involving

to
a

simple

muscular

response

single stimulus,

and
many

in part

by

their being

reflexes are
are

ordinarily conscious, whereas ference After all,however, the difunconscious.

not
so

perhaps

important
passes

as

the similarities,

and

certain it is that the

stages

one

over

into the other by

any

through

which

are

not

separated

sharp

boundaries.
215

216

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
to give the

These organism

instinctive and
capacity

reflex activities serve

many

to meet

of the

more

important

and in certain of the situations to which it must adjust, lower animals they comprise substantially the sum total of being they form the foundation its abilities. In the human
upon rep-which is built all that individualistic adjustment Not only does the resented by his personal experience.

human
solely

child begin his life career

of these

with

capital made
they

up

hereditary
as

achievements;

remain which
he

throughout

his life

dominating

factors from

derives the larger part of his more enduring motives. Our analysis of emotion will have naturally led the reader to anticipate that in discussing instinct we must repeat to some For we have considered already. extent points which we have

insisted that
with

our our

intimate way As
many
we

emotions instincts.

are

knit up

in the most

pointed

out

in the preceding

chapter,

there

are

possible classifications of emotions and instincts. For example, they have been grouped as social, or personal, At as egoistic or altruistic, as defensive or aggressive.
present attempts

the commonest

is probably that which to bring together instincts which are primary and
grouping
as

relatively simple

over

against those which

All the divisions must

are

secondary,

derived, and
as
our

complex.

be regarded
of which

merely

rough is

attempts
as

to classify phenomena to warrant

knowledge

yet too imperfect

dogmatic

this rough assertions. Before entering upon practical grouping, it may perhaps clarify the reader's view of the

situation instincts

to
as

point compared of

out

certain

peculiarities of

human

Comparison
commonly

with those of the animals. Human Animal Instinct. and

that the higher

"

It is
possess

supposed

animals

INSTINCT

217

appreciably

more

instincts than
however,

does
that

man.
a

Professor
statement
more
man.

James

and

others maintain, the truth.

contrary

is nearer

Undoubtedly
any

animals
we

have

highly perfected instincts than

which

find in

Certainly neither the child nor remarkably elaborate instinct

it

the adult displays any

as

such

that shown by the young On the spider in the construction of itsfirstintricate web.
other

hand,

seems

to be the

fact that

men

have

more

rudimentary
than
any

impulses

of

an

essentially instinctive kind

animal.
man
so

Neither in
so

blind

nor

in the animals, however, are instincts invariable in their operation as is sometimes

nor

supposed.

Even

reflex acts

are

some

of them

susceptible to

appreciable alteration, and practically all exhibit marked In the higher individual to another. variation from one
animals, many
an

instinct may

either because opportunity

at the appropriate

be stamped out and disappear, for its development is lacking

because its first expression
The

time,

or

is followed
the young

painful consequences. chick to follow moving

with
some

by

objects
an

disposition of is one which cultivated.

the

losses away
Commonly

promptness

if it be not

the maternal

hen

offers such

and object
a

chick's instinct is forthwith last indefinitely. Any may

may

developed

be temporarily, experiences.
at small

or

habit which stincts inof the less fundamental inhibited even permanently,

into

by

painful

The

tendency given
some
a

to peck

chick, again, has a strong objects.If those supplied be

taste
or

strongly

burning

coated with be gravely acid substance, the instinct may

disagreeable

be

disarranged. familiar. instinct is much more plasticity of human Indeed, because of its variability there is littleappreciation
The

218

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

of the really instinctive character of many

forms of human

conduct.

The

reactions
are

embarrassment
yet

they
same

may

vary

cause circumstances which essentially of the instinctive kind, and widely in different individuals and in

to

the

individual at different times.

The

common

expression

is blushing. Some people, of marked embarrassment by blush, but are rendered dumb however, rarely or never embarrassing awkward situations.

Others express
or

their distress by

movements

of hands
a

face.

Still others

are

overwhelmed

rush of words, which in children and sions. adolescents often tend to ill-mannered and rude expresbe made One of these reactions may today, and with

This is simply to say that tiip tomorrow. another one instinct is of a very general and ill-organized type, instcompared with the animals, probably all human
are

decidedly
from

more

variable, and
own

the reader

can

no

ci

summon

his

of

this statement.
angry,

observations abundant confirmation Notoriously, some individuals flush

grow

when

others

pale.

Some

persons

become
on

frightened, others tend to babble speechless when Tennyson's brook.

Human make
a

like

Instincts.
rough

"

Let

us

return

now

to the attempt

to

list of the
a

more

important

human

instincts,

and to suggest the following

Professor James gives working grouping. list: vocalization, imitation, emulation or fear, resentment, anger, rivalry, pugnacity, sympathy,

acquisitiveness, constructiveness, play, curiosity, sociability and shyness, secretiveness,cleanliness,modesty, shame, love,

jealousy, parental

love, and

hunting.

MacDougall

recognizes

instincts to flight, repulsion, curiosity,pugnacity, selfabasement, self-assertion,and the parental instinct. From
the latter he evolves sympathy

and indirectly moral

indig-

INSTINCT

219

nation.
gregarious

He

regards habits, to

as

minor

instincts those leading toand

to

reproduction,

construction.

Watson,

in his recent

study

the obtaining

of food and

locomotion, .lists shelter, rest, play, sleep, as the

sex,

of behavior,

foundation

of daily life. Instincts of mimicry, and

of defense

and

attack, migration,

vocalization belong to less

sharply marked Kibot

which

groups.

distinguishes
more

certain

primitive

tendencies,
to do
more

of
the

the

purely

physiological have The

others, of
a

with

maintenance psychological

of the body.
character,
are

definitely

racial situations. He under its defensive

related to distinctly social and speaks thus of the instinct of conservatio

form
as

involving

fear and

its aggressive form this conall its modifications. Under servativ instinct appears as anger, with its various derivatives.
These
are are more

properly

the primary

group,

upon

which

built the

complex

tendencies, finding their most

definite expression in sympathy and the so-called tender emotions in general, such as pity, and the various forms of non-sexual personal affection. On the foundation represented by
these three fundamental
groups

he would

base

all the other instinctive and emotional traits. Some, like the sex instincts, appear plicated relatively late and are then comnot

only

but

also

with

earlier, with the instincts which appear Still the general fruits of experience. which

another

grouping

Pillsbury

has

recently

recognizes

(a) "those instincts which

preserve

accepted the life and

provide for the welfare of the individual; (b) those which provide for the continuance of the race and for the family, and (c) those which make for the welfare of the tribe or Evidently some of the instincts will of the social unit."
overlap
two
or even

three of the groups.

220

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

As has been suggested, the value of any of these proposed is really dependent upon the particular interest classifications
or

purpose

which

it is designed to meet.

If

one

wishes

the distinctly genetic phases of instinct, then a if it can classification like that of Ribot or MacDougall,
to
uncover

be satisfactorilycarried out, would be best. If one desires into the foreground those considerations which to throw pertain most distinctly to the evolution of society and its
as was relation to the individual, then such a grouping last is likely to be most convenient. There is mentioned

added advantage in this type of classificationin that it lends itselfrather readily to use in connection with the
an

modern Man

evolutionary conceptions of mind. has undoubtedly developed, like

out of simpler antecedent

other

living

creatures,

forms.

In the process

of evolution his mental as well as his physical organization has been developed in response to influences which are
partly

in the physiological and partly social. Presumably life of the race, as in the life of the individual, the earliest protecexigencies are those which relate to food, rest, and tion The from the assaults of climate and animal enemies.

instinctive equipment

to meet

these demands

is represented

in hunger, thirst, and the anger-fear reactions. Superposed the successful adjustmentto demands upon acter of this char-

of situations calling for effective social relations and leading speedily into the group centering first in the family and then in the tribe or social unit, whatever
is the group that may

point or another in this series will for each of the instincts which be found the justification have noted, the sum we total representing a rude balance
be. At
one

between those impulses which tend to foster on the one the purely personal interests of the individual, and

hand
on

the

INSTINCT

221
to which

other those of the social group

we

he

belongs.

As

shall

later chapter, the great function of voluntary action is to introduce a rational organization of these
see a
even

in

raw

instinctive tendencies; but,

on

apart

from

rational

control,
always

evolutionary
an

be

approximate

grounds balance

there

must

between

obviously those instincts

which

tend to exploit the individual tendency

at the cost of society

and those whose

social group

is in the opposite direction. The the

to

is helpless without
cannot

individual
group.

really

come

individual, and his own without

the
the

It will throw some light upon the general problem of instinct to survey for a important theories regarding moment certain of the more its origin. Of these we may mention three. At the present of Instinct.
"

Theories

of the Origin

moment

we shall first describe probably which enjoysthe largest following.

the

one

(1)
English

The

theory, which reflex

with the
name

connected
as

is perhaps most often in of Herbert Spencer, conceives

built up out of the accidental conjunction in forms are sufficientlyuseful so that of reflex acts which in the are the animals possessing them at an advantage
struggle for existence, and thus tend to survive when

instinct

their

less fortunate

companions

disappear.

On

the basis of this

view, intelligence plays no necessary part in the original establishment of the instinct ; indeed, the doctrine provides for the possibility that many of the lower animal forms
may

be very meagerly supplied with mental powers. This view has to attribute the establishment of instincts

essentially to accident, and it necessarily carries with it the further assumption that many of these accidents turn
out

unsuccessfully,

so

that neither they

nor

the animals

222

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
as

thus

endowed
are

survive.
to

Inasmuch
occur

accidental

well known

both in the structure

variations and in
not

the behavior of animal

very
some

forms, this difficultyis perhaps

grave.

more are

serious
extremely

one

concerns

the fact that

instincts

elaborate and
acts, any

consist of
one

series of relatively complicated

taken
alone, may

of which,

be relatively useless. If the preservative value of instincts is adopted

one

to explain
assume

their existence,

is then

apparently

obliged to

that the entire series of steps in a complex instinct sprang into existence at once (forany single step taken alone may be useless), highly improbable. In any and this seems
event

credulity. The instincts in accordance with which wasps and bees construct their nests and lay up food supplies may reasonably be cited as instances
one's

it strains

of the type

of difficultymentioned.
next

(2)
Among

The

theory

is that

of

lapsed

intelligence.
most

psychologists
adherent

is probably It assumes of this view.

Wundt

the

conspicuous

that instincts
voluntary

arise out

of acts originally intelligent and

in

character, that certain of these acts, being extremely

and being oft repeated, get themselves established as ingrained habits. These habits are then transmitted
offspring innate.

useful firmly
to
as

and

so

appear

in the younger

generations

Evidently

this theory involves two

fundamental

assumptions

The

without which it can hardly be made plausible at all. is that intelligence of the kind expressed in volunone tary action is an attribute of the lowest animal forms. The is that acquired

other well

habits may
they
are

established that
these assumptions

are

so gradually become transmitted by heredity.

Both

vigorously

challenged by scien-

INSTINCT

223

tists of repute.
to very

The
severe

second

in particular has by the

been

subjected
group

arraignment

great

of biologists who doubt or disbelieve that any characteristics lifetime are acquired by an individual in his own
ever

passed

on

by heredity to his offspring. experiment

The

matter

is

stillunder

active discussion and

at the hands

of zoologists, and we shall have to await their final verdict. Meantime, the theory of lapsed intelligence probably enrolls a much smaller number of defenders than the reflex
theory.

It has

one a

great

advantage

over

the latter theory

in that it is in

position to explain the slow building up instincts, because it can make use of the selective of complex influence of intelligence in picking out groups of useful

coordinations.
theory of organic selection is represented amon^ It maintains psychologists by Professor J. M. Baldwin.

(3)

The

that consciousness

is probably organisms,
same

present

and

in the very

low

and

it may

significant even be assumed to be

beings,
makes

of value in justthe i.e., by aiding in the

in its attempt

way

that it is.in human

which adjustments

the organism

to accommodate

its life to the exigencies of

its surroundings. By the assistance of these rudimentary forms of intelligence, organisms may, in the view of this theory, be kept alive during the period when instincts are

being slowly and more or less accidentally built up. Indeed, intelligence may influence in the conceivably exercise some
selection
or

elimination

of certain phases theory makes

no

developing

instincts. The

of the plastic ever, demand, how-

for assent to the doctrine of the transfer of acquired characteristics. It rather aligns itself in this matter with
the reflex theory, urging
are ever

that only

spontaneous

preserved

and

transmitted

by

variationsheredity. But it

224

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

obviously differs from

the reflex theory

of intelligence even possible presence animal life,and in assigning such intelligence an active and indispensable part in keeping the species alive during the period when
According

in recognizing the in low forms of

useful instincts
to the last two

are

getting themselves

lished. estab-

of these theories intelligence is developed in parallel with the instincts. On the basis of ligence the firsttheory, we must look for the appearance of intelat
a

Clearly if
we

we

evolution. relatively late point in animal individual, turn to the life history of the human the beginning

find from

unmistakable

of reflex and instinctive acts, and although we any developed capacities of voluntary control, consciousness present, and
stage the outcropping
we

evidences do not find

we

do find
early

encounter

at

very

of definitely volitional processes. In diately the normal child the act of nursing will occur almost immedislikes after birth ; but if the child for any reason be also overt the taste of the food supplied it, there may and violent refusal to accept it. There are many
as

evidences,

was

remarked

earlier in the chapter, that instincts may

be definitely modified and controlled by voluntary action. So far as concerns ourselves, then, we can only admit that in the primary while instincts and reflexes are dominant
stages

life history, intelligent control comes in at an early age to modify these inherited forms of behavior. That inherit the acquired habits of their children ever of
our

parents

be.en proved, and is by most observers believed not to be the fact.

never

has

competent

Instinct

and

Intelligence.

"

In

the

general

process

of

evolution any particular generation necessarily carries over from instinctive forms of beancestral conditions some

INSTINCT

225
or

kavior
extant

which

are

either partly

entirely useless under

circumstances.
are are

them

It is, indeed, probable that some of Clearly, such instincts at times positively harmful. to disappear they only likely wholly when pernicious them.
as

become

so

to threaten

the life of the species

manifesting
organs

On the other hand, we know that disused in which contend to atrophy, and in the measure temporary

conditions fail to call out particular modes of instinctive behavior, there is always a chance that they may
gradually

disappear.

Undoubtedly

tion the broad general functimes indicated, to-

of instincts is that already many

wit, the adaptation of the organism to the crucial features in advance of its individual experience. of its environment As soon begins to arise about the effects of as knowledge
the

in objects
can

the environment

upon

the organism,
control may

gence intellicome

begin to act and voluntary or displace the unaided to supplement

Many
only
human

in

guidance

of instinct.
value, not

instincts

are

still of the utmost

of the direct service which they render in sistent advance of experience, but also because they furnish perand powerful motives to lines of conduct which are
because both individually and tive racially indispensable. The instinclove of the mother for the child,, the instinctive sympathy forms of suffering, the instinctive interest with many
only

in acquisition, to mention
group

these traits is to whose

removal

name

of

instinctive tendencies
texture

radically alter the whole

of

our

would social fabric.

CHAPTER

XIV

ELEMENTS

OP

VOLUNTARY

ACTION

We

are

now

prepared

to attempt

synthesis of all the preceding mental

is essentially a analyses and descriptions of

what

The prime purpose of all sensations, operations. imaginings, reasonings, and feelings is to acts of memory, enable us intelligently to control our conduct. This power

parlance generally called of intelligent control is in common will. It is not the view of the present writer that the mind has any special faculty properly to be designated 'will.'

Rather

is this term

to be understood
an

entire mind when considered as To think is in a very true sense

is to will. In a way,

applicable to the active directive force.

as

to will.
name

To

posely recall pur-

To

sign
we

one's

intentionally is to

will.

then,

have

described many

phases of

our

analyzed and volitional processes, but it is

already
to consider
a

of distinct practical advantage of problems whereby

we

special group the

means

that still remain.

secure

These

concern

and maintain control over our muscular movements and thus become able at will to give expression to our thoughts, our wishes, and our decisions. There are
also certain large general aspects of volition and character intimate analysis and description than which merit more they have hitherto received.

Stages

of

Motor

Control.

"

Psychology

is under

no

movements obligation to explain the existence of the muscular involved in voluntary action. From the beginning

226

ELEMENTS

OF

VOLUNTARY
are

ACTION

227
a

of

baby

's

life these movements

or

occurring in

random,

spontaneous

impulsive

way.

But

the psychologist may

fairly be
manner

responsible for some in which these uncontrolled

as

held

description
movements

of the
become

organized,

ultimately

they sewing.
we

do, into

tions, coordinaeffective IV, to which ing outstandcontrol,

we

like writing
the reader may

and

In Chapter sketched

well refer,

the main
motor

features of this process and

that account
we

of acquiring
not repeat,

need

although

must

enlarge upon

certain phases

of it.

observer watching the progress of a baby's mastery of his muscles (as in learning to grasp an object which he might well remark the following stages:

An

sees), (1) A

first period in which

all the muscles

undirected impulsive
in response
to

movements

of

occur

sensory

stimuli,

some

of these being inside.1

intermediate

outside the body,

some

presumably

(2)

An

period

in which

few

movements

of the larger muscles slowly emerge. is very imperfect and many useless movements included.

controlled The control

are

always

(3) A final period in which skillin making

movements

is achieved and

the essential fall the superfluous movements

away.

coordinations may be taken on at any time, so that the three stages inevitably overlap, but any given act

(4) New

Some

of the

early

movements

are

of

course

instinctive and
nervous

pathways pre-formed here referred to movements

The

are

in and

over

pathways the

are*opened
sense

up
and

system. the type. non-instinctive mainly of by the pressure of the stimuli coming
are

through

the

represent The

organs uniform.

not,

like the

reflex paths, fixed

substantially

228

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
on

passes

through

substantially these phases in Gaining omits

its way

to

complete control. Factors Mental

an

Involved

Control.

"

Such
to

account

as

this evidently
accompany

all reference
a course

the

mental

processes which

such

ment. of developunanimous All events.

Unfortunately
as are

psychologists
nature

are

far from

to the exact

of these psychic

agreed

that

consciousness

is energetically

of acquiring control, and to subside and busy itselfelsewhere, as the coordination is All are also agreed that sensations gradually mastered. but the quesand ideas are employed in gaining motor skill, tion
as

during

the process

employed that it tends

to

just how
Under

they

are

used

is

source

of radical

disagreement. be most

these circumstances

it will perhaps

helpful to the reader if we sketch briefly one widely held view and indicate as we proceed some of the objections to it.
Let it be understood at the outset that the main points have to deal with are (1) the nature of the mental cue

we

by

is called forth when a particular movement which desired, (2) how this cue originally got its power to serve
a

as

motor

control, with

special regard

to any

differences

which characterize "being learned and

automatic,
are

is (a) the period when a new movement (b) the period afterit has become reasonably and (3) what forms of mental control

to supervise series of movements employed instance, as are used in piano playing.

such, for

Let it also be understood that we have no obligation to explain the fact that sensory and ideational states in general lead regularly to motor This follows consequences.

from

the nature

of the sensory-motor emphasized.

been constantly

What

we

circuit, which has do have to explain

ELEMENTS

OF

VOLUNTARY

ACTION
or

229

is the fact that

particular sensation rather than

idea is followed
other.

by

particular movement,
at
once

some

It may
reason

also be remarked
any

that normally

the only

sensation

or

there exists some into competition

idea fails to elicit a movement is that blockage in the neurones or that it comes
with
some

stronger

idea

or

sensation and

is overcome.

Owing
on

to the impossibility of ascertaining

justwhat
to
use a

goes

in the child's mind

we are

while

he

is learning
upon

his

muscles,

obliged to fall back

study. of the

behavior of adults when acquiring new motor coordinations. important differences Obviously the two conditions present many but we must make the best of the situation. Part Played by Sensations and Ideas of Movement.
"

of the voluntary muscles, however caused, produces kinaesthetic sensations and is apt to produce other is raised, we feel sensations too. For example, if the arm
movement

Every

the movement

and

are

likely also to

see

it. Now

one

view

about the origin of voluntary action maintains that we are so organized that by calling into mind the images of the kinaesthetic sensations aroused by any or spontaneous

impulsive
The itself.
upon

movement,

we

can

again

elicit the movement

control waits, then,

development

of voluntary

the accidental

occurrence

of movements recalling the

the

which

catch

attention, whereupon,

by

memory

of
may

the

kinaesthetic sensations repeated. Movements

aroused, presumably

movements

be
most

catch

attention

already easily when they produce changes in some object being attended to. A child looking at a red ball is fairly
sure

to notice the movement

contact

with

it. Thus

in by which his hand comes littleby littlethe various muscular

coordinations will be mastered.

230

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

This view maintains further, that as control grows, there is a speedy displacement of kinaesthetic images and sensations (called'resident' by James, because they arise in
the part
'

moved) in favor of images and sensations (called results of the act, rather remote') reporting the objective
the
mere
a

than

fact of movement.
we

The

auditory

word
as

images
only
cue

of

thus serve wish to write may to guide the hand, the kinaesthetic imagery
verse

the

being

entirely absent. Whether this general theory reader must

try to determine

squares

with the facts the

for himself.1

Criticism has been principally directed at two points. It is said (a) that as every kinaesthetic sensation is caused
by, and
and
occurs a after,

muscular

movement,

it is irrational

contrary

to the general
or

neural

suppose

that the sensation,

same

principle of habit to its image, can again bring

about the
out
some

movement.

If effectiveat all, it should call and

not

succeeding movement caused its appearance.

that which

nally origi-

It is further asserted
employed
at all, are

(b) that

kinaesthetic elements, if
to other kinds

merely

supplementary

of sensations and ideas, and that they probably enjoy but is imputed to them as any such primacy rarely, if ever, by the theory we have been considering. Any mental cue,
' ' Then backward. try eyes and write the word echo ' incomprehensibility.' long like See what a word sensory and to initiate imaginal the use and control movements. material you

Shut

the

Try
not

similarly some relatively novel movement, done before. Men can easily experiment
women can

on

something knitting
instrument.

you
or

have

crocheting,

try

some

unfamiliar

musical

If possible,

detect what
movements.

cues mental you employ Be to make sure some

to accomplish

experiments

the necessary the with

eyes

closed, to

bring

out

the

importance

of visual

control.

ELEMENTS

OF

VOLUNTARY

ACTION

231

be used to elicit a movement, it is alleged, may provided it has of circumstances combination only that by some It is become associated with the latter as its antecedent. generally added by defenders of this view that 'imageless thoughts'
often
serve

this function.
of

Tentative

Formulation

Principles
we

of

Muscular
our

Control.
views
on

"

Without

being dogmatic

may

formulate

To

as follows: certain general aspects of the subject rence. will an act is to foresee it and actively wish its occurimplies having some To foresee a movement representative

of it in the mind.
anticipate
a

We

cannot
or

in any
any

literal sense

muscular

movement,

have

precise idea

of it,until we know what it feels like, and this we cannot The learn until it has occurred in some accidental way. impulsive movements original spontaneous, afford justthis
necessary

and

information, and the memories of the movements their results afford the indispensable mental representatives wherewith
to think

of them

and

thus

initiate the

of wishing and willing their recurrence. Where interest is centered in the muscular movement its own sake, as in some gymnastic feats, we probably
process

for
use

kinaesthetic sensations and ideas as the chief medium of On the other hand when the interest is in the control.
result objective

of the act,

as

in most

of the occupations

doubtless make predominant use of other indirect forms of control. Whether more children always begin their processes of motor learning with the kinaesthetic
control, we
cannot

of daily life,we

say.

It

can

hardly fail to play

are
a

an

important

part.

But

in the

instances where
way.

it apparently
as

adult there figures in only Any

abundant
very

minor

Certainly

expertness

is gained, in any
remote.

act, the

controls become

more

and

more

idea may

lead

232

AN
an
a

INTRODUCTION

TO
to
a

PSYCHOLOGY

through
may

associative window

nexus

given movement.

One

in order to look down on the street, Two quite different ideas or in order to air out the room. idea thus lead to the same act. Moreover, one and the same
open

may

obviously lead to very different reactions desiring to find a coin, one firstexplores a pocket
a

as

when,

and then

desk drawer. The thinks the evidence quite clear that in some the kinaesthetic image of a movement actually serves
author

cases

to reinstate the movement,1

tendency

of all such mental is equally clear that in coordinated

be the original and this may factors. On the other hand it series of movements,
as

like skating, the kinaesthetic sensations serve for movements quite different from those which forth. Kinaesthetic images may well operate
the
are same

the

cues

called them at times in

fashion.
potent

But

other forms of sensations and ideas

control.
at the beginning
our

justas

in motor

Reverting to the three points mentioned may of this discussion, we summarize

follows
:

position

as

sensation or idea which has become associated as its antecedent may as the mental serve with a movement for its production. cue

(1) Any

(2) The
kinaesthetic

cues

first used
movements

are

the memories

of the accidental

spontaneous
cues

stages of motor

and their results. Probably in the early largely employed are more learning, other forms speedily sharing this

duty with them and after a time tending wholly to displace Ideas originally altogether disconnected with movethem.
1

For

an

interesting
see

hypothesis
Principles

to

this

fact,

James'

of

basis of explain the neural Psychology, Vol. II, Chapter

XXVI.

ELEMENTS
ments may

OF

VOLUNTARY
serve

ACTION
as cues

233

thus

come

ultimately to

for their

production. (3) A series of movements

once

initiated may

go

on

with

cases there must relatively little supervision, but in many be constant sensory direction, or the activity will go adrift.

Writing

affords

an

excellent illustration. The

control may

be, and

generally

is, carried
now

of attention, only

in the margin of the field and then becoming focal, when some
on
new a

difficulty arises which

the pen

requires

adjustment
"

e.g., when

point catches and

makes

blot.

The

sight of the
the hand,

word
or
as

or

the pen, the kinaesthetic sensations from

the sound

of the pen

on

the paper, may

any

or

all serve

the controls.

ObjectiveStudies
many

experimental

in adults, an brought to light. If

we

result of tion studies of the process of habit formainteresting group of facts has been
"

of Motor

Learning.

As

arrange

to

measure,

hour

by hour

or

day

by day,

the rate of progress

we

made

in the mastery
to
a

find, contrary

common

accomplishment, of a new impression, that

even

effort is substantially constant and when ostensibly the difficulty of the task is also approximately
when
our
we

uniform,
we

do not progress
much
occur more

at

constant

rate.

Sometimes
now

go very

rapidly than at others, and during

and

then
seem

there

considerable periods
no

either to make accompanying made

The

advance or figure 51 represents

a

which we actually to go backward. in graphic

form

the progress

by

person

telegraphic
many
once

messages.

learning to send and receive Similar curves are available for It will be
seen

other types
that the

of accomplishment. instead

at

curve,

upward-pointing

line making

a straight of representing an angle of forty-five degrees

234

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

with the base line, is extremely

up

irregular, sometimes

shooting

rapidly, then falling back again, and at two or three points presenting roughly a level region. Such a region is These are zones during which no spoken of as a plateau.

advance

was

The

being made, learner was

as

measured

by
no

ment. achieveobjective
more

performing

rapidly

at

the end of the period than at the beginning. It would be a great mistake to suppose that

no

growth

FIG. 51. The lower horizontal during training was which

"

number time.

line represents the number of weeks in progress. The vertical line the of words which could be sent and received per unit of from Bryan (Modified and Harter.)

in skillis going have, to be sure,

plateaus.

on

during these days.

Some

experimenters

But

called in question the necessity for such whether or not, under occasional ideal conditions

they may question

be minimized,
that they
processes,

there

seems

to be

no

reasonable

reflect a

genuine

part
as

of all

familiar learning
involve there
the

attainment
a as

especially such dexterity. of motor which

pathways the
as nervous

definitely

Apparently
system

comes

point
many
new

at

has

assimilated

it is for the moment

can

capable of receiving, and before profitable advance made in the using of such paths, there must be an

be

appre-

ELEMENTS

OF

VOLUNTARY

ACTION

235

ciable time for the sinking in and crystallizing of the new After these have become firmly established, connections.
a new

set may

then

Distribution

of

be built upon these foundations. Effort in Learning. An interesting

"

tion corollary of these observations has to do with the distribuof effort and time in any process of learning, but particularly in such as we are here considering, in which
motor

coordinations

are

being established. Various

opinions

have been entertained regarding such matters as the length sons and frequency of practice periods most desirable for perlearning
to play
a

musical
many

instrument.

There

is

music teachers that the length of a practice only limitation to the advantageous period is set by fatigue. The problem, conceived in a large lating way, is stillin its infancy, but evidence is rapidly accumu-

deep-seated

among prejudice

which

strongly

suggests

that

very

much

briefer

for many are periods of practice than have been customary At the present moment no one purposes advantageous. how many sets of tennis really knows in any precise manner
best be played each day in order to secure a maximal ever, proficiency most quickly. The judgment of experts, howmay

is rapidly growing
much that
a

in

direction which experimentation

would
to

confirm
effect

recent

psychological
men

the

dozen

often for one who it comes to a question of increasing mere power, muscular a 'different course be wise, as will be indicated in a may later chapter.
We
have already had something with
memory.

by practicing too long and too blunders in the opposite direction. When

blunder

to say about this matter

in connection

In

general, it may

be laid

down

as

reasonably
upon

precept

certain that while "line upon line and is morally wholesome doctrine, it precept"

236

AN
not

INTRODUCTION
as

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

must

be understood

meaning

that

judged by objective
will show
are sure

achievement
an

equal

amount

flat regions familiar conditions; but these regions

be

of effort expended There of tangible outcome. in the learning curve under

are

each hour

to

almost

all the

themselves

preconditions of subsequent

rapid advance.

CHAPTER

XV

WILL,

INSTINCT,
it

AND

CHARACTER

urged that we find acquired voluntary acts coming in to help out the short-comings of The instinctive acts hereditary instinctive equipment. our
was

Early

in this book

appear

earlier and thus

are

acts

phase

of

primitive, and the tary volunThere is another apparently built upon them. deserves the relationship, however, which
seem more

mention.
Volition,

Attention,

and

Instinct.
"

veloped Volition in its de-

forms

involves choice among

These choices cannot be made of the muscles, but the necessity for making
not

possible alternatives. effectiveuntil we have control

them

our competition among and instincts. Attention is simultaneously appealed to by instincts, and in the two or more stimuli, by two or more

arise

were

there not

would impulses

nature

duct of the case one or other must give way, unless conis to be paralyzed. Choice, decision, will, in the fullest sense to arise out of such circumstan of the word, seems and those impulses and ideas which succeed in
gaining
our

into action.

persistent attention are forthwith translated Willing is therefore in the last analysis a psychologic When
only
one

process of attending.
can

competitor

hold attention firmly, choice has occurred and the movements expressive of the decision will take place at the in accordance with the procedure sketched proper moment, in the previous
chapter.

Volition thus establishes organi237

238

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO
as

PSYCHOLOGY among
our

zation among

instincts, as well

random

taneous spon-

movements.

less to organize instinct, instinct no If volition serves imperious motives to volition. to furnish the most serves

Indeed, it is not

too

much

to say

that all the great

persistent

types of human

purpose

have their roots in instinct,

man

and

that the evolution of character in

is essentially his

process
nature.

of

symmetrical
some
one

development instinct
or

of

instinctive

Where

group

of instincts succeeds

in dominating and it may

all the others, the result is a one-sided,

Or, looking at the tion situafrom the other side, the absence of a proper development of certain instinctive traits may produce a weak and
be
a

vicious, character.

flabby character. should

At

all events,

it is desirable that

we

consider for a few moments of instinct to volition.

Instinctive
one

tions certain of these rela-

Persistent

in Chapter
expression

XIII,

pointed out of the earliest of these instincts to find

"

Influences.

As

was

is undoubtedly

anger.

It appears
or

on

the slightest

provocation

whenever

appetites
on a

desires

are

thwarted.

and relentless struggle to try and keep the expressions of it within reasonable its bounds, and religion and ethics alike have condemned manifestations except in a qualified way in connection with
issues involving
there

Civilization has carried

long

the welfare
are

instincts which are in the gross play

theless, Neverof the social group. few human emotions, few probably frequently stimulated and which more
larger
part

in determining

human

conduct.
and

Many

individuals will instantly resent the implication deny the truth of this assertion. But if one

are that irritation, exasperation, annoyance remembers all for rudimentary forms of anger, and will then take names

WILL,

INSTINCT,

AND

CHARACTER

239

the trouble to trace emotions, such

as

the similar rudiments

in many

other

and moral indignation, the plausibility of the assertion will be recognized. Fear, again, is one of the earliest and most persistent of

jealousy, envy

and instinctive motives. Physical fear is,thanks to the conditions of civilized life,a far less frequent experience But if one takes a few centuries ago.1 than it was
emotional

into account

all the anxieties that connect precarious

themselves

with

ill-health,with and
with
the

social and

economic

prospects,

of personal affections, to mention na be seen that the other phases of the case, it will at once human lives in a most shadow of fear still hovers over
course

very

genuine

way.

Turning
a

from

these

more

egotistical instincts to those of

more

generous

great

group

the come upon socialized type, we of so-called tender feelings, the human tions, affec-

and

love and sympathy important part in every

cases
an case

and pity, each of which plays an human life, and in some normal

the

is this So much part. predominant that in certain highly organized individuals fear,
altogether

at least, may

be almost in which

wholly

abolished except
as

in that

vicarious form,

it survives

anxiety

for the

welfare of others. These considerations, brief

suffice to suggest
statement
to the reader
a

as

they

are,

may

perhaps

that instincts play

the essential truth of the dominant part in determining

of voluntary conduct, and in keeping alive tant to the pursuit of a disthe vividness of interest necessary and difficultend. One other aspect of the case ought,
the motives

however,
1

to be brought

more

definitely into the foreground.

war

The

German

this sentence

method of conducting doubtful. very

has

made

the

truth

of

240

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO
"

PSYCHOLOGY which,
we

Transitory chosen
as

Instincts.

The

instances

have

illustrative of the general truth under discussion indifferently involve emotions which characterize somewhat

nitely defiall periods of life. Certain there are which are more periodic in character, belonging to particular stages
of life
or

to particular

forms

of human

experience.

The

adolescent
more

with

period is generally characterized by a much vivid interest of the sexes in one another than is met parat an ticulars earlier age, and of a character in some

quite unique as compared with that which has gone before. This type of interest, once developed, may extend

indefinitely throughout
acute

later life, but it is apt to be most

and clearly takes its rise from the radical changes in the bodily organization which occur at that time. As compared with either anger or fear, this
in its earlier stages
sex

instinct is evidently periods and

definitely limited to particular to particular situations in life.

more

similar episodal character is the love of the mother for her child, an instinct which obviously -can have no full

Of

in the earlier years of life and which may with Despite pass largely without expression. childless women incidental character of this impulse, there is the somewhat development
none

in the whole capable

of

range

of the human

instinctive equipment

more

complete
two

domination
serve

of the life of
to represent

the possessor.
a

These

instances may
are

group

of instincts which
as

in
many

some

tory, particulars transia

and,
more

compared

with

others, of

distinctly

periodic character. Intellectual and Aesthetic

rarer

Impulses.

"

Although

undoubted

as

dominantly

controlling
a

influences in

life,but nevertheless

involving

genuine

instinctive basis, which

should

be mentioned

those types

of impulse

lead to

WILL,

INSTINCT,

AND

CHARACTER

241

the pursuit

individuals
strong

Thus certain of definitely intellectual ends. are said to have strong scientific interests,

scholarly

interests, and

the

like.

These

spring

be called the out of curiosity, or what may undoubtedly hunting instinct in its intellectual form, the play instinct, tist and the instinct of construction. Probably no great scienlived who did not feel an overweening inquisitiveever ness about the field in which he worked, who did not have
something who

of the thrill of the hunter close upon his quarry, did not find the pursuit of his science presenting all

the thrill and

the competitive

stimulation of
and
rival

combative
"

of with something instinct called out by the

game,

opposition

of

scientists, who

did

not,

in

other

lectual purely cold and intelwords, carry on his work, however it appears to the outsider, with much of the fervor and heat of the primitive animal impulse.

Similarly the artist responds in his professional work to frankly of the more group of motives which are even
We
have
not

instinctive kind.

listed in the catalogue

of

of beauty, nor would reference to the sense it be possible to include in any single term all that is involved in the constructive artistic impulse. It involves
the play instinct, it often involves something of imitation, it involves strongly the tendency to self-expression, it has in it much of constructiveness, and it is saturated with appreciation of beauty,
or

instincts any

artistic production and

of nature, of that of others. But

whether

of

one's

own

however

poor

inadequate
many

our

terminology,

there

can

be

no

question

that with

individuals the impulse

over
sense

for artistic constructio

predominates it is in
have
a

most

perfectly real

vestiges of these

more

other motives, and that native. No doubt all of us intellectualisticand artistic

242

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

impulses, but viewing

take
a
on

mankind

in the large, such motives

careers

power

to control and

determine the

of only

few individuals.
Well

Developed Instincts.
"

Character
What
we

Depends

on

Balance

Among

the development

had in mind in speaking of of volition as involving organization and

instinctive propensities will perhaps

balance
now

among
more

our

tive obvious than before. Certainly on the negaside it is clear that a life dominated by impulses of an or case anger antiof fear would create in the one

be

impossible character, and in the other a morbid individuality. Over against such one-sidedness and craven be set the extreme may sentimentalist whose entire life is soiial and

Such persons are tion. a deserving religious or the curse of many ethical instituUnder the cloak of a fine and pure altruism they
a

mere

wallow

of ill-directedsympathy.

represent

in fact

and

persons
so

spineless and flabby tolerance for things is the intrinsically intolerable. Not unknown
a

individual

render less distressing is the occasional person

inflated with vanity and self-esteem impossible all ordinary social relations. But
so

as

to

little

afflicted with self-

abasement,
any

self-distrust,and timidity as again to render lessly normal participation in the business of society hopeimpossible. Even fine an instinct as that of so
pride and affection may
a

parental

be exploited to
nuisance and
an

point

where

it constitutes

of ridicule to all

sane

neighborhood folk.

object

These instances will surely sufficeto exhibit that which is involved in a reasonable balance of our instinctive equipment.

describe with precision wherein such balance if not impossible. But consists would 110 doubt be difficult, on the other hand there is no particular difficultyin dis-

To

WILL,

INSTINCT,

AND

CHARACTER

243

in any marked earning the lack of balance when it occurs degree, and it may obviously arise, as has been said, either of the exaggeration of one or more of the instinctive groups, or from the suppression, partial or complete, of The history of civilization exhibits the process others.
out

through
come as

the ordinary individual has which, littleby little, to develop such an his instincts equilibrium among
a

will permit
moment
's

complex

organization of the social structure.

serve

reflection will

to show

instincts most
people

essential to the life of a will differ decidedly from the group

an

of primitive hunting

that the group

to

agricultural form

make

quite different demands

of life, and upon instinctive traits from

quisite of those rethat both will

those needed in a highly organized industrial community. In each form of life the great motive powers which move the individual are found in these instinctive springs, but the particular
balance

cultural stage may

economic and well be quite different from that essential

best suited to

one

in another.
and the Sources of Our Controlling Interests. view has been presented in this chapter that to will "The is, psychologically, to attend, and that in the process of Volition

find the crucial features of volition. In connection with this doctrine it remains to add further consideration, to wit, that the direction of one
attention
we

may

expect

to

attention is largely determined

common-sense

by interest. In

practical,

recognizes that the mind tends to dwell most topics of interest. This persistently upon fact, when that translated into terms of conduct, means
way everyone
we

tend to choose those lines of thought and action most to we these interests. When attempt compatible .with interests, catalog and classify the general range of human

244
we

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

find that the predominant and most widely distributed varieties center in our racial instincts,upon which we have

just been
types

commenting.

Side by side with

these general

which we share with all our fellows, e.g., interest in in power, and in social prestige, is to be food, in warmth, placed a group varying from individual to individual, but

derived from and

talents
as

common

source, our

i.e., such tastes,

prejudices,

spring from
our

personal family heritage in

contrast

with

human

racial traits.
there
are

In every

community

certain to be individuals

enjoyingsome
has
come

repute peculiar capacity which by common down by inheritance in the family of the person

This kind of thing is likely to escape attention unless the talents involved are of a somewhat unusual Nevertheless, the genuineness order. of the facts can hardly be called in question. Here is a child early manifesting concerned.

marked interest in music and decided ability in that it will be found that one direction. Often in such cases
or

both parents

enjoythe

same

marked

characteristics, and

frequently the quality can be traced back through a long inherited predispositions of this kind is Around ancestry.
likely to grow imperious
as

up

set of interests which

over

may

in their control
are

the conduct

be quite as vidual of the indi-

of the more strictly racial tendencies. So far as the individual himself is concerned, interests of this character are quite as innate as any of the more purely
any

instinctive kind, but it is clear that they represent

unknown specialized group of traits which for some have developed in a particular stock and are in in general. degree common to men

highly
reason

no

such

Even

more

striking than these

talent, with their accompanying

of inherited family intellectual and emotional

cases

WILL,

INSTINCT,
rare

AND

CHARACTER

245

but well authenticated instances of the occasional outcropping in a given person of remarkable tastes and abilitiesin no wise to be discovered in any of
interests, are
the

the immediate
an

ancestors.

extreme

form
an

all men,

to wit,

of thing represents in what is, no doubt, in lesser degree true of element of individual variation, carrying

This type

with it peculiar abilitiesand interests in no literal sense to be found in any other individual. The genius is conspicuously of this type. Perhaps the commonest example is represented

by the appearance

and

unusual

of marked intellectual interests intellectual talent in the child of wholly

commonplace
parents.

uneducated

and

then, that the controlling interests of any individual may derive from one or more of three different

It appears,

sources:

(1)

racial instincts,

(2) family

traits, and

(3)

individual variations, representing in nervous and mental organization what the botanists and zoologists call a 'sport/ be that is to say, a variation which cannot at present explained in any ordinary terms of inheritance. As the individual grows and develops, these centers of interest are into relation with one another, and necessarily brought
some or

sort of organization

is established. Certain interests,

of interests, gradually tend to attain mastery over the others. It must not be supposed that this statement implies the opposition of one to a whole as group The controlling system have in it another group. may
groups

elements from

and it is often extremely from groups difficultto distinguish influences emanating

all three
sources,

(2) and
comes

under Limitations

it Little by little,however, respectively, to pass that there is established a certain system which our daily life is passed.

(3)

Upon

the Response

to

Interests.

"

Nor

do

246
our

AN

INTRODUCTION
as

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

interests merely
The

such

enjoy a

free fling in their

own

cultivation.

social, and

obstinate facts of the physical, barriers beyond financial world create

rugged and

which we cannot pass, and within which we are obliged as desires and ambito seek fulfilment for our best we may tions. The direction, however, which the development of
our

conduct

and

character

takes is essentially determined

are

by this great nucleus of interests. Some we to acquire. But in a sense, we seem some, history of their origin, they
are

born with, the

whatever

within

us

the eternal -well-

springs of our energy and activity. tive An interesting instance of the way in which our instinctraits are molded by social influences is exhibited in the facts of imitation. Although there are at least two, and perhaps
more,

forms of imitation, the

one

highly na'ive,

essentially reflex and

other
more

characteristic of early childhood, the

psychologists reflective and purposeful, many have been disposed to admit the essentially instinctive character of both.

Certain it is that

our

mastery

of most,
as

if

not all,of the forms of social intercourse known rests upon

imitative activities in which obligated by social pressure to follow the pattern set by The occasional social anarchist who to usage. attempts

etiquette the individual is

flout these usages outcast, or speedily finds himself an established in the unenviable category of the social freak. sant to the incesFrom earliest childhood on we are

subjected

pressure

appear

as

of social customs, which on their higher levels law, or as moral principles, whose rational justificatio
sooner
or

is

and

one

later urged upon us. In the thousand are eccentricities of local or national usage we
our

thrown upon
a

back for
purely

acceptance

unrational

of the established practices to the effect that "all mandate

WILL,

INSTINCT,

AND

CHARACTER

247

well-bred people do it." To defy one of these mandates is to exclude one's self from the walks of polite society. in Germany, Why should one lift his hat to a gentleman but only to
a

lady in America
the
use

of a of a fork in polite circles in the United States, while no such prejudiceis entertained in lower circles in this country, and neither in high nor low circlesin certain parts
against prejudice of the Continent ? Why should gentlemen in Europe wear their hair short and in Asia long ? Why should ladies wear skirts in Europe and trousers in Manchuria ? Why should
the usage

should one entertain steel knife for the purposes

Why

These questions be exactly reversed for men? but to violate the dictates of the have no rational answers, several usages involved is to reap a form of social whirlwind enough which few persons are curious or courageous
Development Moral
last two

to experiment

with. From
"

Muscular

to

Intellectual

and

Control.

Looking

back

over

the materials of the

chapters, it will be seen that the early stages of development of voluntary control are necessarily directed
to the gaining
over the muscles; that as soon of command as this motor control is established we proceed forthwith to make our muscles the tools for carrying out our aims, for

securing

aims of
our

ends. is determined

those

and of these purposes in the firstinstance by the urgencies instincts and appetites. In the early stages of life, interests which immediately are most related to
our

The

character

bodily comfort and sustenance are in the foreground. They never wholly lose their significance for us, but as maturity

is gained
way

they

rapidly

lapse into the background,

more

giving

to other forms
our

of interests connected
moral

definitely

with

social and

relations and

with the growth

248

AN
our

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

of

general

intellectual life. Not

the least important

of the features of this later stage of our development is our The the process of thought itself. control over growing
littlechild is quite incapable of sustained reflection. The for disciplined adult is able to give himself if necessary hours at a time to undiverted thought upon his own future
This gain in power is primarily a gain in ability conduct. When to hold attention to a process of thought. a decision is reached, the line of conduct selected is carried out by the muscles
almost

automatically.

CHAPTER

XVI

SLEEP,

DREAMS,

HYPNOSIS, PERSONALITY

AND

MULTIPLE

Over against
have

cussion experiences, with which our dishitherto dealt, are properly to be mentioned
our

waking

certain facts about

our

sleep which

occupies the other part

of

lives and which is characterized by a peculiar form that we call the dream. consciousness of its own, Main
Facts

of

About

ingenious experimental
among

physiologists

no

the extended and investigations of sleep, there is still as to its causes. complete agreement
"

Sleep.

Despite

The
must,

dogmatic

statements

which

are

often made

about

it

as therefore, be understood expressing the opinion tain of individuals rather than the final verdict of science. Cermay be mentioned. general features of the phenomenon

Although

in sleep the central

nervous

system

is clearly

less excitable than

during

waking

mistake to think of it as in any Sensory stimulations which in waking conditions would produce sensations may, in sleep, be quite ineffective; but the presence
say

periods, it would be a sense completely inactive.

of dreams of the

and

of certain of the reflexes, to

autonomic
are

nothing

activities of the

system,

whereby

the vegetative processes show clearly that neural

of the organism

maintained,

kind is excitation of some in progress. During sleep the blood vessels of the brain are relaxed, and the pressure in the entire body is lowered. A common view is that sleep is to be regarded as an instinc249

250

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

tive reaction, which is favored by conditions of moderate fatigue, of quiet, of habit, and of expectancy, although no be able to induce it in a given one of these alone may

instance.
the waste

There

seems

to be

no

doubt

that during

sleep

of tissues which goes on during the waking period is repaired, and there is good evidence that the cell bodies
neurones

of the
are

restore

broken

down

certain of their substances which during waking. Experiments have made conditions the depth
an

it quite certain, too, that under normal

of sleep, as measured
to awaken

by the power

of

auditory stimulus

the sleeper, increases for about three-quarters of hour to an hour, then falls very rapidly until between an the third and fourth hour, after which an extremely slight

sound

may
"

cause

awakening.

diate diversity of opinion regarding the immecauses of sleep is reflected in a similar divergence of ing opinion regarding the continuous presence of dreams durDreams.

The

sleep.

Undoubtedly

the

commoner

absolutely dreamless sleep probably frequent inability to recall dreams

view today is that Our does not occur. is attributed to the

rapidity with which we forget them upon awakening. There is littlequestion that the stimulus to the beginning is often a sensory of a dream excitation, a sound, the
-

pressure
or

of the bed clothing, the chill of a draught the like. But once the dream is started, the course

of air, which

it takes is apparently principles

as

with memory control from any

commonly

associacontrolled by much the same tive have previously described in connecwe tion and imagination, but under littleor no

definite purpose

or

intention, such

as

presides over our trains of waking thought. Freud, the Austrian psychologist, has recently urged that represent the expression of suppressed wishes all dreams

SLEEP,

DREAMS,
not

AND

HYPNOSIS

251

which
moments.

one

dares He

frankly

confront

during

also believes that the particular the dream

waking ideas and

images

in which

is embodied

are

often represent suggested

that in this way

situations quite other than by the images themselves. Freud

many

symbolic and ately those immedibelieves

desires and wishes are cherished imagination, which and given realization in the dream could otherwise gain no hearing, because of their hostility
to the
one's

ideals and
moral

of prejudices

the waking

mind.

Thus

the convictions might altogether prevent indulgence overtly in acts which in this more or less bolic symform are freely cultivated. The dream thus dream

offers a field for the fruition of a great group of impulses and desires which the inhibitions of society and of moral training exclude from waking experience. Fatigue.
"

Whatever
can

dreams, there

be

no

of sleep and question that sleep is essential for

explanations

the

the repair of the physical and mental exhaustion coming from work. Fatigue is a perfectly normal phenomenon, forms and may, indeed, be thought of as essential to many

of growth.

Certainly

no

one

can

secure

hard

and

well

disciplined muscles who does not use them to the point of be a very fatigue. On the other hand, over-fatigue may of experience which robs us of sleep for any considerable period of time is likely to be it fairly disastrous. Experiments have made extremely
serious matter,

and

any

type

clear,

as

mentioned

above, that the

nerve use,

definite physical changes

under

excessive

cells undergo in which certain

of the tissues contained within them are used up. Similarly it has been shown that the muscles under fatigue become clogged with waste material, and the blood is invaded by poisonous elements thrown
into it by the action

252

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

recuperaof the body tissues. Under normal conditions the tion from fatigue is prompt and complete. Conditions of Effective Work. Evidently the highest
"

efficiency implies such

with

combination

of periods

of work
accomplishment

periods of rest

as

shall enable the maximum

compatible with the maintenance of the organism 'spurt' for a considerable in robust condition. One can inperiod of time under pressure, but such spurts are evitab

followed
rest, if one

by

disproportionately
one's

is to regain

periods of original freshness. Most

a

long

individuals organize their daily lives in too haphazard

manner

to make

this matter

of work

and rest of any

great

consequence.
a

This is another way

very

large part

of saying that they waste It is quite of their time and energy. with approximate
correctness

possible to

ascertain

the

length of the intervals during

which one can work intently to advantage, and also the length of the interval of rest best follow upon such occupation. which may
For
the average
person
an

of sedentary
or
as

life, engaged

upon

intellectual tasks,

hour
as

two
can

labor is likely to be

much

is to work without respite, if one It is often said that the only day.

of really concentrated be profitably indulged successfully day after

rest which

is then

But the other form of work. needed is a change to some best experimental evidence does not confirm this. The resting interval should be occupied in a way to furnish a

minimum

diverting and Mild physical exercise is good, but recreative character. an severe physical activity is itself tiring, producing

of mental

exercise and

this of

unfavorable
operation.
strongly

effect upon The

any

immediately
of

succeeding

mental quite

best

studies and

fatigue

indicate
are

that mental

physical fatigue

in the last

SLEEP,

DREAMS,

AND

HYPNOSIS

253

The length of the interval of rest ought not analysis one. to be so brief as to leave one still feeling dull and tired, and on the other hand it ought not to be so long as to oblige us to start at the beginning in 'getting up steam/ for it is a common any observation that in undertaking It is serious task there is a period of 'warming up/ obviously period
as

in the interest of efficiency to abbreviate this much

as

Pillsbury and
vary

possible. other investigators have

as

shown

viduals that indiof the day

mean

considerably

regards

the time

when that

they work

to best advantage.

This

does not for

the

ordinary

individual

is incapacitated

work

altogether at any that

some

particular time.
can

It does

mean,

however, in the

persons
some

accomplish

their best work

some

morning,

in the afternoon, and

in the evening.
are

It goes without
extent
a

saying that these peculiarities

to

some

subjectto training, and that what

one
a a

appears

to be

preference for

be only

result of

in point of fact of these periods may habit, which can by the expenditure

of effort be changed. The of sleep and dreams leads naturally to a subject few comments sciousne upon certain other variations of normal conwhich are of interest. Production
"

Hypnosis, the which, as of Hypnosis. semblin particulars closely reword suggests, is a state in many sleep, has attracted wide scientific attention in Skilful operators can transfer a person in recent years.
normal the sleep to But ordinarily condition of hypnosis. condition is induced by special processes
a

hypnotic

which

result in throwing
at first resembling

the waking

patient into

tion condi-

There

are

many

light slumber. methods for producing

hypnosis.

Some

254
are

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

successful with given individuals, but fail with others. Practically all normal persons who desire to be hypnotized
can

by

one

method

or

another, if the attempt

is repeated

often enough,
hypnosis. methods
some common

be at least slightly affected, and a very considerabl into the deeper forms of be drawn can number

Whatever
all have
in

the
common

detail of

the

procedure,

the

the fixing of attention upon

monotonous,

A and if possible, soothing stimulus. device is to 'talk sleep' while stroking gently the

brows of the patient, occasionally making gentle passes with Many over the hands down the arms and trunk. of the fixation of the eyes wont to employ earlier operators were little above the bridge of the involve a fairly pronounced nose, so that to look at it would Other operators have at times strain of the eye muscles.
upon
some a or the flashing of light used the ticking of a metronome, from rotating mirrors. Others have pressed on the palm Once a has become accustomed to of the hand.

bright

held object

subject

following the directions of the operator, who assures from time to time that he is falling asleep, almost signal will serve to bring on the hypnotic condition.
As in normal sleep, the

him
any

simply become slightly drowsy and then arouse again, or he may sink into indefinite period. From a deeper sleep lasting for an this sleep he may ordinarily be aroused by the command of the

subjectmay

operator,
a

if left alone, he will generally wake littlewhile of his own initiative.

or

up

after

Suggestion

in

Hypnosis.

"

Perhaps

the

most

striking

condition is the patient's remarkable In susceptibilityto suggestions given by the operator. in a certain degree to the waking life,we are all

feature of the hypnotic

subject
we

effectsof suggestion.

If

are

told that

speck high up

SLEEP,

DREAMS,

AND

HYPNOSIS

255
we

in the sky is
can
see

an

aeroplane

and

that by looking sharply

we are

detect the wings

of the machine, though

our

very
a

likely to

what we are told, even In not a flying machine. had occasion to remark which we see and hear are
we

the

be object

bird and

discussion of sense perception that the larger part of the things perceived in accordance with the

rather than suggestions given to us by the physical objects, But in hypnosis this in any literal sense as they really are.
normal

suggestibility is much

exaggerated,

and

is ordinarily

confined to the words and acts of the operator. Indeed, as we have intimated, the sleep is brought on by a
process

which

People

is essentially one of suggestion. in the extent to which vary very much

they

are

affected by hypnotic suggestion, and they tend also to ing. become increasingly susceptible under repeated hypnotizIn describing the more it conspicuous phenomena,
may

be understood

then that

we

are

which would not necessarily present individual in the earlier hypnotic experiences. in Hypnosis. Symptoms We may roughly
"

describing conditions themselves in any one

group

the

characteristic phenomena

under

the following

headings:

(1) sensorial, (a) anaesthesia and analgesia; (b) hyperaesthesia; (c) hallucination; (2) amnesia, i.e., loss of (3) motor, (a) paralyses; (b) catalepsies; (4) memory;
post-hypnotic effects.
easy

(l)(a) It is ordinarily
insensitiveness to contact

to produce

by

suggestion

though the with the skin, even thus stimulation be painful. The back of the hand may be rendered insensitive, so that it will not be moved even if cut, pricked, or burned. cult (1)(b) Similarly it is not diffihypersensitivity of sense produce perception, as be illustrated either in visual or cutaneous stimulation.
to

may

256

AN
a

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

the skin of the forehead, the coin be pressed upon individual can normal generally perceive the objectas

If

circular in shape, but this is usually all. The hypnotized person may be quite able to give an approximately correct
report

of the design

on

the coin.

Again,

plain cards, like calling cards, be shown

of fifty to the hypnotized

if
a

pack

individual, and
can,

he be asked to note

one

in particular, he

after the cards are shuffled,pick out the original with individual. a precision far excelling that of the ordinary To make this test it is of course essential to have the critical card marked experimenter
on

side in to identify it.

the
reverse

some

way

to permit

the

tions (l)(c) The evidence about the production of hallucinais somewhat ambiguous, but it is generally accepted that in the deeper hypnoses at least they may be encountered. If the be presented with a blank piece of

subject

paper
a

upon

which

he is assured there appears

sketch of

being asked, that he actually sees the tree; and if a pencil be put in his hand, he will ordinarily trace the outline of the fictitious suggested
agree, upon

tree, he may

object.Despite
to be
sees

sure

what

forms of control, it is difficult good many whether in every such case the subject really he alleges, or whether he simply gives verbal
a

assent to the suggestion

and

his adjusts

conduct

to fit the

circumstances

as

the operator

describes them.

the degree to variation regarding which upon being aroused from the hypnotic sleep different recall what has gone on, but after deep hypnosis,

(2)

There

is great

subjects
occurred.

there is usually almost

The memory
a

preserved, because in
the experience
may

forgetfulness of what has of the period is,however, obviously subsequent hypnosis every detail of
complete

be recalled. Moreover,

if, during

the

SLEEP,

DREAMS,

AND

HYPNOSIS

257

sleep, it be suggested

that the
upon

will subject

recall

particular

circumstance

awakening,

it is practically

certain to be remembered.

(3)(a) One of the

which is often used of genuine hypnosis

most
a

as

easily produced definite symptom

move

results and

one

of the presence
the voluntary
a

is the inability to

muscles, especially those of the eyelids. At

certain point

in the oncoming of the hypnotic sleep the operator says: 1 'Now eyes"; cannot you open your enough, and sure struggle as he may, the patient finds that he cannot lifthis

lids.
a

fashion the muscles, if put into not given position, the suggestion being added that they canbe moved, will remain for an astounding length of time

(3)(b) In

the

same

rigid and
a

tense.

Under

strain quite beyond

these conditions they will sustain their normal capacity. The stock

exhibition of this phase of hypnotic phenomena consists in stretching the patient out with head and heels resting on This two chairs and the rest of the body unsupported. achievement is quite beyond the muscular powers of most individuals, but under hypnosis considerable weight may be added to the body without destroying the own

subject's
as

muscular

resistance.
are

(4)

Amazing

many

of

these

peculiarities of

hypnosis, the ability to carry over the effectsof suggestion into the subsequent waking life of the is even more subject striking. The therapeutic value of hypnotism has generally been regarded as depending largely on this feature. A
person

suffering from morbid assured in hypnotic sleep that

dreads
on

or

anxieties, when

these mental awakening disturbers will not be encountered, is often freed from the distress and suffering for a considerable length of time. The
most

scientifictreatment

of

nervous

and

mental

trou-

258

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY
upon here

bles, however, of

is not today made dependent direct suggestion. We cannot enter

this type into

any

detailed explanation of the reasons Suffice it to say that

gotten

for this change

more

of procedure.

in other ways.

The

lasting results are point here is that suggestions

ing given during hypnosis are often carried out after awakenin the most remarkable way, and often without any consciousness on the part of the patient that he is executing

commands which have been previously given to him. For experimental purposes a common tion type of demonstrawould be illustrated by an operator's instructing a
ing patient to return at a certain hour three weeks later, bringlike a basket of quite improbable object, with him some fish. Odd as it may in nine cases seem, out of ten the

patient and the fish will be forthcoming at the time and place set. Not only so, but the victim of the experiment is fairly certain to turn up provided ingenious with an
account

of the

subject

Moreover, the whole perof why he has come. formance may be carried out without suspicion on the part that he is serving the cause of an experimental

demonstration.

The psychological explanation of these post-hypnotic suggestions is not at all clear, although in many cases what
is that the suggested idea begins to grow itself from the time it is first and develop and justify implanted to fruition. In general the until it comes
seems

to happen

certain, and all that can be said briefly is perhaps that most, if not all, the of the phenomena encountered appear to hinge upon severing of the marginal portions of consciousness from the focus, and this focus appears to be determined by the The operator. practical effect of the situation is to

explanation

of hypnotic

behavior is far from

SLEEP,

DREAMS,

AND

HYPNOSIS

259

eliminate the ordinary inhibitive influences of opposingideas, which to normal under enter conditions would behavior. Such restrainmodify and control the subject's ing ideas being absent, the carries out by his

subject

actions the thoughts

which

are

thus left in possession of the

field.1
Trance
many

Mediumship.

"

This

condition of hypnosis

sents pre-

similarities to the so-called trances of the itualisti spirAlthough it seems to admit necessary mediums.

that

of the professional mediums fakes and charlatans, there is no question at all that are certain individuals, perhaps victims of hysteria, pass from
a

considerable proportion

time to time into

less oblivious to

or condition where they become more impressions and either ordinary sense

verbally
of
some

purport

by writing express the thoughts and sentiments 'spirit control.' Under these conditions they information and advice regarding matto convey ters
or

of which
of them
have

they

are

themselves

entirely ignorant.

Many

physical powers, such as the ability without physical contact to lift a table, in the air. In practically every and hold it suspended these pretended case supernatural capacities have where been
upon

laid claim to supernatural

carefully

studied, they have been found dependent clever tricks of one kind or another, which have been

and magicians who successfully repeated by stage jugglers lay no claim to anything but cleverness and prestidigitation. Meantime, the trance condition is undoubtedly real
in
a

certain number

of these cases;

but it does not follow

that the alleged clairvoyant and telepathic powers which these persons often claim have any basis in fact. It is
1

No

inexperienced
may

person

should

attempt

to

hypnotize.

Serious

harm

be done.

260

AN

INTRODUCTION that not

TO
a

PSYCHOLOGY

fair to say, however,

few

men

standing, and perhaps foremost among William James, have been quite convinced

of high scientific Prothem the late fessor

that
some

cannot of the knowledge possessed by the trance mediums be explained on the basis of our ordinary methods of sense of ideas from mind perception, nor by the communication to mind

through

language

or

other physical
mass

signs.

It is

equally fair to say that the great

opinion
recognize any

is quite of another

scientific of competent kind, that it refuses to

appreciable body of well-established evidence calling for belief in telepathic or spiritualisticcommunications, whether as between living people or between the living and the dead. Multiple Personality. dreams,

"

Just

as

the

phenomena

of

experiences of every which are perfectly normal human being, lead us out gradually into phenomena of an kind, so certain conflicts within our essentially abnormal characters suggest

in

very

rudimentary

way

nings the begin-

divisions of personality. Few more of abnormal interesting phenomena have been studied in modern psychology though than the so-called 'multiple personalities.' Alin the last analysis the several varieties
type and all reducible to a common of hysteria, the division suggested by
are are

ably probis

all symptoms

Alfred
we

Binet

convenient the matter.

for the few comments

He

which

can

make

upon

distinguishes successive and

simultaneous

alterations of personality.

In the successive form, the patient may wake up some to find that he has entirely forgotten all his morning Whereas previous life, his name along with the rest.

before he may

have

been

somewhat
now

lethargic person

of of

equable temperament,

he is

extremely

active and

SLEEP,

DREAMS,

AND

HYPNOSIS

261

irascible bent. He starts in to build up a new somewhat life,oftentimes disappearing entirely from his old haunts. His memory processes go back only to the beginning of
his attack, but from
accurate. reverts

that point
some

on or

they

may

be entirely
later
on,

Suddenly,

weeks

months The

he

to his original character.

memories

of the

secondary state disappear wholly or almost wholly, and often he succeeds after a time in getting back to his old home. This type of alteration may occur again and again it may be complicated by a long lifetime, and throughout
the introduction of two or three more similar personalities. In each state he may find himself more or less completely
cut off from memory

of the other alternating states.

In the

case

of the simultaneous multiplication it is as though these successive states

perof sonaliti in were

some

fashion

telescoped upon

readily understood picture of how this kind of thing may go on, but the reader may with history of great delight to himself follow the dramatic
one

they certain sense difficultto frame any

another, so that in a co-exist side by side. It is extremely

one

such

case

in Dr.

Morton
case

Prince's
a

Dissociation

of

Personality.

In this

there is

the several personalities, whose

another

struggle of characters differ from one

to
secure

constant

in the most

radical way,

control

over

the
one

speech and conduct

comes

person. of the afflicted

Sometimes

out
are

of

one

ahead, and sometimes the other. The memories to some, at least, of quite hidden from access

the others.

Subconscious

Processes.

"

These

cases

of multiple

personality

of all varieties exhibit in the most

the extent
to which

striking way

They

operate. subconscious processes may all tend to suggest that the divisions underlying these

262

AN

INTRODUCTION
are

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

with the distinction between the If concentration focus and the margin of our awareness. be a severance becomes highly intense, there may of the

disturbances

connected

central from

and
off

what
as a

the peripheral regions of our then may goes on in the margin

consciousness, get itself split

type

which

are

of subconscious activity. Obviously elements represented in the margin may in no true sense
a

be really lost to the organism as quite completely excluded from

whole, but they may be by the focal parts access

of the mind. represented reading

that

In normal when
we we

conditions this type of thing is become so absorbed in what we are

and yet five or feel quite sure time, the bell was

notice the striking of the clock; 'come later we may ten minutes to' and did not notice it at the that although we
actually

do not

heard.

In the

same

way

if

our

is keenly preoccupied, we do the most may -attention less subthe guidance, more things under or absurd consciou of our habitual activities. The stock instance of
the
man

who

goes upstairs in the early evening to

an

to put

on

evening

dress preparatory in bed

as

invasion

of society, only

to find himself

operations is
a

the result of carrying out the necessarily begun in the changing of his attire,
example

perfectly good

of this type

of thing.

"Who

is there that has not become so preoccupied when on the home that he has gone far past the proper turning way point and been obliged to retrace his steps. These instances
one

and

all tell the

elements

same

story

of the part played

which

by the

marginal
our

in
too

our

awareness,

cutting

completely

vent ordinarily preadrift from our actual

surroundings.

CHAPTER

XVII

THE It has been necessary elements of human

SELF

thus far to deal with the several behavior to some extent independently

of one another, although certain of their interconnections have been pointed out. We have found the mind to be an use of sensory and ideational activity making adjustive its environment. materials in order to gain control over We have noted the part played by instinct and feeling and emotion in determining its fundamental attitudes toward
this environment, and we have observed something of the way in which motor coordinations are built up out of the
raw

material
are

habits

of uncontrolled movements, until adequate finally established fitto cope with the exigencies have remarked one of its great all this process of ment practical results, the developthroughout

of life. We growth,
as

of character, with its rational principles of conduct, its cherished ideals,its established modes of social behavior. Now it behooves us in conclusion to dwell for a littleupon
the personal
The

whose self,

experiences
"

we

have thus analyzed.

a

Identity of the Self.

There

is

deep-seated popular

conviction, resting perhaps as much on tradition as on any intuitive or reasoned certainty, that the self continues in some to moment from moment and from way unchanged
year to year.

In any

event, contributing
an

to this conviction
many

of the persistence of and ranking high among

identical self are

in importance
can

factors,

them I
263

is undoubtedly

the fact of memory.

recall today

and

again

264 tomorrow

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

the events
appear
same

of last year, similar

the
on

them

may

very

and the memories of both occasions, may

motor

elicit the that I

a
come

feelings and

same

reactions,

so

play

velop naturally and without much reflection to dein myself. My anticipations also sense of sameness the same part, for again and again there recur
same

desires for the

which

ends

as

yet unattained.

Another

fact

doubtless contributes to the total result is my fairly dim and vague, awareness own constant, though of my The importance organism. of this consideration is suggested by
organic
the fact that any

serious disturbances
to
us

in the

conditions, occasion great uneasiness and distress, and, if profound, form the basis of malign mental disease. Not may least striking among immediate forms of evidence the more
is the fact that after sleep
or

sensations, which

report

the bodily

the mind
stream
on
as

normally

resumes

of unconsciousness, its hold upon the interrupted

any

form

out of the past and goes of events, claims its own More subtle though no interruption had occurred.

is the contention that the very notion of consciousness, like the derivation of the word knowledge (con-scious-ness involves a a over personal against
"

something),

subject,
from

agent,

knower, knows

presumably

the

same

instant
at the

to instant, who moment,

the particular idea present

or

feelsthe
upon.
on

pleasure

pain

determined

What

we

have

and wills the action been describing in this

of the mental

book is

this showing
a

simply

the content

states of such

knower.

Finally,

speculations have furnished doctrine concerning the perdurable which

philosophical impressive an
character

ligiou and rebody of

of the soul, tion convic-

tends distinctly to confirm this widespread of a persistent identity in the self.

THE

SELF

265

of Self Identity. There are, however, certain facts which cannot be easily reconciled to this view. While it is true that we remember get much of our former experience, it is also true that we for-

Objectionsto

the

Common

Idea

"

much.

If

we

of the self on must be frankly

identity going to rest the unchanging its retention of its own it past in memory,
are

for many

admitted that the identity is only partial, portions of one's experience fade out and cannot

be revived. Desire and anticipation similarly change and develop, despite the existence of a core of such desires Obviously the self at which may remain fairly constant. forty years of age is better informed than the self of four, or even than that of fourteen. It has very different memories,

abilities. Character viously at these different stages is apt to be widely different. Ob-

different tastes,

and prejudices

too, ways
as

the physical
go

body
to

changes
some

in very
extent
are

marked

the years

sensations by which
to change
"

by, and it reports

sure,

the organic

to the 'mind

slowly to be

but

none

likely also the less certainly.

of dissociated multiple personality described in the previous chapter serve to show how flexible Furthermore, the
cases

and

plastic the self may

All things considered, therefore, we sesses must recognize that such identity as the self posby is probably not altogether of the type assumed and

be.

cumstan additional cirpopular tradition. Two should, however, be noted. a Continuity of the Self." There is (1) undoubtedly respect continuity in the life of the self which is in one
common-sense

The oak tree like that possessed by all living organisms. from is different in almost every particular from the acorn which it grew, and yet we speak of it unhesitatingly as the
same

tree

year

after year.

It has

continuous

lifeand

266

AN
we

INTRODUCTION

TO
our

PSYCHOLOGY

this fact however

season

recognize

in

manner

may widely its appearance and from decade to decade.

of speech vary from This

same

about
season

it,
to

but beyond of life man obviously enjoys, that he knows and feels this continuity as the plants and do not. This continuity many of the animals presumably of experience change,
as

continuity this is the fact

does not for

more

moment

preclude growth

and

rigid and staticconceptions of personal identity seem to do. It rather renders such alterations intelligible, as stages in the evolutionary
of
a

the

adjustment
of

living

mind

to

the

shifting

winds

cumstan cir-

Unifying
very

Tendency
sense

of the Self. Again

"

there is

(2) a

in which the self may be considered as an of our organized unity. Despite the fact that many experiences are lost from the mind through forgetfulness, genuine

despite the facts of dissociated personality and despite lapses in moral behavior, one of the great outstanding is that they characteristics of normal mental phenomena
tend to cohere into connected personal groups with systematic Intelligent processes of principles of organization. this not the would, indeed, be impossible were

adjustment
case.

While

never

at any

one

time then

completely

the self perfectlyunifiedaffair, unifying and

possesses

and intrinsically

tinues organizing tendencies. As long as it conits boundaries and to grow, it is always expanding thoroughly its possessions. organizing more Thus far we have dealt only with certain general aspects

from popular of the self as this emerges inquire more now tradition. We must precisely what is the actual content of the individual's idea of the self both in his own person and in others. This will lead us
of the problem

THE

SELF

267

to

examine

briefly the conditions under of self develops.

of the Idea
"

which

the

consciousne

Social Origin
with

of Self. It may

be alleged

reasonable confidence that the consciousness of the self does not appear ready made, but that it is a result of There seem to be fairly good a slow process of growth. of the early distinctions remarked by the child is that between persons and things. in their modes Things are relatively stable and uniform by the child's desires, by of behavior. They are unmoved
reasons

for believing

that

one

his gestures

or

his cries. Persons

more

on

the other hand, while unreliable,

are

in
more

some

ways

variable and

vastly

responsive to the child's appeals, and they minister to his comfort and the satisfaction of his desires in a Moreover, as manner as soon wholly unique. sufficient motor sons control is obtained to permit this indulgence, perthe best and most interesting patterns afford much for imitation. Such imitation repeatedly brings agreeable

and

exhilarating results. Perhaps most important by persons to the emergence contributions made

of the

idea of the self is the gift of intelligent speech. least significant in the use of language is the fact that the child is referred to by a name and no other person
or

of the And not

thing shares it. It is his by

personal pronouns
are

The

exclusive proprietorship. also taught him and gradually

he begins to read into them correct and adequate meanings. On every side he is thus surrounded by influences which tend (1) to draw his attention to personality, as concretely

embodied in other human strongly impel him to think and

person.

beings, and
speak
no

which

(2)
as a

of himself
question

There

can

accordingly

be

that the

definite consciousness of self appears

amid

social relations

268

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

and in response to social incentives. a distinctly social phenomenon.

Content
of the Idea

It is from

the first

of the Self.
"

What

particular content

is at this point employed

to fillout

it

seems

very

hazardous

to allege.

Later

the idea of self in life when on

we

introspective evidence is more variety of factors reported. for

some

persons

find quite a To think of the self is apparentl simply to get a visual image
available,

of the face or figure as it appears in the mirror. Again it may involve the awareness of the organic and kinaesthetic sensations which indicate bodily attitude and condition. Not surmise

infrequently it is

concept

of the esteem in which one this case it is likely to be closely identifiedwith descriptive 'cad,' 'fool,' verbal ideas, e.g., 'good fellow,' 'able

built upon one's is held by others. In

man/

by emotional accompanied be. as the case may

It may
occur

attitudes of depression

or

elation

these

conreader that there are many ditions designated in terms of 'self experience to which descriptions are Self-conceit, quite inapplicable.

to the

ness self-confidence, self-distrust, self-sacrifice,self-consciousOn these and many others will suggest themselves.
"

these instances two

comments

are

to be made.

In the first

place several of the terms

apply

tribut ordinarily to general at-

ences. of character, rather than to specific mental experiSuch are self-confidence, self-conceit,self-sacrifice. In the second
or

place

so

far

as

orts-qctually

feels self-confident,

thoughts are not necessarily self-conscious, one's directed to the idea of the self at all. One who feels selfbe contemplating an act to be performed confident may consist simply in the absence and his self-confidence may
of anxiety and
worry.

The

self-conscious person

is likely

THE to be afflictedwith
an

SELF

269

his

own

cheeks thought

of vivid awareness organic discomfort, his trembling knees, blushing be in his gestures, but there may and awkward
only the most
remote

inconveniently

reference to the idea of the

self. It appears

therefore that whatever

may

prove

in

given

individual to be the content of his 'self experiences, the mind is only incidentally and occasionally engaged with the idea of self and only now and then attentive to the
'I' complex
attention

of organic

or

to this complex

other sensations. A constant is one of the symptoms of a

The
to the
a

morbid temperament. thoughts and feelings all belong more or less unified experience of neurotic and
not

fact that
continuous

one's

and

be confused

with

self,must accordingly the unacceptable doctrine that one

as

is always

such. There is one differentiation of the idea of the self which is based upon actual differences in behavior to which reference In the complexities of civilized life should be made.

conscious of the self

be called upon to build up very different habits of adjustment to different surroundings, and so it may as observed by come about that the deportment of the man
a
man

may

acter. outsiders may well suggest very divergent types of charin the officeat the mill may be gruff, The manager harsh. The same man even may at home abrupt, severe,

be considerate, gentle and

affectionate. His companions and encounter at the club may still a different person defini be multiplied quite inthese variations of conduct may himself For each of these 'selves' the man
is likely to entertain
a

distinct 'self idea, although somewhat that in his own the chances are appreciation the several selves differ from one another far less than appears

270

AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

to his intimate

of this type

are

Self ideas acquaintances to be the case. very apt to be colored by regard for one's

social position and attainments, and this possessions, one's forms of is perhaps especially true of the estimates one
the selves of other men. Moral and Religious Influences
the Self. Moral
"

upon

and
to

religious ideas exhibit peculiarly significant relations ideas of right and wrong the self. The get their in the
course

specific content

of the individual's moral

his reactions to the rewards and punishments meted out to him by society. In morals as in law the individual finds himself treated as a responsible

development

and through

agent

and
is

here again

projected

therefore his personality, his selfhood, into the foreground of his reflective
in this respect further

attention. Religious experience

goes
even

than the usual moral

Being

dividu experience in that it compels the into think of himself as in relation with a Supreme become by may whose character is such as his own and
struggle. emphasis
There
upon

penitence

compelling with
a

is, in other words, peculiarly the idea of companionship

of the most interesting tasks which the psychology of the future will have to face is that of delineating the various typical forms in which
"

perfect self. Types of Personality.

"One

personality

tions reveals itself. But at present such descripbe more than rude impressions of individual cannot observers. In history and literature a few of these great here the mystics, types have been recognized. We meet dreamers, the
seers,
some

the poets and

of them

pulsive fiery, im-

personalities, others gentle ascetic souls, but all of them, with a gift for vision as against the prosaic

THE

SELF

271

of tedious reasoning, and with varying powers of adequate expression for their insight. Then there are
processes

the scientists and

scholars with

religious conviction of

the worth of plodding care and the paramount value of facts. Sometimes to fervor and this trait is married emotional tension, sometimes it is embodied in cold calculating

find the great leaders of men, the military and industrial geniuses who compel by sheer force of personality, by aggressive capacity of hand or brain; the religious leaders who succeed in awakening
temperament.

Then

we

The average the spiritual devotion and confidence of men. man no doubt has in him something of the various elements represented by all these great types, but they exercise a
less imperious
sway
over

him

and

are

conjoinedwith

capacities too weak and commonplace " from the mass of humanity.

to stand out boldly

Meanwhile

we

are

only

justlearning

how

important

it

is for the ultimate welfare of society that each man shall be placed where his qualities fithim to serve best, and our

psychologists

are

doing

of methods of mental

than their share in the perfecting for determining the special combination
more

abilitiespossessed by each individual. When these methods are thoroughly assimilated into our educational look for a vastly higher order may procedure, we of human efficiencyand we may hope for a much higher
average

now

It is parhappiness and contentment. ticularly of human important that society be in a position to identify and exploit the useful individual variations which are often hopelessly submerged and lost in the rough-and'

tumble

Once

/ get located in special jobs. methods by which men nuigo through life,a sance settled down, the misfit may to himself and a dead loss to society.

272

AN
"

INTRODUCTION

TO

PSYCHOLOGY

doubtless prepared to reader is now different points of view the appreciate from how many be approached are the probself may and how numerous lems
The

Summary.

few

this chapter we of the considerations bearing upon prevalent

among

it presents.

In

have

a examined the ideas of personality

occidental peoples and we have familiar and tangible tried to outline some of the more of the elements to be discerned in the consciousness of self. The whole book, however, is nothing but a sketch of the means and methods by which intelligence organizes conduct and develops character. The result of this process is the real living taken in its entirety at any given moment self, which the reader will find most fruitful for both his practical and his theoretical interests.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
GENERAL
The

PYSCHOLOGY

list contains (a) a few standard treatises marked with an texts they differ from, or tinctly dis(b) asterisk and selected because in this book. views presented supplement, J. R. Angell, Chapters Psychology. from Modern M. W. Calkins, Introduction to Psychology. Dewey, John Psychology. Knight Dunlap, A System of Psychology. Principles William James, 2 Vols.* of Psychology, Psychology, Briefer Course. C. H. Judd, Psychology, General Introduction. G. T. Ladd, Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory* R. M. Ogden, Introduction to General Psychology. W. B. Pillsbury, Fundamentals Psychology.* of Josiah Royce, Outlines of Psychology. G. S. Stout, Manual of Psychology* E. L. Thorndike, Elements of Psychology. E. B. Titchener, Textbook of Psychology* R. M. Yerkes, Introduction to Psychology. W. Wundt, Outlines of Psychology. (Trans.)

MANUALS

FOR

EXPERIMENTAL

EXERCISES

Requiring
C. E.

no apparatus : Seashore, Elementary

Experiments

in Psychology.

Requiring

chiefly simple apparatus easily obtained r Experiments. J. V. Breitweiser, Psychological H. F. Hollingsworth, Psychology. Outlines for Experimental C. H. Judd, Laboratory Psychology. Manual of Laboratory H. S. Langfeld and F. H. Allport, Elementary Course in Psychology. (Requires some elaborate apparatus.) E. C. Sanford, A Course in Experimental Psychology. (Requires few for a elaborate apparatus experiments.) L. Witmer, Analytical Psychology. Requiring for many more of the Experiments elaborate apparatus: E. B. Titchener, Experimental Psychology, 4 Vols. Qualitative in different volumes, treated are and quantitative problems two being for use by students and two for teachers.

273

274

BIBLIOGRAPHY

PHYSIOLOGICAL

PSYCHOLOGY

AND

NEUROLOGY

H. H. Donaldson, Growth The of the Brain. K. Dunlap, Outlines of Psychobiology. to Neurology. C. J. Herrick, Introduction Physiological Woodworth, Psychology. Ladd and Physiology J. Loeb, Comparative of the Brain and
Psychology.

Comparative

Primer of Physiological Psychology. Body and Mind. System. C. S. Sherrington, Integrative Action of the Nervous Psychology. Principles W. Wundt, (Trans., of Physiological far thus one volume only published.) Physiological Psychology to the Study T. Ziehen, Introduction

W.

McDougall,

of

(Trans.)

SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY
Development,

J. M.

Baldwin,

Mental

Social and

Ethical

pretations. Inter-

F. Boas, The Mind of Primitive Man. Nature C. H. Cooley, Human and the Social Order. to Social Psychology. Introduction W. McDougall, E. A. Ross, Social Psychology. Source Book W. I. Thomas, of Social Origins. Elements Folk Psychology W. Wundt, (Trans.). of

PSYCHOLOGY

OF

RELIGIOUS

EXPERIENCE

E. S. Ames, Psychology of Religious Experience. W. James, Varieties of Religious Experience. I. King, Development of Religion. J. H. Leuba, Psychological Study of Religion.
J. B. Pratt, The Psychology of Religious Belief. E. D. Starbuck, Psychology of Religion. G. M. Stratton, The Psychology the Religious Life.

of

EDUCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY
in the Child

Mental Development J. M. Baldwin, Process. S. S. Colvin, The Learning Psychology F. N. Freeman, of the

and

the Race.

K. S. W. C. E.

Common Branches. How Learn. Children Gordon, Educational Psychology. Hall, Adolescence, 2 Vols. James, Talks to Teachers. H. Judd, Psychology of the High School Subjects. A. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals Child Study.

of

BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Meumann, Psychology (Trans.). of Learning R. Schulze, Experimental Psychology and Pedagogy in Educational D. Starch, Experiments Psychology. E. L. Thorndike, Educational Psychology, 3 Vols.

275

(Trans.).

ABNORMAL
PSYCHOTHERAPY HYPNOSIS AND H. Bernheim, Suggestive
:

PSYCHOLOGY

A. Forel, Hypnotism A. Moll, Hypnotism. H. Miinsterberg, Psychotherapy. Worcester, MeComb, and Coriat, Religion and Medicine. DREAMS: SLEEP AND S. Freud, Interpretation (Trans.) of Dreams M. de Manacelne, Sleep, Its Physiology, Pathology, Hygiene and Psychology. PERSONALITY HYSTERIA: MULTIPLE AND A. Binet, Alterations of Personality. P. Janet, The Major Symptoms of Hysteria. M. Prince, Dissociation Personality. of Sidis and Goodhart, Multiple Personality. THE UNCONSCIOUS SUBCONSCIOUS: AND THE The Subconscious. J. Jastrow, M. Prince, The Unconscious. DISORDERS: MENTAL A. I. Brill, Psychoanalysis. A. R. Diefendorf, Clinical Psychiatry. Its Causes and Consequences. H. H. Goddard, Feeblemindedness, ETC.: SPIRITISM, TELEPATHY, Research. W. F. Barrett, Psychical in Psychical Research. J. E. Coover, Experiments T. Flournoy, Spiritism and Psychology. J. Jastrow, Fact and Fable in Psychology. A. Tanner, Studies in Spiritism.

Therapeutics. and Psychotherapy.

VOCATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY,
MENTAL

APPLIED TESTS

PSYCHOLOGY,

AND

H. F. Adams,

Binet S. H. H. H.

and

Laws. Advertising and Its Mental Simon, Development Intelligence

of

in

Children

(Trans.).
I. Franz, Mental Examination Methods. L. Hollingsworth, Vocational Psychology. D. Kitson, How to Use the Mind. Miinsterberg, Business Psychology. Psychology of Crime. in Business. Human W. D. Scott, Increasing Efficiency Psychology Advertising.

of

276

BIBLIOGRAPHY
L. M. Terman, The Measurement of Intelligence. E. L. Thorndike, Mental Measurements. Social and G. M. Whipple, Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. Yerkes and Bridges, Point Scale for Measuring Mental

Ability.

COMPARATIVE

PSYCHOLOGY

A. Forel, The Senses of Insects. L. T. Hobhouse, Mind in Evolution. S. J. Holmes, Evolution Intelligence. of Animal H. S. Jennings, Behavior Lower Organisms. the of Comparative Lloyd Morgan, Psychology. E. L. Thorndike, M. F. Washburn, J. B. Watson, Psychology.
Instinct and Experience. Animal Intelligence. The Animal Mind. Behavior, An Introduction

to

Comparatiw

HISTORY

OF

PSYCHOLOGY
2 Vols.

J. M. Baldwin, History of Psychology, B. Rand, The Classical Psychologists.

SPECIAL ATTENTION
:

TOPICS

IN

GENERAL

PSYCHOLOGY

W. B. Pillsbury, Attention. E. B. Titchener, Psychology

of

Feeling

and

Attention.

SENSATION

Ladd Physiological Psychology. and Woodworth, McKendrick Snodgrass, Physiology and of the Senses. PERCEPTION : Ladd and Woodworth, Physiological Psychology, Chapters

4, 5, 6.

MEMORY

E. Meumann, Psychology of Learning. T. Ribot, Diseases Memory. of H. J. Watt, Economy and Training

IMAGERY
M.

of

Memory. Has

R.

Fernald,

Diagnosis

of

Mental

Imagery.

bibliography. (PsychologicalReview F. Galton, Inquiries into Human Faculty. REASONING :

Monographs,

extended No. 58.)

A. Binet, Psychology (Trans. ) of Reasoning Dewey, How J. We Think. I. E. Miller, Psychology of Thinking. W. B. Pillsbury, Psychology of Reasoning. E. B. Titchener, Experimental Psychology

Processes.

of

the

Thought

BIBLIOGRAPHY
FEELING : H. R. Marshall,

277

Pain, Pleasure and Esthetics. H. T. Moore, Sense of Pain and Pleasure. H. M. Stanley, Evolutionary Psychology of Feeling. E. B. Titchener, Psychology Feeling and Attention.

of

K. Gordon, Esthetics. E. Puffer, Psychology of Beauty. EMOTION : in Man C. Darwin, Expression and Animals. of Emotions T. Ribot, The Psychology Emotion. of INSTINCT : See Comparative Psychology. WILL: T. Ribot, Diseases of Will. Movement Imagery. M. F. Washburn, and Mental

INDEX
Abnormal psychology, 7. Accommodation of lens, 80. Acquisitiveness, 218. Affection, as phase elementary of feeling, 195. After-images, 91. Alternating personality, 260. Amoeba, 19. tual, intellecAnalysis, and sensory

Color,

complementaries,
mixtures,

con-

89/.;

trast and theories of,

92#.
of,

Comparative 8. psychology, Concept, nature and function

Consciousness,
system,

49j5f.y relation
Coordinations,
control XIV.
over,

appearance of to the Chapter III.

establishment Chapters IV

of,
ous nerv-

70/f.
203, 205. Anger, Aphasia, 36. Association, 74 ; simultaneous, 160 ff. successive, Association centers in cortex, 35/. Chapter V. Attention, Auditory center, 36. Autonomic system, 46]^. Axis cylinder, 22. Axone, 22.

of and

Cortex, cerebral, 39#. Cutaneous sensations,

see

sations. Sen-

affection, 223, 274. IQOff. BALDWIN, Discrimination, as Blind-spot, 81 f. tention, atanalytic functions Brain, structure 70ff. and tion. DiscriminaDissociation, see consciousness, with of and connection III. Chapter nating AlterDouble see Brightness personality, sensations, 87jf. 234. BRYAN, personality. Dreams, 250.

210, 277. DARWIN, 184. Deduction, 4. Dendrite, fig. DEWEY, 209, 277. Disagreeableness as

CALKINS, Calmness,
190.

273.
as

affective element, and

Cerebral

laws

association,

160f.
Cerebellum, 34/. Cerebrum, 35 ff. Character, Chapter XV. Child psychology, 7. Choice, see Volition. Cochlea, figs. 31-35. Color blindness, normal
83;

31-35. Ear, figs. Ego, see Self. XII; bodily Emotion, Chapter factors in, 370#. 31. Eustachian tube, fig. Excitement, as ment, affective ele190. Experimental

psychology,

6.

abnormal,

Feeling, Chapter XI. 23, 25, 27. Fovea, figs. peripheral, 92. 92. FRANKLIN,

279

280
FREUD, Fusion,
250.

INDEX
Mood, 212. Motor aphasia, 36. Motor IV. control, Chapter Multiple personality, 260. KinMuscular see sensations,
aesthetic.

72ff
.

Generalization

in

thought,

171,

ISlff.
Genetic psychology, 7. Genius, and association, GORDON, 277. Grey, sensations of, see

165/.
ness. BrightNerves, Nervous
structure of, 21 ff. system, central, 29 ff.; 46#. autonomic, definition of, 21 ff. Neurone,

Habit, Chapter IV. Hallucinations, 118. HARTER, 234. Hearing, sensations of, Hypnosis, 253ff. Ideas,

Object, perception
Organic

of, H4ff. theory selection, of,

94j9p.

223ff.

Pain, its relation to affection, images, with connection 190. 156/; and concepts, I75ff. VII. Perception, Chapter Identity, personal, 263ff. Personal identity, see Identity. Illusion, 118/. 8. Physiological psychology, Images, function / relation PILLSBURY, of, 152)7 219, 253. to idea, 156/; to volition, Pleasure, as affective element,

22Qff.

Imagination, Chapter IX. Imitation, as instinctive, 218. Impulse, 215 ff. Induction, 183/jF. XIII; Instinct, Chapter tion rela204. to emotion, Interests, nature of, 243)7-

190f.
Productive Psychology, imagination, 159/. 1; definition of, fields of, Iff. methods of, 3ff.; 8. Psychophysics,

Introspection, JAMES,
205,

3ff.
137, 273.
204,

7. Race psychology, Reasoning, Chapter X

in brutes,

IS"ff.
Reflex

120, 114, 206, 218, 232,

Jealousy, Judgment,

357. 174.

Kinaesthetic, HO/.; sensation, function in establishment of motor control, 229 ff.

to instincts, relation action, 21 5ff. Relations, in reasoning, 179/f. Relaxation, as ment, eleaffective 190. imagination, Reproductive 158/. in memRetention ory, of material

LANGE,
Lapsed 222.

205/.
intelligence, theory of,

Retina, RIBOT, Rhythm,

138/. 80tf.
219,

277.

133tf.
191, 273.

ROYCE,

MARSHALL, 277. 159; Meaning imagery, and 175/jf. reasoning, Medulla 33. oblongata, Chapter VIII. Memory,

in

Self, Chapter XVII. Semicircular canals, 99#. Sensation, Chapter VI.; and perception,
114.

Sensations,

of

sound,

94j5f.y of

INDEX

281

system, 46/f. sight, 77tf.;of smell, 104/f.; Sympathetic Synaesthesia, ture temperataste, \Qlff.; of 167/. of touch, 108/f.y orand ganic, Taste, sensations, see Sensations. 112/.; of movement, Temperament, 212. llQff. 212. Temperature, Sensations. Sentiment, see 274. Thought, Reasoning. SHERRINGTON, see Similarity, association by, 163/f.; Time, perception of, 130/. in reasoning, 179. TITCHENER, 273, 277. Size, apparent \25ff. Touch, see Sensations. of objects, Skin-senses, see Sensations. Twilight vision, 87. Social psychology, 7. Space, see Perception. Vision, see Sensations. Span, Volition, Chapters or XIV, XV. scope, of consciousness,

Glff.
221. Spinal cord, 28ff. Strain, as affective element,

SPENCER,

190.

WATSON, Will, see WUNDT,

208, 219. Volition. 190, 194,

222,

273,

Subconscious,

processes, 178, 261.

274.

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