ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

QUESTION BANK UNIT I TO V EE2301-POWER ELECTRONICS V SEM -BATCH (2011-2015) UNIT-I PART-A 1. Why IGBT is very popular nowadays? a. Lower heat requirements b. Lower switching losses c. S m a l l e r snubber circuit requirements 2. What are the different methods to turn on the thyristor? a. Forward voltage triggering b. Gate triggering c. dv/dt triggering d. T e m p e r at u r e triggering e. Light triggering 3. What is the difference between power diode and signal diode? S.No. 1. Power diode Signal diode

Constructed with n-layer, called Drift region is not present. Drift region between p+ layer and n+ layer. 2. The voltage, current and power Lower ratings are higher. 3. Power diodes operate at high Operates at higher switching speed. Speeds. 4. IGBT is a voltage controlled device. Why? Because the controlling parameter is gate-emitter voltage. 5. Power MOSFET is a voltage controlled device. Why? Because the output (drain) current can be controlled by gate-source voltage. 6. Power BJT is a current controlled device. Why? Because the output (collector) current can be controlled by base current. 7. What is the relation between and ? = 1- 8. What are the different types of power MOSFET? a. N-channel MOSFET b. P -channel MOSFET 9. How can a thyristor turned off? A thyristor can be turned off by making the current flowing through it to zero 10. Define latching current. The latching current is defined as the minimum value of anode current which it must attain during turn on process to maintain conduction when gate signal is removed. .

PART-B

1.

Discuss the different modes of operation of thyristor with the help of static VI characteristics.

The Static V-I Characteristics of an SCR is shown in the figure. Thyristor V-I Characteristics are divided into three regions of operation. These Three regions of operations are: Reverse Blocking Region Forward Blocking Region Forward Conduction Region

Reverse Blocking Region: When the Cathode of the SCR is made positive with respect to the anode, then outer junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased, whereas junction J2 is forward biased.

Therefore a small leakage current flows through the SCR. This can be observed from the figure that, in the reverse blocking region small current magnitude is observed and it almost remain constant with the rise in the voltage. This Scenario is observed until certain voltage which is called avalanche breakdown voltage. At this particular voltage the depletion regions of the junctions J1 and J3 are broken down and the thyristor conducts in the reverse bias direction. This can be observed from the figure at certain voltage Vbr current flowing through the thyristor increases suddenly to high value. Forward Blocking Region: In this region anode is made positive with respect to the cathode and therefore junction J1 and J3 are forward biased and junction J2 is reversed biased. Hence the thyristor is in forward blocking condition and a small leakage current flows during this condition due to drift of charge carriers. In this condition device does not conduct. Forward Conduction Region: When the thyristor is in forward blocking condition and anode to cathode voltage is increased further and gate circuit is in open condition, then at particular voltage called as forward break over voltage (Vbo) avalanche breakdown occurs and and thyristor starts conducting in forward mode. This conduction process can be seen in the figure through the voltage starts abruptly falling from some hundreds of volts to 1 to 2 volts and suddenly very large current flowing through the SCR. This process of conducting the thyristor damages the device. So in order to conduct the thyristor safely, gate current Ig is provided which results in the reduction in the forward break over voltage less then (Vbo). ith increase in the gate current (Ig) the conduction voltage reduces. This can be observed in the figure.

2) Explain the construction of SCR with neat diagram

The SCR stand for Silicon Control Rectifier, it is used in industries because it can handle high values of current and voltage.

SCR Construction The Silicon Control Rectifier SCR is consist on four layer of semiconductor which forms PNPN or NPNP structure, it has tree junction J1

SCR Operation / Working

The Silicon Control Rectifier SCR start conduction when it is forward biased. For this purpose the cathode is kept at negative and anode at positive. When positive clock pulse is applied at the gate the SCR turns ON. When forward bias voltage is applied to the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR, the junction J1 and J3 become forward bias while the junction J2 become reverse bias. When we apply a clock pulse at the gate terminal, the junction J2 become forward bias and the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR start conduction. The Silicon Control Rectifier SCR turn ON and OFF very quickly, At the OFF state the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR provide infinity resistance and in ON state, it offers very low resistance, which is in the range of 0.01O to 1O.

SCR Firing & Triggering

The Silicon Control Rectifier SCR is normally operated below the forward break over voltage (VBO). To turn ON the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR we apply clock pulse at the gate terminal which called triggering of Silicon Control Rectifier, but when the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR turned ON, now if we remove the triggering voltage, the Silicon Control Rectifier SCR will remain in ON state. This voltage is called Firing voltage.

3. Draw the switching characteristics of SCR and explain it. (16) SCR Switching Characteristics or Dynamic Characteristics: The switching characteristics are important particularly at high-frequency, to define the device velocity in changing from conduction state to blocking state and vice versa. Losses occurring in the device during switching from ON state to OFF state and OFF state to ON state are known as Switching Losses. The device's switching characteristics tells us about the switching losses, which is very important parameter to decide the selection of device.At high frequency, the switching losses are more. This post will discuss about thyristor switching characteristics in detail. It is recommended to read Thyristor-Basics & V-I Characteristics for proper understanding of thyristor switching characteristics.

Turn ON mechanism:When a positive gate signal is applied to a forward biased SCR, the transition of SCR from blocking state to conducting state is called as turn ON mechanism.The time taken for SCR

to traverse from the blocking state to conducting state is called as turn on time.urn on time is divided into 3 periods.t ON = td + tr + tptd = delay time, tp or ts = peak time (or) spread timewhen the gate current reaches 0.9IG the anode current IA starts increasing and reaches 0.1IA (10% of its max value)The time taken for anode current to reach 0.1I A is called as delay time(td). In other words, it is the time taken for anode voltage to fall from V A to 0.9VA The anode current further increases and reaches 0.9I A. The time taken by the anode current to increases from 0.1I A to 0.9IA is called as rise time(tr). In other words, it is the time taken by the anode voltage to fall from 0.9V A to 0.1VA Spread Time or Peak time (t s or tp) It is time taken by the anode current to rise from ( 0.9IA to maximum value of IA) 90% to 100% of its full value. (or) It is the time taken by VA to fall from 0.1V A to it's ON state voltage drop(near by zero). During this time the conduction spreads over the entire cross-section of cathode and so electrons spread over all the junctions. Turn OFF mechanism: Turning OFF an SCR means bringing the SCR from conducting state to blocking state. To turn off an SCR two things are to be done (1) Reduce the anode current below its holding current level. (2) Application of reverse voltage. When the anode current is zero, if we apply forward voltage to the SCR, the device will not be able to block this forward voltage due to the fact that excess charge carriers are still at the junctions, so the device will start conducting even when the gate signal is not applied. In order to avoid this, reverse biasing of SCR is done to remove the excess charge carriers from all four layers. The turn OFF time is defined as the time from the instant the anode current becomes zero to the instant SCR reaches its forward blocking ability. Turn off time t OFF = trr + tgr
trr =

Reverse recovery time

tgr =Gate recovery time Reverse recovery process is the removal of excessive charge carries from the top and bottom layers of SCR.

At t1; current IA = 0 After t1; IA build up in the reverse direction, due to the charge carriers stored in the four layers. Reverse recovery current removes the excessive carriers from junctions J 1 and J3 during the time t1 to t3. (Reverse recovery current flows due sweeping out of holes from top p-layer and electrons from bottom n layer) Reverse Recovery Time (trr):It is the time taken for the removal of excessive carriers from top and bottom layer of SCR. At t2: When nearly 60% of charges are removed from the outer two layers, the reverse recovery current decreases. This decaying causes a reverse voltage to be applied across the SCR.

At t3 all excessive carriers from J1 and J3 is removed. The reverse voltage across SCR removes the excessive carriers from junction J2. Gate recovery process is the removal of excessive carriers from J2 junction by application of reverse voltage. Time taken for removal of trapped charges from J2 is called gate recovery time(t gr). At t4 all the carriers are removed and the device moves to the forward blocking mode.

4. Discuss the different modes of operation of TRIAC with the help of VI characteristics.(8)
Triac Symbol and Construction

We now know that a triac is a 5-layer, PNPN in the positive direction and a NPNP in the negative direction, three-terminal bidirectional device that blocks current in its OFF state acting like an open-circuit switch, but unlike a conventional thyristor, the triac can conduct current in either direction when triggered by a single gate pulse. Then a triac has four possible triggering modes of operation as follows.
1. 2. 3. 4. + Mode = MT2 current positive (+ve), Gate current positive (+ve) Mode = MT2 current positive (+ve), Gate current negative (-ve) + Mode = MT2 current negative (-ve), Gate current positive (+ve) Mode = MT2 current negative (-ve), Gate current negative (-ve)

Even though the two thyristors are combined into a single triac device, they still exhibit individual electrical characteristics such as different breakdown voltages, holding currents and trigger voltage levels the same as we would expect from a single SCR.

5. Explain the construction and working of IGBT? Insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a new high conductance MOS gate-controlled
power switch. The fabrication process is similar to that of an N-channel power MOSFET but employs an N-epitaxial layer grown on a P+ substrate. In operation the epitaxial region is conductivity modulated (by excess holes and electrons) thereby eliminating a major component of the on-resistance. For example, on-resistance values have been reduced by a factor of about 10 compared with those of conventional N-channel power MOSFET of comparable size and voltage capability.

Vertical MOSFETs have become increasing important in discrete power device applications due primarily to their high input impedance, rapid switching times, and low resistance. However, the on-resistance of such devices increases with increasing drain-source voltage capability, thereby limiting the practical value of power MOSFETs to applications below a few hundred volts. Here we will describe the fabrication and characteristics of a new vertical power MOSFET structure that provides an on-resistance value about one-tenth of that of conventional power MOSFETs of the same size and voltage capability. In this semiconductor device, the conductivity of the epitaxial drain region of a conventional MOSFET is dramatically increased (modulated) by injected carriers, this mechanism results in a significant reduction in the device on-resistance and leads to the acronym IGBTs. This device, while similar in structure to the MOS-gated thyristor, is different in a fundamental way; it maintains gate control (does not latch) over a wide range of anode current and voltage. The structure and the equivalent circuit of the IGBT and IGBT schematics is shown in figures respectively. They are similar to those of an MOS-gated thyristor, except for the presence of the shunting resistance RG in each unit cell. The fabrication is like that of a standard N-channel power MOSFET except that the N~ epitaxial silicon layer is grown on a P+ substrate instead of an N+ substrate. The heavily doped P+ region in the center of each unit cell, combined with the sintered aluminium contact shorting the N+ and P+ regions, provides the shunting resistance RS shown in IGBT schematics figure.This has the effect of lowering the current gain of the NP-N transistor (N-P-N) so that N-P-N + P-N-P < 1- Thus latching is avoided and gate control is maintained within a large operating range of anode voltage and current.

The IGBT is a four layer N-P-N-P device with an MOS-gated channel connecting the two Ntype regions. In the normal mode of operation of an IGBT, a positive voltage is applied to the. anode (A) relative to cathode (K).

When the gate (G) is at zero potential with respect to K, no anode current I A flows for anode voltage VA below the breakdown level VBF. When VA < VBF and the gate voltage exceeds the threshold value VGT, electrons pass into the N~-region (base of the P-N-P transistor). These electrons lower the potential of the N~-region, forward biasing the P+-N~ (substrateepi-layer) junction, thereby causing holes to be injected from the P + substrate into the N- epilayer region. The excess electrons and holes modulate the conductivity of the high resistivity N-region, which dramatically reduces the on-resistance of the device. During normal operation, the shunting, resistor R g keeps the emitter current of the N-P-N transistor very low, which keeps N-P-N very low. However, for sufficiently large emitter current IA significant emitter injection may occur in the N-P-N transistor, causing N-P-N to increase; in this case the four-layer device may latch, accompanied by loss of control by the MOS gate. In this event, the device may be turned off by lowering emitter current IA below some holding value, as is typical of a thyristor. This explains how igbt works and its mode of operation.

PART-A

UNIT-II

1. What is meant by phase controlled rectifier? It converts fixed ac voltage into variable dc voltage. 2. Mention some of the applications of controlled rectifier. a. Steel r o l l i n g mills, p r i n t i n g p r e s s , textile m i l l s a n d p a p e r mills employing dc motor drives. b. D C traction c. E l e c t r o chemical and electro-metallurgical process d. Portable hand tool drives e. M a g n e t power supplies f. HVDC transmission system 3. What is the function of freewheeling diodes in controlled rectifier? It serves two processes. a. It prevents the output voltage from becoming negative. b. T h e load current is transferred from the main thyristors to the freewheeling diode, thereby allowing all of its thyristors to regain their blocking states.
4. What are the advantages of freewheeling diodes in a controlled in a controlled rectifier?

a. Input power factor is improved. b. L o a d current waveform is improved and thus the load performance is better. 5. What is meant by delay angle? The delay angle is defined as the angle between the zero crossing of the input voltage and the instant the thyristor is fired. 6. What are the advantages of single phase bridge converter over single phase mid-point converter? a. SCRs are subjected to a peak-inverse voltage of 2Vm in a fully controlled bridge

rectifier. Hence for same voltage and currnt ratings of SCrs, power handled by midpoint configuration is about b. I n mid-point converter, each secondary winding should be able to supply the load power. As such, the transformer rating in mid-point converter is double the load rating. 7. What is commutation angle or overlap angle? The commutation period when outgoing and incoming thyristors are conducting is known as overlap period. The angular period, when both devices share conduction is known as the commutation angle or overlap angle. 8. What are the different methods of firing circuits for line commutated converter? a. UJT firing circuit. b. The cosine wave crossing pulse timing control. c. Digital firing schemes. 9. Give an expression for average voltage of single phase semiconverters. Average output voltage Vdc = (Vm / ) (1 + cos ). 10. What is meant by input power factor in controlled rectifier? The input power factor is defined as the ratio of the total mean input power to the total RMS input volt-amperes.
PF = ( V1 I1 cos 1 ) / ( Vrms Irms) where V1 = phase voltage, I1 = fundamental component of the supply current, 1 = input displacement angle, Irms = supply rms current.

11. What are the advantages of six pulse converter? a. Commutation is made simple.
b. Distortion on the ac side is reduced due to the reduction in lower order harmonics.

c. I n d u c t a n c e reduced in series is considerably reduced. 12. What is meant by commutation? It is the process of changing the direction of current flow in a particular path of the circuit. This process is used in thyristors for turning it off. 13. What are the types of commutation? a. Natural commutation b. Forced commutation 14. What is meant by natural commutation? Here the current flowing through the thyristor goes through a natural zero and enable the thyristor to turn off. 15. What is meant by forced commutation? In this commutation, the current flowing through the thyristor is forced to become zero by external circuitry.

PART-B 1. Discuss the working of 1phase half wave controlled rectifier converter with RL load using relevant waveforms. (16)
HALF-WAVE CONTROLLED RECTIFIER CIRCUIT WITH AN RL LOAD

The operation of the RL circuit supplied by a half-wave controlled rectifier is illustrated in this program. Let vs(t) be defined to E * sin (wt). At wt = 0, the current through the circuit is zero. As wt becomes >0, vs becomes positive. If a diode instead of an SCR has been used, the diode would start conduction at wt = 0. With an SCR, the conduction does not start till the SCR is triggered. Let the SCR be triggered when wt = . Then a is called the firing angle and the SCR continues to conduct. When wt = , the source becomes zero, but at this instant, the current through the circuit is not zero and there is some energy stored in the inductor. When vs become negative, the current through the circuit would not become zero suddenly because of the inductor. The inductor acts as a source and keeps the SCR forward-biased till the energy stored in the inductor becomes zero. Let the current through the circuit become zero at wt = and the value of > . For < wt < 2 , the current through the circuit is zero.

: The load current waveform

The voltage across the SCR

The Plot of Output Voltage

2. Explain the operation of 1phase semi converter and derive the expressions for its average and rms output voltage. (8)
A fully-controlled rectifier circuit contains only controlled-rectifiers, whereas a semi-controlled rectifier circuit is made up of both controlled and uncontrolled rectifiers. Due to presence of diodes, free-wheeling operation takes place without allowing the bridge output voltage to become negative. In a semi-controlled rectifier, control is effected only for positve output voltage, and no control is possible when its output voltage tends to become negative since it is clamped at zero volt. This page describes the operation of a single-phase half-controlled rectifier. A semi-controlled full-wave bridge rectifier can be configured in a few ways. They are show n belo w.

The circuit in Configuration 1 contains two SCRs and two diodes. When source Vin is positive, SCR S1 can be triggered at a firing angle called and then current flows out of the source through SCR S1 first, then through the load and returns via diode D3. If

then SCR S1 and diode D3 conduct during < wt < . When < wt < 2 , Vin is negative and SCR S2 is normally triggered when wt = + . During < wt < ( + ) , the output of the bridge circuit would have been negative if we had used a fully-controlled bridge rectifer and if the current flow was continuous. But here we have two diodes D3 and D4 instead of two SCRs. When the output of the bridge tends to becomes negative just after wt exceeds , diode D4 tends to get forward-biased and it starts conducting. Then diode D3 is reverse-biased and it stops conducting. During < wt < ( + ) , the devices in conduction are SCR S1 and diode D4 and the output of the bridge is clamped at zero, assuming that the on-state drops across devices in conduction is zero. During ( < wt < 2 , the devices in conduction are SCR S2 and diode D4. SCR S2 and diode D3 would conduct during 0 < wt < . The circuit in configuration 1 has SCRs as the devices in the top-half and diodes as the devices in the bottom-half. Instead, it it is possible to use SCRs as the devices in the bottom-half and diodes as the devices in the top-half.

It is also possible to build a semi-controlled full-wave bridge rectifier as shown by

the behaviour of the circuit is the same as described earlier. In this circuit, SCR S1 and diode D3 conduct during < wt < . During < wt < ( + ) , the devices in conduction are diodes D3 and D4 and the output of the bridge is clamped at zero. During

( + ) < wt < 2 , the devices in conduction are SCR S2 and diode D4. Diodes D3 and D4 would conduct during 0 < wt < . Yet another configuration is available for semi-controlled bridge rectifier, as shown by the circuit in configuration 3.

In this circuit, SCRs S1 and S3 conduct during < wt < . During < wt < ( + ) , the device in conduction is diode D and the output of the bridge is clamped at zero. During ( + ) < wt < 2 , the devices in conduction are SCRs S2 and S4. Diode D would conduct during 0 < wt < .
3. Effect of source impedance in single phase full controlled rectifier. Circuit shows a single phase fully controlled converter with source inductance. For simplicity it has been assumed that the converter operates in the continuous conduction mode. Further, it has been assumed that the load current ripple is negligible and the load can be replaced by a dc current source the magnitude of which equals the average load current. Fig. (b) shows the corresponding waveforms. It is assumed that the thyristors T3 and T4 were conducting at t = 0. T1 and T2 are fired at t = . If there were no source inductance T3 and T4 would have commutated as soon as T1 and T2 are turned ON. The input current polarity would have changed instantaneously. However, if a source inductance is present the commutation and change of input current polarity can not be instantaneous. Therefore, when T1 and T2 are turned ON T3 T4 does not commutate immediately. Instead, for some interval all four thyristors continue to conduct as shown in Fig. 15.1(b). This interval is called overlap interval.

During this period the load current freewheels through the thyristors and the output voltage is clamped to zero. On the other hand, the input current starts changing polarity as the current through T1 and T2 increases and T3 T4 current decreases. At the end of the overlap interval the current through T3 and T4 becomes zero and they commutate, T1 and T2 starts conducting the full load current. The same process repeats during commutation from T1 T2 to T3T4 at t = + .

From Fig. 15.1(b) it is clear that, commutation overlap not only reduces average output dc voltage but also reduces the extinction angle which may cause commutation failure in the inverting mode of operation if is very close to 180. In the following analysis an expression of the overlap angle will be determined.

From the equivalent circuit of the converter during overlap period

L di i = vi dt 2Vi cost L 2Vi cos = - I 0 L

for

t +

(15.1) (15.2) (15.3) (15.4) (15.5) (15.6)

ii(t = ) = - I0
ii = I -

ii t = = I -

I= ii =

2Vi cos - I 0 L 2Vi (cos - cost) - I 0 L

at t = + ii = I0
2Vi (cos - cos( + )) - I 0 L 2L cos - cos( + ) = I Vi 0 I0 = V0 = I I V0 = = =

(15.7) (15.8) (15.9)

+ + +

vi dt 2vi sint dt

or

2vi [ cos( + ) cos( + )] 2vi [ cos + cos( + )] vi cos 2vi [ cos cos( + )]

(15.10)

V = 0 2 2 =

2 2 2 v cos - L I 0 i

\11)

Equation 15.11 can be represented by the following equivalent circuit

The simple equivalent circuit of Fig. 15.3 represents the single phase fully controlled converter with source inductance as a practical dc source as far as its average behaviour is concerned. The open circuit voltage of this practical source equals the average dc output voltage of an ideal converter (without source inductance) operating at a firing angle of . The voltage drop across the internal resistance RC represents the voltage lost due to overlap shown in Fig. 15.1(b) by the hatched portion of the v0 waveform. Therefore, this is called the Commutation resistance. Although this resistance accounts for the voltage drop correctly there is no power loss associated with this resistance since the physical process of overlap does not involve any power loss. Therefore this resistance should be used carefully where power calculation is involved.

4. Explain the operation of 1phase full converter and derive the expressions for its average and rms output voltage. (8)

The operation of this circuit can be understood more easily when the load is purely resistive. The analysis in this page is based on the assumption that the SCRs are ideal controlled switches. It means that when the SCRs are ON, the ON-state voltage drops are zero. In the OFF- state, the leakage current is assumed to be zero. The main purpose of the fully-controlled bridge rectifier circuit is to provide a variable dc voltage from an ac source.

CIRCUIT OPERATION

The circuit of a single-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure above. The circuit has four SCRs. It is preferable to state that the circuit has two pairs of SCRs, with S1 and S4 forming one pair and, S2 and S3 the other pair. For this circuit, the source is marked as vs and it is a sinusoidal voltage source. When it is positive, SCRs S1 and S4 can be triggered and then current flows from vs through SCR S1, load resistor R, SCR S4 and back into the source. In the next halfcycle, the other pair of SCRs conducts. Even though the direction of current through the source alternates from one halfcycle to the other half-cycle, the current through the load remains unidirectional. The main purpose of this circuit is to provide a variable dc output voltage, which is brought about by varying the firing angle. Let vs = E x Sin wt, with 0 < wt < 360o. If wt = 30o when S1 and S4 are triggered, then the firing angle is said to be 30 o. In this instance, the other pair is triggered when wt = 210o. When vs changes from a positive to a negative value, the current through the load becomes zero at the instant wt = radians, since the load is purely resistive and the SCRs cease to conduct. After that there is no current flow till the other pair is triggered. Hence the conduction or current flow through the load is discontinuous. The operation of the circuit is illustrated by animating the functioning of this circuit. Key in the firing angle in degrees and click the button. The source voltage and the output voltage waveforms are also displayed.

5. Explain the working of 3phase full converter with R load and derive the expression for the average and rms value. (16)

The operation of a 3-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier circuit is described in this page. A three-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier can be constructed using six SCRs as

shown below.

The three-phase bridge rectifier circuit has three-legs, each phase connected to one of the three phase voltages. Alternatively, it can be seen that the bridge circuit has two halves, the positive half consisting of the SCRs S1, S3 and S5 and the negative half consisting of the SCRs S2, S4 and S6. At any time, one SCR from each half conducts when there is current flow. If the phase sequence of the source be RYB, the SCRs are triggered in the sequence S1, S2 , S3 , S4, S5 , S6 and S1 and so on. The operation of the circuit is first explained with the assumption that diodes are used in place of the SCRs. The three-phase voltages vary as shown below.

It can be seen that the R-phase voltage is the highest of the three-phase voltages when is in the range from 30o to 150o. It can also be seen that Y-phase voltage is the highest of the three-phase voltages when is in the range from 150o to 270o and that B-phase voltage is the highest of the three-phase voltages when is in the range from 270o to 390o or 30o in the next cycle. We also find that R-phase voltage is the lowest of the three-phase voltages when is in the range from 210o to 330o. It can also be seen that Y-phase voltage is the lowest of the threephase voltages when is in the range from 330o to 450o or 90o in the next cycle, and that Bphase voltage is the lowest when is in the range from 90o to 210o. If diodes are used, diode D1 in place of S1 would conduct from 30o to 150o, diode D3 would conduct from 150o to 270o and diode D5 from 270o to 390o or 30o in the next cycle. In the same way, diode D4 would conduct from 210o to 330o, diode D6 from 330o to 450o or 90o in the next cycle, and diode D2 would conduct from 90o to 210o. The positive rail of output voltage of the bridge is connected to the topmost segments of the envelope of three-phase voltages and the negative rail of the output voltage to the lowest segments of the envelope. At any instant barring the change-over periods when current flow gets transferred from diode to another, only one of the following pairs conducts at any time. Period, range of 30o to 90o 90o to 150o 150o to 210o 210o to 270o 270o to 330o 330o to 360o and 0o to 30o Diode Pair in conduction D1 and D6 D1 and D2 D2 and D3 D3 and D4 D4 and D5 D5 and D6

If SCRs are used, their conduction can be delayed by choosing the desired firing angle. When the SCRs are fired at 0o firing angle, the output of the bridge rectifier would be the same as that of the circuit with diodes. For instance, it is seen that D1 starts conducting only after = 30o. In fact, it can start conducting only after = 30o , since it is reverse-biased before = 30o. The bias across D1 becomes zero when = 30o and diode D1 starts getting forward-biased only after =30o. When vR( ) = E*Sin ( ), diode D1 is reverse-biased before = 30o and it is forward-biased when 30o. When firing angle to SCRs is zero degree, S1 is triggered when = 30o. This means that if a synchronizing signal is needed for triggering S1, that signal voltage would lag vR( ) by 30o and if the firing angle is , SCR S1 is triggered when = + 30o. Given that the conduction is continuous, the following table presents the SCR pair in conduction at any instant.

Period, range of + 30o to + 90o + 90o to + 150o + 150o to + 210o + 210o to + 270o + 270o to + 330o + 330o to + 360o and

+ 0o to

+ 30o

SCR Pair in conduction S1 and S6 S1 and S2 S2 and S3 S3 and S4 S4 and S5 S5 and S6

The operation of the bridge-rectifier is illustrated with the help of an applet that follows this paragraph. You can set the firing angle in the range 0o < firing angle < 180o and you can set the instantaneous angle also. The applet displays the SCR pair in conduction at the chosen instant. The current flow path is shown in red colour in the circuit diagram. The instantaneous angle can be either set in its text-field or varied by dragging the scroll-bar button. The rotating phasor diagram is quite useful to illustrate how the circuit operates. Once the firing angle is set, the phasor position for firing angle is fixed. Then as the instantaneous angle changes, the pair that conducts is connected to the thick orange arcs. One way to visualize is to imagine two brushes which are 120 o wide and the device in the phase connected to the brush conducts. The brush that has "Firing angle " written beside it acts as the brush connected to the positive rail and the other acts as if it is connected to the negative rail. This diagram illustrates how the rectifier circuit acts as a commutator and converts ac to dc. The output voltage is specified with the amplitude of phase voltage being assigned unity value.

UNIT-III
PART-A 1. What is meant by dc chopper?
A dc chopper is a high speed static switch used to obtain variable dc voltage from

a constant dc voltage. 2. What are the applications of dc chopper? a. Battery operated vehicles b. Traction motor control in electric traction c. Trolly cars d. Marine hoists e. Mine haulers f. Electric braking. 3. What are the advantages of dc chopper? Chopper provides a. High efficiency b. Smooth acceleration c. Fast dynamic response d. Regeneration

4. What is meant by step-up and step-down chopper? In a step- down chopper or Buck converter, the average output voltage is less than the input voltage. In a step- up chopper or Boost converter, the average output voltage is more than the input voltage. 5. Write down the expression for average output voltage for step down chopper. Average output voltage for step down chopper V0 = Vs, is the duty cycle 6. Write down the expression for average output voltage for step up chopper. Average output voltage for step down chopper V0 = Vs, is the duty cycle 1- 7. What is meant by duty-cycle? Duty cycle is defined as the ratio of the on time of the chopper to the total time period of the chopper. It is denoted by . 8. What are the two types of control strategies? a. Time Ratio Control (TRC) b. Current Limit Control method (CLC) 9. What is meant by TRC? In TRC, the value of Ton / T is varied in order to change the average output voltage. 10. What are the two types of TRC? a. Constant frequency control b. Variable frequency control

PART-B 1. Discuss the principle of operation of DC-DC step down chopper with suitable waveforms. Derive the expression for its average dc voltage. (16)

Principle Of Step-down Chopper

Chopper i0 +

V0

A step-down chopper with resistive load. The thyristor in the circuit acts as a switch. When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across the load When thyristor is OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero.

v0 V Vdc t tON i0 V/R Idc t T tOFF

Vdc I dc tON tOFF T f

Average value of output or load voltage. Average value of output or load current. Time interval for which SCR conducts. Time interval for which SCR is OFF. tON 1 T tOFF Period of switching or chopping period.

Freq. of chopper switching or chopping freq.

Average Output Voltage Vdc Vdc but tON t V V tON tON tOFF tON T d V .d duty cycle

Average Output Current Vdc I dc R V tON V I dc d R T R RMS value of output voltage VO 1 T

tON 2 vo dt 0

But during tON , vo 1 T

tON

Therefore RMS output voltage VO VO VO V 2 dt

0

V2 tON T d .V

tON .V T

Output power PO But IO

VO I O VO R

Output power VO2 PO R dV 2 PO R Effective input resistance of chopper

Ri Ri

V I dc

R d The output voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle.

2. Explain the four quadrant dc chopper operation with RLE load using suitable waveforms. (16)

3. Explain time ratio control and current limit control strategies. (8)

Methods Of Control

The output dc voltage can be varied by the following methods. Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency operation. Variable frequency control. Pulse Width Modulation tON is varied keeping chopping frequency f & chopping period T constant. Output voltage is varied by varying the ON time tON

V0 V tON tOFF t T V0 V

t tON tOFF

Variable Frequency Control Chopping frequency f is varied keeping either tON or tOFF constant. To obtain full output voltage range, frequency has to be varied over a wide range.

 This method produces harmonics in the output and for large tOFF load current may become discontinuous

v0

tON T v0 V tON T

tOFF t

tOFF t

4. Explain the operation of BUCK converter and derive the expression for it.

Principle Of Step-up Chopper

I +

D +
L O A D

V Chopper

VO

Step-up chopper is used to obtain a load voltage higher than the input voltage V. The values of L and C are chosen depending upon the requirement of output voltage and current. When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is connected across the supply. The inductor current I rises and the inductor stores energy during the ON time of the chopper, tON. When the chopper is off, the inductor current I is forced to flow through the diode D and load for a period, tOFF. The current tends to decrease resulting in reversing the polarity of induced EMF in L. Therefore voltage across load is given by
VO V L dI i.e., VO dt V

A large capacitor C connected across the load, will provide a continuous output voltage . Diode D prevents any current flow from capacitor to the source. Step up choppers are used for regenerative braking of dc motors. Expression For Output Voltage
Assume the average inductor current to be I during ON and OFF time of Chopper. When Chopper is ON Voltage across inductor L V Therefore energy stored in inductor = V .I .tON Where tON ON period of chopper.

When Chopper is OFF (energy is supplied by inductor to load) Voltage across L VO V Energy supplied by inductor L where tOFF VO V ItOFF OFF period of Chopper.

Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor L = energy supplied by inductor L

VItON VO VO

VO V ItOFF V tON tOFF tOFF

T T tON

Where T = Chopping period or period of switching. T tON tOFF

VO

VO Where d

1 t 1 ON T 1 V 1 d tON duty cyle T V

For variation of duty cycle ' d ' in the range of 0 d 1 the output voltage VO will vary in the range V VO

5. Explain in detail flyback-SMPS.

Isolated DC-DC requires isolation transformer Two types: Linear and Switched-mode Advantages of switched mode over linear power supply -Efficient (70-95%) -Weight and size reduction Disadvantages -Complex design

-EMI problems Types of SMPS -Flyback -forward -Push-pull -Bridge (half and full)

SMPS block diagram

DC Unregulated
EMI FILTER RECTIFIER AND FILTER

DC-DC CONVERSITION AND ISOLATION

High Frequency rectifier and filter

DC Regulated
Vo

Vref
Base/ gate drive PWM Controller error Amp

High frequency transformer

Basic function : 1) Input - output electrical isolation 2) step up/down time - varying voltage Basic input - output relationsh ip v1 N1 ; v2 N2 i1 i2 N2 N1

Models :

i1 + V1

N1

N2

i2 + V2

Ideal model

i1 + V1 Lm

N1

N2

i2 + V2

Model used for most PE application

Flyback Converter

Vd

LM

+ Vo

Flyback converter circuit

iS

i1 iLM

N1 + v1

N2 v2 +

iD + + vD iC iR Vo

Vd + vSW

i2

Operation: switch closed

Model with magnetising inductance

0 iLM N1 + v1 v1=Vs N2 + v2 + 0 Vo

is=iLM Vd

v1

Vd

Lm iLm dt

diLm dt iLm DT Vd Lm

diLm dt

Switch opened

iD N1 + v1 N2 v2= VS + + Vo

Vs + vSW

iLM

v1 But v1 v1 diL m dt

Vo

N1 N2 v2 Vo Vo Vo N1 N2 Vo N1 Lm N 2 N1 N2 N1 N2

v2

Lm

diL m dt iL m dt

iL m 1 DT

iL m

open

Vo (1 D)T N1 Lm N2

Voltage across the switch : N vSW Vd Vo 1 N2 Output voltage

For steady - state operation, iLm closed iLm opened 0 Vd DT Lm Vo Vd Vo 1 D T N1 Lm N2 D 1 D N2 N1 0

 Input output relationship is similar to buck-boost converter. Output can be greater of less than input,depending upon D. Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is present. Flyback waveforms

Ps Vd I s

P0
2

Vs v1

V0 R I s is related to I Lm as : Is I Lm DT I Lm D

T Solving for I Lm Vd I Lm D I Lm V02 R 2 V0 Vd DR

-V(N1 /N2)

iLm

iLM

I Lm can written as : I Lm Vd D N2 2 (1 D) R N1
2

is

V0 N2 (1 D) R N1

t iD

iC

DT

Vo/ R

Max, Min inductor current

iLm 2
2

I Lm ,max

I Lm

Vd D N2 2 (1 D) R N1 I Lm ,min I Lm iLm 2

V dDT 2 Lm

Vd D N2 2 (1 D) R N1
2

Vd DT 2 Lm

For CCM, I Lm , min 0 Vd D N2 2 (1 D) R N1 Lm

min

Vd DT 2 Lm

Vd D 2 Lm f
2

Vd (1 D) 2 R N1 2f N2

Ripple calculatio n is similar to boost, V0 D r V0 RCf

Example The Flyback converter has these specifications: DC input voltage: 40V Output voltage: 25V Duty cycle: 0.5 Rated load: 62.5W Max peak-peak inductor current ripple: 25% of the average inductor current. Maximum peak-peak output voltage: 0.1V Switching frequency: 75kHz

Based on the abovementioned specifications, determine a) Transformer turns ratio b) Value of magnetizing inductor Lm. c) Maximum and minimum inductor current. d) Value of capacitor C.

UNIT-IV PART-A 1. What is meant by inverter? A device that converts dc power into ac power at desired output voltage and frequency is called an inverter. 2. What are the applications of an inverter? a. Adjustable speed drives b. Induction heating c. Stand-by aircraft power supplies d. UPS e. HVDC transmission 3. What are the main classification of inverter? a. Voltage Source Inverter b. Current Source Inverter 4. Why thyristors are not preferred for inverters? Thyristors require extra commutation circuits for turn off which results in uncreased complexity of the circuit. For these reasons thyristors are not preferred for inverters. 5. How output frequency is varied in case of a thyristor? The output frequency is varied by varying the turn off time of the thyristors in the inverter circuit, i.e. the delay angle of the thyristors is varied 6. Give two advantages of CSI. a. CSI does not require any feedback diodes. b. Commutation circuit is simple as it involves only thyristors 7. What is the main drawback of a single phase half bridge inverter? It require a 3-wire dc supply 8. Compare CSI and VSI. S. No. VSI CSI 1. Input voltage is maintained Input current is constant but constant adjustable The output voltage does not The output current does not depend on 2. depend on the load the load

3.

4. 5.

The magnitude of the output current and its waveform depends on the nature of the load impedance It requires feedback diodes Commutation circuit is complicated i.e. it contains capacitors and inductors.

The magnitude of the output voltage and its waveform depends on the nature of the load impedance It does not requires feedback diodes Commutation circuit is simple i.e. it contains only capacitors.

9. Why diodes should be connected in antiparallel with the thyristors in inverter circuits? For RL loads, load current will not be in phase with load voltage and the diodes connected in antiparallel will allow the current to flow when the main thyristors are turned off. These diodes are called feedback diodes 10. What is meant a series inverter? An inverter in which the commutating elements are connected in series with the load is called a series inverter. PART-B 1. Explain the operation of single phase full bridge inverter with a neat sketch. (16) Single Phase Full Bridge Converter Full bridge converter is also basic circuit to convert dc to ac. An ac output is synthesized from a dc input by closing and opening switches in an appropriate sequence. There are also four different states depending on which swithces are closed.

State 1 2 3 4

Switches Closed S1 & S2 S3 & S4 S1 & S3 S2 & S4

Vo + Vdc -Vdc 0 0

State 1 and State 2

State 3 and State 4 Switches S1 and S4 should not be closed at the same time. S2 and S3 should be be closed in parallel too. Otherwise, a short circuit would exist across the dc source. Real switches do not turn on or off instantaneously. Hence, switching transition times must be accomodated in the control of switches. Overlap of switch "on" will cause short circuit (shoot-through fault) across the dc voltage source. The time allowed for switching is called blanking time.

2. Explain the operation of 180 degree conduction mode operation of inverter. (16) 180 degree Conduction For this mode of operation, each device conducts 180 degrees. The sequence of firing is: 123, 234, 345, 456, 561, 612. The gating signals are shifted from each other by 60 degrees.

Phase Voltages for 180 Conduction

Mode 1 Operation

3
Req i1 van vbn R Vs Req vcn i1 R

R 3R 2 2 2Vs 3R i1 R 2 Vs 3 2Vs 3

Q1, Q5, Q6 conduct

4.Three phase Pulse Width Modulation Definition Space vector representation of a three-phase quantities xa(t), xb(t) and xc(t) with space distribution of 120o apart is given by:

2 x a ( t ) ax b ( t ) a 2 x c (t ) 3

a = ej2 /3 = cos(2 /3) + jsin(2 /3) a2 = ej4 /3 = cos(4 /3) + jsin(4 /3) x can be a voltage, current or flux and does not necessarily has to be sinusoidal

2 x a ( t ) ax b ( t ) a 2 x c (t ) 3

Space Vector Modulation

2 va (t ) avb (t ) a 2vc (t ) 3

Lets consider 3-phase sinusoidal voltage:

2 v a ( t ) av b ( t ) a 2 v c ( t ) 3

Lets consider 3-phase sinusoidal voltage:

At t=t1, t = (3/5) (= 108o)

va = 0.9511(Vm) vb = -0.208(Vm) vc = -0.743(Vm)

2 v a (t ) avb (t ) a 2 vc (t ) 3

Lets consider 3-phase sinusoidal voltage

Three phase quantities vary sinusoidally with time (frequency space vector rotates at 2 f, magnitude Vm

2 v aN av bN a2 v cN v Nn (1 a a2 ) 3
Sa, Sb, Sc = 1 or 0

vaN = VdcSa, vaN = VdcSb, vaN = VdcSa,

v
v

2 Vdc S a aSb a 2 Sc 3
2 v a ( t ) av b ( t ) a 2 v c ( t ) 3

5. Explain about sinusoidal pulse width modulation. In multiple-pulse modulation, all pulses are the same width Vary the pulse width according to the amplitude of a sine wave evaluated at the center of the same pulse

UNIT-V PART-A 1. What are the applications of ac voltage controllers? a. Domestic and industrial heating b. Lighting control c. Speed control of single phase and three phase ac motors d. Transformer tap changing 2. What are the advantages of ac voltage controllers? a. High efficiency b. Flexibility in control c. Less maintenance 3. What are the disadvantages of ac voltage controllers? The main drawback is the introduction of harmonics in the supply current and the load voltage waveforms particularly at low output voltages. 4. What are the two methods of control in ac voltage controllers? a. ON-OFF control b. Phase control

5. What is the difference between ON-OFF control and phase control? ON-OFF control: In this method, the thyristors are employed as switches to connect the load circuit to the source for a few cycles of the load voltage and disconnect it for another few cycles. Phase control: In this method, thyristor switches connect the load to the ac source for a portion of each half cycle of input voltage. 6. What is the advantage of ON-OFF control? Due to zero-voltage and zero current switching of thyristors, the harmonics generated by the switching action are reduced. 7. What is the disadvantage of ON-OFF control? This type of control is applicable in systems that have high mechanical inertia and high thermal time constant. 8. What is the duty cycle in ON-OFF control method? Duty cycle K = n/ (n + m), where n = no. of ON cycles, m = no. of OFF cycles. 9. What is meant by unidirectional or half-wave ac voltage controller? Here the power flow is controlled only during the positive half-cycle of the input voltage. 10. What are the disadvantages of unidirectional or half-wave ac voltage controller? a. Due to the presence of diode on the circuit, the control range is limited and the effective RMS output voltage can be varied between 70.7% and 100%. b. The input current and output voltage are asymmetrical and contain a dc component.If there is an input transformer, sdaturation problem will occur c. It is only used for low power resistive load.

PART-B 1. Discuss the working of 3 phase to single phase cyclo-converter with neat voltage and current waveform.(16)

2. Describe the operation of single phase full wave a.c voltage controller with the help of voltage and current waveform. Also derive the expression for average value of output voltage.

3. Discuss the working of three phase to three phase cyclo-converter with neat voltage and current waveform.(16)

4. Explain integral cycle control.

5. Explain about power factor control and matrix converter.

STAFF: Mrs.S.JEYA SUDHA Assoc. Prof. Mrs.K.SOBANA Assoc. Prof.