SLDG - Book 1

DECEMBER 2001
-1-
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___________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 0 - 0
INDEX
S.L.D.G. 0 - INDEX
S.L.D.G. 1 - GENERAL
1-0 Index
1-1 Introduction
1-2 Coding, Revision And Distribution Of Design
Guide
1-3 Miscellaneous Physical, Chemical and
Technical Information
S.L.D.G. 2 - AN OVERVIEW OF THE GENERAL GUIDELINES
FOR THE DESIGN OF A.C. SUBSTATIONS.
2-0 Index
2-1 Establishment Of A New Substation
2-2 System Requirements And Basic Concepts
S.L.D.G. 3 - SITE SELECTION
3-0 Index
3-1 Selection Of Site
S.L.D.G. 4 - AESTHETIC INFLUENCE OF HIGH VOLTAGE
OUTDOOR SUBSTATIONS ON THE
ENVIRONMENT
4-0 Index
4-1 Aesthetic Influence of High Voltage Outdoor
Substations on the Environment.
4-2 Applications To Minimise Aesthetic Influence Of
High Voltage Outdoor Substations On The
Environment
4-3 Bioremediation
4-4 Constructed Wetlands For Waste-Water
Treatment
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2001Transmission Substation Design & Applications
DECEMBER 2001
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INDEX

S.L.D.G. 5 - GENERAL PARAMETERS AND RULES FOR THE
DESIGN OF A.C. SUBSTATIONS
5-0 Index
5-1 General Criteria And Rules For The Design Of
A.C. Substations
S.L.D.G. 6 - BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS
6-0 Index
6-1 Switching Arrangements.
6-2 Static And Dynamic Stress On Tubular
Conductor Busbar Systems
6-3 Miscellaneous Information On Busbar Systems
S.L.D.G. 7 - INSULATION AND CLEARANCES
7-0 Index
7-1 Insulation Levels And Creepage Distances
7-2 Electrical And Working Clearances
7-3 Standard Number Of Insulator Discs
7-4 Corona Limits
7-5 Tan Delta and Power Factor
S.L.D.G. 8 - SUBSTATION EARTHING
8-0 Index
8-1 Earth-mat Design
8-2 Copper Earthing Conductor Sizes
S.L.D.G. 9 - SUBSTATION FLEXIBLE CONDUCTORS,
TUBULAR CONDUCTORS, EARTH-WIRES,
EARTH-MAT COPPER AND INSULATED CABLES
9-0 Index
9-1 Substation Flexible Conductors, Earth-wires
And Earth-mat Copper
9-2 All Aluminium Conductors
9-3 Aluminium Alloy Conductors
9-4 SCA Conductors

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INDEX

S.L.D.G. 9
(Continued)
9-5 Copper Conductors And Earthing Materials
9-6 Tubular Conductors
9-7 Proposed Standard Aluminium Tubular
Conductors
9-8 Insulated Cables
S.L.D.G. 10 - TERMINALS, STEMS, CLAMPS AND YARD
HARDWARE
10-0 Index
10-1 Equipment Terminal Stems
10-2 Substation Current Carrying Clamps
10-3 Standard Substation Clamps And Accessories
For Flexible Conductors
10-4 Standard Substation Clamps And Accessories
For Tubular Conductors
10-5 Standard Range Of Substation Hardware
S.L.D.G. 11 - CIRCUIT BREAKERS
11-0 Index
11-1 Standard Circuit Breaker Ratings
11-2 Application Guide
S.L.D.G. 12 - ISOLATORS
12-0 Index
12-1 General Information
12-2 Pantograph Isolators
12-3 Isolator Auxiliary Contacts
S.L.D.G. 13 - INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
13-0 Index
13-1 Introduction
13-2 Current Transformers
13-3 Electromagnetic And Capacitive Voltage
Transformers
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INDEX

S.L.D.G. 14 - SURGE ARRESTERS
14-0 Index
14-1 Scope
14-2 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) Surge Arrester Application
Guide
14-3 Schedule Of Surge Arrester Protective
Distances For Transformers
S.L.D.G. 15 - POWER AND AUXILIARY TRANSFORMERS
15-0 Index
15-1 Standard Power Transformers
15-2 Power Transformer Application Guide
15-3 Standard Transformers : In-built Current
Transformers
15-4 Substation Auxiliary Transformers
S.L.D.G. 16 - SHUNT AND SERIES REACTORS, AND
EARTHING COMPENSATORS
16-0 Index
16-1 Shunt Reactors
16-2 Series Current Limiting Reactors
16-3 Earthing Compensators
S.L.D.G. 17 - CAPACITORS - SHUNT AND SERIES
17-0 Index
17-1 Shunt Capacitors
17-2 Series Capacitor Application And Protection
S.L.D.G. 18 - STATIC VAR COMPENSATORS (SVCS)
18-0 Index
18-1 Static VAr Compensators
S.L.D.G. 19 - TELECOMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT AND
COMMUNICATION ROOM LAYOUT
19 - 0 Index
19 - 1 Carrier Coupling Arrangements
19 - 2 Communication Room Layout
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INDEX

S.L.D.G. 20 - CIVIL WORKS
20-0 Index
20-1 Standard Civil Details
20-2 Cut / Fill Calculations
20-3 Application Guide
20-4 Transformer Plinth and Fire Protection
20-5 Application Guide For Substation Fencing
S.L.D.G. 21 - STEELWORK
21-0 Index
21-1 Busbar Steelwork Details
21-2 Steelwork Schedules For Various System
Voltages
S.L.D.G. 22 - SUBSTATION AND POWER STATION H.V. YARD
OPERATIONAL LIGHTING
22-0 Index
22-1 Operations And Maintenance Standard For
The Lighting Of High Voltage Stations
22-2 Operational Lighting Design Principles
22-3 An Example Of Operational Lighting
Specifications, Design And Implementation.
S.L.D.G. 23 - SUBSTATION LAYOUT PROJECT DRAWINGS
AND DESIGN DRAUGHTING STANDARDS
23-0 Index
23-1 Information For The Production Of Substation
Layout Project Drawings
23-2 Design Draughting Standards
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INDEX

S.L.D.G. 24 - BAY LAYOUT SCHEDULE
24-0 Index
24-1 Standard Bays General Philosophy
24-2 Overhead Strung Busbar Arrangements for
Substation with Protection housed in a Central
Control Room
24-3 Overhead Strung Busbar Arrangements for
Substation with Modular Bay Protection
24-4 Tubular Busbar Arrangements for Substations
with Protection Housed in a Centralized
Control Room
24-5 Tubular Busbar Arrangement for Substations
with Module by Protection
S.L.D.G. 25 - SLACKSPAN SCHEDULES
25-0 Index
25-1 Introduction
S.L.D.G. 26 - COST ESTIMATING
26-0 Index
26-1 Substation Project Cost Estimating
26-2 Transformer Cost Calculations For Estimating
And Budgetary Purposes
S.L.D.G. 27 - ESKOM NATIONAL CONTRACTS (ENC)
27-0 Index
27-1 ENC Details
27-2 Typical Order Forms
S.L.D.G. 28 - FAULT ANALYSIS
28-0 Index
28-1 Incident Investigations
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INDEX

S.L.D.G. 29 - HIGH VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT SYSTEM
29-0 Index
29-1 High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) Systems
S.L.D.G. 30 - GAS INSULATED SWITCHGEAR
30-0 Index
30-1 Introduction
30-2 Typical Bays
30-3 Containerized GIS Switchgear

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S.L.D.G. 1 - 0
GENERAL
INDEX
DOCUMENT REVISION TITLE
S.L.D.G. 1-0

S.L.D.G. 1-1

S.L.D.G. 1-2
2

1

1
INDEX

INTRODUCTION

CODING, REVISIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF DESIGN
GUIDE
1. Coding
2. Indexing
3. Revisions
3.1 Type-written Documents
3.2 Diagrams
4. Distribution

S.L.D.G. 1-3 0 MISCELLANEOUS PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND
TECHNICAL INFORMATION
1. Electrochemical Series
2. Moments Of Resistance And Moments Of Inertia
3. Geometry, Calculation Of Areas And Volumes Of
Solid Bodies
3.1 Area Of Polygons
3.2 Areas And Centres Of Gravity
3.3 Volumes And Surface Areas Of Solid Bodies
3.4 Logarithmic And Trigonometrical Relationships
3.5 Conversion Tables : Imperial - Metric
4. General Electrotechnical Formulae And Tables
4.1 Electro-technical Symbols
4.2 Alternating-current Quantities
4.3 Forms Of Power In An Alternating-current Circuit
4.4 Resistances And Conductances In An Alternating-
current Circuit
4.5 Alternating-current Quantities Of Basic Circuits
4.6 Electric Resistances
4.6.1 Definitions and specific values
4.6.2 Resistances in different circuit
configurations

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DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 1-1 / 1

S.L.D.G. 1 - 1
INTRODUCTION
Although a great deal of information relating to the design of substations is available
in one form or another, it is often not readily accessible. Design times are
consequently prolonged unnecessarily because of the need to search for data or to
repeat calculations that may have been done many times before.
The first object of this Design Guide is thus to assemble into one manual (or set of
manuals) as much basic design data as possible.
Where applicable, reference is made to the source of the data e.g. Eskom Standard,
S.A.B.S Standard, etc., and here it must be stressed that the Design Guides are in
no way intended to supersede any Standard documents. The basic data is merely
repeated for ease of reference and it follows that every effort will be made to ensure
that the manual is updated in line with any changes to the relevant Standard. This is
not expected to be necessary very often.
The second objective of the Design Guide is to introduce a measure of
Standardisation.
For a variety of reasons including site orientation, topography and environment, load
requirements and local network configurations, the layouts of even similar
substations can rarely be made identical. Individual components ranging form
clamps through to complete bays do, however, lend themselves to standardisation
and by concentrating on the development of these building-blocks, significant
contributions can be made towards:
Reduction of design times
Smaller stocks of less items
Better use of manufacturing resources and hence better deliveries
Improved estimating techniques
Greater accuracy in forecasting of material for bulk buying and production
planning purposes.
The guides are not expected to cater for every possible case that can arise in
practice, but the general principles outlined should be followed wherever possible.

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S.L.D.G. 1 - 2
CODING, REVISIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF DESIGN GUIDE
1. CODING
All documents comprising the Substation Layout Design Guide will be coded
with the following:
a) An alpha abbreviation - S.L.D.G. (Substation Layout Design Guide).
b) This will be followed by a series of numerals, the first group of that
denotes the Design Guide number while the second group defines the
document or topic. The two groups of digits will be separated by a
dash or hyphen.
Example: S.L.D.G. 11-4
This implies that Substation Layout Design Guide No. 11, document or
topic No. 4. Where sketches (or figures) are involved these will be
given numeric figure identifications in addition to their coding as there
may be a series of sketches associated with one topic.
Example: Fig. 1, Fig. 2, etc.
For cross-reference between sketches within the same topic, only the
figure number need be quoted e.g. See Fig. 3.
For cross-reference between sketches in different topics the full code
must be quoted e.g. See S.L.D.G. 6-2 Fig. 1.
2. INDEXING
The General Index for the full Design Guide series will be logged under the
Code S.L.D.G. 0 and identifies the subject covered by each Design Guide.
This appears at the very front of the manual.

Each individual Design Guide will carry its own index sheet coded with the
document number 0.
Example: S.L.D.G. 12-0.
This means that it is the Index Sheet for Design Guide No. 12. This Index
identifies the various topics covered by that particular Design Guide and
records latest revisions.
3. REVISIONS
3.1 Type-written Documents
On all type written documents revisions will be recorded as a stroke
number following the document or topic number

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DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 1-2 / 1
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Example: S.L.D.G. 16-3/1
The full code shall appear in the top right -hand corner and the date in
the top left-hand corner of the document.
3.2 Diagrams
For all diagrams a revision and date column is provided in the
standard drawing format.
4. DISTRIBUTION
The publication of this manual and its updating is the responsibility of the
Chief Engineer (Substation Design and Applications) and the master
document shall be kept in his possession.
The Chief Engineer (Substation Design and Applications) will arrange for
Head Office Services section to print copies of the document and to distribute
these in accordance with Table 1.
Each time a revision of a type written document or diagram is issued, the
revision shall be accompanied by the revised index sheet associated with the
relevant Design Guide. This will enable the recipient to check that his manual
is complete, up-to-date and that no previous issues have been mislaid or
gone astray.
To cover minor errors such as a spelling or typing mistake an erratum sheet
will be issued form which the manuals can be corrected by hand.
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S.L.D.G. 1 - 2 / 1
TABLE 1
DISTRIBUTION LIST FOR
SUBSTATION LAYOUT DESIGN GUIDE

No. of Copies Recipient Copy Number

1

1

1

1

1

5

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

5

1

MANAGER (TRANSMISSION SUBSTATION &
LINES DESIGN AND APPLICATIONS)

MANAGER (NETWORK OPERATIONS
ENGINEERING)

MANAGER (TRANSMISSION EXPANSION
PLANNING)

MANAGER (SYSTEM OPERATIONS)

MANAGER (TRANSMISSION PROJECTS)

REGIONAL MANAGER (NORTH)

REGIONAL MANAGER (NORTH WEST)

REGIONAL MANAGER (NORTH EAST)

REGIONAL MANAGER (EAST)

REGIONAL MANAGER (CENTRAL)

REGIONAL MANAGER (SOUTH)

REGIONAL MANAGER (WESTERN)

MANAGER (NEW BUSINESS VENTURES)

CHIEF ENGINEER (SUBSTATION DESIGN &
APPLICATIONS)

CHIEF ENGINEER (LINE DESIGN &
APPLICATIONS)

1

2

3

4

5, 6, 7, 8 & 9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18, 19, 20, 21 &
22

23

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S.L.D.G. 1 - 3
MISCELLANEOUS PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND TECHNICAL
INFORMATION
1. ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES
If different metals are joined together in a manner permitting conduction, and both
are wetted by a liquid such as water, acids, etc., an electrolytic cell is formed
which gives rise to corrosion. The amount of corrosion increases with the
differences in potential. If such conducting joints cannot be avoided, the two
metals must be insulated from each other by protective coatings or by
constructional means. In outdoor installations, therefore, aluminium / copper
connectors or washers of copper-plated aluminium sheet are used to join
aluminium and copper, while in dry indoor installations aluminium and copper may
be joined without the need for special protective measures.
Table 1 : Electrochemical Series, Normal Potentials Against Hydrogen,
In Volts.
1. Lithium approx. -3,02 15. Cobalt approx. -0,26
2. Potassium approx. -2,95 16. Nickel approx. -0,20
3. Barium approx. -2,80 17. Tin approx. -0,146
4. Sodium approx. -2,72 18. Lead approx. -0,132
5. Strontium approx. -2,70 19. Hydrogen approx. -0,00
6. Calcium approx. -2,50 20. Antimony approx. +0,20
7. Magnesium approx. -1,80 21. Bismuth approx. +0,20
8. Aluminium approx. -1,45 22. Arsenic approx. +0,30
9. Manganese approx. -1,10 23. Copper approx. +0,35
10. Zinc approx. -0,77 24. Silver approx. +0,80
11. Chromium approx. -0,56 25 Mercury approx. +0,86
12. Iron approx. -0,43 26. Platinum approx. +0,87
13. Cadmium approx. -0,42 27. Gold approx. +1,50
14. Thallium approx. -0,34
If two metals included in this table come into contact, the metal mentioned first will
corrode.
The less noble metal becomes the anode and the more noble acts as the
cathode. As a result, the less noble metal corrodes and the more noble metal is
protected.
Metallic oxides are always less strongly electronegative, i.e. nobler in the
electrolytic sense, than the pure metals. Electrolytic potential differences can
therefore also occur between metal surfaces that to the engineer appear very little
different. Even though the potential differences for cast iron and steel, for
example, with clean and rusty surfaces are small, as shown in Table 2, under
suitable circumstances these small differences can nevertheless give rise to
significant direct currents, and hence corrosive attack.

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Table 2: Standard Potentials Of Different Types Of Iron Against
Hydrogen, In Volts
SM steel, clean surface approx. -0.40 cast iron, rusty approx. -0.30
cast iron, clean surface approx. -0.38 SM steel, rusty approx. -0.25

2. MOMENTS OF RESISTANCE AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA

Table 3: Moments Of Resistance And Moments Of Inertia

Moment Of Resistance Moment Of Inertia
Cross-
section
Torsion
W
(cm
3
)
Bending (1)
W
(cm
3
)
Polar (1)
J
p

(cm
4
)
Axial (2)
J
(cm
4
)

d x x

0,196.d
3

0,2.d
3

0,198.d
3

0,2.d
3

0,098.d
4

0,1.d
4

0,049.d
4

0,05.d
4

D x d

0,096. (D
4
-d
4
)
D

0,098. (D
4
-d
4
)
D

0,098.(D
4
-d
4
)

0,049.(D
4
-d
4
)
(D
4
-d
4
)
20
x x
a

0,208 . a
3

0,018 . a
3

0,167 . a
4

0,083 . a
4

b
x x h

0,208 . k.b
2
.h (3)

b.h
2
= 0,167.b.h
2
6

b.h = (b
2
+h
2
)
12
b.h
3
= 0,083.b.h
3
12
B
x x
H
b

B.H
3
- b.h
3
6H

B.H
3
- b.h
3
12
B
x x H h
b/2 b/2

B.H
3
- b.h
3
6H

B.H
3
- b.h
3
12
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Table 3 : Moments Of Resistance And Moments Of Inertia
(Continued)

Cross- Moment Of Resistance Moment Of Inertia
section Torsion
W
(cm
3
)
Bending (1)
W
(cm
3
)
Polar (1)
J
p

(cm
4
)
Axial (2)
J
(cm
4
)
b
x x
B
h H

B.H
3
- b.h
3
6H

B.H
3
- b.h
3
12
x x h
o
h
b b
o

b.h
3
b
0
.h
0
3
6h

b.h
3
b
0
.h
0
3
12

(1) Referred to CG of area.
(2) Referred to plotted axis.
(3) Values for k: if h: b = 1 1,5 2 3 4
then k = 1 1,11 1,18 1,27 1,36

3. GEOMETRY, CALCULATION OF AREAS AND VOLUMES OF SOLID BODIES
3.1 Area of
Polygons
S r
R
R
A
d D

FIGURE 1 : REGULAR POLYGONS
(n ANGLES)
The area A, length sides S and radii of the outer and
inner circles can be taken from Table 4 below.

Table 4 : Area Of Regular Polygons

No. of
sides
Area
A
Side
S
Outer radius
R
Inner radius
r

n

S
2
.

R
2
.

r
2
.

R
x
.

r
x
.

S
x
.

r
x
.

R
x
.

S
x
.
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
0,4330
1,0000
1,7250
2,5981
4,8284
7,6942
11,196
1,2990
2,0000
2,3776
2,5981
2,8284
2,9389
3,0000
5,1962
4,0000
3,6327
3,4641
3,3137
3,2492
3,2154
1,7321
1,4142
1,1756
1,0000
0,7654
0,6180
0,5176
3,4641
2,0000
1,4531
1,1547
0,8284
0,6498
0,5359
0,5774
0,7071
0,8507
1,0000
1,3066
1,6190
1,9319
2,0000
1,4142
1,2361
1,1547
1,0824
1,0515
1,0353
0,5000
0,7071
0,8090
0,8660
0,9239
0,9511
0,9659
0,2887
0,5000
0,6882
0,8660
1,2071
1,5388
1,8660

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Table 5.1 : Area Of Irregular Polygons
Irregular Polygons
h
1
A
1
h
2
A
2
g
1
g
2
g
3
A
3
h
3

( ) ... h . g h . g
2
1
.....
2
h . g
2
h . g
A
2 2 1 1
2 2 1 1
+ + =
+ =

Table 5.2 : Area Of Regular Polygons

Pythagoras Theorem
b
2
b
a
c
a
2
c
2

a
2
= c
2
- b
2
; a =
2 2
b c
b
2
= c
2
- a
2
; b =
2 2
a c
c
2
= a
2
+ b
2
; c =
2 2
b a +

3.2 Areas and Centres of Gravity

Table 6: Areas And Centres Of Gravity

Shape of
Surface

A = area
C = perimeter
S = centre of gravity
(cg)
e = distance of cg
Triangle
a
h
c b
a
e
S
e
h
c
b
S

A = a.h

C = a + b + c

halving a and b gives
e = . h
Trapezium
h d
a
S
e
c
b

A = (a + b).h

C = a + b + c + d

e = . (a + 2.b).h
a + b

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Table 6: Areas And Centres Of Gravity (Continued)

Quadrangle
c
b
a
d
D
h
1
h
2

A = .(h
1
+ h
2
).D

C = a + b + c + d

Rectangle
b
a
e
S

A = a.b
C = 2.(a + b)
(Square : a = b, A = a
2
, C = 4.a)
Parallelogram
h
a

A = a.h C = 2.(a+b)
Circle segment
b
r
s
e
S

o
180
r . .
=
2
b.r
= A
2 o

o
2 o
90
r . .
= b

C = 2.r + b

o
o
o
180
.
R.sin
.
3
2
= e
Shape Of
Surface

A = area
C = perimeter
S = centre of gravity (cg)
e = distance of cg
Semicircle
r
e
S

2
.R .
2
1
= A
C = r . (2 + ) = 5,14 . r
,425.r 0 .
R
.
3
1
= e

Circle
r
d
S

A =. R
2
= .d
2

4
C = 2..r = .d

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Annular
segment
B
S
b
R
e
r

) r -
2 2
o
o
.(R .
180
= A

C = 2.(R - r) + B + b

o
o 2 2
2 2
180
.
sin
.
) r - (R
) r - (R
.
3
2
= e

Semi- annulus
e
b
r
R
S

) r -
2 2
.(R .
2
1
= A
If b < 0,2.R, then

e 0,32.(R + r)
Annulus
S
r
R
d D

) r -
2 2
.(R = A
C = 2..(R + r)
Circular
segment
S
b
h
1
h
s
e
r

2 2
2
o
o
h r . 2 s
2
h . s
r . .
180
A
=

=

A
s
.
12
1
e
. r . .
90
h r . 2 C
2
o
o
2 2
=
+ =

Circular
segment
h
s
r
b

(

=
+ =
2
2.r.sin s

8.h
s
2
h
r
2

( ) . s s b . r .
2
1
A
Sin
180
.
2
1
= A
o
o
+ =
\
|
[ ] h
r .
2
|
|
.
|

___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-7-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Shape of
surface

A = area
C = perimeter
S = centre of gravity (cg)
e = distance of cg
Ellipse
S
b
a

A = .a.b.

C = .(a+b) (approx.)

Solid rectangle
a
b
c

V = a.b.c

O = 2.(a.b + a.c + b.c)
Cube
a
d

V = a
3
= d
3
(d = a)
2

O = 6.a
2
= 3.d
2

Prism
h
A

V = A.h

O = C.h + 2.A

A = base surface
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-8-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3.3 Volumes And Surface Areas Of Solid Bodies

Table 7: Volumes And Surface Areas Of Solid Bodies

Shape Of Body

V = Volume
O = Surface
A = Area
Pyramid
h
A

V = . A.h

O = A + Nappe
Cone
s
r
A
h

V = . A.h.

O = .r.s + .r
2

S = (h
2
+ r
2
)
Truncated
cone
h
r
A
1
A
S
R

V = (R
2
+ r
2
+ R.r). . .h

O = (R + r)..s + .(R
2
+ r
2
)

S = h
2
+ (R
2
- r
2
)
Truncated
pyramid
h
A
1
A

V = .h.(A + A
1
+ A.A
1
)

O = A + A
1
+ Nappe
Sphere
r
d

V = 4. .r
3

3

O = 4. .r
2

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DECEMBER 2001
-9-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Table 7: Volumes And Surface Areas Of Solid Bodies (Continued)

Shape Of Body

V = Volume
O = Surface
A = Area
Hemisphere
r

V = 2..r
3

3

O = 3..r
2

Spherical
segment
h
r

V = .h
2
.(r - .h)

O = 2..r.h + .(2.r.h - h
2
)
= .h.(4.r - h)
Spherical
sector
h
r
s

V = 2. .r
2
.h
3

O = ..r.(4.h + s)

Zone of sphere
b
h
r a

V = ..r.(3.a
2
+ 2.b
2
+ h
2
)

O = .(2.r.h + a
2
+b
2
)

Obliquely cut
cylinder
A
1
h
1 r
A
h

V = ..r
2
.(h + h
1
)

O = .r.(h + h
1
) + A + A
1

Cylindrical
wedge
A
h
r

V = .r
2
.h

O = 2.r.h + ..r
2
+ A

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DECEMBER 2001
-10-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Table 7: Volumes And Surface Areas Of Solid Bodies (Continued)

Shape Of Body

V = Volume
O = Surface
A = Area
Cylinder
h
r

V = .r
2
.h

O = 2. .r.h + 2. .r
2

Hollow
cylinder
h
R
r

V = .h (R
2
- r
2
)

O = 2. .h (R + r) +2. (R
2
- r
2
)
Barrel
D
d
l

V = .l.(2.D
2
+ D.d + 0,75.d
2
)
15

O = (D + d). .d + . .d
2

(approx.)
Frustum
A
A
1
h

V = ((A + A
1
) + A
1
).h

O = A + A
1
+ areas of sides
Body of
rotation (ring)
A

V = 2...A

A = cross-section

O = circumference of cross-
section x 2..
Pappus
theorem for
bodies of
revolution
A
1

Volume of turned surface (hatched) x
path of its centre of gravity
V = 2.A..

Length of turned line x path of its centre
of gravity
O = 2.L..
1

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DECEMBER 2001
-11-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3.4 Logarithmic and Trigonometrical Relationships

Table 8: Logarithmic And Trigonometrical Relationships

Powers

n m
a
n
.a
m
a ;
n
(a.b)
n
.b
n
a
+
= =
0 a for
n
a
1
n
a 1;
0
a ;
m.n
a
n
)
m
(a =
= =

Roots

m
b
m
a
m
b
a
;
m
b .
m
a
m
a.b = =
Logarithms
b = Base
a = Antilogarithms

in general : log
b
a = n
log
b
1 = 0; log
b
b = 1

Logarithms

( )
a .log
n
1
a log
a n.log a log
b
n
b
b
n
b
|
.
|
\
|
=
=

Powers

n m
a
n
a
m
a
;
n
b
a
n
b
n
a

= = |
.
|
\
|

Roots

( )
m.n
a
m n
a
n
m
a
m n
a ;
m.n n m
a
n
a .
m
a
=
=
+
=

Logarithms

c log a log
c
a
log
c log a log (a.c) log
b b b
b b b
= |
.
|
\
|
+ =

Quadratic equation

2.a
4a.c b b
x
0 c b.x a.x
2
1,2
2

=
= + +

___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-12-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Table 8 : Logarithmic And Trigonometrical Relationships
(Continued)

Binomical expansion

( )
( )
3 2 2 3 3
2 2 2
b 3.a.b .b 3.a a b a
b 2.a.b a b a
+ =
+ =

Cosine theorem
a
b
c

+ =
+ =
+ =
cos . 2.a.b b a c
cos . 2.a.c c a b
cos . 2.b.c c b a
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2

Additional theorems

=
=
sin . sin cos . cos ) cos(
sin . cos .cos sin ) sin(
m

Additional theorems

=
cot cot
1 cot . cot
) cot(
m

Triangle
a
b
c

a
b
cot
b
a
tan
c
b
cos
c
a
sin
= =
= =

Sine theorem
b
=
sin
c
sin
b
sin
a

Additional theorems

=
tan . tan 1
tan tan
) tan(
m

Transformation of trigonometrical functions

1 cot . tan
cos
sin
tan 1;
2
cos
2
sin
=
= = +


+
=
+
= =
2
cot 1
1
2
tan 1
tan 2
cos 1 sin


=
cot
1
cos
cos 1
sin 1
sin
tan
2
2

___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-13-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Table 8: Logarithmic And Trigonometrical Relationships
(Continued)


+
=
+
= =
2
cot 1
cot
2
tan 1
1 2
sin 1 cos


=
tan
1
cos 1
cos
sin
sin 1
cot
2
2

Functions of double angles

= =
=
2 2 2
2.sin 1 sin cos ) cos(2.
.cos sin ) sin(2.

Functions of half-angles
2
cos 1
2
cos
2
cos 1
2
in s
+
=

Functions of double angles
2
tan cot
2.cot
1 cot
) cos(2.
tan cot
2
tan 1
. 2.tan
) tan(2.
2
2

=

=

=

=

Functions of half-angles
+
=

=

+
=

=
+
=
+

=
sin
cos 1
cos 1
sin
cos 1
cos 1
2
cot
sin
cos 1
cos 1
sin
cos 1
cos 1
2
tan

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DECEMBER 2001
-14-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3.5 Conversion Tables

Table 9 : Velocity

Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below.
To obtain
dimension
below
Centi-
metres
per
second
Metres
per
second
Metres
per
minute
Kilo-
metres
per
minute
Kilo-
metres
per
hour
Feet
per
second
Feet
per
minute
Miles
per
minute
Miles
per
hour
Knots
by the factor in the same column
Centimetres
/second
1 100 1,667 1667 27,78 30,48 0,5080 2682 44,70 51,48
Metres
/ second
0,01 1 1,667
10
-2

16,67 0,2778 0,3048 5,080
. 10
-3

26,82 0,447
0
0,5148
Metres /
minute
0,6 60 1 1000 16,67 18,29 0,3048 1609 26,82 30,88
Kilometres
/ minute
0,0006 0,06 0,001 1 1,667
. 10
-2

1,829
. 10
-2

3,048
. 10
-4

1,609 2,682
. 10
-2

3,088
. 10
-2

Kilometres
/ hour
0,036 3,6 0,06 60 1 1,079 1,829
. 10
-2

96,54 1,609 1,853
Feet /
second
3,281
. 10
-2

3,281 5,468
. 10
-2

54,68 0,9113 1 1,667
. 10
-2

88 1,467 1,689
Feet / minute 1,969 196,8 3,281 3281 54,68 60 1 5280 88 101,3
Miles /
minute
3,728
. 10
-4

3,728
. 10
-2

6,214
. 10
-4

0,6214 1,036
. 10
-2

1,136
. 10
-2

1,892
. 10
4

1 1,667
. 10
-2

1,919
. 10
-2

Miles
/ hour
2,237
. 10
-2

2,237 3,728
. 10
-2

37,28 0,6214 0,6818 1,136
. 10
-2

60 1 1,152
Knots
(Nautical
miles / hour)
1,943
. 10
-2

1,943 3,238
. 10
-2

32,38 0,5396 0,5921 9,868
. 10
-3

52,10 0,868
4
1

Table 10 : Pressure Or Force
Multiply the dimension in the appropriate column below
To obtain
dimension
below
Atmos-
pheres
Bayers
per
sq. cm
Centi-
metre
Hg
Inches

Hg
Inches

H
2
0
Kilo-
grams
per sq
metre
Pound
s
per sq
foot
Pound
s
per sq
inch
Tons
per sq
foot
Newton
s
per sq
metre
Atmospheres
(76 cm Hg at
0
o
C
1 9,869
.10
-7

1,316
. 10
-2

3,342
. 10
-2

2,458
. 10
-3

9,678
. 10
-5

4,725
. 10
-4

6,804
. 10
-2

0,945 9,869
. 10
-6

Baryers or
dynes per sq
centimetre
(bar)
1,013
. 10
6

1 1,333
. 10
4

3,386
. 10
4

2,491
. 10
-3

98,07 478,8 6,895
. 10
4

9,576
. 10
5

10
Centimetre of
mercury
(0
o
C)
76,00 7,501
. 10
-5

1 2,540 0,1868 7356
. 10
-3

3,591
. 10
-2

5,171 71,83 7,501
. 10
-4

Inches of
mercury
(0
o
C)
29,92 2,953
. 10
-5

0,3937 1 7,355
. 10
-2

2,896
. 10
-3

1,414
. 10
-2

2,036 28,28 2,953
. 10
-4

Inches of
water (4
o
C)
406,8 4,015
. 10
-4

5,354

13,60 1 3,937
. 10
-2

0,1922 27,68 384,5 4,015
. 10
-3

Kilograms
per
square metre
1,033
. 10
4

1,020
. 10
-2

136,0 345,3 25,40 1 4,882 703,1 9765 0,102
Pounds per
square foot
2117 2,089
. 10
-3

27,85 70,73 5,204 0,2048 1 144 2000 2,089
. 10
-2

Pounds per
square inch
14,70 1,45
. 10
-5

0,1934 0,4912 3,613
. 10
-2

1,422
. 10
-3

6,944
. 10
-3

1 13,89 1,45
. 10
-4

Tons (short)
per sq. foot
1,058 1,044
. 10
-6

1,392
. 10
-2

3,536
. 10
-2

2,601
. 10
-3

1,024
. 10
-4

0,0005 0,072 1 1,044
. 10
-1

Newtons per
square metre
1,013
. 10
5

10
-1
1333
. 10
3

3,386
. 10
3

2,491
. 10
-4

9,807 47,88 6,895
. 10
3

9,576
. 10
4

1

___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-15-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Table 11 : Length

To obtain
dimension
below
Centi-
metres
Feet Inches Kilo-
metres
Nauti-
cal
miles
Metres Mils Miles
(statute
)
Milli-
metre
s
Yards
Centimetres 1 30,48 2,540 10
5
1,853
. 10
5

100 2,540
. 10
-3

1,609
. 10
5

0,1 91,44
Feet 3,281
. 10
-2

1 8,333
. 10
-2

3281 6080,2
7
3,281 8,333
. 10
-5

5280 3,281
. 10
-3

3
Inches 0,3937 12 1 3,937
. 10
4

7,296
. 10
4

39,37 0,001 6,336
. 10
4

3,937
. 10
-2

36
Kilometres 10
-5
3,048
. 10
-5

2,540
. 10
-5

1 1,853 0,001 2,540
. 10
-8

1,609 10
-6
9,144
. 10
-3

Nautical Miles 1,645
. 10
-4

0,5396 1 5,396
. 10
-4

0,8684 4,934
. 10
-4

Metres 0,01 0,304
8
2,540
. 10
-2

1000 1853 1 1609 0,001 0,914
4
Mils (10
-3

inches)
393,7 1,2
. 10
4

1000 3,937
. 10
7

3,937
. 10
4

1 39,37 3,6
. 10
4

Miles (statute) 6,214
. 10
-6

1,894
. 10
-4

1,578
. 10
-5

0,6214 1,1516 6,214
. 10
-4

1 6,214
. 10
-7

5,682
. 10
-4

Millimetres 10 304,8 25,4 10
6
1000 2,540
. 10
-2

1 914,4
Yards 1,094
. 10
-2

0,333
3
2,778
. 10
-2

1094 2027 1,094 2,778
. 10
-5

1760 1,094
. 10
-3

1

Table 12 : Area
To obtain
dimension
below
Circula
r
mils
Squar
e
inch
Squar
e
feet
Square
yards
Square
miles
Acres Square
milli-
metres
Square
centi-
metres
Squar
e
metre
s
Squar
e
kilo-
metre
s
Circular mils 1 1,273
. 10
6

1,833
. 10
8

1973 1,973
. 10
5

1,973
. 10
9

Square inch 7,854
. 10
-7

1 144 1296 4,015
. 10
9

6,2726
10
6

1,550
. 10
-3

0,1550 1550 1,550
. 10
9

Square feet 6,944
. 10
-3

1 9 2,788
. 10
7

4,356
. 10
4

1,076
. 10
-5

1,076
. 10
-3

10,76 1,076
. 10
7

Square yards 7,716
. 10
-4

0,111
1
1 3,098
. 10
6

4840 1,196
10
-6

1,196
. 10
-4

1,196 1,196
. 10
-6

Square miles 3,587
. 10
-8

3,228
. 10
-7

1 1,562
. 10
-3

3,861
. 10
-13

3,861
. 10
-11

3,861
. 10
-7

0,386
1
Acres 2,296
. 10
-5

2,066
. 10
-4

640 1 2,471
. 10
-4

274,1
Square
millimetres
5,067
. 10
-4

9,290
. 10
4

8,361
. 10
5

1 100 10
6
10
12

Square
centimetres
5,067
. 10
-6

6,452 1
Square
metres
6,452
. 10
-4

9,290
. 10
-2

0,8361 2,590
. 10
6

4047 10
-6
0,0001 1 10
6

Square
kilometres
6,452
. 10
-10

9,290
. 10
-8

8,361
. 10
-7

2,590 4,047
. 10
-3

10
-12
10
-10
10
-6
1
* 1 Hectare = 2,471 Acres
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-16-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Table 13 : Energy, Heat And Work

To obtain
dimension
below
BTW Centi-
metre
grams
Ergs Foot
pounds
Hph Joules Kilo-
gram
calorie
s
Kwh mkg Wh
British Thermal
units (B.T.U)
1 9,297
. 10
-8

9,48
. 10
-11

1,285
. 10
3

2545 9,48
. 10
-4

3,969 3413 9,297
. 10
-3

3,413
Centimetre -
grams
1,076
. 10
7

1 1,020
. 10
-3

1,383
. 10
4

2,737
. 10
10

1,020
. 10
4

4,269
. 10
7

3,671
. 10
10

10
5
3,671
. 10
7

Ergs or
centimetre
- dynes
1,055
. 10
10

980,7 1 1,356
. 10
7

2,684
. 10
13

10
7
4,186
. 10
10

3,6
. 10
13

9,807
. 10
7

3,6
. 10
10

Foot - pounds 778,0 7,233
. 10
-5

7367
. 10
-8

1 1,98
. 10
6

0,7376 3,087 2,655
. 10
6

7,233 2655
Horsepower -
hours (Hph)
3,929
. 10
-4

3,654
. 10
-11

3,722
. 10
-14

5,050
. 10
-7

1 3,722
. 10
-7

1,559
. 10
-3

1,341 3,653
. 10
-6

1,341
. 10
-3

Joules or
watt - seconds
1054,8 9,807
. 10
-5

10
-7
1,356 2,684
. 10
6

1 4186 3,6
. 10
6

9,807 3600
Kilogram -
calories
0,252 2,343
. 10
-8

2,389
. 10
-11

3,239
. 10
-4

6413 2,389
. 10
-4

1 860 2,343
. 10
-3

0,86
Kilowatt - hours
(Kwh)
2,93
. 10
-4

2,724
. 10
-11

2,778
. 10
-14

3,766
. 10
-7

0,7457 2,778
. 10
-7

1,163
. 10
-3

1 2,724
. 10
-6

0,001
Metre -
Kilograms
(mkg)
107,6 10
-5
1,02
. 10
-8

0,1383 2,737
. 10
5

0,102 426,9 3,671
. 10
5

1 367,1
Watt - hours
(Wh)
0,293 2,724
. 10
-8

2,778
. 10
-11

3,766
. 10
-4

745,7 2,778
. 10
-4

1,163 1000 2,724
. 10
-3

1

Table 14 : Power
To obtain
dimension
below
BTU
per
minute
Ergs
per
secon
d
Foot
pound
s
per
minut
e
Foot
pounds
per
second
Horse
power
kg
calorie
s
per
minute
Kilo
watts
Metric
horse
power
Watts
British Thermal
Units per minute
1 5,689
. 10
-9

1,285
. 10
-3

7,712
. 10
-2

42,41 3,969 56,89 41,83 5,689
. 10
-2

Ergs per
second
1,758
. 10
8

1 2,259
. 10
5

1,356
. 10
7

7,457
. 10
9

6,977
. 10
8

10
10
7,355
. 10
9

10
7

Foot pounds
per minute
778 4,426
. 10
-6

1 60 3,3
. 10
4

3087 4,426
. 10
4

3,255
. 10
4

44,26
Foot pounds
per second
12,97 7,376
. 10
-8

1,667
. 10
-2

1 550 51,44 737,6 542,5 0,7376
Horsepower 2,357
. 10
-2

1,341
. 10
-10

3,030
. 10
-5

1,818
. 10
-3

1 9,355
. 10
-2

1,341 0,9863 1,341
. 10
-3

Kilogram
calories
per minute
0,252 1,433
. 10
-9

3,239
. 10
-4

1,943
. 10
-2

10,69 1 14,33 10,54 1,433
. 10
-2

Kilowatts 1,758
. 10
-2

10
-10
2,26
. 10
-5

1,356
. 10
-3

0,7457 6,977
. 10
-2

1 0,7355 10
-3

Metric
horsepower
2,39
. 10
-2

1,36
. 10
-10

3,072
. 10
-5

1,843
. 10
-3

1,014

9,485
. 10
-2

1,36 1 1,36
. 10
-3

Watts 17,58 10
-7
2,26
. 10
-2

1,356 745,7 69,77 1000 735,5 1
Table 15 : Volume
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-17-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

To obtain
dimension
below
Cubic
centi-
metre
Cubic
metre
s
Litres Cubic
inches
Cubic
feet
Gallon
s
lmp
Gallon
s
U.S.
Pints
(liquid)
Quarts
(liquid)
Bushel
s
(dry)
Cubic
centimetres
1 10
6
1000 16,39 2,832
. 10
4

3785 473,2 946,4 3,524
. 10
4

Cubic metres 10
-6
1 0,001 1,639
. 10
-5

2,832
. 10
-2

3,785
. 10
-3

4,732
. 10
-4

9,464
. 10
-4

3,524
Litres 0,001 1000 1 1,639
. 10
-2

28,32 3,785 0,4732 0,9464 35,24
Cubic inches 6,102
. 10
-2

6,102
. 10
4

61,02 1 1728 231 28,87 57,75 2150,4
Cubic feet 3,531
. 10
-5

35,31 3,531
. 10
-2

5,787
. 10
-4

1 0,1337 1,671
. 10
-2

3,342
. 10
-2

1,2445
Gallons lmp. 1 0,8327
Gallons U.S. 2,642
. 10
-4

264,2 0,264
2
4,329
. 10
-3

7,481 1,201 1 0,125 0,25
Pints (liquid) 2,113
. 10
-3

2113 2,113 3,463
. 10
-2

59,84 8 1 2
Quarts (liquid) 1,057
. 10
-3

1057 1,057 1,732
. 10
-2

29,92 4 0,5 1
Bushels (dry) 28,38 2,838
. 10
-2

4,651
. 10
-4

0,8036 1

Table 16 : Mass
To obtain
dimension
below
Grams Kilo-
grams
Tons
(metric)
Tons
(long)
Tons
(short)
Grains Ounce
s
Adp
Pounds
Adp
Hundred
weight
Grams 1 1000 10
6
1,016
. 10
6

9,072
. 10
5

6,481
. 10
-2

28,35 453,6 5,080
. 10
4

Kilo grams 0,001 1 1000 1016 907,2 6,481
. 10
-5

2,835
. 10
-2

0,4536 50,80
Ton (metric) 10
-6
0,001 1 1,016 0,9072 2,835
. 10
-5

4,536
. 10
-4

0,0508
Tons (long) 9,842
. 10
-7

9,842
. 10
-4

0,9842 1 0,8929 2,790
. 10
-5

4,464
. 10
-4

0,050
Tons (short) 1,102
. 10
-6

1,102
. 10
-3

1,102 1,120 1 3,125
. 10
-5

0,0005 0,056
Grains 15,43 1,543
. 10
4

1 437,5 7000 784
. 10
3

Ounces (Adp) 3,527
. 10
-2

35,27 3,527
. 10
4

3,584
. 10
4

3,2
. 10
4

2,284
. 10
-3

1 16 1792
Pounds
Avoirdupois
2,205
. 10
-3

2,205 2205 2240 2000 1,429
. 10
-4

6,250
. 10
-2

1 112
Hundredweights
(cwts)
0,0197
. 10
-3

0,019
7
19,7 20 17,8 0,128
. 10
-6

558
. 10
-6

0,0089 1

___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-18-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

4. GENERAL ELECTROTECHNICAL FORMULAE AND TABLES

4.1 Electro-technical symbols as per DIN 4897

Table 17 : Mathematical Symbols For Electrical Quantities
(General)

Symbol Quantity SI unit
Q
E
D
U

1

C
I
S,J
x, y

G
R

quantity of electricity, electric charge
electric field strength
electric flux density, electric displacement
electric potential difference
electric potential
permittivity, dielectric constant
electric field constant,
0
= 0,885419 . 10
-11

F/m
relative permittivity
electric capacitance
electric current
electric current density
electric conductivity
specific electric resistance
electric conductance
electric resistance
electromotive force
C
V/m
C/m
2
V
V
F/m
F/m
1 (ratio)
F
A
A/m
2

S/m

S

A

Table 18 : Mathematical Symbols For Magnetic
Quantities (General)


B
H
V

1

L
L, M
magnetic flux
magnetic induction
magnetic field strength
magnetomotive force
magnetic potential
permeability
absolute permeability
0
= 4 . . 10
-7
H/m
relative permeability
inductance
mutual inductance
Wb
T
A/m
A
A
H/m
H/m
1 (ratio)
H
H

___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-19-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Table 19 : Mathemetical Symbols For Alternating-
Current Quantities And Network
Quantities.
S
P
Q
D

d
Z
Y
R
G
X
B

apparent power
active power
reactive power
distortion power
phase displacement
load angle
power factor, = P/S, = cos (1)
loss angle
loss factor, d = tan
impedance
admittance
resistance
conductance
reactance
susceptance
impedance angle, = arctan (X/R)
W, VA
W
W, var
W
rad
rad
1 (ratio)
rad
1 (ratio)

S

S

S
rad

(1) Valid only for sinusoidal voltage and current

Table 20 : Numerical And Proportional Relationships

(ratios)

s
p
w, N

m

k
v
s
g
k

efficiency
slip
number of pole-pairs
number of turns
transformation ratio
number of phases and conductors
amplitude factor
overvoltage factor
ordinal number of a periodic component
wave content
fundamental wave content
harmonic content, distortion factor
increase in resistance due to skin effect,
= R
~
/R_
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

4.2 Alternating-current Quantities
With an alternating current, the instantaneous value of the current
changes its direction as a function of time i = f(t). If this process takes
place periodically with a period of duration T, this is a periodic
alternation current. If the variation of the current with respect to time is
then sinusoidal, one speaks of a sinusoidal alternating current.

___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-20-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________
The frequency f and the angular frequency are calculated from the periodic
time T with :-
T
. 2
f . . 2 and
T
1
f

= = = eq. 1-3.1
The equivalent d.c. value of an alternating current is the average, taken over
one period of the value :-
. t d i .
. 2
1
dt i .
T
1
i
2
O
T
O

=

eq. 1-
3.2
This occurs in rectifier circuits and is indicated by a moving-coil instrument, for
example.
The root-mean-square value (rms value) of an alternating current is the
square root of the average of the square of the value of the function with
respect to time.
=
2
O
2
T
O
2
t d i .
. 2
1
dt i .
T
1
I eq. 1-3.3
As regards the generation of heat, the root-mean-square value of the current
in a resistance achieves the same effect as a direct current of the same
magnitude.
The root-mean-square value can be measured not only with moving-coil
instruments, but also with hot-wire instruments, thermal converters and
electrostatic voltmeters.
A non-sinusoidal current can be resolved into the fundamental oscillation
with the fundamental frequency f and into harmonics having whole-numbered
multiples of the fundamental frequency. If I
1
is the rms value of the
fundamental oscillataion of an alternating current, and I
2
, I
3
, etc are the rms
values of the harmonics having frequencies 2.f, 3.f, etc, the rms value of the
alternating current is:-

........ I I I I
2
3
2
2
2
1
+ + + = eq. 1-
3.4
If the alternating current also includes a direct-current component i_, this is
termed an undulatory current. The rms value of the undulatory current is :-
........ I I I I I
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
_
+ + + + = eq. 1-
3.5
The fundamental oscillation content g is the ratio of the rms value of the
fundamental oscillation to the rms value of the alternating current
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-21-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________
I
I
g
1
= eq. 1-
3.6

The harmonic content k (distortion factor) is the ratio of the rms value of the
harmonics to the rms value of the alternating current.
. g 1
I
.... I I
k
2
2
3
2
2
=
+ +
= eq. 1-3.7
The fundamental oscillation content and the harmonic content cannot exceed
1.
In the case of a sinusoidal
the oscillation the fundamental content g = 1
the harmonic content k = 0.
4.3 Forms Of Power In An Alternating-current Circuit
The following terms and definitions are in accordance with DIN 40 110 for the
sinusoidal wave-forms of voltage and current in an alternating-current circuit.
apparent power S = U.I = , Q P
2 2
+ eq. 1-3.8
active power P = U.I . cos = S . cos , eq. 1-3.9
reactive power Q = U.I . sin = S . sin , eq. 1-3. 10
power factor cos =
S
P
, eq. 1-3.11
reactive factor sin =
S
Q
, eq. 1-3.12
When a three-phase system is loaded symmetrically, the apparent power is :-
S = 3.U
1
.I
1
= 3 . U. I
1
, eq. 1-3.13
where I
1
is the rms phase current, U
1
the rms value of the phase to neutral
voltage and U the rms value of the phase to phase voltage. Also:-
active power P = 3.U
1
.I
1
.cos = 3 . U . I
1
. cos , eq. 1-3.14
reactive power Q = 3.U
1
.I
1
.sin = 3 . U . I
1
. sin . eq. 1-3.15
The unit for all forms of power is the watt (W). The unit watt is also termed volt-
ampere (symbol VA) when stating electic aparent power, and Var (symbol var)
when stating electric reactive power.
4.4 Resistances And Conductances In An Alternating-current Circuit
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-22-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Impedance
2 2
2
X R
I
S
I
U
Z + = = = eq. 1-3.16

Resistance
2 2
2
X Z cos . Z
I
P
I
cos . U
R - = = = =
eq. 1-3.17
Reactance
2 2
2
R Z sin . Z
I
Q
I
sin . U
X - = = = =
eq. 1-3.18
Inductive reactance X
i
= .L
Capacitive reactance
C .
1
X
c
= eq.13.19
Admittance
Z
1
B G
U
S
U
I
Y
2 2
2
= + = = = eq. 1-3.20
Conductance
2
U
P
U
cos . I
G = =

2
2 2
Z
R
B Y cos . Y = = = eq. 1-3.21
Susceptance
sin . Y
U
Q
U
sin . I
B
2
= = =

2
2 2
Z
R
G Y = = eq. 1-3.22

Inductive susceptance
L .
1
B
i
= eq. 1-3.23
Capacitive susceptance B C .
c
= eq. 1-3.24
= 2..f is the angular frequency and the phase displacement angle of
the voltage with respect to the current. U, I and Z are the numerical values of
the alternating-current quantities U, I and Z.
Complex presentation of sinusoidal time-dependent a.c. quantities
Expressed in terms of the load vector system:-
U = I . Z, I = U . Y. eq. 1-3.25
The symbols are underlined to denote that they are complex quantities
(DIN 1344).

___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-23-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

~
I
U
Y
1
Z=

Figure 2 : Equivalent Circuit
Diagram
+ j
- j
jX
i
= j.L
+
.C
1
j jX
c
=
R

Vector diagram of resistance
+ j
- j
jB
c
= j.C
.L
1
j
i
jB
=
G+

Vector diagram of conductances

In the voltage vector U is laid on the real reference axis of the plane of complex
numbers, for the equivalent circuit in Fig. 2 with Z = R + X
i
; we have:-
U = U, eq. 1-3.26
I = I
W
- j I
b
= I.(cos - j sin ) eq. 1-3.27
I
W
= ;
U
P
I
b
= ;
U
Q
eq. 1-3.28
S = U.I
*
= U.I.(cos + j sin ) = P + j Q, eq. 1-3.29
S = S= U.I = , Q P
2 2
+ eq. 1-3.30
Z = R + j X
i
= ) sin j .(cos
I
U
) sin j .(cos I
U
I
U

+ =
+
= eq. 1-3.31
where : R =
I
U
.cos and X
i
=
I
U
.sin ,
Y = G - jB =
U
I
U
I
= .(cos - j sin ) eq. 1-3.32
where : G =
U
I
.cos and B
i
=
U
I
.sin .
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-24-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4.5 Alternating-current Quantities Of Basic Circuits
Table 21: Alternating - Current Quantities Of Basic Circuits

Circuit Z Z

1.
R

R

R

2.
L

j .L

.L

3.
C

- j / (.C)

1/ .C
4.

R + j .L (1) R
2
+ (.L)
2

5.

R - j / (.C) R
2
+ 1/(.L)
2

6.

j (.L - 1/(.C)) .L - 1/(.C)
7.

|
.
|
\
|
+
C .
1
L . j R (2)
2
2
C .
1
L . R |
.
|
\
|
+

8.

R L .
L . . R

2 2
) L . ( R
L . . R
+

9.

2 2
2
R . ) C . ( 1
R . C . j R
+

(3)

2 2
R . ) C . ( 1
R
+

10.

C . ) L . /( 1
j

C . ) L . /( 1
1

11.

)) L . /( 1 C . ( j R / 1
1
+

|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
L .
1
C . j
R
1
= Y

2
2
L .
1
C .
R
1
1
|
.
|
\
|
+

___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-25-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________
12.

2 2 2
2 2
2 2 2
) C . . R ( ) C . L . 1 (
C . R ) C . L . 1 ( L
j
) C . . R ( ) C . L . 1 (
R
+

+
+

2 2 2
2 2 2 2
) C . . R ( ) C . L . 1 (
] C . R ) C . L . 1 .( L [ R
+
+

(1) With small loss angle ( = 1/) tan (error at 4
o
about 0,1 %) : Z .L( + j).
(2) Series resonance (voltage resonance) for .L = 1 / (.C) :

C . L . 2
1
f : C / L X X X
res C L res
= = = = : Z
res
= R.
Close to resonance (f<0,1 . f
res
) is Z R + j X
res
. 2 . f / f
res
with f = f - f
res

(3) With small loss angle (= 1 / ) tan = - 1 / .C.R) : Z = -
C .
j
+

B
res
= L / C : f
res
=
C . L . . 2
1
: Y
res
= G
(4) Close to resonance (f< 0,1 . f
res
) :
Y = G + j B
res
. 2 . f
res
with f = f - f
res

(5) e.g. coil with winding capacitance.

___________________________________________________________________________________
D
E
C
E
M
B
E
R

2
0
0
1

-
2
6
-

S
.
L
.
D
.
G
.

1

-

3

/

0

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

T
a
b
l
e

2
2
:

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

/

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

R
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p
s

O
h
m
i
c

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

R

C
a
p
a
c
i
t
a
n
c
e

(
c
a
p
a
c
i
t
o
r
)

C

I
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e

(
c
h
o
k
e

c
o
i
l
)

L

G
e
n
e
r
a
l

l
a
w

u

=

i
.
R

d
t

i
.
C
1

d
t
d
i
.
L

i

=

R u

d
t
d
u
.
C

d
t

u
.
L
1

T
i
m
e

l
a
w

u

=

.
s
i
n

.
s
i
n
.
s
i
n
t

h
e
n
c
e

u

=

.
R
.
s
i
n

t

=

.
s
i
n

t

-
C
. 1
.
c
o
s

t

=

-

.
c
o
s

.
L
.
.
c
o
s

t

=

.
c
o
s

t

i

=

R
.
s
i
n

t

=

.
s
i
n

t

.
C
.
.
c
o
s

t

=

.
c
o
s

t

-

L
.
1
.
c
o
s

t

=

-

.
c
o
s

t

E
l
e
m
e
n
t

o
f

c
a
l
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

/

R

.
C
.

/

(
.
L
)

.
R

/

(
.
C
)

.
L

=

O

u

a
n
d

I

i
n

p
h
a
s
e

2
0

.

C
.
1
a
r
c
t
a
n
=
|. |
\ |

i

l
e
a
d
s

u

b
y

9
0
o

2
0
L
.
a
r
c
t
a
n
=
|. |
\ |

i

l
a
g
s

u

b
y

9
0
o

f

=

.
2

.
2

.
2

A
l
t
e
r
n
a
t
i
n
g

c
u
r
r
e
n
t

Z

=

R

C
.
j
.
L

i
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e

Z

=

R

C
. 1

.
L

D
i
a
g
r
a
m
s

U
i
U
i

U
i
U
i

U
i
U
i

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
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_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
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_
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_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
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_
_
_
_
_
_

2
0
0
1
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

S
u
b
s
t
a
t
i
o
n

D
e
s
i
g
n

&

A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

D
E
C
E
M
B
E
R

2
0
0
1

-
2
7
-

S
.
L
.
D
.
G
.

1

-

3

/

0

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
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DECEMBER 2001
-28-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4.6 Electric Resistances
4.6.1 Definitions and specific values
An ohmic resistance is present if the instantaneous values of the voltage are
proportional to the instantaneous values of the current, even in the event of
time-dependent variation of the voltage or current. Any conductor exhibiting
this proportionality within a defined range (e.g. of temperature, frequency or
current) behaves within this range as an ohmic resistance. Active power is
converted in an ohmic resistance. For a resistance of this kind is:-
R =
2
I
P
eq. 1-3.33
The resistance measured with direct current is termed the d.c. resistance R_.
If the resistance of a conductor differs from the d.c. resistance only as a result
of skin effect, we then speak of the a.c. resistance R~ of the conductor. The
ratio expressing the increase in resistance is :-
resistance d.c.
resistance a.c.
_ R
~ R
= = eq. 1-3.34
Specific values for major materials are shown in Table 23.
TABLE 23: NUMERICAL VALUES FOR MAJOR MATERIALS
Conductor Specific
electric
resistance
(mm
2
/m)
Electric
conductivity
s = 1/
(mm
2
/m)
Temperature
coeficient

(K
-1
)
Density

(kg/dm
3
)
Aluminium : 99,5 % Al,
soft
0,0278 36 4. 10
-3
2,7
Al-Mg-Si 0,030 ..
0,033
33 ... 30 3,6 . 10
-3
2,7
Al-Mg 0,06 ... 0,07 17 ... 14 2,0 . 10
-3
2,7
Al bronze : 90% Cu, 10%
Al
0,13 7,7 3,2 . 10
-3
8,5
Bismuth 1,2 0,83 4,5 . 10
-3
9,8
Brass 0,07 14,3 1,3 .. 1,9 . 10
-3
8,5
Bronze : 88% Cu, 12%
Sn
0,18 5,56 0,5 . 10
-3
8,6 ... 9
Cast iron 0,60 ... 1,60 1,67 ... 0,625 1,9 . 10
-3
7,86 ... 7,2
Conductor copper, soft 0,01754 57 4,0 . 10
-3
8,92
Conductor copper, hard 0,01786 56 3,92 . 10
-3
8,92
Constantan 0,49 ... 0,51 2,04 ... 1,96 -0,05 . 10
-3
8,8
CrAl 20 5 1,37 0,73 0,05 . 10
-3
-
CrAl 30 5 1,44 0,69 0,01 . 10
-3
-
Dynamo sheet 0,13 7,7 4,5 . 10
-3
7,8
Dynamo sheet alloy (1 to
5% Si)
0,27 ... 0,67 3,7 ... 1,5 - 7,8
Graphite and retort
carbon
13 ... 100 0,077 ... 0,01 -0,8 ... -0,2 . 10
-3
2,5 ... 1,5
Lead 0,208 4,8 4,0 . 10
-3
11,35
Magnesium 0,046 21,6 3,8 . 10
-3
1,74
Manganin 0,43 2,33 0,01 . 10
-3
8,4
Mercury 0,958 1,04 0,90 . 10
-3
13,55
Molybdenum 0,054 18,5 4,3 . 10
-3
10,2
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-29-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 23: NUMERICAL VALUES FOR MAJOR MATERIALS
(Continued)
Conductor Specific
electric
resistance
(mm
2
/m)
Electric
conductivity
s = 1/
(mm
2
/m)
Temperature
coeficient a

(K
-1
)
Density

(kg/dm
3
)
Monel metal 0,42 2,8 0,19 . 10
-3
-
Nickel silver 0,33 3,03 0,4 . 10
-3
8,5
Ni Cr 30 20 1,04 0,96 0,24 . 10
-3
8,3
Ni Cr 60 15 1,11 0,90 0,13 . 10
-3
8,3
Ni Cr 80 20 1,09 0,92 0,04 . 10
-3
8,3
Nickel 0,09 11,1 6,0 . 10
-3
8,9
Nickeline 0,4 2,5 0,18 ... 0,21 . 10
-
3

8,3
Platinum 0,1 10 3,8 ... 3,9 . 10
-3
21,45
Red brass 0,05 20 - 8,65
Silver 0,0165 60,5 41 . 10
-3
10,5
Steel : 0,1% C, 0,5% Mn 0,13 ... 0,15 7,7 ... 6,7 4 ... 5 . 10
-3
7,86
Steel : 0,25% C, 0,3% Si 0,18 5,5 4 ... 5 . 10
-3
7,86
Steel : spring, 0,8% C 0,20 5 4 ... 5 . 10
-3
7,86
Tantalum 0,16 6,25 3,5 ... 10
-3
16,6
Tin 0,12 8,33 4,4 . 10
-3
7,14
Tungsten 0,055 18,2 4,6 . 10
-3
19,3
Zinc 0,063 15,9 3,7 . 10
-3
7,23
Resistance varies with temperature.
4.6.2 Resistances in different circuit configurations
U
R
1
R
2
R
3
U
1
U
2
U
3
I

FIGURE 3 : RESISTANCES
CONNECTED IN
SERIES
Total resistance = Sum of individual resistances
R = R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
+ ...... eq. 1-3.35
The component voltages behave in accordance with the resistances U
1
= I.R
(1) etc.
The current at all resistances is of equal magnitude I =
R
U

___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-30-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________
U
I
1
I
2
I
3
G
1
=
1
R
1
I
G
2
=
1
R
2
G
3
=
1
R
3

FIGURE 4 : RESISTANCES
CONNECTED IN
PARALLEL

Total conductance = Sum of the individual conductances:-
G
1
R i.e. ..... G G G G
R
1
3 2 1
= + + + = = eq. 1-3.36
In the case of n equal resistances the total resistance is the nth part of the
individual resistances. The voltage at all the resistances is the same. Total
current:-

R
U
I components of Sum
R
U
I
i
i
= = = eq. 1-3.37
The currents behave inversely to the resistances:-
3
3
2
2
1
1
R
R
. I I ;
R
R
. I I ;
R
R
. I I = = = eq. 1-3.38
R
d3
R
d2
R
d1
R
s2
R
s1
R
s3

FIGURE 5 : TRANSFORMATION
DELTA-STAR AND
STAR-DELTA

Conversion form delta to star connection with the same total resistance:-
3 d 2 d 1 d
3 d 2 d
1 S
R R R
.R R
R
+ +
= eq. 1-3.39

3 d 2 d 1 d
3 d 1 d
2 S
R R R
.R R
R
+ +
= eq. 1-3.40
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-31-
S.L.D.G. 1 - 3 / 0
_____________________________________________________________________________________

3 d 2 d 1 d
2 d 1 d
3 S
R R R
.R R
R
+ +
= eq. 1-3.41
Conversion from star to delta connection with the same total resistance:-

1 s
1 s 3 s 3 s 2 s 2 s 1 s
1 d
R
.R R .R R .R R
R
+ +
= eq. 1-3.42

2 s
1 s 3 s 3 s 2 s 2 s 1 s
2 d
R
.R R .R R .R R
R
+ +
= eq. 1-3.43

3 s
1 s 3 s 3 s 2 s 2 s 1 s
3 d
R
.R R .R R .R R
R
+ +
= eq. 1-3.44

___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 2-0 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 2 - 0
AN OVERVIEW OF THE GENERAL
GUIDELINES FOR THE DESIGN OF A.C. SUBSTATIONS
INDEX

S.L.D.G. 2 - 0 1 INDEX
S.L.D.G. 2 - 1 1 ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW SUBSTATION
1. Introduction - Flow Chart.
S.L.D.G. 2 - 2 1 SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS AND BASIC CONCEPTS
1. Introduction
1.1 Functions Of The Network
1.2 Functions Of The Substation
1.3 Structure Of A Substation
1.4 System Requirements
2. Parameters Determined By The Network
2.1 Main Equipment Parameters
2.2 Fault Clearing Time With Respect To System
Stability
3. Planning Of A Substation
3.1 General Location
3.2 Extent Of The Substation
3.3 Busbar Scheme
3.3.1 Operational flexibility
3.3.2 System security
3.3.3 Reliability and availability
3.3.4 Substation control
3.4 Fault Current Levels
3.5 Neutral Point Earthing
3.6 Future Extensions
3.7 Control In General
3.8 Protection In General

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 2-1 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 2 - 1
ESTABLISHMENT OF A NEW SUBSTATION
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this document is to provide a simple guide to the design of an
out-door, AC Substation, from the System requirements point of view. The
selection of the most suitable site and the design of the equipment to be
installed will be dealt with in S.L.D.G. 3 and 4 respectively. It gives advice on
the general principles, refers to relevant standards as appropriate, and gives
an indication of the economic factors involved.
Its scope is limited to open-terminal switchgear although mention is made of
Gas Insulated Switchgear as an option, in the appropriate sections. Gas
Insulated Switchgear is dealt with in detail in S.L.D.G. 30.
In general the guidelines cover a substation within a transmission network
although some sections will be applicable to other situations such as DC / AC
convertor stations.
S.L.D.G. 2 covers system requirements and basic concepts, including
network considerations and the particular needs of a substation.
The diagram on the following page is a flow-chart showing the various stages
necessary in the establishment of a new substation. It must be emphasised
that the decision on whether or not to build a substation may depend on
different conditions in different countries.
Once the decision has been made a course of action can be determined. The
flow chart gives a typical example.
It has been necessary to adopt a simplified step by step approach to the
planning and design process whereas in practice iterative actions may often
be involved.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 2-1 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

GENERAL PLAN
OF THE
NETWORK
IS
REINFORCEMENT
REQUIRED
LOAD
GROWTH
ASSESSMENT
END
NO
IS A NEW
SUBSTATION
REQUIRED
END
NO
YES
CONSIDER OTHER
MEANS OF
REINFORCEMENT
* PREPARE
PRELIMINARY
PLANS
TECHNICAL &
COMMERCIAL
POLICY
* General Locations
Line Directions
Soil Investigations
Transport Routes
YES
GENERAL
DESIGN
SPECIFIC
DESIGN
PREPARE MAIN
CONNECTIONS &
PROTECTION DIAGRAM
DETERMINE
SITE LOCATION
DETERMINE EXACT SITE
PLACEMENT &
ORIENTATION
DETERMINE
SUBSTATION LAYOUT
PREPARE
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
PREPARE WIRING
DIAGRAM & CABLE
SCHEDULE
CARRY OUT CIVIL
DESIGN WORK
INSTALL CIVIL
WORKS
INSTALL PLANT &
EQUIPMENT
TEST COMMISSION
TAKE OVER

Figure 1: Establishment Of A New Substation Flow Chart

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 2-2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 2 - 2
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS AND BASIC CONCEPTS
1. INTRODUCTION
The transmission network has two main constituent elements :-
a) Circuits that enable power transmission.
b) Substations that enable the interconnection of these circuits and the
transformation between networks of different voltages.
1.1 Functions of the Network
The transmission network performs three different functions :-
a) The transmission of electric power from generating stations (or
other networks) to load centres.
b) The interconnection function that improves security of supply
and allows a reduction in generation costs.
c) The supply function which consists of supplying the electric
power to sub-transmission or distribution transformers and in
some cases to customers directly connected to the
transmission network.
1.2 Functions of the Substation
These three functions of the transmission network are fulfilled through
different types of substations listed below :-
a) Substations attached to Power Stations (Power Station High
Voltage Yards)
b) Interconnection substations)
Step-down (EHV / HV, EHV / MV, HV / MV) substations.
A single substation may perform more than one of these functions.
1.3 Structure Of A Substation.
Substations generally comprise the following :-
a) Switchgear.
b) Power Transformers.
c) Control Gear
Substations usually include busbars and are divided into bays. In
special cases other plant such as reactive power compensators,
harmonic filters, fault current limiting and load-management
equipment are included.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 2-2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

1.4 System Requirements
The design of a substation depends on the functions it has to fulfil.
The system planning requirements define these functions and enable
the parameters that have to be complied with, to be determined.
Some of these parameters are common for all the substations that
perform the same functions whereas others are specific to each
substation.
Standarised parameters are established jointly by system planners
and transmission departments by means of system studies, and
economic considerations. Particular economic benefits are derived
from specifying the technical stages to allow the use of standardised
HV equipment with identical characteristics (such as short-circuit
current level, maximum current carrying capacity of HV equipment,
characteristics of transformers, insulation level and compensating
devices).
The location of a substation at a particular site will give rise to system
requirements peculiar to this station :-
a) General location requirements.
b) Extent of the substation.
c) Required availability of circuits.
d) Main connections scheme.
e) Current rating.
f) Fault current level.
g) Neutral point earthing.
h) Fault elimination rapidity with respect to system stability.
i) Future extensions.
j) Control and needs of personnel.
k) Equipment characteristics.

2. PARAMETERS DETERMINED BY THE NETWORK
System planners seek to optimise the parameters that apply to the complete
transmission system. They proceed to network studies that involve mainly,
insulation co-ordination, transient stability, short-circuit level and load flow.
2.1 Main Equipment Parameters
When a utility determines a standardisation policy and the
development of a technical stage, the main characteristics of the
primary equipment have to be specified in close link with system
planners. The following parameters may be defined :-
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -3- S.L.D.G. 2-2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
a) The maximum short circuit current rating of the substations
equipment (Busbars, Isolators, Circuit Breakers, Current
Transformers), including its supporting structures.
b) The maximum load current passing through the components of
a substation (which is related to the maximum current carrying
capacity of the lines and underground cables).
c) The transformer numbers, sizes and impedances as well as the
mode of voltage control required, i.e. operating mode of tap
changing, regulation range, its phase shifting characteristics
and number of taps.
2.2 Fault Clearing Time With Respect To System Stability
Transient stability characterises the dynamic behaviour of a generator
in the case of large oscillations following a major disturbance
In order to comply with the requirements of the Network (system
stability), or the specifications of particular utilities, specified fault
clearance times must not be exceeded.
Fault clearing time limits and the reclosing conditions, may influence
the choice of circuit breaker and other switchgear, and also the
dimensioning of the earthing grid and the mechanical strength of the
equipment.
3. PLANNING OF A SUBSTATION
This section will give information helpful for dimensioning the main substation
primary parameters and for defining the general scope of the substation
equipment, depending on the system requirements. The options of extending
or uprating existing substations and / or lines should have already been
evaluated.
The starting point for a substation design procedure is as follows :-
a) The need for a new substation is approved.
b) The range of its duties, loadings and general location are known.
3.1 General Location
For the location of a new substation in the network several alternatives
usually exist, the total costs of which should be calculated. The
following should be included :-
a) The losses in power transmission and transformation.
b) The costs of telecontrol and communications.
c) Preliminary study of reliability and busbar schemes.
d) Fault current and load flow calculations.
The building cost of new transmission lines and the reinforcement of
old ones are often of the same order as that of the substation. Thus, it
is worth examining various alternatives with system planners.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -4- S.L.D.G. 2-2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
Nowadays it is not easy to get new line corridors, and their availability
alone may determine the location of the substation. Along with the
automation of substations the costs of telecontrol and
telecommunications grow, but they do not have a decisive effect from
the point of view of location.
3.2 Extent Of The Substation
The available area of the substation, the number of the outgoing
feeders of different voltage levels, the number of the main
transformers, the busbar schemes and the possibility of extensions as
well as compensating equipment options should be selected for the
needs of the future. It should be noted that the lifetime of the
substations may be between 30 and 50 years.
It is very important to reserve sufficient space for the future and
sophisticated network planning is needed to estimate the necessary
reserve space. If no better prognosis exists, 100 % reserve of
outgoing feeders may be used as an estimate. The space required
depends essentially on the function of the substation.
It is important to define the number and the size of the main
transformers at the final stage. The initial peak load of a power
transformer is dependent upon a number of factors such as the
network configuration, standby-philosophy and rate of load growth.
An initial estimate would be in the range of 30 - 70 %. (See S.L.D.G.
15 for a detailed discussion on power transformers).
In the case of GIS switchgear it is usual to reserve space for a number
of spare bays and also to make allowance for the future extension of
the control building. (See S.L.D.G. 30 for a detailed discussion on
GIS switchgear).
The outgoing line corridors should be planned so that there is a
minimum number of crossings between different overhead lines.
3.3 Busbar Scheme (See also S.L.D.G. 6)
The selection of a busbar scheme and its possible extensions for a
particular substation is an important initial step of the design. Among
the matters that affect this decision are operational flexibility, system
safety, reliability and availability, capacity to facilitate system control,
and costs
3.3.1 Operational flexibility
In order to take into account both production and consumer
risks and contingent faults in system components the circuits
between two substations are often doubled, so that power
transfer is shared, for instance between two separate
overhead line circuits. In some instances this is also
necessary to limit the power of a short-circuit. These
requirements lead to the installation of a proportionally greater
number of busbars and sections in the substation when the
number of outgoing feeders is large.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -5- S.L.D.G. 2-2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
3.3.2 System security
Faults occurring on feeders or within the substation itself, must
be cleared rapidly by as small a number of circuit-breakers as
possible in order to avoid splitting the network and maintain
non-faulted circuits in service.
Careful selection of the electrical schematic arrangement -
primary connections and protection scheme - and the detailed
construction layout should enable these criteria to be
optimized.
3.3.3 Reliability and availability
The evaluation of how the availability performance of the
substation elements influences the over-all performance of the
substation is a complicated task in a meshed transmission
network. The failure rates of the equipment and the choice of
the substation scheme have a considerable effect on reliability
and availability i.e. forced outages and planned shut-downs.
Calculations can give only approximate results, because failure
statistics available are always based on an older generation of
apparatus and the likelihood of a severe outage occurring
during the life-time of the substation is quite small.
However, for a comparison of different schemes reliability
calculations are valuable instruments for the substation design
engineer to receive additional information for choice of scheme
and layout aspects.
Not only the primary equipment but also the secondary
equipment, e.g. the location and number of instrument
transformers and the arrangement of the secondary circuits
can have a great influence on the over-all reliability
performance. For the looped substation schemes in particular,
special attention has to be paid to the secondary wiring and
cabling.
3.3.4 Substation control
The proposed scheme and layout must allow simple and
efficient performance of the usual operational steps, changes
of section and planned outage for maintenance or extension.
3.4 Fault Current Levels
Fault current dimensioning depends on the neighbouring network and
the size and short-circuit impedance of the main transformers.
System planning usually defined the following fault current ratings for
a new substation :-
a) Maximum three-phase effective short-circuit current for the
lines and the substation for the foreseeable future.
b) Duration of the effective short-circuit current.
c) Peak short-circuit current.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -6- S.L.D.G. 2-2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
d) Maximum earth fault current and corresponding time.
e) Maximum current through the neutral point of the main
transformer.
f) Minimum short-circuit current (for protection).
g) Minimum earth fault current (for protection).
3.5 Neutral Point Earthing
The transmission networks may be :-
a) Effectively earthed (earthing factor 1,4).
b) Non-effectively earthed (earthing factor e.g. 1,7).
e.g. resistance earthed or resonant earthed.
c) Isolated.
In the first case earth current may be 60 ... 120 % of the short-circuit
current. If the conductivity of the soil is poor (for example on the
average 2 000 ohm-m), special attention has to be paid to the
magnitude of station potential during an earth fault. In this case it is
possible to limit the earth-fault current and dimension the insulation
level of the three-phase transformer neutral point correspondingly.
Alternatively the potential rise of the earthing grid (see S.L.D.G. 8)
may be limited by ensuring that the earth wires of outgoing overhead
lines have cross sectional areas equivalent to those of the phase
cables.
3.6 Future Extensions
For small substations performing distribution and transformation
functions it is sometimes not necessary to consider future extension
possibilities, on the high voltage side at all. However, it is important
that the main transformers can be replaced by larger ones. For large
junction point substations system planning usually gives the forecast
of extensions.
Extension work such as building of new bays, dismantling and
reconstruction of bays, extension of the set of busbars may rather
difficult and expensive, if there has been no previous planning for
them.
3.7 Control In General
Control includes actions to be taken under normal conditions such as
energising and de-energising a feeder, earthing of a section of a set of
busbars etc. The way of carrying out this control depends for instance
on the following matters :-
a) Manually operated isolators.
b) Motor operated isolators.
c) Presence of earthing switches.
d) Control via local control board.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -7- S.L.D.G. 2-2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
e) Control via local computer terminal.
f) Degree of substation automation, sequence control.
g) Remote control from the National or Regional control centre.
h) Regulations.
i) Station manned / unmanned.
The need for tele-control and telecommunication links depends on the
needs of the automation, remote control, data transmission and
operation of the network. A substation is often also a nodal point of a
data transmission network.
Probable future development: Remote control substations automation
is increasing; substations are designed as unmanned; maintenance is
managed by the resources concentrated in control centres. Whether
the substation is manned or unmanned may depend on the
importance of the station in the grid.
In accordance with system planning requirements load shedding,
network sectioning, voltage regulation and load distribution regulation
devices may be placed on the substation.
3.8 Protection In General
The substation has to be constructed so that all possible faults can be
eliminated :-
a) Selectively.
b) So that the fault current rating of the lines and equipment is not
exceeded.
c) So that no danger is caused to personnel and the requirements
of safety codes are fulfilled.
d) Within such a time that stability of the network is maintained.
e) In such a way that load and production are held in balance.
For every protection item back-up protection is usually provided and
important main protection is duplicated.
Protection systems can be divided into the following groups according
to the protected item :-
a) Line protection.
b) Transformer protection.
c) Busbar protection (bus zone protection).
d) Breaker failure protection.
e) Compensating equipment protection.
or according to the type of the protection :-
a) Short-circuit protection.
b) Earth-fault protection.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -8- S.L.D.G. 2-2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
c) Sub-harmonic protection
d) Overload protection
e) Overvoltage protection.
f) Anti-failure automation (load shedding, auto-reclosing, network
sectionalisation and splitting of the network.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-1-
S.L.D.G. 3-0 / 2
____________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 3 - 0
SITE SELECTION
INDEX

S.L.D.G. 3 - 1 2 SELECTION OF SITE
1. Introduction
1.1 Available Area / Terracing Cost
1.2 Topography
1.3 Geological And Geo-technical Characteristics
Of Soil
1.4 Access
1.5 Line Corridors
1.6 Pollution
1.7 Environmental Aspects

____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 3-1/2
__________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 3 - 1
SELECTION OF SITE
1. INTRODUCTION
The choice of a site for a substation is a compromise between technical,
economic, environmental and administrative factors.
A flow-chart covering site selection for a substation is shown in Figure 1.
In simple terms the problem is to find one place within a fairly large
geographic region, where the substation can be built, given the total number
of circuits, the destination of the lines and the rated nominal power of the
transformers.
Typically, in the whole region, climate and altitude are almost the same, but
earthquake hazard and pollution may vary.
The first step is to locate possible sites that are as level as possible, with
enough available area, at reasonable costs, with easy access and without
important restrictions on line corridors where the substation can be erected. It
is advantageous to locate sites near to existing line corridors or even at
crossing points. Sometimes such places simply do not exist and the choice
will be confined to places that have only some of the above characteristics.
The influence of the most important site characteristics on substation design
and their consequences are shown in Table 1.
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 3-1/2
__________________________________________________________________________________

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__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -3- S.L.D.G. 3-1/2
__________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 1 : THE INFLUENCE OF THE SITE CHARACTERISTICS ON
SUBSTATION DESIGN
Site Characteristics Influence on Substation
Design
Main Associated
Consequences
Available area Layout Land Cost
Topography Number of Terraces Volume of soil displacement
Geological and Geo-technical
characteristics of soil
Foundations and earth grids Levelling costs per m3 and
foundations
Hydrology Usually small Drainage Costs
Access Usually small (in some cases
geographical orientation)
Construction and
improvement costs
Line Corridors Layout and geographical
orientation
Cost of Interconnections
and influence on reliability
Pollution Creepage distances insulator
cleaning techniques and
period
Equipment costs and
influence on reliability
Environmental concerns From landscaping measures to
change of substation type
Site preparation costs, HV
equipment costs, building
costs
Seismic Level Special design required Equipment, structures and
foundations costs
Altitude Increase electrical clearances.
Additional cooling required
Equipment costs.

1.1 Available Area / Terracing Cost
A first estimate of the area required to install the substation can readily
be made by taking into account the previous practice and the main
connections arrangement chosen.
This estimate has to be reviewed and adapted to the particular site
conditions, for instance, possible line corridors and access constraints.
1.2 Topography
It is convenient, for reasons of standardisation of supporting
structures, economy of space, access to equipment, even distribution
of stresses between equipment terminals and easy connection of
equipment, to level the ground where the substation is to be built.
(Small slopes, to allow necessary drainage, must, of course, be
provided).
To level the area required by a substation may be a costly and time
consuming task, so it is better to choose a site as flat as possible but
not subject to flash floods.

__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -4- S.L.D.G. 3-1/2
__________________________________________________________________________________
Taking into account orographic characteristics it is convenient to
evaluate the consequences, concerning levelling works, of small
displacements and changes of geographic orientation.
In mountainous regions, where the substation must be placed as far
as possible from avalanche corridors, levelling costs may force the
reduction of the dimensions of the substation.
Another way of reducing levelling costs is to divide the substation into
various terraces usually increasing the total levelled area but reducing
the volume of soil displacements. A significant distance between
terraces may create difficulties with regard to operation and
interconnection, but usually allows line entries from various directions,
and can help to solve problems related to line corridors.
1.3 Geological And Geo-technical Characteristics Of Soil.
The soil must allow the construction of roads and foundations. The
minimum bearing load is usually about 50 N/m
2
. The existence of
geological faults is usually sufficient reason to reject a particular
location.
Siting a substation in areas where there are disused mines can lead to
severe problems due to ground subsidence and such locations are
best avoided.
In zones subject to earthquake hazards a careful study is essential, as
earthquake intensity may vary dramatically in places located only
some kilometers apart.
A high water level may require the construction of drainage facilities,
increasing costs and causing construction delays. Terracing costs
and maximum possible inclination of the talus are a consequence of
geological and geo-technical characteristics of soil and a comparison
of costs is given in Table 2.
A low value of soil resistivity is desirable and this should be measured
before erection of the substation. Additional actions such as
increasing the site area and inputing earthing facilities will be
necessary.
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -5- S.L.D.G. 3-1/2
__________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 2 : TERRACING COSTS PER m
3
AND GRADIENT OF
SLOPES ON VARIOUS TYPES OF SOIL
Type of soil Handling Terracing cost
(relative)
Gradient of slope
Sandy Bulldozer 1 1 : 2
Clay Bulldozer 1,5 - 2 1 : 1,5
Rock (half
disaggregated)
Bulldozer 2 - 2,5 1 : 1
Hard rock Explosives 4 - 5 1 : 0,5
1.4 Access
The most difficult equipment, as far as access is concerned, are
power transformers and large reactors, the other equipment being of a
shape compatible with any common transportation network.
Power transformers, on the contrary, have large irregular shapes and
very heavy weights thus making it necessary to study the complete
route between factory and substation.
The transport procedure must be checked both ways (to and from
substation site) and measures taken to maintain it during the
substation lifetime.
Small difficulties may be solved by changing the type of transformers
(shell and core type transformers have small differences in shape and
weight); by the use of a different low loader; or by the temporary
reinforcement of bridges.
In the most difficult cases, single phase instead of three phase
transformers, the use of transformers with less rated power (thus
increasing the total number), or even improvements in the transport
network may be necessary.
Another aspect to be considered is the daily access of operators (for
manned substations) and maintenance and emergency teams (for
unmanned substations).
1.5 Line Corridors
The substation will be connected to the network through overhead
lines making it necessary to study the vegetation of line corridors in
the vicinity of the substation. The cost of modifications to existing
lines to allow their connection to the substation must also be
evaluated. In extreme cases it may not be possible to make the
connection to the substation directly by overhead line, and a cabled
entry must be considered.

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DECEMBER 2001 -6- S.L.D.G. 3-1/2
__________________________________________________________________________________
The consideration of future extensions with additional line entries may
have different consequences upon the various sites being analysed.
Line corridors have great influence on the geographical orientation of
the substation and may impose the choice of a substation layout.
Difficulties in the establishment of line corridors may be overcome by
the use of multi-circuit pylons or, in extreme cases, changing from
overhead line to underground cables.
1.6 Pollution
Pollution causes the deposition of small particles on the insulators.
The relationship between creepage distances and pollution level is
indicated in S.L.D.G. 7. As pollution levels may change (increase)
with time a small over-dimensioning is usual. In extreme cases, in
heavily polluted or dry zones, cleaning facilities or the use of
protective products may be necessary.
GIS is preferable in these cases as it greatly reduces the number of
insulators exposed to pollution.
Saline and some types of industrial pollution can cause corrosion in
supporting structures, and protective coating may therefore be
needed.
Pollution can also affect equipment installed indoors as the protection
offered by buildings, cubicles and cabinets is not 100 % effective. A
careful choice of equipment and, in extreme cases, the use of filters or
an overpressure ventilation system will reduce the consequences. It
is also necessary to take measures to avoid condensation so that
pollution problems are not exacerbated, e.g. by heating.
Nevertheless, whatever measures are taken, the risk of failure and the
equipment and maintenance costs will always increase with the
pollution level.
Whenever possible the prevailing winds should flow through the
substation towards the origin of the pollution (sea, industrial zones,
highways, etc.) or, the substation should be protected by some natural
barrier (eg hills or trees).
1.7 Environmental Aspects (See also S.L.D.G. 4-1).
Substation landscaping may be covered by local regulations and
should be considered in detail when siting the substation.
The best site, as far as landscaping is concerned, is such that the
substation is not visible for the most common viewpoints.
The use of conductors on only two levels, with equipment spread over
a large surface, the choice of the right colour for insulators, and some

thought given to supporting structures, eventually painting them, can
contribute making the substation less intrusive.
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DECEMBER 2001 -7- S.L.D.G. 3-1/2
__________________________________________________________________________________
Screens of trees, bushes along the enclosure, and the use of natural
soil instead of gravel (if the allowable step and touch potentials are
obtained) may help to disguise the substation.
If the substation is in a residential area it may be necessary to adopt
low noise transformers, enclosed by walls, and to pay special attention
to the corona effect that causes interference on radio and TV
transmissions.
Substations are better located far away from :-
airports and aeronautic corridors, as there are usually restrictions
on the maximum height of structures in their vicinity;
installation with special risk such as fire or explosion;
pipelines;
telephone cables and water pipes.
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DECEMBER 2001
-1-
S.L.D.G. 4 - 0 /2
____________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 4 - 0
ASTHETIC INFLUENCE OF HIGH VOLTAGE OUTDOOR
SUBSTATIONS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
INDEX

S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 2 ASTHETIC INFLUENCE OF HIGH VOLTAGE
OUTDOOR SUBSTATIONS ON THE
ENVIRONMENT.
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
2.1 Problem Statement
2.2 Basic Principles
2.3 Attempts To Evaluate Buildings Using
Information Aesthetics
2.4 Recommendations For Evaluation
2.4.1 Criteria for the evaluation of aesthetic
influence
2.4.2 Explanation of criteria
2.4.2.1 Height
2.4.2.2 Surface area
2.4.2.3 Arrangement of construction
2.4.2.4 Arrangement of colours
2.4.2.5 Boundary with the environment
2.4.2.6 Conductor in-feeds
2.4.3 Calculation of a weighting factor "B"
2.5 Recommendation
2.6 Conclusion
S.L.D.G. 4-2 0 APPLICATIONS TO MINIMISE THE ASTHETIC
INFLUENCES OF HIGH VOLTAGE OUTDOOR
SUBSTATIONS ON THE ENVIRONMENT -
TRANSFORMER ACOUSTIC NOISE ABATEMENT
1. Introduction
2. How To Analyse The Problem
3. Formulating A Solution
3.1 Acoustic Barrier Arrangements
4. Design Calculations
4.1 Theory
4.2 An Example
S.L.D.G. 4-3 0 BIOREMEDIATION
1. Introduction
2. Micro-organisms Involved in Bioremediation
3. The Biodegradation Process

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DECEMBER 2001
-2-
S.L.D.G. 4 - 0 /2
____________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 4-3
(Cont)
4. Treatment Mechanisms
4.1 Bio-augmentation
4.2 Bio-stimulation
4.3 Enhanced Natural Degradation
5. Types of Bioremediation Technologies
5.1 Solid Phase Bio-remedation
5.1.1 Land-farming
5.1.2 Composting
5.2 Slurry-phase Bio-remediation
5.3 In-situ Bio-remediation
6. Factors Controlling Bio-remediation
7. Factors Affecting the Rate of Bio-remediation
7.1 Site Characteristics
7.2 Soil Characteristics
7.3 Waste Characteristics
8. How To Handle An Incident
9. Services Offered By Technology, Research And
Investigations (T-R-I)
10 Bibliography
S.L.D.G. 4-4 0 CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR WASTE-WATER
TREATMENT
1. Introduction
2. General
3. Constructed Wetlands For Waste-water
Treatment
4. Hydrologic Factors In Wetland Water Treatment
4.1 Flow Resistance
4.2 Evaporation And Transpiration
4.3 Atmospheric Augmentation
4.4 Water Quality Consequences
4.5 Substrate Properties
5. Design Guide
5.1 Sizing Of Beds
5.2 Depth
5.3 Slope Hydraulic
5.4 Growth Medium
5.5 Plants And Planting
5.6 Weed Control
5.7 Feed Distribution
5.8 Liner
5.9 Data Collection
5.10 Removal Of Concentrations
6. Conclusion
7. Bibliography

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DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 4 - 1
AESTHETIC INFLUENCE OF HIGH VOLTAGE
OUT-DOOR SUBSTATIONS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
1. ABSTRACT
High voltage outdoor substations influence the environment in many ways. This
influence encompasses the inclusion of ground and soil, the aesthetic effect on
the countryside or town, the noise produced in high voltage installations, and
disturbances caused by electric and magnetic fields and other factors. The
design engineer must attempt to take these problems into consideration as far
as possible. Although there exist for example, standard measurement
procedures, allowable limits etc. for the evaluation of impulse and continuous
noise levels, there is to our knowledge no engineering or possibly objective
methods for the evaluation of the aesthetic effect of technical installations on
their surroundings. In the following article, criteria by which the aesthetic
influence on the environment can be determined are discussed.
2. INTRODUCTION
The effects of high voltage substations on the environment can be very
different. Some are hardly noticed, while others are found to be very disturbing.
The extent of the effect is largely depended on the location of the substation,
the requirements of the area, the voltage level, the operating methods etc. The
noise pollution and the encroachment on the town and countryside play a
particularly big role (See Figure 1).
Due to, on the one hand, the increase in transmission voltage, power handling
capacity and the number of high voltage substations and on the other hand the
necessity to construct these substations in the immediate vicinity of towns,
disregarding these effects could result in considerable difficulties or high
additional costs.
After an overview of the problem and establishment of several base
philosophies, criteria are discussed which should be used to evaluate the
aesthetic environmental impact.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

VISIBLE
Disturbance of the harmony
of the surroundings
Restriction on development
in the surrounding area
Many infeeds in the
proximity of the substations
Obstruction of sun
and wind
Radio and telecom-
munnication interference
Galvanic, capacitive and
inductive effects
Pollution of soil and
underground water (Oil)
Vibrations
Other
Effects
Transformers and
inductors
Switching operations
Compressed air
equipment
Discharges
Noise during building
Noise
Safety of residents
Fear of high voltages Danger of fire
Concern about increased
lightning activity
High Voltage
Substation

Figure 1 : Effect Of High Voltage Substations On The Environment

2.1 Problem Statement
High voltage outdoor substations fall into the category of high rise
technical establishments, whose shape and size must conform to
practical and technical aspects. A change in the environment for the
purpose of improvement is as a rule not accepted. The judgement of
the aesthetic effects that the substation creates, differs from observer to
observer. It depends on the personality of the observer, the observation
point, and the attitude of the observer towards the object.
In principle the observation and evaluation of buildings and installations
occurs as follows:-
a) Recognition of the building and installations as part of the human
environment
b) Recognition of the order of this human environment
c) Recognition of the construction materials used and how they
were used

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DECEMBER 2001 -3- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________
d) Recognition and acknowledgement of the usefulness of the
buildings and installations
Independently of the outcome of the above evaluation, the observer
makes an aesthetic judgement, which can be positive or negative.
During the evaluation of the aesthetic influence of a high voltage
substation on the environment, the incoming overhead lines, and the
existing environmental conditions at the site must be taken into account.
For the evaluation of the influences it is necessary to determine the
position of the observer, and to define what can be considered to be the
affected environment.
The position of the observer shall be chosen at a point outside the high
voltage substation.
The effect that the image of the substation creates on an observer inside
the installation will not be considered now.
The environment that is influenced by the high voltage substation is
considered as the surrounding area for which the installation is generally
visible. The size of this area, defined as the visually affected area (see
Figure 2), is dependent upon the height of the busbars or tower
structures carrying the overhead conductors (determined by the
transmission voltage), as well as the topography of the land. Visual
barriers for example reduce the affected area and should be used
wherever possible (see Figure 3).
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -4- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Visible Distance
Concealment:-
Very limited
Reasonable
High
Very High
Horizontal extent of the visually affected area.
Nominal
Voltage
Transmission
Network
220 - 765 kV
Large Distribution
Network
66 - 132 kV
Small Distribution
Network
1 44 kV
Low Voltage
Network
220 380 V
Type of Transmission
Tower
Open lattice tower
Closed lattice tower
Solid steel towers
Concrete towers
Wood pole
structures
Horizontal extent of the visually affected area
depending on tower type and increased
Concealment from the affected area
1) 0,4
2) 0,7
to
to
2,5 km
4 km
1) 0,3
2) 0,5
to
to
1,5 km
2 km
1) 0,1
2) 0,2
to
to
0,4 km
0,5 km
1) Visibility against a background with relief (Undulating ground)
2) Visibility against a background of free air

Figure 2 : Definition Of The Visually Affected Area

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DECEMBER 2001 -5- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Extent of
affected area
Visible Distance
{
Visually affected area
Overhead line
Avenue
Forest

Figure 3 : Use Of Visual Barriers To Reduce The Visually Affected
Area
2.2 Basic Principles
If the problem cannot be handled comprehensively in the realm of man
- society - environment, then it involves engineering criteria and
principles, and several basic principles must now be defined.
Nowadays, for transmission voltages up to 765 kV, and as an alternative
to outdoor, i.e. Air Insulated Substations, the possibility exists technically
to build the high voltage substation, including transformers, indoors,
either air insulated or SF
6
insulated. The possibility even exists
theoretically, to build an SF
6
substation underground, using cables as in-
feeds. The knowledge of alternatives influences the attitude of the
observer considerably.
However, this technology is not yet generally available, except in a few
instances e.g. Up to 110 kV, where the economic expense can only be
justified by further reasons e.g. high environmental impact in industrial
areas or essential space saving. Thus indoor or underground
installations will not be discussed further here.
For outdoor installations it should be a goal, alongside the technical
objective, to find a solution, that enables one to show the technical
installation to observers, perhaps even with pride. Otherwise an attempt
is made from the beginning to conceal it. A subsequent improvement
usually involves additional expensed, possibly leaving an unacceptable
solution.
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DECEMBER 2001 -6- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

2.3 Attempts To Evaluate Buildings Using Information Aesthetics
In 1967 Kiemle consolidated the attempts of various authors who used
the mathematical methods of signal theory, information theory,
information psychology etc. to evaluate the creative process of the mind.
He considers the assimilation, comprehension and processing capacity
of the human brain. During this period of attention of a human of 8 - 12
seconds (short time memory) an attempt is made, to evaluate criteria
such as
- Order
- Surprise value
- Conspicuous value
- Originality (style)
and even aesthetic beauty mathematically and to formulate limits. By
applying his theory to residential and office buildings Kiemle concludes
the following : The intellectual enjoyment of aesthetic observation
consists of the conscious mind being inundated with recognising and
comprehending ordered structures and relationships . . . modern
buildings are often lacking information.
Examples of the application of Information aesthetics to technical
objects are not known.
2.4 Recommendations For Evaluation
2.4.1 Criteria for the evaluation of aesthetic influence
The following criterial are taken into consideration :-
K1 Height
K2 Surface area
K3 Arrangement of construction
K4 Arrangement of colours
K5 Boundary with the environment
K6 Conductors in-feeds
Each of these criteria is given a value between 0 and 5. The
value given depends on the environmental influence the criterion
has. The effect each criterion has at a fixed location is
determined by a weighting factor for the location F
L
(Table 1) and
weighting factor for the visibility F
S
. The weighting factors for a
location F
L
can vary for each of the different criteria, as can be
seen in Table 1.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -7- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Table 1 : Weighting Factors For The Evaluation Of The
Environmental Impact Of High Voltage Substations.
CRITERION WEIGHTING FACTORS FOR LOCATION
Urban
Areas
FL1
Environmentally
Protected Areas
FL2
Rural
Areas
FL3
Industrial
Areas
FL4
Height
Surface area
Construction
Colour
Boundary
Conductor
in-feeds
(K1)
(K2)
(K3)
(K4)
(K5)
(K6)

0,8 - 1,2
0,8 - 1,2
0,8 - 1,2
0,8 - 1,2
0,8 - 1,2
0,8 - 1,2
0,8 - 1
0,8 - 1
0,8 - 1
0,8 - 1
0,8 - 1
0,8 - 1
0,4 - 0,8
0,4 - 0,8
0,6 - 0,8
0,6 - 0,8
0,6 - 0,8
0,6 - 0,8
0,6 - 0,8
0,8 - 1,0
0,4 - 0,8
0,6 - 0,8
0,6 - 0,8
0,4 - 0,8

2.4.2 Explanation of criteria
2.4.2.1 Height (K1)
If the height of a high voltage substation is equal to or
smaller than the eaves of the surrounding buildings or the
tops of the surrounding trees, then the environmental
influence due to height is negligible. It is given a value of
0. If the height is a multiple of the reference height then
the environmental influence can be evaluated as very
negative, and should be given a value of 5.
2.4.2.2 Surface area (K2)
With this criteria, it should be considered that with an
expansion in area of the high voltage substation, as a
rule the effect on the environment will increase.
The surface area must be considered as the absolute
area in square meters, i.e. the area of the substation
including access roads, storage areas, etc.
It is recommended to use the following measures for
evaluation :-
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -8- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

SURFACE - AREA VALUE
Up to 500 m
2

500 - 1000 m
2

1000 - 2500 m
2

2500 - 5000 m
2

5000 - 7500 m
2

Over 7500 m
2

0
1
2
3
4
5
2.4.2.3 Arrangement of construction (K3)
Inside the installation, the internal structure of the
buildings, the tower structures, the busbars, the
foundations, arrangement of roads and paths etc. is
evaluated. Few, clearly arranged buildings, tower heights
that match the heights of the buildings and low
foundations are generally positively evaluated. Figure 4
is provided as an example. This is probably the most
problematic factor to evaluate.
Control Building
275 kV Circuit breakers
88 kV
Towers
275 kV Busbar
Transformers
Control Building
View form the East
88 kV Circuit Breakers
View from the South

Figure 4 : Example Of The Simulation Of The Busbars And
Buildings Of A 275 kV Substation.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -9- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

2.4.2.4 Arrangement of colours (K4)
In the first instance the match of the colours of the
outdoor structures and buildings with the surrounding
must be considered.
Besides this, the condition of the paint-work at the time of
observation must be evaluated. For evaluation, values of
between 0 and 5 are used again. Generally, an
inconspicuous arrangement of colours of the installation
paint-work that is in good condition, and use of building
materials that are appropriate to the surroundings, should
be positively evaluated.
In particular cases, colours that give prominence to
individual devices that show the function of the
installation, can give an overall positive effect.
2.4.2.5 Boundary with the environment (K5)
This criteria should be used to evaluate how well the
substation has been situated in its surroundings, from an
external point of view. The location can be altered by
landscaping, planting rows of trees, shrubs or bushes or
by construction of walls that conceal the installation (see
Figures 5 and 6).
The aim of the arrangement of the substation within its
surroundings should be to make it as inconspicuous as
possible. Depending on how well this aim is achieved, it
should be evaluated with a value of between 0 and 5.
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DECEMBER 2001 -10- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

a)
b)

Figure 5 : Example Of The Ecological Planning For A
High Voltage Substation.
a) At the time of commissioning.
b) After 3 to 5 years.

2.4.2.6 Conductor in-feeds (K6)
To evaluate the impact of the substation on its
surroundings, the conductor in-feeds for a distance of 1
km away from the installation should be considered.
From a visual point of view the best in-feed is the
underground cable. If all in-feeds are cables for a
distance of 1 km from the substation, then this criterion
should be given a value of 0. Few in-feeds that approach
the substation directly should be positively evaluated,
while in-feeds that approach the substation from several
different directions, or with differing heights, or different
tower structures should be evaluated negatively. Values
of between 1 and 5 should be use for this. See Figure 6 :
Proposed Use Of Visual Barriers To Reduce Visually
Affected Areas Around Substations
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -11- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Insert Figure 6 : Proposed Use Of Visual Barriers To Reduce Visually Affected
Areas Around Substations
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -12- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

2.4.3 Calculation of a weighting factor B
It is recommended that an overall evaluation based on the value
of each criterion and its corresponding weighting factor should
be calculated as follows :-
S
LK6 6 LK5 5 LK4 4 LK3 3 LK2 2 1 LK 1
.F
6
.F K .F K .F K .F K .F K .F K
B
+ + + + +
=

where :-
B = aesthetic influence of the substation on the
environment.
K
V
= evaluated values for each criterion.
F
LKV
= weighing factors for the location, corresponding to
each criterion.
F
S
= weighting factor for the visibility.
The overall evaluation B is then given in the following
interpretation :-

excellent
very good
good
sufficient
bad
very bad
0
1
2
3
4
5
-
-
-
-
-
-
negligible environmental impact
limited environmental impact
some environmental impact
tolerable environmental impact
unfavourable environmental impact
very negative environmental impact
The application of this procedure to various substations has shown that
the calculated value, B, is neither suited to be used as a value for
comparison, nor a value that one can set limits on. If one looks for
opportunities to improve the impact of the object, then one must
consider each criterion and its impact from a particular observation
point.
2.5 Recommendation
Recommended guidelines for procedures to be followed for the
construction of high voltage transmission lines and substations are
shown pictorially below (see Figure 7)
Guidelines on the definition of the visually affected area have already
been discussed (see Figure 2 and 3).

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DECEMBER 2001 -13- S.L.D.G. 4 - 1 /2
_______________________________________________________________________________________
suitable sites
To be avoided
To be recommended
To be recommended
To be avoided
Afforestation
Planting of
shrubs, bushes
Planting of Greenary
Landscaping

Figure 7 : Examples For Overhead Lines And Substations
2.6 Conclusion
The procedure discussed, describe attempts to evaluate the
environmental impact of high voltage outdoor substations.
The complex effect that the factors in Figure 1 have on an observer, as
well as his personal opinion of the object under consideration, has not
been covered by a procedure.
The final aim remains, however, by the calculation of an obligatory
evaluation scheme, to achieve consensus between project teams,
observers and state authorities.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 4 - 2
APPLICATIONS TO MINIMISE AESTHETIC INFLUENCE OF HIGH
VOLTAGE OUTDOOR SUBSTATIONS ON THE ENVIRONMENT -
TRANSFORMER ACOUSTIC NOISE ABATEMENT
1. INTRODUCTION
Perceived sound comprises the mechanical oscillations and waves of an elastic
medium in the frequency range of the human ear of between 16 Hz and
20 000 Hz. Oscillations below 16 Hz are termed infra-sound, and above
20 000 Hz, ultra-sound. Sound generally propagates spherically from the
source.
Disturbing noise is propagated as air - and solid borne sound. When these
sound waves strike a wall, some is thrown back by reflection, while some is
absorbed by the wall. Air borne noise striking a wall causes it to vibrate and so
the sound is transmitted into the adjacent space. Solid borne sound is
converted into audible air borne sound by radiation from the boundary outfaces.
Ducts, air shafts, piping systems and the like, can transmit sound waves to
other rooms.
A typical complaint by residents and farmers has been about the disturbing
noise levels produced by large power transformers in nearby substations.
Extensive investigations in finding solutions to abate transformer noise have
been carried out with special attention being paid to these aspects right at the
design stage.
Excessive noise levels can not only be a hindrance, but can reduce the value of
property in the neighbourhood of the noise source. According to laws
governing noise pollution, the acceptable loudness of noises must on average
not exceed the values indicated in Table 1, at the point of origin.

TABLE 1 : ACCEPTABLE LOUDNESS OF NOISE

Area
Daytime
(6 - 22 hrs)
dB(A)
Night-time
(22 - 6 hrs)
dB(A)
Industrial
Commercial
Composite
Generally Residential
Purely Residential
Therapy (Hospitals)
70
65
60
55
50
45
70
50
45
40
35
30
Recommended noise levels are also contained in the ISO Recommendation
R1996 Acoustic.
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DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________

2. HOW TO ANALYSE THE PROBLEM
An acoustic study for the planned substation should be carried out to determine
the acoustic conditions of the various items of equipment chiefly the
transformers and their working equipment and, if necessary, the circuit
breakers.
* Table 2 gives typical noise levels emitted by various sizes of
transformers.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -3- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 2 : SOUND LEVELS GENERATED BY VARIOUS SIZES OF
TRANSFORMERS (AS SPECIFIED IN NEMA PUB. NO. TR 1 - 1974, PART 0)

TABLE 2.1
Audible Sound Levels for Oil-Immersed Power Transformers
Equivalent Two-winding Rating [kVA]
1
)
Average
Sound
350 kV BIL and Below 450, 550, 650 kV BIL
Level,
Decibels
1 2 3 1 2 3
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
700
1000
-
1500
2000
2500
3000
4000
5000
6000
7500
10000
12500
15000
20000
25000
30000
40000
50000
60000
80000
100000
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
6250
2
)
7500
9375
12500
16667
20000
26667
33333
40000
53333
66667
80000
106667
133333
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
20800
25000
33333
41667
50000
66667
83333
100000
133333
166667
200000
250000
300000
400000
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
700
1000
-
1500
2000
2500
3000
4000
5000
6000
7500
10000
12500
15000
20000
25000
30000
40000
50000
60000
80000
100000
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3750
2
)
5000
6250
7500
9375
12500
16667
20000
26667
33333
40000
53333
66667
80000
106667
133333
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
20800
25000
33333
41667
50000
66667
83333
100000
133333
166667
200000
250000
300000
400000
-
-
-
-

Column 1 : Without cooling fans.
Column 2 : With cooling fans ; natural cooling 75 %.
Column 3 : With cooling fans ; natural cooling < 75%.
1
) The equivalent two-winding rating is defined as one-half the sum of
the kVA ratings of all windings.
2
) 67 decibels for all kVA ratings equal to this or smaller.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -4- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 2.2
1
)
Average
Sound
750 and 825 kV BIL 900 and 1050 kV BIL
Level,
Decibels
1 2 3 1 2 3
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3000
4000
5000
6000
7500
10000
12500
15000
20000
25000
30000
40000
50000
60000
80000
100000
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
3125
2
)
3750
5000
6250
7500
9375
12500
16667
20000
26667
33333
40000
53333
66667
80000
106667
133333
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
20800
25000
33333
41667
50000
66667
83333
100000
133333
166667
200000
250000
300000
400000
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
12500
15000
20000
25000
30000
40000
50000
60000
80000
100000
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
16667
20000
26667
33333
40000
53333
66667
80000
106667
133333
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
20800
25000
33333
41667
50000
66667
83333
100000
133333
166667
200000
250000
300000
400000
-
-

Note 1 : For intermediate kVA ratings, Use the average sound level of
the next larger kVA rating

Note 2 : For column 2 and 3 ratings, the sound levels are with the
auxiliary cooling equipment in operation.
1
) &
2
) See page 3
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -5- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 2.3
1
)
Average
Sound
1175 kV BIL 1300 kV BIL and above
Level,
Decibels
1 2 3 1 2 3
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
12500
15000
20000
25000
30000
40000
50000
60000
80000
100000
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
16667
20000
26667
33333
40000
53333
66667
80000
106667
133333
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
20800
25000
33333
41667
50000
66667
83333
100000
133333
166667
200000
250000
300000
400000
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
12500
15000
20000
25000
30000
40000
50000
60000
80000
100000
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
16667
20000
26667
33333
40000
53333
66667
80000
106667
133333
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
20800
25000
33333
41667
50000
66667
83333
100000
133333
166667
200000
250000
300000
400000

1
) See page 3
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -6- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 2.4
Audible Sound Levels for Oil-Immersed Distribution Transformers
Equivalent Two-winding kVA
1
)
2
)
125 kV BIL and Below
Average Sound Level, Decibels
0 - 50
51 - 100
101 - 300
301 - 500
48
51
55
56

TABLE 2.5
Audible Sound Levels for Network Transformers
Equivalent Two-winding kVA
1
)
2
)
350 kV BIL and Below
Average Sound Level, Decibels
300
500
700
1000

1500
2000
2500
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62

1
) See page 3
2
) Without cooling fans
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -7- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 2.6
Audible Sound Levels for Dry-type Transformers 15000 - volt Insulation Class and
Below
Average Sound Level,
Decibels
Average Sound
Level,
Decibels
Equivalent
Two-
winding
Self-cooled
ventilated
Self-cooled
Sealed
Equivalent
Two-winding
Ventilated Forced
Air Cooled
2
)
kVA
1
) 1 1A 2 kVA
1
) 3
0 - 50
51 - 150
151 - 300
301 - 500
501 - 700
701 - 1000
1001 - 1500
1501 - 2000
2001 - 3000
3001 - 4000
4001 - 5000
5001 - 6000
6001 - 7500
50
55
58
60
62
64
65
66
68
70
71
72
73
-
53
55
57
60
62
63
64
66
-
-
-
-
50
55
57
59
61
63
64
65
66
68
69
70
71

3 - 300
301 - 500
501 - 833
834 - 1167
1168 - 1667
1668 - 2000
2001 - 3333
3334 - 5000
5001 - 6667
6668 - 8333
8334 - 10000

67
67
67
67
68
69
71
73
74
75
76

Column 1 : Cooling method AN
Column 2 : Cooling method ANAN
Column 3 : Cooling method AF
Column 1a : Highest guaranteed values for GEAFOL cast-resin dry type
transformers

1
) The equivalent two-winding rating is defined as one-half the sum of
the kVA ratings of all windings.
2
) Does not apply to sealed-typed transformers

With the framework of this study, the nature, distribution and number of sources
of noise for the final installation and at intermediate stages has also to be
considered.
If the acoustic study shows that the natural attenuation of the sound level is not
enough to meet the permissible agreed noise criterion, three courses of action
are open :-
a) Use a low noise transformer.
b) Modifying the installation plan of the substation, e.g. position of
transformers, direction of oil cooler fans.
c) provision of one or more noise attenuation devices.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -8- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________

3. FORMULATING A SOLUTION
A number of materials have been identified as being good acoustic barriers.
The most commonly used sound absorbent materials are porous substances,
plastics, cork, glass-fibre and mineral wool etc. The main aim is to limit the high
frequency noise components. This is also generally easier to achieve than
eliminating the lower frequency noise. Table 3 below gives an idea of the
effectiveness of such noise absorbing materials.

TABLE 3 : ATTENUATION FIGURES FOR SOME BUILDING
MATERIALS AND STRUCTURES, IN THE RANGE 100 TO
3200 HZ

Type of Acoustic Insulation Attenuation
dB(A)
Steel plates (4 mm thickness) with sound-absorbing glass fibre or
rockwool, mounted on the transformer tank.
8 - 10
Screens, (Concrete, plain metal) 10 - 15
Single window without sealing 15
Carefully erected metal enclosure incorporating sound absorbent
material
15 - 25
Single door without extra sealing 20
Steel sheeting barried : 2 mm thick
: 4 mm thick
29
33
Double absorbent metal or double concrete enclosure 30 - 40
Double door without extra sealing 30
Double door with extra sealing 40
Brick build enclosure : 12 cm thick
: 25 cm thick
45
50
Concrete built enclosure : 10 cm thick
: 12 cm thick
: 15 cm thick
: 20 cm thick
42
45
47
49
Wood woolmat, 8 cm thick 50

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DECEMBER 2001 -9- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________

>1 m
(b)
>1 m
(a)
>1 m
(c)
>1 m
(d)

FIGURE 1 : SOME TYPICAL ACOUSTIC BARRIER ARRANGEMENTS
a) Simple solid wall
b) Sound absorbing wall out of finish building fabric
c) Solid wall out of sound absorbing material
d) Sound absorbing wall with roof structure out of finish building material
The barriers are placed at least 1 metre away from the apparatus. Some
apparatus requiring sound abatement may call for barriers only on one side of
the sound source, but more often than not, sound barriers around transformers
totally enclose the transformers - see Figure 1.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -10- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 2 : BARRIER TOTALLY ENCLOSING TRANSFORMER
Additionally, the propagation of acoustic frequency into supporting
structures may be limited by spring, rubber or hydraulic dampers.
4. DESIGN CALCULATIONS
4.1 Theory
Sound amplification within an enclosed area (L) is a functional
relationship of the total transformer surface area (A
T
), the total inside
surface area of the enclosure (or room) (A
R
), and the effective acoustic
absorption factor ().
L = 10.log
+
+ T
R
A .
A .
) 4.(1
1 [dB(A)] eq. 4-2.1
Where enclosures are made up of different types of materials, an
effective acoustic absorption factor has to be calculated.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -11- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________
e.g.
eff
=
R
floor ceiling, oor walls walls
A
) A ( + ) A . ( + ) .A ( door . door fl ceiling,
eq. 4-2.2
where :-

walls
= absorption factor of walls

ceiling,
floor

= combined absorption factor of ceiling
and floors

door
= absorption factor of the door
A
walls
= total area of walls
A
ceiling,
floor

= combined area of ceiling and the floor
A
door
= area of the door
L = L
T
+ L [dB(A)] eq. 4-2.3
where :-
L = total acoustic sound intensity in the enclosure.
L
T
= acoustic sound intensity generated by the
transformer (supplied by manufacturer).

TABLE 4 : ACOUSTIC ABSORPTION FACTORS FOR DIFFERENT
MATERIALS
Acoustic Absorption Factor ()
at
Material 125 Hz 500 Hz 2000 Hz
Concrete
Brick wall without plaster
Brick wall with plaster
Fibre glass plate (3 cm thick) on hard
back wall
0,01
0,024
0,024
0,22
0,01
0,03
0,06
0,88
0,01
0,05
0,06
1,0
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -12- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1 3 5 10 20 50 100 1 30 50
A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

s
u
r
r
o
u
n
d
i
n
g

a
i
r

[
d
B
(
A
)
]
Distance [m]

FIGURE 3 : ATTENUATION VS DISTANCE
4.2 Example : A 1 600 kVA transformer generates noise (L
T
) with
an intensity of 56 dB(A) (measured). The total
transformer surface area as supplied by the
manufacturer is 13,5 m
2
. The transformer is to be
housed in an enclosure which has dimensions
L.B.H of 4,1 m x 3,2 m x 2,95 m respectively.
The door has dimensions 2,5 m x 2,95m. The
brick walls are 24 cm thick, the roof and floor,
which is concrete, is 20 cm thick. Determine how
effective this enclosure is in attenuating the noise.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3,35 (H)
4
,
1

(
L
)
2
,
9
5
3,2 (B)
2
,
5

DECEMBER 2001 -13- S.L.D.G. 4 - 2 / 0
____________________________________________________________________________________
Effective Surface Areas
Total wall area : A
D+W
=
=
2 . [3,35 . (4,1 + 3,2)]
48,91 m
2

Area of the door : A
D
=
=
2,95 . 2,5
7,38 m
2

Resultant wall area : A
W
=
=
48,91 - 7,38
41,53 m
2

Combined area of the
ceiling and floor
: A
C+F
=
=
2 . [3,2 . 4,1]
26,24 m
2

Effective Acoustic Absorption Factor (), from eq. 4-2.2
eff
=
+ +
+ + +
7,38 26,2 41,53
7,38) (0,1 4) (0,01.26,2 53) (0,024.41,

=
75,15
42,55

eff
= 0,03
The values of for the different materials were obtained for Table 4.
Sound is amplified within an enclosed area, from eq. 4-2.1.
L = 10.log
+
+
15 75 03 0
5 13 03 0 1
1
, . ,
, ). , (

~ 14dB(A) (change in dB(A) due to enclosed room)
Total acoustic sound intersity (L), from equation 4-2.3.
L = 57 + 14
= 70 dB(A)
From Table 3, normal damping of a double door without sealing is 30
dB(A) (i.e. door has the smallest damping effect)

The loudest sound comes from the door = 70 - 30
= 40 dB(A)
As one moves orthogonally away from the door area, the noise level
drops by 6 dB(A) for every 5 metres (see Figure 3)
At 150 metres, the noise level would have dropped to = 40 - 37
= 3dB(A)
At 155 metres, the level of the noise generated by the enclosed
transformer would have dropped to zero.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 - 1 - S.L.D.G. 4 - 3 /0
__________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 4-3
BIOREMEDIATION
1. INTRODUCTION
Probably the most emotive subject on environmental pollution is that of oil
pollution. A fact that is not always realised is that considerable amounts of
hydrocarbon materials have always found their way into the ecosystem.
These situations may come about as a result of oil seepage from oil fields
following ecological disturbances, or it may be hydrocarbon material formed
bio-synthetically.
The ecosystem has always been able to cope with naturally occurring
amounts of hydrocarbon, mainly because it is spread over a wide area. The
major problem facing the environment at present is dealing with the stress of
massive local pollution over a short period of time following a serious
accident. Eskom faces the same problem due to the large volumes of oil
being handled. Of particular concern are transformer oil spills that pose a fire
hazard, or where the soil penetration rate leads to ground water
contamination.
Conventional treatment methods involve the removal of the contaminated soil
and replacement with clean top-soil. This is a costly process and the
contaminated soil must be transferred to a waste holding site thereby merely
transporting the problem from one site to another. Micro organisms such as
bacteria and fungi are capable of biodegrading a wide variety of compounds
both in oil and water. Bio-remediation is a process whereby organic wastes
are biologically degraded under controlled conditions to an innocuous state,
or to levels established by law.
In South Africa with its unique soils and semi-arid climate, bio-remediation
becomes an increasingly attractive option for dealing with selected waste
problems and should seriously be considered as a viable option for waste
treatment with minimal impact and liability.
2. MICRO-ORGANISMS INVOLVED IN BIOREMEDIATION
There are two types of bacteria - aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic bacteria
require oxygen to fuel their naturally slow degradation activities. Anaerobic
bacteria work in the absence of oxygen, but degrade organic material at an
even slower rate. They are both found naturally all over the planet. Bacteria
produce enzymes which are used to breakdown large complex molecules into
smaller components which can be used by the micro-organisms as their
carbon and energy source. However, this carbon source will be of no use to
the micro-organisms if other macro-nutrients such as phosphorus and
nitrogen are inaccessible to them. The micro-nutrients are generally provided
by the soil.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 - 2 - S.L.D.G. 4 - 3 /0
__________________________________________________________________________________
There are six basic requirements for bio-remediation :-
1. Substrate to microbe content
2. Oxygen
3. Nutrients
4. Water
5. PH
6. Temperature
3. THE BIODEGRADATION PROCESS
Microbes consume and eat the oil

Converted oil becomes a fatty acid

Microbes perish after the oil is consumed.
End products : Carbon
Energy for higher organisms
Carbon dioxide
Water
4. TREATMENT MECHANISMS
There are at present three approaches to the implementation of bio-
remediation.
4.1 Bio-augmentation
Also known as seeding and involves the addition of high numbers of
pollutant degrading micro-organisms to the contaminated site.
4.2 Bio-stimulation
This involves the addition of nutrients and supports the concept
stimulating the existing microbial community by supplying it with
nutrients, thereby improving its ability to degrade and render harmless
the target waste constituents.
4.3 Enhanced Natural Degradation
This is the reintroduction of bacteria that were taken from the
contaminated site and strengthened in the laboratory prior to
reintroduction at that site.
5. TYPES OF BIO-REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES
When choosing a bio-remediation treatment system, it is important to
consider the physical, chemical and biological properties of the product, the
site contaminant, clean up criteria and the legal requirements. There are
three commonly used technologies :-
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 - 3 - S.L.D.G. 4 - 3 /0
__________________________________________________________________________________
5.1 Solid-phase Bio-remediation
5.1.1 Land-farming
This is an enhanced bio-remediation technique where by the
waste is spread on the soil and biodegraded by microbes. To
optimise the rate of biodegradation by increasing the
availability of nutrients, oxygen and moisture to enhance
microbial activity, processes such as ploughing, fertilisation
and irrigation of the soil are used after the contaminants have
been spread on the surface.
Land-farming makes use of the indigenous bacteria in the soil
as they include micro-organisms which have already adapted
to the contaminant and have the ability to biodegrade them.
5.1.2 Composting
This is similar to land-farming but includes the addition of a
soil amendment to supply energy for microbial growth and
degradation of hydrocarbon products. The addition of a soil
amendment, increases soil permeability, improves oxygen
transfer, improves soil amendment, increases soil structure
and provides an energy source to rapidly establish a large,
active microbial population.
5.2 Slurry-phase Bio-remediation
This is a process where contaminated soils are treated in an aqueous
slurry in a large bio-reactor system. The system is usually situated
close to the contaminated site. Intimate mixing and contact of the
micro-organisms with the contaminants provides the best
environmental conditions for the microbial biodegradation of the
contaminants.
5.3 In-situ Bio-remediation
The in-situ process allows for on going business operations at the
contaminated site, while clean up takes places. The applicability of
this process will depend on the soil hydraulic permeability,
contaminant concentration, soil temperature, soil nutrient level and
indigenous microbial population.
6. FACTORS CONTROLLING BIOREMEDIATION
Accessibility of the target compounds
Types of micro-organisms
Nutrients present
Electron acceptors present
Soil chemical conditions

7. FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF BIOREMEDIATION
7.1 Site Characteristics : Water table
Run-off potential / Water balance
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DECEMBER 2001 - 4 - S.L.D.G. 4 - 3 /0
__________________________________________________________________________________
Depth of contamination
Site soil temperature
7.2 Soil Characteristics : Texture, pH, Nutrient availability
Competing carbon sources, Oxygen
depletion
Porosity / Permeability
Organic matter / Organic carbon content
Clay content
Dissolved oxygen
Heavy metals
Alkalinity and moisture content of the soil
Microbial population
7.3 Waste Characteristics:

Physical / Chemical characteristics
Whole wastes
Hazardous constituents
Distribution in the soil environment

8. HOW TO HANDLE AN INCIDENT
Personnel should be trained and equipped to handle and contain spillages.
Generally the emergency procedures usually address the visible phase of the
spill. However, there is still the environmental long term impact associated
with the contaminated soil. Spills should be reported to the appropriate officer
as soon as possible. This will increase the chances of oil recovery and
minimise subsurface infiltration of the contaminant. The cost of cleaning up
the spill will also be minimised.
9. SERVICES OFFERED BY TECHNOLOGY, RESEARCH AND
INVESTIGATIONS (T-R-I)
The Chemical & Microbiological Sciences Section of T-R-I has introduced a
bio-remediation programme to address oil spills and implement treatment
programmes at these sites.
Services include : Site analysis
Soil analysis (chemical & microbiological)
Cost analysis
Implementation of the treatment programme
Training of personnel
Monitoring of the programme.

The following people can be contacted :-
GAUTENG : Maria Santa
(011) 629 5723
Gerhard Gericke
(011) 629 5721
Annelie Lombard
(011) 629 5360
CAPE : Vicky Hollier
(012) 980 5542

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 - 5 - S.L.D.G. 4 - 3 /0
__________________________________________________________________________________
KWA ZULU / NATAL Bruce Davids
(0331) 63200

10. BIBLIOGRAPHY
The above information was obtained from :-
1. Block R et al - (Aug 1993) Bio-remediation - Why doesnt it work
sometimes? Chemical Engineering Progress, pp 44-50
2. Sims M (Oct 1991) Bio-remediation - Natures clean up tool. Edited
by Tricia Clark and Charles Worth Ward.
3. Stegman P et al - (Mar/Apr 1994) Implementing Bio-remediation -
Ongoing improvements in an effective solution to coping with
hydrocarbon wastes. Chemical Technology, pp 22-27.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 4 - 4/0
_________________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 4 - 4
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR WASTE WATER TREATMENT
1. INTRODUCTION
The application of wetlands in the purification of water could be successfully applied
in the substation context. This section covers the basic aspects relating to wetland
waste water treatment and should be seen merely as a guide and an indication to
determine whether a wetland could be successfully implemented at a particular
substation.
2. GENERAL
There is no single correct definition of wetlands for all purposes. The US Fish and
Wildlife Service broadly recognises wetlands as a transition between terrestrial and
aquatic systems, meeting one or more of three conditions:-
* areas supporting predominantly hydrophytes (at least periodically)
* areas with predominantly undrained hydric soil (wet enough for long enough
to produce anaerobic conditions that limit the types of plants that can grow
there).
areas with non-soil substrate (such as rock or gravel) that are saturated or
covered by shallow water at some time during the growing season.

AQUATIC WETLANDS TERRESTRIAL
HIGH WATER
LOW
WATER
DEEP
WATER
IMPORT
EXPORT
IMPORT
SINK
Cattail
Floating
Submergents
CYCLING
IMPORT
SINK
EXPORT
WATER TABLE

Figure 1 : Wetlands Are Transition Zones Between Terrestrial And Aquatic
Environments And Benefit From Nutrient, Energy, Plant And
Animal Inputs From Neighbouring Systems.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-2-
S.L.D.G. 4 - 4/0
_________________________________________________________________________________________

Wetlands receive, hold and recycle nutrients continually washed from upland regions.
These nutrients support an abundance of macro- and microscopic vegetation, which
converts inorganic chemicals into the organic material required, directly or indirectly,
as food for plants, animals and human beings.
The micro-system created by such a wetland includes zoo-plankton, worms, insects,
crustaceans, reptiles, amphibians, fish, birds and mammals, all feeding on plant
material or one another.
It is apparent that the wetland is a very sensitive ecological system with the least
understood function of improving water quality. Wetlands can effectively remove or
convert large quantities of pollutants from point sources such as municipal and
certain industrial waste water effluents and non-point sources such as mine,
agricultural and urban runoff, including organic matter, suspended solids, metals and
excess nutrients.
Pollutants are removed through filtration, sedimentation and through absorption and
assimilation whereby nutrients are removed for bio-mass production. As one of the
by-products is oxygen, mainly contained in the water, the capacity of the system for
aerobic bacterial decomposition of pollutants is increased, as well as supporting a
wide range of oxygen- using aquatic organisms, some of which directly or indirectly
utilise additional pollutants. (See Figure 2)
New Shoot
Water Surface
Root
Oxidized Zone
Reduced Zone
Rhizome
ROOT HAIR ENLARGED

Figure 2 : Wetland Plants Have The Unique Ability To Transport Oxygen
To Support Their Roots Growing In Anaerobic Substrates.

Many nutrients are held within the wetland system and recycled through successive
seasons of plant growth, death and decay.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-3-
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_________________________________________________________________________________________

3. CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Constructed wetlands are defined as designed and man-made complex of saturated
substrates, emergent and submergent vegetation, animal life and water that
simulates natural wetlands for human use and benefit.
Most natural or constructed wetlands have five principal components :-
(i) substrates with various rates of hydraulic conductivity;
(ii) plants adapted to water in saturated anaerobic substrates
(iii) a water column (water flowing in or above the surface of the substrate)
(iv) invertebrates and vertebrates
(v) an aerobic and anaerobic microbial population
Wetlands appear to have 2 important but indirect functions :-
(i) stems and leaves significantly increase the surface area for attachment of
microbial populations within the water column.
(ii) wetland plants have the ability to transport atmospheric gasses including
oxygen down into the roots to enable their roots to survive in an anaerobic
environment.
Certain plant/substrate combinations appear to be more efficient in constructed
wetland treatment systems and others may be more tolerant of high pollutant
concentrations.
It is recommended to have a mix of plant/substrate combinations based on :-
(i) a mono-culture could be damaged by an insect pest outbreak, whereas a
mixed species system may be more resistant to pest attack and fluctuating
loading rates;
(ii) a mixed system may remove a broader variety of pollutants;
(iii) fostering growth of a single species may require operational practice with
substantial changes in water levels that would essentially remove part or all of
the system from operation. Conversely, a mixture of three plants - e.g. cattail,
reeds & bulrush, tend to create and/or maintain single-species stands by
inhibiting or out- competing other plants.
Constructed wetlands offer an attractive alternative to conventional treatment plants
as far as :-
(i) the relatively inexpensive construction and operation;
(ii) little maintenance and very easy performance thereof;
(iii) provide effective and reliable wastewater treatment;

_________________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-4-
S.L.D.G. 4 - 4/0
_________________________________________________________________________________________
(iv) are relatively tolerant of fluctuating hydrologic and contaminant loading rates
and;
(v) may provide indirect benefits such as green space, wildlife habitats and
recreational and educational areas.
As with all systems, the disadvantages should also be considered.
(i) a relatively large land area is required for advanced treatment
(ii) current design and operating criteria is imprecise
(iii) complexity of biological and hydrological systems and the lack of
understanding the dynamics of the process
(iv) possible problem with pests, mosquitoes or other pests could be a problem
with wetland systems that are improperly designed or managed
(v) steep topography, shallow soils, a high water table or susceptibility to flooding
may limit their use
(vi) dumping of chemicals could kill the whole system as would be the case with
other systems
(vii) two or three growing seasons could be required before optimal efficiency is
achieved
4. HYDROLOGIC FACTORS IN WETLAND WATER TREATMENT
The hydrologic system may not be treated as a steady-state process because:-
* the large surface area in an outdoor location, wetland systems interact
strongly with the atmosphere via rainfall and evaporation
* high vegetation density, plants influences water movement, both overland and
evapo-transpiration
* times are long with respect to the time scales of rainfall and microbial
dynamics but short with respect to seasonal processes

4.1 Flow Resistance
(i) For flow in fully saturated, fine grained soils, sands and gravels,
Darcys law holds true :-
x
P
. k v
= eq. 4-4.1
where :-
v = linear velocity

x = distance travelled
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 4 - 4/0
_________________________________________________________________________________________
P = pressure in m
This is the preferred calculation for infiltration.

Precipitation
Evapotranspiration
L = Length Width = W
Depth = 0
V = velocity
S = slope
Q = volume flow
TERMINOLOGY

Figure 3 : Terminology For Wetland Treatment Systems

(ii) For lateral free surface flow through coarse gravels and rocks, Erguns
equation is appropriate :-
. D
) E 1 .( v . . 75 , 1
. D
) 1 v.( .
. 150 S . g .
p
2
2 2
p

+

= eq. 4-4.2
where :-
S = slope of the free surface
= density
g = 9.8m/s
2
= viscosity
E = porosity
D
p
= particle diameter
v = velocity
(iii) Contact times are calculated by dividing the water volume in the
wetland by the volumetric flow rate Q :-

Q
. W . L
d
= eq. 4-4.3
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DECEMBER 2001
-6-
S.L.D.G. 4 - 4/0
_________________________________________________________________________________________
4.2 Evaporation And Transpiration
It is desirable to obtain a water balance in the system as various factors
influence the evaporation and transpiration (evapo-transpiration). These
factors include :-
(i) vegetation - type and density.
(ii) seasonal effects - wind, relative humidity, etc.
(iii) solar radiation.
(iv) surrounding microclimate.
The above factors should form the basis in determining the water balance.
4.3 Atmospheric Augmentation
Flow through a wetland system is augmented by precipitation and
evapotranspiration. Precipitation records are normally available for nearby
sites and the above outlines the considerations for evapotranspiration.
The expected range of fractional augmentation is 1.00. Evapotranspiration
slows water flow and increased contact times, whereas rainfall has the
opposite effect. For a wetland operated at constant depth, the actual contact
time is given by :-
(
|
.
|
\
|

=
1
1
Ln .
1
.
a
eq. 4-4.4
where :-
fractional augmentation
nominal contact time, based on nominal depth and
wastewater addition rate
4.4 Water Quality Consequences
Water quality improvements in wetlands would be effected by the amount of
contaminants and the contact time within the system. As both of these
factors can vary significantly over a period of time, it would be logical to
measure concentrations along sections down the wetland length to obtain the
contact time effect in order to get a correlation with the design assumptions.

4.5 Substrate Properties
The substrate consist of a matrix of mineral and organic solids, arranged in a
structure that determines the pore sizes, affecting the hydraulic conductivity
(K), an indicator of the water movement through the substrate.
Sandy and gravely soils have high K values, and water moves rapidly through
the soil, providing little opportunity for soil-water contact.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 4 - 4/0
_________________________________________________________________________________________
The physical composition of the soil structure is by far the most important
aspect of the substrate, with the chemical composition playing a relatively
lesser role, removing wastewater constituents by :-
(i) ion exchange/non specific adsorption;
(ii) specific adsorption/precipitation;
(iii) complexation
No further discussion on the above topics or discussions on vegetation and
microbiological aspects will be done as it is beyond the scope of this paper.
5. DESIGN GUIDE
Depending on the fact whether raw sewerage is treated or whether the method is
used as tertiary treatment, certain assumptions and data is required for the design.
As a guide, 3-4m
2
/
e
is required to achieve an effluent with less than 20mg BOD
5
/l
on a 95% basis,
where :-

e
= population equivalent based on 56 g BOD
5
/person/day
(and 170 l/person/day)
BOD
5
= biochemical oxygen demand

Phragmites
Soil or gravel
Roots and
rhizomes
Level
Surface
Effluent
Outlet
height
variable
Impervious liner Slope 2 to 8 %
Depth of
bed 0,6 m
Inlet stone
distributor
Sewage
or
effluent

Figure 4 : Typical Arrangement For A Reed Bed Treatment System

5.1 Sizing Of Beds
The size of the bed for crude or settled sewerage, is calculated from :-
A
h
= 5,2 . Q
d
.(Ln C
o
- Ln C
t
) eq. 4-4.5
where :-
A
h
= surface area of bed, m
2
Q
d

= daily average flow rate, m
3
/d
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DECEMBER 2001
-8-
S.L.D.G. 4 - 4/0
_________________________________________________________________________________________
C
o
= daily average BOD
5
of the feed, mg/l
C
t
= required average BOD
5
of the effluent, mg/l
(usually < 20 mg/l)
Typical values for initial porosity range from 0.18 to 0.35 for coarse gravel to
fine gravel. Unit flow velocity (Q/A) through the cross section should not
exceed 8.6 m
3
/d.
Commonly used emergent plants can transmit from 5 to 45 g 0
2
/day/m
2
of
wetland surface.
Most beds should be designed as tertiary treatment systems until maturity of
the system is reached, when they could be switched to treating settled or
screened sewerage.
The cross-sectional area of the bed (A
c
) can be established through Darcys
Law :-
S
H
. k
Q
c
A
f
s
=
eq. 4-4.6
where :-
Q
s
= average flow rate of sewerage, m
3
/s
k
= hydraulic conductivity of fully developed bed, m/s

S
H
= slope of bed, m/m

k
could vary between 3 . 10

-3
and 10
-4
m/s, and some overland flow is
expected. This is typical for a gravel substrate.
Kichuth recommended limiting horizontal velocity to a maximum of 10
-4
m/s,
irrespective of the slope, to avoid disrupting the mosaic of aerobic,
anoxic/anaerobic zones in the bed, and to prevent erosion and surface
channelling.

5.2 Depth
The depth of the bed could be assumed as 600 mm as the roots start to
weaken beyond 600 mm. This also makes allowance for anticipated
settlement.
5.3 Slope Hydraulic
The hydraulic conductivity has a substantial influence on calculations of the
bed slope. Bed slopes should be limited to between 2 to 8%, ideally to suit
the natural topography.
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DECEMBER 2001
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_________________________________________________________________________________________
5.4 Growth Medium
It is recommended that a gravel or coarse sand be used as growth medium.
5.5 Plants And Planting
The common need would probably always form a part of any wetland system
and should be planted at densities of 2 to 4 rhizomes/zones or stems/m
2
. A
variety of plants could be used as tested successfully in pilot projects.
Practical case studies indicate that septic tank effluent from single homes can
be treated to advanced secondary levels or better by using a 37m
2
gravel
filter, 0.3m to 0.46m deep, with the wastewater level maintained 150 mm
below the rock surface. Aesthetic plants such as canna lily, elephant ears,
yellow iris and ginger lily can be planted into the rock medium. Point
discharge could be done in the form of a perforated leach field tubing
dispersing the water beneath the soil.
This same principle could be successfully applied in the substation
environment with very little maintenance, if any.
5.6 Weed Control
It is essential to exercise weed control - hand weeding is recommended as
chemical control could retard or kill growth of the other species.
5.7 Feed Distribution
A 0.5m inlet distributor zone filled with 60 - 100 mm stones is recommended
to distribute the effluent into the beds, although some literature maintains that
it is not necessary to have such a zone in a gravel bed.
5.8 Liner
In most cases, a plastic liner, normally 2mm HDPE, has been used. It could
be possible in some instances to make use of a clay liner with or without
chemical treatment to make it impermeable.

5.9 Data Collection
To evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment system, influent and effluent
should be collected and analysed. Sample should be analysed to determine
changes in the concentrations of the parameters listed below :-
FREQUENTLY REGULARLY
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD
5
) cadmium
chemical oxygen demand chromium
total organic carbon copper
total Kjildahl nitrogen lead
ammonia nitrogen nickel
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DECEMBER 2001
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_________________________________________________________________________________________
nitrate + nitrate nitrogen zinc
phosphorus calcium
iron potassium
manganese magnesium
pH toxic organics
temperature
5.10 Removal Of Concentrations
Biochemical oxygen demand is reduced via diffusion from the atmosphere
through the plants to the root zone (rhizosphere). Plants effectively applied
in this instance are cattails (Typha Latifolia), reeds (Phragmites Australis) and
bulrushes (Scirpus Validus).
Suspended solids removal occurs within the first few metres of the bed
thorough filtration and sedimentation.
Nitrogen is removed primarily through nitrification/denitrification, requiring
oxygen, supplied by leakage from plant roots and surface flow. Plants only
remove a fraction of the nitrogen and since the root system plays an
important role, it is essential that the roots of the plants extend to the bottom
of the bed. Nitrification cannot be completed without adequate alkalinity,
ideally with a pH between 7 and 8.
Phosphorus removal occurs from adsorption, absorption, complexation and
precipitation, mainly through subsurface flow with the medium containing iron,
aluminium and calcium, enabling plants to absorb phosphorus though their
roots and transport it to growing tissues.

Metals removal will not be covered as this occurs predominantly in the mining
environment.

6. CONCLUSION
From the preceding section it is evident that a wetland system could be a feasible
alternative to sewerage treatment at substations, but that the design initial monitoring
and maintenance programme should be compiled by someone knowledgeable in this
field.
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hammer, Donald A. Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment. Municipal,
Industrial and Agricultural. 1989. Lewis Publishers, Inc. Chelsea, Michigan.

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S.L.D.G. 5 - 0
GENERAL CRITERIA AND RULES FOR
THE DESIGN OF A.C. SUBSTATIONS
INDEX

S.L.D.G. 5 - 1 1 GENERAL CRITERIA AND RULES FOR THE
DESIGN OF A.C. SUBATATIONS
1. General Criteria And Rules
1.1 Safety Rules
1.2 Over-voltage And Insulation Levels
1.3 Current Rating And Over-currents
1.4 Electrical Clearances
1.5 Mechanical Forces
1.5.1 Weight
1.5.2 Wind loading
1.5.3 Short circuit forces
1.5.4 Combination of forces
1.6 Corona And Radio Interference
1.7 Acoustic Noise
1.8 Water Contamination
1.9 Civil Design
1.9.1 Supporting structures
1.9.2 Foundations
1.9.3 Transformer civil works
1.9.4 Site facilities
1.9.5 Fencing
1.9.6 Buildings
1.10 Fire Protection
2. Specification And Selection Of Main
Components
2.1 Introduction
2.2 General
2.3 Circuit Breaker
2.3.1 Interupting medium
2.3.2 Drive mechanism
2.4 Isolators And Earthing Switches
2.5 Surge Protection Devices
2.5.1 Spark gaps
2.5.2 Surge arresters
2.5.3 Lightning protection
2.6 Instrument Transformers
2.6.1 General
2.6.2 Voltage transformers (VTs)
2.6.3 Current transformers (CTs)
2.7 Line Traps

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S.L.D.G. 5 - 1
(Continued)
2.8 Busbars And Connectors
2.9 Post Insulators
2.10 High Voltage Cables
2.11 Earthing Grid
2.12 Power Transformers And Compensating
Equipment
2.12.1 General
2.12.2 Power transformers
2.12.3 Compensating equipment
2.12.3.1 Synchronous
compensators
2.12.3.2 Shunt reactors
2.12.3.3 Mechanically switched
capacitors (shunt
connected)
2.12.3.4 Series capacitors
2.12.3.5 Static VAR compensation
(SVC)
3. Specification And Selection Of Auxiliary
Equipment
3.1 A.C. Supplies
3.2 Diesel Generation
3.3 D.C. Supplies
3.4 Compressed Air System
4. Specification And Selection Of Secondary
Equipment
4.1 General
5. Computer Aided Design
6. Commissioning

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S.L.D.G. 5-1
GENERAL CRITERIA AND RULES FOR THE
DESIGN OF A.C. SUBSTATIONS
1. GENERAL CRITERIA AND RULES
1.1 Safety Rules (See Also S.L.D.G. 7)
Definitions :-
Step Voltage : The difference in surface potential experienced
by a person bridging the distance of a human
step without contacting any other conductive
part.
Touch Voltage : The maximum potential difference between the
accessible earth surface and dead part which
can be touched by a hand of a person standing
on the surface.
Safe Current : The current which can flow through the human
body without threat to the life and health of the
exposed person.
The maximum step and touch voltages are set to levels which will limit
the current flowing through an exposed person to the safe current level.
The proposed methods of service and repair work must be considered
in the design of a substation.
In most countries the minimum distance between live parts and
personnel is standardized. The following parameters are usually
defined :-
a) minimum height of live parts above the accessible surface.
b) minimum horizontal distance between a live part and
protective rails, fences, etc.
c) minimum distance between a live part and a human body (or
conductive tools) whilst working in the substation.
d) minimum distance between a live part and the transporting
mechanism or any moving conductive part.
The isolated main circuit must be handled as a live part until it is
earthed. The checking of voltage on the conductor before inserting
the earthing device is generally required. As it is not easy to test
voltage by an independent device in EHV and UHV substations, the
remote controlled earthing switch can sometimes be switched after
visually checking the disconnectors are in the open position.

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It is also dangerous to handle a long rod with an earthing conductor in
the vicinity of live parts. Therefore earthing switches would be
preferable in substations above 220 kV where portable earthing
devices are used for additional earthing only (e.g. prevention against
induced voltage on long busbars).
1.2 Over-voltage And Insulation Levels (See Also S.L.D.G. 7)
All equipment installed in a substation must be designed to take
account of the permanent voltage at a network; temporary voltage
surges at power frequency caused by sudden changes on system
configuration (such as the drift of neutral point following an earth
fault); switching over-voltages and lightning over-voltages. In order to
determine its capability it is subject to voltage tests as follows :-
a) Lightning Impulse Withstand Voltage (1.2/50)
b) Switching Impulse Withstand Voltage (usually 250 / 2500
s).
c) Power frequency (50 or 60 Hz) (wet and / or dry).
Additionally an oscillating voltage or chopped wave test may be
required.
The set of test voltage values determines the insulating level.
Standard insulating levels are defined in IEC standard 71 although the
Network parameters may dictate other values.
The necessary insulation level depends on the insulation co-
ordination, i.e. on the properties of different parts of the network
(mainly lines), the protection used against over-voltages and also on
the required reliability of the substation (permissible probability of
flashover) and may vary in different parts of the same substation.
1.3 Current Rating And Over-currents
The instantaneous load flow within a substation depends on the state
of the entire electrical network.
Usually a complete network analysis is required to determine the
nominal values of currents flowing in an individual substation circuit. It
is theoretically possible for maximum current flow to occur with a
relatively low total production of electricity in the network, e.g. the
supply to a pumped storage power station or when utilising the by-
pass facility within a substation.
In designing a substation it is necessary to consider two aspects of
the effect of current :-
a) the thermal effect (including induced currents).

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b) the mechanical effect on conductive items of plant and
their support structures.
Precise thermal modelling of equipment is very difficult as many
factors influence the resultant temperatures of conductive parts e.g.
previous loading, ambient temperature, wind speed, and solar
conditions.
Thermal design is therefore empirical and is proven by type test
covering nominal current rating and short-circuit current rating.
Standard procedures have been devised to predict the thermal
behaviour of conductors, particularly with respect to sag.
It may be possible to assign a short-term current rating in excess of
the nominal but the analysis leading to this must be exceedingly
thorough to ensure that no hot spots (transformers, terminals,
busbar support points) are overlooked.
Methods of calculating short-circuit current values are given in IEC
standard 909 and the effects of short current can be evaluated in
accordance with IEC Standard 865.
1.4 Electrical Clearances (See Also S.L.D.G. 7)
It is not possible to test the whole HV installation by the corresponding
test voltage. Therefore minimum clearances in air between live parts
or between live and dead parts in the air are stated, to obtain the
required insulation level in arrangements that have not been tested.
As the clearances are stated universally, they must assume the
insulation in the worst supposed case of spark gap with sufficient
reliability. Smaller clearances are permissible if the particular
arrangement has been tested by the prescribed insulation test.
The values of minimum distances of live parts in the air also depend
upon practical experience and therefore, some differences can be
found when comparing rules in different countries.
The specified electrical clearances must be maintained under all
normal conditions. Exceptionally reduced electrical clearances may
be allowed. For example, in the case of conductor movement caused
by short-circuit current or by extremely strong wind.
1.5 Mechanical Forces
1.5.1 Weight
Together with the normal weight of apparatus, conductors,
structures etc. the additional and temporary loads must be
considered, especially the weight of frost and ice (depends on
local climate) and maintenance staff.

The strain during erection must also be considered (lifting of
structures, asymmetric pull of conductor etc.).
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1.5.2 Wind loading
The wind pressure may substantially influence the strain of
structures and footings and also reduce the clearances
between flexible conductors. Standard values are given by
IEC but local conditions must always be considered. The twist
of flexible conductors that can impose extreme strains on the
structures may be caused by turbulent air flow if the substation
is located in an area with a rough landscape.
1.5.3 Short-circuit forces
Generally, equipment is type tested in a short-circuit
laboratory. However, the short-circuit strength of the busbars
is usually only calculated and the calculation methods are
verified by testing some typical busbar arrangements.
In simplified methods the peak value of short-circuit current is
used to evaluate mechanical stresses.
The force caused by short-circuit current excites the strain of
the movement of conductors. Rigid conductors may amplify
the strain of supports by resonance. The reduction of
clearances between flexible conductors has to be considered.
The analysis and computation methods of short-circuit current
influences and guidelines for design are described in CIGRE
Technical Brochure 23 - 19.
1.5.4 Combination of forces
The probability of the simultaneous occurrence of various
mechanical forces will be dependent upon local conditions.
Calculations should normally include specified combinations
of :-
Wind loads
Ice loads
Short circuit loads
Earthquake loads whenever necessary
Maintenance and / or erection loads
Additionally mechanical loads due to low ambient
temperatures and circuit-breaker operations have to be taken
into account.

1.6 Corona And Radio Interference (See also S.L.D.G. 9-1 pp 2.5 and
S.L.D.G. 9-2 pp 2.3)
All devices must satisfy the specified level of radio noise. The limits of
radio noise are stated by national standards. International rules are
IEC-CISPR Publication 1 and IEC-CISPR Recommendation No 30.
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1.7 Acoustic Noise (See also S.L.D.G 4-2)
The permissible acoustic noise level is generally given by national
regulations or standards. Recommended noise levels are contained
in the ISO Recommendation of R1996 Acoustic.
An acoustic study for the planned substation should be carried out to
determine the acoustic conditions of the various items of equipment,
chiefly the transformers and their working equipment and, if
necessary, the circuit-breaker.
Within the framework of this study, the nature, distribution and number
of sources of noise for the final installation and at intermediate stages
has also to be considered.
If the acoustic study shows that the natural attenuation of the sound
level is not enough t meet the permissible agreed noise criterion, three
courses of action are open :-
a) Use of a low-noise transformer.
b) Modifying the installation plan of the substation, e.g. position of
transformers, direction of oil-cooler fans.
c) Provision of one or more noise attenuation devises. The
attenuation that was obtained for different types of them is
shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1 : EFFECTIVENESS OF ACOUSTIC BARRIERS
Type of Acoustic Insulation Attenuation
Steel plates (4 mm thickness) with sound-absorbing
glass fibre or rockwool, mounted on the transformer
tank.

Screens (concrete, plain metal)

Carefully erected metal enclosure incorporating sound
absorbent metal

Brick built or concrete enclosure

Double absorbent metal or double concrete enclosure
8 - 10 db (A)

10 - 15 db (A)

15 - 25 db (A)

20 - 35 db (A)

30 - 40 db (A)

Additionally the propagation of acoustic frequency into supporting
structures may be limited by spring, rubber or hydraulic dampers.

1.8 Water Contamination
All noxious materials in the substation must be used and handled
without leakage. The vessels of power and measuring transformers,
capacitors, coils etc. must be leak-proof.
In most countries additional measures against detrimental materials
are required. Oil pits are designed to catch some proportion of the oil
(or other liquid) and to prevent oil from burning. If a central
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underground tank is used, it must take in the whole volume of the
biggest oil tank and any rainwater which has fallen in the period
between two emptying. When no oil leakage occurs, the rain water
may be drained off. Otherwise decontamination is necessary by such
means as mechanical separation, filtering or chemical cleaning.
1.9 Civil Design (See also S.L.D.G. 20 and 21)
Civil design includes supporting structures, foundations, facilities
(internal roads, rails, site surface,etc .) fencing and buildings.
1.9.1 Supporting structures (See also S.L.D.G. 21)
Supporting structures include terminal gantries, structures for
circuit breakers, isolators, instrument transformers and post
insulators. Whereas reinforced concrete may be used for HV
substations, supporting structures of UHV substations are
commonly made from welded or bolted steel lattice, of open
profile or of tubes. In some cases aluminium structures are
used for their low weight and resistance to corrosion but it
must be noted that the buried portion must be made of steel in
order to avoid electro-chemical corrosion.
Calculation of loads is usually covered by national standards
and regulations that specify safety factors and load
combinations.
1.9.2 Foundations (See also S.L.D.G. 20)
Calculation methods are given by national or company
standards. Dimensioning is carried out according to the loads
on the structures and additional forces such as the dynamic
stresses imposed by CB operation.
Depending upon the type of soil and the loads, foundation
types can be :-
a) Poured concrete with or without steel reinforcement
b) Prefabricated reinforced concrete

c) Concrete slab (mostly used in indoor substations or for
GIS)

d) Drilled (suitable in hard soil)
e) Auger bored piles
Steel stubs (usually in the case of transmission lines) or
anchor bolts to which the structures are attached, are usually
cast into the foundation. A template is used to locate such
fixings prior to the concrete being poured. GIS support
structures can be fixed to rails or bolted directly to the floor.
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1.9.3 Transformer civil works
Civil works for transformers or reactors have four main
purposes :-
a) To support the transformer during service and enable
its transport (rails may be needed depending upon
transformer type).
b) To retain any leakage of transformer oil and help to
extinguish burning oil under the transformer ; the oil
containment area may be filled with gravel covered by
an upper layer of broken stones or connected to an
underground tank.
c) To prevent the risk of fire propagation: fire walls and
fire stops in trenches are appropriate.
d) To reduce the level of acoustic noise.
1.9.4 Site facilities
Facilities for maintenance and operational needs must be
taken into account in substation design. Where access by
crane or trucks has to be provided for maintenance or
replacement operations, roads or tracks have to be
constructed.
The surface of the site will also influence access. Usually
stone chippings or grass are used.
1.9.5 Fencing
External fencing reduces the possibility of unauthorised
persons entering. Special measures are usually given in
national standards. Special attention must be paid to touch
voltage when metallic fencing is used.
Internal fencing is mostly protective and rails or wire fencing
can be used for this purpose.

1.9.6 Buildings
The design of buildings has to conform to national and utilities
standards. Their main role is to contain and give shelter to
protection relays, SCADA equipment, auxiliaries, batteries, fire
protection pumps , etc.
Whether a substation is manned or unmanned will determine
the extent of the facilities required locally for the operators.
Access conditions to the substations and the maintenance
practices of the utility will determine whether or not to install
transformer untanking hall.
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For economic reasons (reduction of the wires lengths and
sections, lowering voltage of auxiliary supply, minimising first
investment) several dispersed buildings rather than one
central building can be built in a substation.
1.10 Fire Protection
The use of fire protection systems and / or measures is mainly based
on :-
a) Minimising the hazard for the operators and the public and
protecting the environment.
b) Limiting the damage to power transformers and to adjacent
apparatus, equipment and building.
c) Minimising the loss of customers service.
A water spray protection is generally preferred for outdoor
installations, predominantly to protect the power transformers, CO
2
for
indoor installations.
Halon is now being phased out of use in many countries because of
its negative effect on the atmosphere.
Smoke detectors (indoor), bimetal, quartzoid bulb detectors and an
independent detecting pipe system with compressed air of 0.25 - 0.8
MPa are the most common fire detecting elements. To prevent an
inadvertent operation of the fire protection system, the use of two
criteria is recommended. For starting the fire fighting system of power
transformers, transformer-protection-relays are also common.
To minimise the risk of fire damage, passive protection measures
should be also taken into account that means measures to prevent a
propagation of fire or to limit damage, e.g. fire barriers between and or
around transformers, fire resistant material etc.

Provision may be made to aid the extinguishing of burning oil under
the transformer, such as :-
a) A 200 - 300mm layer of broken stones on the grid above the
oil-containing pit.
b) A gravel filled pit.
c) A steel or concrete chamber connected to the oil retaining
area by a pipe. E.g. 5 m long by 200mm diameter.
Fire protection of cables in indoor and outdoor HV substations is
usually obtained only by passive protection measures to reduce the
fire propagation - usually fire stops (concrete, steel, mineral wool,
sand, silicone) and / or fire resistant painting. In installing fire barriers
care must be taken to ensure that hot spots are not induced. Power
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and control cables should be installed along separate routes e.g.
separate cable racks or separate trenches.

2. SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION OF MAIN COMPONENTS
2.1 Introduction
When the maximum load currents have been determined, the rated
current of the switching equipment should be selected from the IEC
series. Nowadays we can say that the lowest current rating available
on the market may be over-dimensioned for most purposes especially
in the networks of the developing countries.
The current rating of busbars depends on the scheme. The rated
current of the main busbar is normally chosen to be 1,5 to 3 times
higher than that of the line bays. The physical grouping of the feeders
may affect this choice. Busbars are often over-dimensioned
during the first stage of a substations life, because their
reinforcement later on may be difficult and expensive, and the
additional cost of over-dimensioning is relatively small. The
rating of meshed scheme configurations can be difficult (e.g. 1
circuit breaker) and it is necessary to define which switching
conditions and network contingencies have to be governed, making
allowance for maintenance outage. The nominal current of the by-
pass busbar and coupling bay is at least the same as the highest
rating of any of the circuits that may be connected. The sectionalizing
bay is dimensioned for 50 ... 100 % of the current rating of the
corresponding busbar. Flexible or rigid conductors and connectors
have several standards sizes.
Power transformers have a considerable short-time and continuous
overload capacity especially at low ambient temperatures. On the
other hand switching equipment possesses very little overload
capacity. Therefore, the current rating of the transformer bays should
be some 50 % higher than the rated current of the transformer.

System planning determine the numbers, capacities and future
extension requirements of the compensating equipment. It is to be
noted that according to IEC the current rating of the shunt capacitor
bank switching equipment should be 1,3 times that of the capacitor. It
is also recommended that breakers switching shunt reactors be over-
rated, because of their onerous switching duty.
2.2 General
The common ratings of switchgear and controlgear including their
operating devices and auxiliary equipment should be selected from
the following :-
a) Rated voltages.
b) Rated insulation level.
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c) Rated frequency.
d) Rated normal current.
e) Rated short-time withstand current.
f) Rated peak withstand current
g) Rated duration of short circuit.
h) Rated supply voltage of closing and opening devices and
of auxiliary circuits.
i) Rated supply frequency of closing and opening devices
and of auxiliary circuits.
j) Rated pressure of compressed gas supply for closing and
opening devices.
k) Pollution level.
l) Corona and RIV requirements.
The most important characteristics that require specifying are the
insulation level, the mechanical strength and key dimensions (to
ensure compatibility with other equipment).
Equipment has to be type tested in order to verify its compliance with
the specified ratings.
Note : Other rated characteristics may be necessary and are
specified in the relevant IEC standards.

2.3 Circuit Breaker (See also S.L.D.G. 11)
A circuit breaker is a mechanical switching device, capable of making,
carrying and breaking currents under normal circuit conditions and
also making, carrying for a specified time and breaking currents under
specified abnormal circuit conditions such as those of short-circuit.
The breaking capacity of a circuit breaker is defined by a large
number of parameters. The value of breaking / making current must
be related to the transient recovery voltage (TRV) which depends
mainly on the properties of the circuit to be switched. The shape of
TRV varies at the same point of the network depending upon
switching state (the number, type and load of interconnected bays)
and on the location of the short-circuiting point. These circumstances
give different resonant circuits and the circuit breaker must be able to
break the current in all cases.
The shape of TRV is partially influenced by the circuit breaker itself as
it depends on the deformation of the current waveform immediately
before the interruption. More beneficial conditions are given by
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minimum-oil and SF
6
puffer than by air-blast arc extinction
chambers.
The switching process is considered to give rise to a steep fronted
TRV when the short circuiting point is up to 3 km on the line side of a
circuit breaker. Switching of longer lines may lead to a lower
steepness but higher peak value of TRV, which may threaten the
insulation of switch-gear (see 3.2).
The results of long-term investigations form the basis of type tests
given by IEC Standard 56. However, in particular cases the switching
conditions may be more sever then those given by IEC 56, in which
cases an over-rated circuit breaker may need to be used for lower
current. Some methods of evaluation of breaking capacity under non-
standard TRV conditions have been formulated, but they are not
included in IEC Standards.
The time period between receiving a trip command and current
interrupting or making is very important for the setting of back-up
protection relays. Therefore it influences the requirements of the
current carrying capacity of all switch-gear as well as the dynamic
processes in the EHV network. A longer time can be expected when
breaking current after auto-reclosing on to an uncleared fault.
Circuit breaker types are defined by their interrupting medium and
their drive mechanism.
2.3.1 Interrupting medium
a) Bulk oil
b) Small oil volume.
c) Air blast.

d) SF
6
(or a mixture of SF
6
and Nitrogen for very low
ambient temperatures)
e) Vacuum.
Although other types of circuit breaker may be available, the
present day choice at Transmission Voltages, is generally
SF
6
.
These are grouped in accordance with their arc extinction
chambers as dead tank or live tank.
The majority of circuit-breakers supplied for outdoor open-
terminal substations are of the live tank type in which the
interrupters are housed in porcelain weather-shields on top of
an insulated support column.
A small number however, have interrupters housed in an
earthed metal container with their connections taken out
through porcelain bushings. The benefit of this dead tank
arrangement is that the bushings may be used to house the
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current transformer windings saving the cost of separately
mounted post CTs.
2.3.2 Drive mechanism
There are three types of drive mechanism in common use for
circuit breakers at Transmission Voltages :-
a) Pneumatic - using either a unit compressor or a
compressed air system common to a
complete substation.
b) Hydraulic - using a high pressure oil system in
conjunction with a nitrogen gas or
spring accumulator.
c) Spring - Using a spring charged by an electric
motor.
Any circuit breaker drive must be fitted with an energy storage
device that permits a complete standard cycle of operation
without further input of energy. Usually this is an Open-
Close-Open or a Close-Open sequence. If the circuit
breaker is in the Open position its operation must be
automatically inhibited if there is insufficient stored energy for
a further Close-Open sequence.
IEC 56 clause 8 gives comprehensive details of the selection
of circuit breakers for service in terms of their electrical and
mechanical performance.

2.4 Isolator And Earthing Switches (See also S.L.D.G. 12)
An isolator is a mechanical switching device that provides, in the open
position, an isolating distance in accordance with specified
requirements.
An isolator is capable of opening and closing a circuit when either
negligible current is broken or made, or when no significant change in
the voltage across the terminals of each of the poles of the isolator
occurs. It is also capable of carrying currents under normal circuit
conditions and carrying for a specified time currents under abnormal
conditions such as those of short-circuit.
An earthing switch is a mechanical switching device for earthing parts
of a circuit, capable of withstanding for a specified time currents under
abnormal conditions such as those of short-circuit, but not required to
carry current under normal conditions of the circuit.
There are four types of isolators in common use :-
a) Rotating-End-Post (single arm or double arm)
b) Rotating-Centre-Post
c) Pantograph (vertical and horizontal)
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d) Single Lifting Arm.
The way in which each of these types of disconnector operates has an
important effect on the design of the substation. Three insulation
conditions must be considered when selecting isolators :-
a) phase to earth insulation level
b) phase to phase insulation level
c) pole to pole (open contact) insulation level
The pole to pole insulation level is particularly important in areas
where surge over-voltages can occur across an isolator.
With all these types of isolators except the rotating centre post, the
contacts remain live whether the disconnector is open or closed.
Thus, electrical clearances, have to take into account the volume
swept by the blades of the isolator. Use of rotating-end-posts
isolators, for instance, requires greater phase to phase clearance than
the use of rotating-centre-post isolators.
Another factor which has to be considered is that in the case of
rotating end post and rotating centre post designs, earthing switches
can usually be mounted on the same structure rather than having to
be separately mounted.

At transmission voltages it is usual for disconnectors to be motorised.
Earthing switches may be motorised or operated manually.
In the case of double circuit lines special consideration has to be
given to the interruption of capacitive and inductive loads when the
parallel circuit is energised. The isolator must also be capable of
interrupting and making parallel circuits when transferring load
between main and bypass busbars.
2.5 Surge Protection Device (See also S.L.D.G. 14)
The effectiveness of any surge protection device is very dependent
upon the quality of the earthing system and the geometrical
arrangement of the device. In particular, the wave impedance, the
length of the connection between hot line and earthing system, and
the earth resistance play an important role.
2.5.1 Spark gaps
The spark gap is a surge-protective device that consists of an
open air gap between an energized electrode and an earth
electrode and provides the simplest possible form of surge
protection.
There are several disadvantages to the use of co-ordinating
gaps as a means of surge protection.
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Firstly, if the gap operates, a fault is caused on the system.
Secondly, if the gap is set for positive impulses, the protection
against negative switching impulses is poor at the higher
voltages; thirdly, a higher insulation is generally required if
gaps are installed; lastly, the increasing threshold voltage
causes inadequate protection against steep fronted surges.
2.5.2 Surge arresters
The use of a surge arrester provides superior protection
compared to a co-ordinating gap, and it is not sensitive to
polarity. A big advantage is that a system fault is not caused
by the operation of a surge arrester. The margins between
the protective level and insulation levels of a system are
covered in IEC standard 71.2.
The two types of arrester in common use are gapped silicon
carbide and gapless zinc oxide varieties.
The silicon carbide arrester comprises a stack of silicon
carbide blocks with series gaps. There is some variation in
the voltage at which sparkover occurs, especially for steep
fronted surges the threshold voltage rises.

The zinc oxide arrester is gapless and comprises a stack of
zinc oxide blocks and is, therefore, very simple to construct.
Its characteristic can be set very precisely and unless
temporary over-voltages are relatively high (as non effective
earth system) then it is usually possible to obtain lower
protective levels compared with the gapless types of arrester.
2.5.3 Lightning protection
In most areas it is necessary to ensure protection against
direct lightning stroke and this can be achieved by installing
different types of effectively earthed conductors. Substation
protection is provided by means of vertical rods on top of
support structures or, specially erected masts or protective
conductors may be suspended above the substation.
When interconnected overhead lines are not generally
protected against direct lightning stroke, it is necessary to take
measures to protect the substation. Usually an earthwire
should be installed on each overhead line for a distance of
approximately 3 km from the substation. This measure does
depend, however, on the rated voltage of the system and is
not normally applied to medium voltage distribution networks.
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -15- S.L.D.G. 5-1 / 1
___________________________________________________________________________________
2.6 Instrument Transformers (See also S.L.D.G. 13)
2.6.1 General
Instrument transformers are the devices used to transform the
values of current and voltage in the primary system to values
which are suitable for measuring instruments, meters,
protection relays and other similar apparatus. An essential
property of an instrument transformer is that it isolates primary
voltages from the accessible parts of the secondary system.
Internal insulation is oil-impregnated paper SF
6
or, cast resin.
Traditionally instrument transformers have been either of the
inductive or capacitive type although developments are taking
place using optical fibres.
It is possible to combine the current and voltage transformers
in one housing, but this becomes less practicable at higher
voltages.
2.6.2 Voltage transformers (VT) (See also S.L.D.G. 13-3)
Voltage transformers are either of the capacitor (CVT) or
electromagnetic type.
CVTs are used singly for metering purposes or in three-phase
sets for protection.

Electromagnetic VTs are used when a higher degree of
accuracy than can be provided by a CVT, is required - for
example high accuracy metering, or when no other means of
discharging an overhead line is available.
2.6.3 Current transformers (CT) (See also S.L.D.G. 13-2)
Current transformers are specified by their primary rated
current and their accuracy class which are selected according
to their service requirement.
The rated current of the current transformers should be
selected from the IEC series. Rated currents and ratios
should be selected according to the requirements of
continuous current rating, accuracy and protection. Current
rating can also be extended (120 %, 150 % or 300 %)
When the characteristics of a network are liable to evolve,
multi-ratio CTs are necessary to follow the network evolution.
They require adequate nominal current rating and the ability to
operate protection relays when short-circuit current is at its
minimum.
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -16- S.L.D.G. 5-1 / 1
___________________________________________________________________________________
Usually a number of multi-ratio current transformers are
housed within a single unit to allow for future development and
an increase in circuit loading.
Application of accuracy class is as follows :-
0.1 )
0.2 ) Measurement and
0.5 ) metering
1.0 )
5 ) Protection
10 )
Measurement and metering require a different core from
protection with different accuracy class, secondary power
rating and rated over-current factor.
2.7 Line Traps (See also S.L.D.G. 19-1)
A line trap is an apparatus intended for series insertion into a high-
voltage line and, in conjunction with a coupling capacitor, it forms a
parallel, resonant circuit. Its impedance shall be negligible at the
power frequency so as not to disturb the power transmission, but must
be relatively high over any frequency band appropriate to carrier
transmission.

A line trap consists of a main coil with a protective device and, usually,
a tuning device.
Line traps are used for power line carrier protection and may be
mounted directly on post insulators or CVTs (supported by)
suspension insulator sets.
Note : For operation of power line carrier protection equipment
it is necessary to inject the signal through a capacitor. It
is most economical to use the CVTs for this purpose
rather than to provide a separate capacitor unit.

2.8 Busbars And Connectors (See also S.L.D.G. 6, 9 and 10)
Busbars may be either flexible stranded conductor or of tubular
construction. Aluminium (and its alloys) and copper are the most
commonly used materials.
Connectors may be bolted, welded or crimped or any combination of
these. Fittings should allow for expansion and contraction with
temperature.
Mechanical strength must be considered in addition to the general
ratings described in paragraph 1.5. Aeolian vibration of tubular
conductor can cause fatigue failure and steps may need to be taken to
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -17- S.L.D.G. 5-1 / 1
___________________________________________________________________________________
limit this, for example, stranded conductor laid inside a tubular busbar
is often a very effective damper or special clamps with built-in
dampers may be used. Bi-mitallic joints require special construction
and jointing techniques to prevent corrosion. All busbars, fittings and
joints should be designed to mechanically avoid the ingress of
moisture and electrically to avoid corona discharge.
2.9 Post Insulators
A post insulator consists of one post insulator unit or an assembly of
such units and is intended to give rigid support to a live part which is
to be insulated from earth or from another live part.
The dimensions of post insulators have been standardised and details
are given in IEC standard 273. The testing requirements are given in
IEC standard 168.
2.10 High Voltage Cables
In some circumstances it will be necessary that connections into, out
of, and within a substation will be by means of underground cables.
For example within an urban area where overhead line entries are not
possible or in order to connect a particular circuit to a particular
section of the substation.
Cables have to be terminated in sealing ends which act mechanically
to retain the cable and seal the cable oil zone.

2.11 Earthing Grid (See Also S.L.D.G. 8)
The earthing grid comprises conductors that are buried in the ground
in the substation and is complemented, in some cases, by conductors
that are above ground.
The conductors in the ground are buried in the form of a grid at a
depth of about 0,5 - 1,0 metres and designed to limit conductor
temperature and, touch and step voltages to the maximum allowable
values under specific fault conditions.
Earth rods may be driven into the ground around the perimeter of the
earthing grid and are bonded to the grid. The quantity and length of
the earth rods will depend upon the resistivity of the soil. Additional
earth rods are sometimes required immediately below (or adjacent to)
certain items of equipment such as capacitor voltage transformers and
surge arrestors.
The buried grid is usually made of copper rod or copper strip and the
earth rods of copper-covered steel, although other materials such as
galvanised steel and cast iron may be used. In order to avoid electro-
technical reaction the copper strip may be coated with a thin layer of
zinc or tin. For the same reason stranded conductors should be
avoided.
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DECEMBER 2001 -18- S.L.D.G. 5-1 / 1
___________________________________________________________________________________
All main parts of structures and dead parts of equipment are bonded
to the earthing grid as well as the neutral points of primary
equipments.
Where there are conductive pipelines, railway lines or other similar
items, special attention must be paid to earthing in order to prevent
the transmission of earth current leading to a rise in ground potential
outside the substation.
If there are telephone lines or a low-voltage network in the
neighbourhood their protection against ground potential rise may
cause considerable extra costs. The most effective way to limit the
potential, would be to use shield wires with good conductivity.
The layout of the earthing grid also has an effect on transient ground
potential rise phenomena.
2.12 Power Transformers And Compensating Equipment
2.12.1 General
Plant that is intended to alter voltage or frequency, or
influence the power factor of transmitted energy, is considered
to form part of a substation. The rating of such equipment
however, is different from that which may apply to other
switch-gear in that the main parameter is the total power
handling capacity of the unit.

The specification of this power rating is dependent upon the
total required power, the cyclic nature of this power
requirement and the policy of the utility on reserve capacity.
It is usually economic to use units of the same rating within a
substation but in certain individual cases this may be
unnecessary for example if a utility has determined to use a
particular standard rating or if individual circuits have differing
requirements.
2.12.2 Power transformers (See also S.L.D.G. 15)
Power transformers are usually of the two-winding type.
However when both HV and MV systems have similar earthing
factors, and it is not necessary to limit the earth-fault current at
the MV side due to interference or potential rise problems,
auto-transformers are often used. As a cost saving measure,
the insulation level of the main transformers are designed to
be lower than that of other equipment, depending upon the
effectness of the over-voltage protection.
The capacity of transformers is usually decided by system
requirements and it is necessary to specify this together with
the general ratings given in paragraph 1.3.
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DECEMBER 2001 -19- S.L.D.G. 5-1 / 1
___________________________________________________________________________________
Transformers may be designed with all three phases in a
common tank or as three, separate, single-phase units.
In general it is only economic to choose single phase unit if
there are transport problems or if it is important to replace a
failed transformer by a spare unit very quickly.
The single phase units are easier to transport and install but
transformation losses will be greater than in the case of a
three phase unit. Additionally, three separate foundations are
necessary; more space will be required and, depending on the
fire fighting philosophy, extra barrier walls are often installed
between the single phase transformers.
2.12.3 Compensating equipment
There are several forms of compensating equipment :-
2.12.3.1 Synchronous compensators
Comprising a variably exited small
synchronous machine.
2.12.3.2 Shunt reactors (See also S.L.D.G. 16)
Comprising mechanically switched shunt
reactors which may be installed on the tertiary

winding of a system transformer or connected
directly to the grid system
2.12.3.3 Mechanically switched capacitors (shunt
connected)
May be installed on transformer tertiaries or
connected directly to a grid system for local
voltage control purposes.
2.12.3.4 Series capacitors (See also S.L.D.G. 17)
Used in conjunction with long transmission
lines.
2.12.3.5 Static VAR compensation (SVC) (See also
S.L.D.G. 18)
Comprising thyristor-controlled reactors (TCR),
thyristor switched capacitors and harmonic
filters. SVCs are usually connected directly to
their own discrete transformers.
The type of compensation required will usually
be determined by the system planners but it
should be noted that switching compensating
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -20- S.L.D.G. 5-1 / 1
___________________________________________________________________________________
devices imposes an unusually onerous duty on
the circuit breaker.

3. SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION OF AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
3.1 A.C. Supplies
A.C. supplies provide energy for drivers, compressors, charging
batteries, lighting and heating. Usually two independent sources of
supply are used with 100 % redundancy and automatic emergency
switching. It should be noted that external supplies tend to be less
reliable than sources fed through a station transformer from the main
substation circuit. If supplies are taken from the MV network it should
be ascertained that there is a degree of independence from the HV
substation itself.
A secure supply of up to 20 kVA e.g. for a transformer tap-changer,
can be provided by D.C. - A.C. invertors from the batteries. Figure 4
gives an example of the LVAC supplies for a substation.

3.2 Diesel Generation
Diesel generators are used to provide a back-up LV supply in
important substations for loads up to about 800 kVA and are activiated
automatically in the event of failure of the main LVAC supply (or
supplies).
A diesel generator would be designed to provide energy for the
essential components of the substation for a specified period of time
(usually the estimated time it will take to restore the main supply).
The components considered to be essential may vary from substation
to substation and may include circuit-breaker drives (or charging of
their energy source), charging of batteries, operation of isolators,
cooling of transformers and emergency lighting.
3.3 D.C. Supplies
Lead Acid batteries providing energy for a minimum specified period
of time (usually 2 - 3 hours - based upon the time it will take for an
engineer to reach the site and the time it may take to remedy the fault)
connected in parallel to the load, are fed by chargers. In case of
failure of the AC charge voltage, the batteries take over the load. DC
voltage up to 60 V is provided for remote control and communication,
up to 220 V for emergency light, operation of switch-gear, etc.
Traditionally batteries were kept in separate room(s) with proper
ventilation; heated if necessary as the capacity falls by 1 %
o
C below
20
o
C.
Nowadays leak-proof cells are available and these may be placed
indoors adjacent to LV equipment without taking any special
precautions.
___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -21- S.L.D.G. 5-1 / 1
___________________________________________________________________________________
The servicing and maintenance schedules for batteries should be
adhered to closely in order that full capacity under emergency
conditions is retained.
___________________________________________________________________________________
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DECEMBER 2001 -23- S.L.D.G. 5-1 / 1
___________________________________________________________________________________

3.4 Compressed Air System
Compressed air systems provide pneumatic power for circuit breaker
drives and is the extinguishing medium for air blast circuit breakers.
In the case of small plant, air is compressed on demand at service
pressure but normally is stored at a level much higher than service
pressure and is reduced directly at the device supplied; for indoor
plant a central facility is common.
To avoid humidity problems at service pressure level, a ratio of at
least 5 : 1 for storage pressure to service pressure is recommended;
this is designed to cover temperature falls of 20 K within a
temperature range of - 35
o
C to + 50
o
C.
4. SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION OF SECONDARY EQUIPMENT
4.1 General
The term secondary equipment covers protection-, control- and
measuring circuits.
5. COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN (See also S.L.D.G. 23)
With todays Computer Aided Design (CAD), the emphasis is moving very
much towards the conceptual ability of the system.
The term CAD includes not only a sophisticated drawing ability but an
advanced system capable of processing and analysis on a conceptual level.
The drawing function is a tool used in the creation and manipulation of graphic
entities, to furnish a hard copy of drawings created by computer.
One of its greatest assets is that objects which are frequently used on
drawings can be stored in a library and recalled when required; thus saving
time at the creation stage.
This tool lends itself quite readily to substation design as this is a matter of
repetition of structures and modules. Thus elements and also the grouping of
elements to form bays may readily be stored in the library.
Even more time can be saved when, in working to create a new drawing, one
only has to change an existing drawing. However, this requires a certain
minimum of standardisation.
In enhancing and adding to the simple drawing facility the ability to process
and manipulate simple graphics can be developed in to a Design Package
which may include :-
a) Automatic verification of electrical clearances,
b) Verification of the conformity of the earthing grid,

___________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -24- S.L.D.G. 5-1 / 1
___________________________________________________________________________________
c) Dimensional calculations,
d) Automatic calculation of a substation inventory (listing of constituent
components) or even determination of the overall construction cost of
the particular substation.

6. COMMISSIONING
Commissioning covers all the measures that need to be taken on-site in order
to assure the correct functioning of both single components of equipment and
the substation as a whole. Beside the type tests, routine tests, and sample
tests in the factory, additional tests on-site may be necessary; these tests
ensure the specifications of the equipment are met and serve to detect any
damage caused by transportation, shipping, or erection which may modify the
characteristics.
In general, all installations that have to be erected on site are subject to
commissioning tests. This involves both providing the wiring that provides
remote control, signalling and measurement, and also testing the HV
equipment. One example is the gas-insulated substation, which, after
erection is subject to various commissioning tests, the most important of
which is the high voltage test.
Typical examples of commissioning tests are :-
a) Checking of wiring, contact travel diagram of breaker and switches.
b) Duty cycle and hot spot checking for each bay, test of proper
operation of remote control, signalling and measurement.
c) Checking of electrical clearances and conductor sag.
d) Insulation tests if required, (especially for GIS).
Commissioning tests are the most important quality assurance instrument
when an installation is transferred to the user after erection. The extent of
tests, the responsibilities, and the procedure of repair or correction in case of
detected defects is subject to agreement between the companies concern.

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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 6-0 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 6 - 0
BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS
INDEX

S.L.D.G. 6 - 1 1 SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS
1. General
1.1 Single Busbar Arrangements
1.2 Double And Triple Busbar Arrangements
1.3 Double Circuit Breaker And 1 Circuit
Breaker Arrangements
1.4 Mesh Arrangements
1.5 Single And Three Switch Arrangements
2. Service Continuity
3. Choice Of Switching Arrangements
4. Busbar Arrangements Employed By Eskom.
4.1 Double Busbar
4.1.1 By-passes
4.1.2 Optimising the busbar configuration
4.1.3 Improving the reliability of supplies -
planning level ranking
4.1.4 3-Busbar arrangement
4.1.5 Hybrid 3-busbar arrangement
S.L.D.G. 6 - 2

STATIC AND DYNAMIC STRESS ON TUBULAR
CONDUCTOR BUSBAR SYSTEMS
1. Introduction
1.1 Single Busbar Arrangements
1.2 Double And Triple Busbar Arrangements
1.3 Double Circuit Breaker And 1 Circuit
Breaker Arrangements
1.4 Mesh Arrangements
1.5 Single And Three Switch Arrangements

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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 6-0 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 6 - 2
(Continued)

S.L.D.G. 6 - 2
2. Electromagnetic Short Circuit Forces
(Theoretical Analysis)
3. Parametric Studies
4. Combined Forces And Their Effect On The
Support (Steel Structure And Porcelain
Insulator) And Tubular Conductors
4.1 Static Forces
4.2 Dynamic Forces
4.2.1 Stresses in the tubular conductor
4.2.2 Deflection of the tubular conductor
4.2.3 Forces acting on the support system
5. Dimensioning Of A Rigid Tubular Conductor
System Complete With Sample Calculations
6. Example
6.1 Static Forces
6.2 Dynamic Forces
6.2.1 Reference force per unit length
6.2.2 Kappa factor
6.2.3 Peak force on centre phase
6.2.4 Mechanical frequency
6.2.5 Ratio of mechanical frequency
6.2.6 Dynamic factors
6.2.7 Static forces
6.2.8 Dynamic forces
6.2.9 Mass of tubular conductor
6.2.10 Wind force on tubular conductor
6.2.11 Resultant force
6.2.12 Bending moment at the base of the
post insulator
6.2.12 Bending moment at the base of the
support structure
6.3 Tubular Conductor System
6.2.1 Short circuit forces per unit length
6.2.2 Mass per unit length
6.2.3 Wind load per unit length
6.2.4 Resultant forces
6.2.5 Section modulus
6.2.6 Static stress
6.2.7 Dynamic stress including ARC
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__________________________________________________________________________________
(Continued) 6.2.8 Maximum deflection
7. References

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DECEMBER 2001
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____________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 6-1
SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS
1. GENERAL - VIEWPOINTS FOR THE CHOICE OF SWITCHING
ARRANGEMENTS
Substations / switching stations have the task to guarantee the highest possible
security of supply for all consumers of the network. Faulty network sections
should be disconnected as fast as possible and the supply renewed by change-
over switchings. The switching layout of a station must therefore be matched to
the network configuration.
In meshed networks that have a subordinated meshed network, the failure of a
distribution station for example, does not result in a supply interruption. For
such stations a particularly large expenditure for the switching layout is not
necessary. On the other hand in pure radial networks, all load-side connected
consumers would be simultaneously interrupted if the feeder station breaks
down. It is further to be considered whether the network has chiefly double or
single-line circuits. For the case of single-line circuits the security of the
feeders must be particularly heeded, with the possible installation of an auxiliary
(bypass) busbar.
Further influencing factors for the switching layout selection are :-
i) The possibility of network division e.g. to reduce the short circuit power.
ii) The sensitivity of the consumers to supply interruptions.
iii) The mutual influence of the consumers by voltage fluctuations (stations
up to 33 kV).
iv) The number of the various high supply-voltages, regulated, unregulated
- as well as somewhat higher voltages for remote consumers (stations
up to 33 kV).
The guidance given in this section cannot be exhaustive but gives a choice
between a number of the more commonly encountered arrangements. The
continuity of service under fault and maintenance conditions for switching
arrangements is categorized.
Figure 1 shows some commonly used switching arrangements. In a substation,
flexibility can be achieved by the introduction of sectionalization of the busbars
or by using different arrangements.
More than one of the examples shown in Figure 1 may be used on the same
site but at different voltage levels.
It should also be noted that the choice of isolator used (see S.L.D.G. 12) may
influence the switching arrangement chosen.
In Figure 1 earthing switches have been omitted for clarity.

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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 6-1 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

A B C
D
E F
G H1
H2
I J
Denotes connection to
transformer or feeder
Circuit Breaker
Isolator

Figure 1 : Typical Switching Arrangement
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DECEMBER 2001
-3-
S.L.D.G. 6-1 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

Considering the above influences on choice, the following provides suggestions
regarding the application of the individual switching arrangements shown in
Figure 1.
1.1 Single Busbar Arrangements : A, B And F
Single busbar arrangements are more commonly used for HV / MV
substations.
Single busbar with transfer busbar, and single busbar installations
connected as a ring of substations, offers improved flexibility but limited
system security.
These arrangements have little security against busbar faults, little
switching flexibility, and involve fairly extensive outages for busbar and
busbar disconnector maintenance.
1.1.1 Single busbar
See Figure 2.
1.1.1.1 Features
i) Good overall view; therefore little danger of
incorrect switching on part of operator
ii) Low cost (approximately 83 % referred to a 132
kV station in in-line arrangement with double
busbar)
iii) Small operational flexibility; with faults or station
overhauls the complete station must be
disconnected
iv) Disturbance localizing and additional possibilities
of group operation and network division is
achieved with busbar sectionalizer
1.1.1.2 Application
i) Distribution- and transformer-stations (Figure 2
(b), points 2, 3, 4) when the security of supply for
the consumers can be achieved by means of
change-over switchings
ii) Points in the network for which an uninterrupted
supply is not necessary
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Figure 2 : Single Busbar Arrangement
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The medium voltage network (Figure 2 (b), 22 kV) is expediently
divided into island networks. In case of a meshing and of the
division of a 132 kV cable, high equalizing currents in the
medium-voltage network, and thereby undesired trippings, can
occur.
1.1.2 Auxiliary (bypass) busbar

Figure 3 : Auxiliary (Bypass) Busbar

1.1.2.1 Features
i) The possibility of switching any circuit breaker
without voltage and without disconnection of the
relevant feeder-branch. High security of supply
ii) Through-connection of feeder-branches without
circuit breaker and without use of main busbar
iii) Slightly higher costs than for an additional busbar
system (approximately 104 % referred to a 132 kV
station in in-line arrangement with double
busbars)
iv) With multiple busbars coupling circuit breaker can
also serve as reserve circuit breaker
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1.1.2.2 Range of application
i) For network points in which a high security of
supply is required (when, for example, single-
circuit lines are predominantly present)
ii) In connection with multiple busbars for localities
with heavy air pollution, when cleaning would
result in frequent unwanted disconnections
1.1.2.3 Special remarks
The current transformers in the transformer feeders are
expediently arranged between the transformer and the
isolator TA (Feeder A) so that they remain in the current
flow during reserve circuit breaker operation. In this way
the protection which is adjusted for the transformer can
easily be changed over to the reserve circuit breaker.
Provided that the lines are not of varying length the
current transformers for the line feeder-branches are
most suitably placed as shown in feeder-branch 'D'. The
current transformers can then be switched under no-
voltage conditions. An additional distance protection
adjusted to the average length of the lines is co-ordinated
with the reserve circuit breaker. In connection with the
double busbar the auxiliary (bypass) busbar offers a large
security against supply interruptions. Almost all parts of
the installation can, if necessary, be consequently
switched without voltage and without interruptions to the
supply.
1.1.2.4 Auxiliary (bypass) busbar for the line feeder-branches
only
In large transformer stations, it is frequently expedient to
additionally provide a complete transformer feeder-
branch for reserve purposes. In these cases, it is
sufficient to co-ordinate the auxiliary (bypass) busbar with
the line feeder-branch. Moreover, in the case that the
line feeder-branches all leave the busbar in the one
direction, smaller costs are involved than for an additional
busbar system. In connection with a single busbar, this
solution is often technically more advantageous than a
double busbar.
1.2 Double And Triple Busbar Arrangements : C And D
The double or triple busbar (double busbar with a transfer busbar)
arrangement is used for large substations where security of supply is
important. These are particularly suitable for highly inter-connected
power networks in which switching flexibility is important and multiple

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supply routes are available. They are also used for splitting networks
that are only connected in emergency cases.
Circuits are lost during circuit breaker and instrument transformer
maintenance and repairs in arrangement D. When a by-pass facility is
used as in arrangement C, permanent interconnection of the circuit can
be maintained during most maintenance work. It may also be possible
to use the by-pass connection after a failure but the possible
coincidence of failure during maintenance should be considered.
1.2.1 Double busbar
See Figure 4.
1.2.1.1 Features
i) Freedom to choose desired switching connections
and uninterrupted division of all feeder-branches
into two groups for disturbance localizing and
network division
ii) A "loose coupling" between the two network
halves makes possible the use of a lower rated
feeder-branch circuit breaker. Only the coupling
circuit breaker is dimensioned for the full short-
circuit capacity. On occurrence of a disturbance,
the coupling circuit breaker receives a tripping
signal from a fast over-current relay and
separates the networks before the feeder-branch
circuit breaker trips
iii) Maintenance of a busbar without supply
interruption to the feeder-branches, that are
connected to the other busbar during the
maintenance time
iv) For maintenance on feeder-branch equipment the
relevant feeder-branch must be disconnected.
Should the appropriate construction be provided,
the coupling circuit breaker can be used in
conjunction with the second busbar as a
temporary feeder-branch circuit breaker. For this
purpose, the equipment is bridged by a stranded
conductor

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Figure 4 : Double Busbar
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1.2.1.2 Applications
i) Extensive junction-points of the network
1.2.2 Triple busbar

Figure 5 : Triple Busbar

1.2.2.1 Features
i) Large operational flexibility
ii) Poor overall view and hence increased danger of
incorrect switching on the part of the operator
iii) High costs (approximately 110 % of a 132 kV
station in in-line arrangement with double busbar)
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1.2.2.2 Applications
i) Only in exceptional cases in which continuous
group operation with freedom to choose desired
switching connections of the feeder-branches is
required. The third busbar system is then free for
maintenance purposes. Extensive network
coupling points and installations of large power
stations
1.2.3 By-pass isolator system
See Figure 6.
1.2.3.1 Features
A feeder-branch can remain in service during
maintenance. The protection must be taken over by the
next system-side circuit breaker. Load break in place of
the by-pass isolators make possible the switching of idle
lines and transformers
In connection with double busbar the coupling circuit
breaker can serve as reserve circuit breaker
1.2.3.2 Application
In connection with single busbars for medium and small
installations; less frequently in connection with double
busbars
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Figure 6 : Bypass Isolator System
1.3 Double Circuit Breaker And 1 Circuit Breaker Arrangement :
E And G
The double circuit breaker and 1 circuit breaker arrangements are
particularly suitable for substations handling large amounts of power,
such as those associated with generating stations, and for networks
which comprise mainly radial circuits with few mesh connections.
It should be noted that to cover all contingencies of switching, the circuit
breakers and associated equipment in arrangement G should be
capable of handling the combined load current of two circuits.
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1.3.1 Double circuit breaker system

Figure 7 : Double Circuit Breaker System
1.3.1.1 Features
i) Very large security of supply for the whole
installation
ii) Selective disconnection of busbar faults without
supply interruptions in so far as the busbars are in
parallel operation
iii) With parallel operated busbars and automatic
reclosing the two circuit breakers must be
synchronously switched
iv) Very high investment costs (approximately 160 %
referred to a 132 kV station with double busbar in
in-line arrangement)
1.3.1.2 Application
i) Very important network junction points
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1.3.2 1 Circuit Breaker System

Figure 8 : 1 Circuit Breaker System
1.3.2.1 Features
i) One reserve circuit breaker is provided for each 2
feeder branches
ii) Selective disconnection of faults in the station in
so far as the busbars are operated in parallel (all
circuit breakers closed)
iii) With parallel operated busbars and automatic
reclosing the two circuit breakers must be
synchronously switched
iv) Many circuit breakers and isolators must be rated
for double the feeder-branch current
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v) Costly construction and bad overall view, danger
of incorrect switching on part of operator
vi) High investment costs (approximately 125 %
referred to 132 kV station with double busbars in
in-line arrangement)
1.3.2.2 Application
i) Network points with a high demand for security
1.4 Mesh Arrangements : H1 And H2
The mesh arrangements are particularly suited to applications where
maximum security against busbar faults and minimum outage for
maintenance is required.
It should be noted that equipment in the ring connections of the mesh
must be capable of carrying the maximum load current that may occur
due to any switching contingency.
Additionally, mesh arrangements are not readily extensible.
1.4.1 Ring busbar
See Figure 9.
1.4.1.1 Features
i) Saving of a spare circuit breaker as opposed to
the single busbar system with auxiliary (bypass)
busbar. Otherwise same features
ii) When the current transformers are situated within
the ring (usual arrangement), almost the entire
installation is covered by the protection range of
the feeder-branches. Only the short line between
the current transformer and the pertinent circuit
breaker lies outside the protection. However, for
the case of a current transformer on each side of
the circuit breaker, an over-reaching protection is
possible
iii) Features of multiple busbar systems cannot be
attained (network division)
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Figure 9 : Ring Busbar
iv) With open ring and additional disconnection of a
feeder-branch circuit breaker, other feeder-
branches can unwantedly lose supply voltage.
For this reason, this system is limited to 4 feeder-
branches or otherwise a multiple polygon must be
installed
v) Poor overall view of the construction and of the
current flow
vi) The equipment in the ring must be rated to the
higher ring current (approximately double the
feeder-branch current)
vii) Insertion of summation current transformers for
determination of the feeder-branch currents.
Synchronous switching of 2 circuit breakers is
necessary with or without automatic re-closing
(increase of probability of circuit breaker
malfunction)

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1.4.1.2 Application
i) Small installations and less frequently as multiple
polygon for large installations
1.5 Single And Three Switch Arrangements : I And J
The single and 3 switch arrangements have limited application and are
mainly suited to a ring system of supply feeding bulk supply points
consisting of duplicate transformers or banks of transformers.
1.6 Draw-out Breaker System
The fact that most accidents in switching installations arise from faulty
isolator switching led to the development of installations without
isolators (up to 132 kV).

Figure 10 : Draw-Out Breaker System

1.6.1 Features
i) Deletion of the isolators. Circuit breaker contains
contacts and is mobile. Simple mechanical interlocks
positively prevent faulty travel of the circuit breaker.
ii) Smaller ground areas and space requirements
(particularly important for indoor installations).
iii) Short interruption times on loss of equipment because of
the available spare circuit breaker.
iv) Limited to 132 kV.
v) Double busbars require 2 circuit breakers per feeder-
branch when it is required that a busbar change over be
remotely controlled. In this case high investment costs
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1.6.2 Application
i) Primarily indoor installations with single busbars
1.7 Installation Of Earthing Switches

Figure 11 : Installation Of Earthing Switches
1.7.1 Features
i) Great safety for personnel
ii) Increased security of supply. Interlocking against closing
onto parts still earthed
iii) Shortening of the out-of-service time during maintenance
and repair
iv) Increase of investment costs
1.7.2 Application
In networks with low-ohmic star point earthing and in particular
for outdoor installations.
1.7.3 Special remarks
In networks with low-ohmic star points earthing, high earth short
circuit currents arise even with single pole fault. An earthing with
movable earthing set of parts carrying voltage by mistake leads
to an accident with fatal results for the participant being
probable. Furthermore, disturbances in the installation are
produced. This problem becomes particularly acute in outdoor
installations because no suitable voltage tester can be supplied
that is suitable for installation under all atmospheric conditions.

2. SERVICE CONTINUITY
When choosing a specific switching arrangement, one of the prime
considerations should be the effect of the loss of plant due to fault conditions or
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for maintenance. Such effects may include loss of Generating Plant, loss of
transmission and loss of supply to customers.
In all the examples given, if line or transformer faults or maintenance (of e.g.
line isolator, instrument transformers or line traps) are considered, continuity
cannot be maintained on the effected circuits. Apart from these limitations, a
measure of service continuity can be maintained.
Reliability calculations for schemes are complex and the following information is
given to allow a quantitative assessment of the effects of repair or maintenance
outage.
An assessment of the continuity that can be obtained from any example in
Figure 1 has been categorized as follows and shown in Table 1.

Category 1 : No outage necessary within the substation for either
maintenance or fault.
Note : Category 1 necessitates no system outage but
does not necessarily provide a secure supply
(i.e. continuity of supply) for single faults, even if
these are limited to busbar and circuit breaker
faults.
Category 2 : Short outage (maximum approximately 4 hours) necessary
to transfer the load to an alternative circuit for maintenance
or fault.
Category 3 : Loss of circuit or section until the repair is completed
Category 4 : Loss of substation.

In situations where a fault occurs when maintenance is in progress on other
equipment, the above categories do not apply. Under these conditions the
probability of a split in the network can increase rapidly, especially in the
polygonal arrangements.
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Table 1. Analysis Of Service Continuity
Ref. Type of arrangement Service continuity category
CIRCUIT BREAKER
area
Busbar area
A Single busbar 3 4
B Single busbar with bus
section C.B.
3 3
C Double busbar with by-pass
facilities.
2 2
(see Note 1)
D Double busbar without by-
pass facilities.
3
(see Note 2)
2
(see Note 1)
E Double busbar with double
CIRCUIT BREAKER
1 or 2 1
F Single busbar with transfer
bar
2
(see Note 1)
4
G Double busbar with 1
CIRCUIT BREAKER
1 or 2
(see Note 1)
1
H Mesh 1 or 2 Not applicable
I 3 switch with by-pass 1 or 2 Not applicable
J 1 switch with by-pass 1 or 2 Not applicable

Note 1 : To achieve these stated categories, a bus coupler switch must
be included.
Note 2 : Category 2 applies when facilities are provided to transfer the
protection of a feeder bay to the bus-coupler bay.
Note 3 : Category 1 applies for maintenance conditions. Category 2
applies for fault conditions.

3. CHOICE OF SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS
In addition to the functions of a substation previously considered in this section
choice of switching arrangements may be influenced by:-
a) The level of skill and experience of operating staff
b) The future growth and development of the supply system
c) Economy in the early stages of development
d) The ease of facilitating future extensions
e) Duplication of circuits to give alternative supply routes
f) Amount of power to be transmitted
g) Strategic importance of the circuits
h) The service continuity of other significant parts of the network
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j) The reliability, both of the substation as a whole, and the individual
components within the substation
k) The standardization policy of the organisation
l) Maintenance requirements and techniques
m) National regulations (for example whether or not it is permissible to
operate an isolator remotely to change a particular switching
arrangement without personal verification)

4. BUSBAR ARRANGEMENTS EMPLOYED BY ESKOM FOR THE MAIN
TRANSMISSION SYSTEM (MTS)
4.1. Double Busbar
In a double busbar system, the circuits can normally be selected via
isolators to either busbar, shown schematically in Figure 1. On load
transfer from one busbar to the other is possible when a bus coupler
forms part of the yard arrangement.
B/B B/B
RWB BWR

Figure 1 : Double Busbar Selection
The busbar phasing convention used by Eskom is shown in Figure 2,
with the outer phases of the two bars being the Red phase and the
inner phases being the Blue phase.

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R W B B W R

Figure 2 : Busbar Phasing Convention

4.1.1 By-passes
For economic reasons, single-line radial supplies are becoming
more popular and with this has come an increasing demand for
by-pass facilities which permit maintenance, particularly of the
circuit breaker, to be carried out without the need for a complete
shut-down of the circuit. So called single busbar selection with
by-pass is shown schematically in Figure 3. The feeder is shown
to be on bypass through the bus coupler, all other circuits in the
station being connected to the running bus (Busbar No. 1). If a
fault occurs on the by-passed line, it must be detected, and
clearance should preferably be effected discriminantly. To rely
on the system back-up protection for these faults is inviting a
major shut-down and cannot be accepted at stations supplying
large important loads with perhaps one or two single line
supplies to small customers.
To overcome this problem, various alternatives are possible, but
the simplest solution is to position the current transformers on
the line side of the line and by-pass isolators so that the normal
protection remains in service at all times. All that is then
necessary is for the trip circuit to be diverted to a suitable
breaker, preferably a bus coupler. Figure 3 shows the line on
by-pass through the bus coupler so that operation of the line
protection trips the bus coupler breaker and so clears the fault.

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B/B 1 B/B 2
P

Figure 3 : Single Busbar Selection With
By-Pass
Busbars are by convention always labelled with the By-pass
busbar as the No. 2 Busbar and the normal Running busbar
as the No. 1 Busbar, as illustrated in Figure 3.
Important lines may be provided with double busbar selection
with by-pass in which case the same criteria for labelling busbars
as used in the previous example, still apply. This arrangement is
shown schematically in Figure 4.
PG. OR IN-LINE
ISOLATOR

Figure 4 : Double Busbar Selection With
By-Pass
4.1.2 Optimising the busbar configuration
To introduce the concept of optimising the busbar arrangement,
we consider first a double busbar scheme to which two feeders
and two transformers are connected (see Figure 5).

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T1 T2
F1 F2 B/C
ZONE 2
ZONE 1
B/B 2
B/B 1

Figure 5 : A Typical Double Busbar Arrangement With 2
x Trfrs And 2 x Feeders
The bays should typically be selected onto the busbars in the
way illustrated in Figure 5, the isolators marked being closed,
resulting in a feeder and a transformer pair selected onto a
separate zone of busbar, so that in the event of one zone
faulting, the other zone would still be able to maintain supply.
This arrangement therefore provides a single busbar
contingency. The loss of the second busbar would therefore
obviously result in the loss of the station.
It is current policy that each transformer that is introduced to a
busbar system, should be selected onto its own section, or
zone of busbar. The introduction of a third transformer to the
above arrangement would therefore require a bus section to be
introduced, usually on busbar No. 1. A second bus coupler is
normally also introduced in order to complete the circuit, and so
prevent the splitting of the two busbar systems.
B/B 2
B/B 1
T1
F1 B/CA
T2
F2
T3
B/CB
ZONE 2
ZONE 1
B/S
ZONE 3
F3
(Future)

Figure 6 : A Typical Double Busbar Arrangement With 3
x Trfrs

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Figures 5 and 6 are both arrangements with a Planning Level 2
ranking i.e. there are as many sections of busbar as there are
transformers. This implies that a section of busbar can be
removed from service for maintenance purposes by selecting all
bays from the busbar to be maintained, to the adjacent busbar.
This, however, results in two transformers and all the related
feeders to be selected onto a single busbar. A busbar fault in
this case would probably result in the total loss of the station, as
one transformer would not be able to transform the required
load.
4.1.3 Improving the reliability of supplies - planning level ranking
Where it is absolutely necessary to ensure supplies to important
customers e.g. petroleum (Sasol) and smelter (Alusaf) industries,
busbar arrangements which allow alternative busbar selections
with transformers remaining on dedicated sections of busbar,
can be realized. This results in a station with a Planning Level
1 ranking i.e. there is one section of busbar more than there are
transformers.
In the case of a two transformer station, three sections of busbar
would be required, (see Figure 7).
F2
T1
F1 B/CA
B/B 2
B/B 1
T2
B/CB
B/S

Figure 7 : A Two Transformer Arrangement With A
Planning Level 1 Ranking.
Transformer T2 and Feeder F2 can, for example, be selected
either onto Busbar 1 or 2 and still result in an arrangement where
there is a circuit breaker between T1 and T2 i.e. they are still
selected onto their own section of busbar. The additional cost
over and above a planning level 2 arrangement is that of a bus
section and a second bus coupler. (See Figure 5).
A three transformer arrangement could have two possibilities.
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OPTION 1 : Bus Sections in The Same Busbar.
B/B 2
B/B 1
T1
B/C A F2 F1 F3
B/S 2
B/S 1
B/B
ISOL 1
B/B
ISOL 2
B/C B

Figure 8 : Bus Sections In The Same Busbar.
This arrangement is used particularly at power stations where
busbar 1 is the normal running busbar, and busbar 2, the by-
pass or hospital busbar.
To enable even greater flexibility, busbar isolators are included in
the by-pass busbar to be able to cut down on the extent to which
sections of busbar are removed for maintenance purposes.
OPTION 2 : Bus Sections in Opposite Busbars
B/B 2
B/B 1
T1
B/CA F2 F1 F3
B/S 2
B/S 1
B/B
ISOL 2
B/B
ISOL 1
B/CB

Figure 9 : Bus Sections In Opposite Busbars

This arrange allows slightly greater flexibility in that a variety of
options of selection of transformer / feeder pairs are available to
the operator. Busbar 2 would, however, still remain as the
bypass busbar. Busbar isolators, as in the previous option, add

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additional flexibility when maintenance on busbars or busbar
associated equipment has to be carried out.
In both options 1 and 2, the removal of any one busbar from
service for maintenance, still result in a transformer / feeder pair
being selected onto a separate section, or zone of busbar, with
at least one circuit breaker separating it from other pairs.
Both options 1 and 2 can be extended to cater for multiple
transformer / feeder pairs, by adding bus sections.
4.1.4 3-Busbar arrangement
Prior to the invention of the pantograph isolator, it was necessary
to employ a three busbar system to be able to obtain double
busbar selection with bypass on the more important substations
viz. 400 kV. Two of the busbars were used as normal running
busbars, with the third busbar, named the Transfer busbar,
installed to be able to carry out maintenance on the feeder circuit
breakers.
B/B1
B/B2
TxB/B
T1 T2 T3
B/C A
F1 F2 F3
TxB/B
B/C B

Figure 10 : Three Busbar System

Selecting any one of the feeders onto the transfer busbar
requires the transfer bus coupler (TX B/C) to brought into
service. The transfer bus coupler can be selected onto either
B/B 1 or B/B 2 via the busbar isolators. This system is
cumbersome and expensive, especially if the telecommunication
equipment (line traps and capacitor voltage transformers) are in-
board i.e. behind the transfer isolator. The telecoms settings
have to continuously be changed with the change in feeders that
go onto bypass. This leaves room for errors to arise and is
therefore not used in the design of new substations. It is in any
case a far more expensive option than the normal two busbar
arrangement.
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4.1.5 Hybird 3-busbar arrangement
There may be instances where a three busbar system is
required, especially where there are space and cost constraints.
In fact, this system is just a modified two busbar system with one
busbar wrapping around the other (see Figure 11).
B/S
T1
T2
T3
F1 F2 F3 F4
B/B 1 (No 1-Busbar 1)
B/B 2
B/B 3 (No 1-Busbar 2)
B/C A
B/C B
Same Destination

Figure 11 : Hybrid 3-Busbar Arrangement
This in effect results in a Planning Level 1 station.
The advantage of this arrangement is that two feeders to the
same destination can be selected onto two different busbars
even through they are next to each other, even with one of the
busbars out, i.e. to say, one effectively has a Planning Level 1
substation. Line crossings or internal by-passes are obviated, as
would be the case in a conventional arrangement, where it is
necessary to have feeder bays either side of a bus section (see
Figure 12).
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INTERNAL
BYPASS
F4
F2
F3 F1
Same
Destination

Figure 12 : Conventional Positioning Of Lines To
The Same Destination
In the case of Figure 11, the feeders to the same station can exit
the station side by side and still be either side of the bus section,
while Figure 12 illustrates the conventional way of positioning
two feeders to the same destination.
The disadvantage of the arrangement shown in Figure 11 is that
it complicates the operating of the station.
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S.L.D.G. 6 - 2
STATIC AND DYNAMIC STRESS
ON TUBULAR CONDUCTOR BUSBAR SYSTEMS
1. INTRODUCTION
The substation designer is constantly under pressure to provide cost effective
designs that meet technical requirements and with low visual impact on the
environment. Within this framework the rigid tubular conductor bus structure
comes into its own right for compactness, low visual profile and cost.
Numerous papers have been published in recent years on the physics of
electromagnetic forces without practical guidelines pertaining to rigid tubular
conductors and their performance under steady state and transient
conditions. From a vast array of practical aspects, the designer should select
important parameters and develop application guidelines. A complete guide
for rigid busbar application should at least focus on issues such as:-
i) Surface electrostatic field strengths and corona inception levels (see
also S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 paragraph 2.5)
ii) Continuous current carrying capability (see also S.L.D.G. 9-6
paragraph 2.2)
iii) Steady state loading, bending moments, stresses and deflections (see
also S.L.D.G. 9-6 paragraph 2.1.3)
iv) Dynamic loading during short circuit conditions (see also S.L.D.G. 9-6
paragraphs 2.1 and 2.3)
v) Resultant loading from a deterministic or probabilistic approach.
The aim of this document is to extract the relevant information for calculating
the mechanical effects of short circuit current on rigid tubular conductors and
their support structures. Advanced methods are available for more accurate
results on complex installations. These are cumbersome and requires
computer support. However, simplified models are also available which
yields fast results suitable for everyday design purposes. Cigre Study
Committee 23 (Working Group 23-02) undertook the verification task for a
simplified calculation method and made recommendations for a design
procedure. A report about the calculation methods and comparisons with test
results was published in Electra 30 in 1973.
Satisfactory conformity of results confirmed the correctness of a simplified
calculation method and a joint brochure was published in 1987 by Cigre SC23
and IEC TC 73 following an excellent paper on parametric studies and
simplified calculation methods for dynamic short circuit stresses. (Electra 68
in January 1980). A task force under Cigre SC23 is at present busy with re-
evaluating of all previous results with a bias towards probabilistic methods.
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

2. ELECTROMAGNETIC SHORT CIRCUIT FORCES (THEORETICAL
ANALYSIS)
The modern day trends in high voltage systems strive for compactness
(smaller phase separations) which in combination with ever increasing fault
levels place a high demand on substation hardware for mechanical integrity.
Mechanical stresses can no longer be ignored in new designs and older
systems should be re-evaluated. This often results in refurbishment work
being required.
These effects are the manifestations of the response of the bus system to the
electromagnetic excitation forces during electrical short circuits. When rating
substation hardware, the following mechanical quantities are imperative for
the sound performance of the system during short circuits :-
i) Maximum bending stresses in the tubular conductor that could result
in permanent deformation,
ii) Forces transferred to the hardware (clamps and fittings) which in turn
impose stress,
iii) Dynamic loading which result in a maximum bending moment at the
base of support insulators and steel structures,
iv) Twisting (torque) effects which could lead to failure normally at the top
end of porcelain support insulators.
For rigid tubular conductors, the method and equations for calculating the
stresses are linear. Different stress components, however, may be
superimposed, hence mechanical resonance of conductors at higher
harmonic orders should not be neglected.
The simplified method for calculating the stress and forces is based on the
following assumptions (Reference [i] ) :-
i) The centre line distance between conductors is much smaller than the
conductor length so that the conductors can be regarded as being of
infinite length.
ii) The conductor diameter and conductor deflection during oscillations
are much smaller than the centre line distance between conductors,
so that the conductors can be treated as a parallel line-conductors.
iii) The short circuit occurs far from rotating machines.
iv) The short circuit occurs simultaneously for all faulted phases.
v) Conductor support structures are rigid, implying that it will have no
deflection whatsoever under any applied force.
For all calculations, the conventional arrangement of conductors, as shown in
Figure 1, is taken as the basis.

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DECEMBER 2001 -3- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
The short circuit peak force is sufficient to determine the dynamic stress only
if the fundamental mechanical frequency of the system is large in comparison
to the excitation frequencies.
The mechanical fundamental frequency of high voltage tubular busbars is
normally less than 10 Hz. However, the excitation forces contain frequency
components that are the same as or double the electrical frequency, with
large constant components occurring as well. The exact time patterns of the
electromagnetic forces are therefore of great importance; the investigation of
these forces yields the time patterns of the dynamic stresses necessary for
the dimensioning of the structures.
a
ia
b
ib
c
ic
F
1

L1p
F
1

L2p
F
1

L3p
a a

a) Three Phase Short Circuit

F
1

2p
F
1

2p
a a
ib2 ic2

b) Phase To Phase Short Circuit

FIGURE 1 : SHORT CIRCUIT FORCES BETWEEN CONDUCTORS

The peak short circuit force per unit length can be derived from the following
equation :-
c
1
= (
2
cc
0
I . 2
a . . 2
)
eq. 6-2.1
= ( )
2
cc
7
I
a
10 .
4

= Reference force per unit length (N/m)
where :-

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DECEMBER 2001 -4- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
0
= 4 . . 10
-7

and
I
cc
= 3 phase symmetrical short circuit current RMS value.
The peak forces caused by simultaneous short circuits are proportional to the
square of the factor for the short circuit peak current. Factor is the ratio of
the largest asymmetric value of the short circuit current to the largest
symmetric value of the short circuit current.
Single phase earth faults are not taken into account since the electromagnetic
forces are small.
= 1,02 + 0,98 . e

X
R
. 3
eq. 6-2.2
= Kappa factor for peak short circuit current

Time variant electromagnetic forces act on the conductors during short
circuits and the whole structure performs forced oscillations for the short
circuit duration and free oscillations after the fault. The resultant force
consists of a steady state component (constant oscillation plus undamped
oscillation at double the electrical frequency) plus a decaying component
(oscillation at electrical frequency plus exponential decaying term).

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DECEMBER 2001 -5- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
The following equations are derived to calculate the peak short circuit forces
per unit length :-
Three phase short circuit; force on centre phase :-
F
1
L2p
= 0,866 . c
1
.

k
2
(N/m) eq.
6-2.3
Three phase short circuit; force on outer phase :-
F
1
L1P
= F
1
L3P
= 0,808 . c
1
.

k
2
(N/m) eq. 6-2.4

Phase to phase short circuit :-
F
1
2P
= 0,750 . c
1
.

k
2
(N/m) eq, 6-2.5
It stands to reason that a typical three phase busbar system will be designed
to satisfy equation 6-2.3 and that the other two equations need not be further
considered. The resultant short circuit force on the centre conductor is about
7 percent greater than that on the outer phases.
3. PARAMETRIC STUDIES
The parametric studies carried out show that the most important parameter
for the calculation of the dynamic short circuit stress is the fundamental
mechanical frequency (f
c
).
The simplified method of calculation makes use of a dynamic factor to convert
from static to dynamic conditions. The dynamic factor is a function of the
fundamental mechanical frequency of the system. Since we regard conductor
support structures as rigid, only the tubular conductors determine the
fundamental mechanical frequency. Three dynamic conversion factors are
considered; one for the support insulator system where :-
V
f
= ratio between dynamic and static forces on the support
insulator,
a second one for the tubular conductor system where :-
V
= ratio between dynamic and static conductor stress,

and a third one for unsuccessful auto re-closure on the system where :-
V
r
= ratio between stress with and without unsuccessful auto-
reclosure
The fundamental mechanical frequency for a tubular conductor is given by :-
f
c
=
4 1
2
. m
J . E
.
. 2 l
(Hz) eq. 6-2.6a

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DECEMBER 2001 -6- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
=
1 2
m
J . E
.
l
(Hz) eq. 6-2.6b

where :-
=
. 2
2
(Hz) eq. 6-2.7
= fundamental (natural) frequency factor based on rigid busbar
boundary conditions (see Tables 1 and 2).
= Eigenvalue for busbar type (see Table 1)

TABLE 1 : EIGEN VALUES FOR BUSBAR SUPPORT SYSTEMS
Type Eigenvalue n = 1 n = 2 n = 3

Both Ends
Simple
Support
n . 3,14 1,57 6,28 6,28 9,42 14,14
One Simple
One Fixed

+
4
1 n . 4

3,93 2,45 7,07 7,96 10,21 16,59
Both Ends
Fixed

+
2
1 n . 2

4,71 3,56 7,85 9,82 11,00 19,24

Fundamental 2 nd Harmonic 3 rd
Harmonic
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -7- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 2 : FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY FACTORS
Fundamental frequency factors for various boundary conditions of tubular
busbars complete with support arrangements.
Type of beam and supports Factor

Factor

Single span
beam
A and B
simple supports
A B

A : 0.5
B : 0,5
1,57
A : fixed support
B : simple support
A B

A : 0,625
B : 0,375
2,45
A and B
fixed supports
A B

A : 0,5
B : 0,5
3,56
Continuous
beams with
equidistant
simple supports
Two spans
A B A

A : 0,375
B : 1,25
2,45
Three or more
spans
A B A B

A : 0,4
B : 1,1
3,56
Two or more spans
simple supports
A B A B

A : 0,5
B : 1,0
1,57

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DECEMBER 2001 -8- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

The three dynamic factors are determined by the ratio of fundamental
mechanical frequency and the nominal electrical system frequency f.
where :-
f
f
c
=
frequency system nominal
conductor of frequency mechanical lowest
eq.
6-2.7
where
f
f
c
>> 1 the stress is proportional to the exciting force
and where :-
f
f
c
<< 1 the stress is lower, except for special harmonic resonance.
If the frequency of the mechanical fundamental oscillation or of a mechanical
harmonic oscillation is equal to the electrical or double the electrical
frequency resonance enhancements will occur.
The increases caused by resonances with electrical frequency are
comparatively small when
R
X
= 15, but increases considerably when
R
X
= 30.
Three fundamental busbar models are considered for calculating boundary
conditions for the tubular busbars (see Figure 2).
These are the following :-
l

a) Conductors With Both Ends Freely Supported.
l

b) Conductor With One End Supported And One End Fixed.

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DECEMBER 2001 -9- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

l

c) Conductor With Both Ends Fixed.

FIGURE 2 : CONDUCTOR SUPPORT SYSTEMS

Fundamental frequency and dynamic factors were calculated for the
simplified method and Cigre presented the results in graphic form for easy
reference (see Figure 3).
The force acting on the conductor as a result of short circuit current, impose a
reaction force at the top of the support insulator. The insulator must be able
to withstand this force with a degree of safety (a minimum safety factor of 1,2
is recommended for porcelain insulators see also S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 paragraph
2.1.4)).
The static force imposed onto the insulator is calculated as follows :-
i) For conductors with both ends supported :-
F
(PI)ST
= F
1
L2p
. l (N) eq. 6-2.8
ii) For conductors with one end fixed and one end supported :-
F
(PI)ST
=
10
8
. F
1
L2p
. l (N) eq. 6-2.9
iii) For conductors with both ends fixed :-
F
(PI)ST
= F
1
L2p
. l (N) eq. 6-2.10
Cigre simplified the various combinations of conductor boundary conditions
and provided factor as follows :-
F
(PI)ST
= . F
1
L2p
. l (N) eq. 6-2.11
where :-
= factor for rigid conductor boundary conditions (see
Table 2)
The dynamic force acting on insulators is therefore :-
F
(PI) DYN
= . F
1
L2P
. l . V
f
(N) eq. 6-2.12(a)
= F
(PI)ST
. V
f
(N) eq. 6-2.12(b)
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -10- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

The maximum static stress imposed on the conductor is calculated as
follows :-
i) For conductors with both ends supported :-
st
=
W . 8
2
L2p
1
. F l
(N/m
2
) eq. 6-2.13
ii) For conductors with one end supported and one end fixed :-
st
=
W . 8
2
L2p
1
. F l
(N/m
2
) eq. 6-2.14
iii) For conductor with both ends fixed :-
st
=
24.W
.l F
2
L2p
1
(N/m
2
) eq. 6-2.15
where :-
W =
2
d
J
o
(m
3
) eq. 6-2.16
and
J = (
4
i
4
o
d d
64

. ) eq. 6-2.17
= Moment of inertia
with :-
d
o
= outside tube diameter
d
i
= inside tube diameter

The dynamic stress acting on the conductor is therefore :-
DYN
=
ST
. V
(N/m
2
) eq.
6-2.18
DYN+ARC
=
DYN
. V
r
(N/m
2
) eq. 6-2.19
The conductor must be able to withstand the stress with a degree of safety. A
minimum safety factor of 2,65 is recommended for aluminium conductors with
respect to the 0,2 % proof stress.
The maximum deflection of the tubular conductor can be calculated for the
boundary conditions as follows :-
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -11- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

i) For conductor with both ends supported :-
y
max
=
J . E
. F
.
384
5
4
p 2 L
1
l
(m) eq. 6-2.20
ii) For conductor with one end supported and one end fixed :-
y
max
=
J . E
. F
.
185
1
4
p 2 L
1
l
(m) eq. 6-2.21
iii) For conductor with both end fixed
y
max
=
J . E
. F
.
384
1
4
p 2 L
1
l
(m) eq. 6-2.22
Multiphase auto re-closure at the optimally worst time with respect to
mechanical vibration of the rigid tubular conductor will increase the stress
significantly as compared to the case without auto-re-closure. A fitted curve
was plotted by Cigre that can be used to supplement the simplified calculation
procedure.
From Figure 4 it can be seen that considerable increases in stress are to be
anticipated in large high voltage systems with very low fundamental
mechanical frequencies. The dynamic factor for auto-re-closure in large high
voltage systems can be as high as V
r
= 2,0 (100 percent increase in stress).
Medium voltage substations with higher mechanical frequencies (typically
f
f
c
> 3) are not effected by auto-re-closure and the increased stress can be
ignored.
For the simplified method, two curves are provided; one for auto-re-closure
dead time 0,3 seconds and one for dead time 1,0 second.
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -12- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 3 : DYNAMIC FACTORS V
f
(SUPPORT SYSTEM) AND V (TUBULAR
BUSBAR) vs
f
f
c

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DECEMBER 2001 -13- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 4 : DYNAMIC FACTOR V
r
(AUTO RECLOSURE) vs
f
f
c

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DECEMBER 2001 -14- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

4. COMBINED FORCES AND THEIR EFFECT ON THE SUPPORT
STRUCTURES (STEEL STRUCTURE AND PORCELAIN INSULATOR)
AND TUBULAR CONDUCTORS
A typical tubular busbar system is subjected to a combination of static and
dynamic forces including stresses (see Figure 5).
4.1 Static Forces
i) A tubular busbar supported between two support structures will
bend with a resultant sag due to its own weight. Permissible
sag could equal the diameter of the conductor without
exceeding the stress limit. However, a sag of one conductor
diameter is visually unacceptable. Maximum sag should rather
be limited to no more than one half conductor diameter,
preferably less than one half diameter.
Ice loading is not normally considered in South Africa but will
add to for the conductor weight per unit length. Any aeolian
damping devices, such as aluminium stranded conductor being
inserted in the tubular conductor, will also add to the conductor
weight per unit length.
ii) Wind loading. Tubular conductors, together with supports, are
subjected to a wind pressure of 700 Pa. In the case of lattice
support structures the area for calculating the force due to
wind pressure is 1,5 times the projected area of the members
of one side and in the case of round tubular conductors,
hexagonal or elliptical poles, the area is 0,6 times the projected
area.
Although dynamic, the wind loading is treated as a steady
continuous force at 700 Pa, i.e. a static force.
4.2 Dynamic Forces
i) Dynamic electromagnetic forces resulting from short circuit
current in the network add a substantial load to the system and
could dominate loadings that result from own mass and wind.
ii) In certain parts of South Africa it may be necessary to add a
vertical and horizontal loading component which results from
seismic activity. Seismic loading is a subject on its own and is
not considered in this document.
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -15- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

Own Mass
Ice Loading
Wind force Short Circuit Loading
R
e
s
u
l
t
a
n
t

F
o
r
c
e

FIGURE 5 : VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF THE
COMPONENT FORCES EXERTED ON THE
TUBULAR CONDUCTORS
The resultant force / stress per unit length is used to analyse
stresses in the conductor and forces acting on the top of the
support insulator. The following safety factors should be
incorporated in the design.
4.2.1 Stresses in the tubular conductor.
A safety factor of 2,65 in used to reduce the 0,2 % proof
stress.
4.2.2 Deflection of the tubular conductor.
The deflection of the tube must be such that the minimum
phase-to-phase clearance is not exceeded.
4.2.3 Forces acting on the support system.
The forces acting in the post insulators are multiplied by 1,2.
The resultant must not exceed the minimum insulator failing
load (cantilever strength).
Safety factors for structural steel could vary between 2,5
(deterministic approach) and 1,2 (probabilistic approach). A
safety factor of 1,7 is used in the example calculation.
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -16- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

5. DIMENSIONING OF A RIGID TUBULAR CONDUCTOR SYSTEM
COMPLETE WITH SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
SYMBOLS USED
c
1

N
m

Reference force per unit length
a m Centre line distance between conductors
F
1
L2p

N
m

Electromagnetic peak force on centre phase
F
1
L1p

N
m

Electomagnetic peak force on outer phase
F
1
L3p

N
m

Electomagnetic peak force on outer phase
F
1
2p

N
m

electromagnetic peak force phase to phase
I
cc
A Symetrical three phase short circuit current, RMS
value
i A Short circuit current, momentary value
- Kappa factor for peak short circuit current
X
R

- Impedance ratio
f
c
Hz Fundamental mechanical frequency
f Hz Electrical system frequency
f
f
c

- Frequency ratio
Hz Natural frequency factor
o
Vs
Am

Absolute permeability = 4 . 10
-7

- Factor for mechanical frequency
E
N
m
2

Modulus of elasticy
J (I) m
4
Moment of inertia (Second moment of area)
m
1

kg
m

Mass of conductor per unit length
l m Length of conductor span between supports
d
o
m Outside diameter of conductor
d
i
m Inside diameter of conductor
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -17- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

V
f
- Dynamic factor (force) for support system
V
- Dynamic factor (stress) for tubular conductor 3

phase
V
r
- Dynamic factor (auto-reclosure)
F
(PI)ST
N Static force on post insulator
F
(A)ST
N Static force on post insulator A
F
(B)ST
N Static force on post insulator B
- Rigid conductor, boundary condition factor
F
(PI)DYN
N Dynamic force on post insulator
F
(A)DYN
N Dynamic force on post insulator A
F
(B)DYN
N Dynamic force on post insulator B
ST

2
m
N
(Mpa)
Maximum static bending stress
DYN

2
m
N
(Mpa)
Maximum dynamic bending stress
W (Z) m
3
Section modulus
X Reactance
R Resistance
y m Deflection of conductor
M N . m Bending moment

ST Static
DYN Dynamic
Max Maximum
L
1
Outer conductor
L
2
Inner (centre) conductor
L
3
Outer conductor
2 Phase-to-phase short circuit
h
S
Total height of insulator plus support
h
I
Height of insulator to centre line of conductor
R
po.2
0,2 % Proof stress
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -18- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

6. EXAMPLE 1 :-
6.1 System Parameters
Tubular conductor : 120 mm x 6 mm Alloy D65S TF. (See
Table 3)
I
cc
= 25 kA
R
X
= 15
Wind force : 700 Pa
3ARC : 1 second dead time
Boundary conditions :-
one end supported and
one end fixed
l = 10 000 mm
a = 3 000 mm
The sample chosen is a typical arrangement for 132 kV with a
continuous current rating of 2500 amp and a short time current rating
of 25 kA.

TABLE 3 : ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF VARIOUS
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS (SEE ALSO TABLE 2 OF S.L.D.G. 9 - 7)
HULETTS S.A. ASA STANDARD DIN STANDARD
ALLOY TYPE D50S
TF
D65S
TF
6063
T6
6061
T6
AlMgSi0,5
F22
AlMgSi0,5
F25
Electrical resistivity at 20
o
C (max.) in mm
2
/ m
0,03133 0,037 0,0325 0,0431 0,03333 0,03571
Specific mass kg / m
3
2703 2703 2703 2703 2703 2703
Modules of elasticity
E in N / m
2

65,66 . 10
9
69,12 . 10
9
69 . 10
9
70 . 10
9
70 . 10
9
70 . 10
9

Thermal co-efficient of
expansion per
o
C
23 . 10
-6
23 . 10
-6
23 . 10
-6
23 . 10
-6
23 . 10
-6
23 . 10
-6

0,2 % Proofstress in Mpa
Rp0,2
170 240 214 276 160 195

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DECEMBER 2001 -19- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
l = 10 m l = 10 m
A B A
h
I
h
S

a) Wind And Dynamic Short Circuit Force
A B A

b) Mass Of Conductor

A B
Point for conductor stress
A

c) Stress

h
S
= 6 500 mm
h
I
= 1 500 mm
l = 10 000 mm
FIGURE 6 : DIAGRAMMATIC ILLUSTRATION OF COMPONENT FORCES ON
TUBULAR CONDUCTORS
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -20- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________

10 000 10 000
3000
3000

FIGURE 7 : BUSBAR SYSTEM FOR CALCULATION
6.2 Support System (Post Insulator And Structure) (See Figures 6
And 7)
6.2.1 Reference force per unit length. From eq. 6-2.1
c
1
= ( )
2
cc
7
I .
a
10 . 4

= ( )
2
3
7
25.10
3
4.10
.

= 83,3 (N/m)

6.2.2 Kappa factor. From eq. 6-2.2
= 1,02 + 0,98 . e
X
R
. 3

= 1,02 + 0,98 . e
-0,2

= 1,02 + 0,8024
= 1,8224
6.2.3 Peak force on centre phase. From eq. 6-2.3
F
1
L2p
= 0,866 . c
1
.

k
2

= 0,866 . 83,3 . (1,8224)
2

= 239,6 (N/m)
6.2.4 Mechanical frequency
E = 69,12 . 10
9
(N/m2) From Table 3
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DECEMBER 2001 -21- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
J = ( ) d d .
64
4
i
4
o

From eq. 6-2.15

= ( ) ( ) ( )
4 4
108 , 0 12 , 0
64

= (m 3 46 10
6
, .
4
)
= 2,45 From Table 1
(Boundary condition for post insulator (A) supported and post
insulator (B) fixed).
m
1
= 5,805 (kg/m) From Table 3

f
c
=
1 2
m
J . E
.
l
From eq. 6-2.6(b)

=
805 , 5
10 . 46 , 3 . 0 1 . 2 1 , 69
.
) 10 (
45 , 2
6 9
2

= 0,0245 . 202,97
= 4,97 Hz
6.2.5 Ratio of mechanical frequency
f
f
c
=
50
4,97

= 0,1
6.2.6 Dynamic factors
Support system
V
f
= 0,57 (From Figure 3)
Tubular conductor
V

Three phase ARC
( 1 second)
V
r
6.2.7 Static forces
From Table 1 and eq. 6-2.11
F
(A)ST
= . F
1
L2p
. l
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DECEMBER 2001 -22- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
= 0,375 . 239,6 . 10
= 0,899 kN
F
(B)ST
= . F
1
L2p
. l
= 1,25 . 239,6 . 10
= 2,995 kN
6.2.8 Dynamic forces From eq. 6-2.12(b)
F
(A)DYN
= F
(A)ST
. V
f

= 0,899 . 0,57
= 0,512 kN
F
(B)DYN
= F
(B)ST
. V
f

= 2,995 . 0,57
= 1,70 kN
F
(A)DYN + ARC
= F
(A)DYN
. V
r

= 0,512 . 1,44
= 0,737 kN
F
(B)DYN

+ ARC
= F
(B)DYN
. V
r

= 1,7 . 1,44
= 2,448 kN
6.2.9 Mass of tubular conductor
m = m
1
.l
= 5,805 . 10
= 58,05 kg
= 569 N (a = 9,8 m/s
2
)
6.2.10 Wind force on tubular conductor
w
l
= (windforce) . (area) . 0,6
= 700 . 10 . 0,12 . 0,6
= 504 N
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DECEMBER 2001 -23- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
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6.2.11 Resultant force F
R
(see Figure 5)
F
R(A)
=
2
) ARC DYN ( A
2
) F windforce ( Mass
+
+ +
=
2 2
) 737 504 ( 569 + +
= 1365 N
Safety factor for porcelain S.F = 1,2
F
R(A)MAX
= F
R(A)
. S.F
= 1365 . 1,2
= 1638 N
F
R(B)
=
2
ARC) + B(DYN
2
) F + (windforce + mass
= 569 504 2448
2 2
+ + ( )
= 3006 N
F
R(B)MAX
= F
R(B)
. S.F
= 3006 . 1,2
=
N 3607
i.e. a standard porcelain insulator with 4 kN cantilever strength
would suffice.
6.2.12 Bending moment at the base of the porcelain insulator
M
(A)
= F
R(A)MAX
. h
I

= 1638 . 1,5
= 2457 Nm
M
(B)
= F
R(B)MAX
. h
I

= 3607 . 1,5
= 5410 Nm
6.2.13 Bending moment at base of support structure
Safety factor for steel support structure h
s
. = 1,7
M
(A)
= F
R(A)
. h
s

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DECEMBER 2001 -24- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
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= 1365 . 1,7
= 15,083 kNm
M
(B)
= F
R(B)
. h
s

= 3006 . 1,7
= 33,216 kNm
6.3 Tubular Conductor System
Stress In The Tubular Conductor : (see Figures 6 and 7)
6.3.1 Short circuit forces per unit length including ARC
F
1
L2P

+ ARC
= F
1
L2P
. V
r

= 239,6 . 1,44
= 345,02 N/m
6.3.2 Mass per unit length
m
1
= 5,805 . 9,8
= 56,9 N/m
6.3.3 Wind loading per unit length
w
1
.

l = Windforce . area . 0,6
= 700 . 0,12 . 0,6
= 50,4 N/m
6.3.4 Resultant force F
R
(see Figure 5)
F
R()
=
2
) ARC P 2 L (
1 2
) F windforce ( mass + + +
=
2 2
) 02 , 345 4 , 50 ( 9 , 56 + +
= 399,5 N/m
6.3.5 Section modulus
W =
2
d
J
o

=
2
12 , 0
10 . 46 , 3
6

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DECEMBER 2001 -25- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
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= 57,66 . 10
-6
m
3

= 57,66 cm
3
6.3.6 Static stress From eq. 6-2.14
ST+ARC
=
W . 8
. F
2
) ( R
l

=
66 , 7 5 . 8
0 1 . 5 , 399
2
N/mm
2

= 86,60 N/mm
2
(or Mpa)
6.3.7 Dynamic stress including ARC : From eq. 6-2.18
DYN+ARC
=
ST + ARC
. V

= 866,6 . 0,52
= 45,0 MPa
Safety factor for aluminium tubular conductor SF = 2,65
(DYN+ARC) MAX
=
DYN+ARC
. 2,65
= 45,0 . 2,65
= =
MPa 119,25
0,2 % Proof stress for D65S
Rp0,2 = 240 Mpa (see Table 2)
i.e. the tubular conductor will not be over stressed or
permanently deformed.
(DYN

+ARC) MAX
=
Rp0,2 < 119,25
6.3.8 Maximum deflection
The maximum deflection of the tubular conductor under static
conditions due to its own weight :-
y
max
=
J . E
. m . 8 , 9
.
185
1
4 1
l
(m)
=
6 9
4
10 . 3,46 . 10 . 69,12 . 185
0 1 . 5,805 . 8 , 9

= 12,858 . 10
-3
m
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DECEMBER 2001 -26- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
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= 13 mm

The maximum deflection of the tubular conductor under
dynamic conditions due to wind, short current forces and its
own weight is :-
y
max
=
. J E. . 5 18
. F
3
) B ( R
l
(m)
=
6 9
3
10 . 3,46 . 10 . 69,12 . 5 18
0 1 . 6 300

= 67,94 . 10
-3
m
=
mm 68

7. TENSION OF EQUIPMENT INTERCONNECTION CONDUCTORS
The maximum tension in these interconnecting pieces of conductor depend
on the maximum allowable forces one can apply to the equipment concerned
(see Figure 10). The values set down in the German standard UDE0103 is
between 500 N and 1000 N (see also the IEC document) @ 20
o
C.
This tension must be such that with the inclusion of the short circuit forces on
the equipment the maximum allowable mechanical force on the equipment is
not exceeded.
One may obtain an acceptable value by trading off variables such as phase
spacing and distance between equipment against each other in the order to
obtain the necessary sag.

FIGURE 8 EQUIPMENT INTERCONNECTIONS
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When considering the spans of conductor between equipment, one needs to
take account of the fault current, as mentioned above. It may be possible to
use flexible conductor for given spans up to 31,5 kA sag, however, for fault
levels beyond this, e.g. 40 kA, one may have to resort to using tubular
conductor. As one can see from the graph provided (see Figure 11) the short
circuit forces due to flexible conductor are at points in excess of 4 times that
due to tube. One can also see that the forces due to bundle conductors seem
to be higher than that of an equivalent single conductor. This, amongst
others is due to the snatch forces between bundle conductors under bundle
collapse.
The maximum forces exerted on the equipment in the case of the flexible
conductors, is in the direction of the conductor (the perpendicular component
is small). The maximum forces exerted on the equipment in the case of
tubular conductor, is in the direction perpendicular to the direction of the
conductor (i.e. inter-phase forces).

a) Interconnection Using Flexible Conductor

b) Interconnection Using Tubular Conductor

c) Loading On Equipment And Structures

FIGURE 10 : LOAD SCHEME
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FIGURE 11 : SHORT CIRCUIT (CANTILEVER FORCES ON 220 kV
EQUIPMENT SUPPORTS WITH FLEXIBLE AND TUBULAR
CONDUCTOR INTERCONNECTIONS
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DECEMBER 2001 -29- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
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CAUTION : This is only an estimate. There is no mention of the static
tension in the flexible conductor and a computer run would
probably be better.
NOTE : The short circuit forces on the insulators when using tubular
conductor are ~ the value of that using sag 2 x 240 mm
2
Al
at 25 kA. The difference increases dramatically as kA rises.
For low values of kA, either conductor or tube can be used, but
at large kA values, tubes have a superior performance.

8. FORCES ON EQUIPMENT DUE TO THE ELONGATION OF RIGID
BUSBARS
Changes of temperature during operation, cause the length of busbars to
increase or decrease. Such temperature related changes can exert
considerable mechanical stresses on the conductors their supports and
connection points (equipment) if lengthy conductor runs include no means of
compensation.
The change in length of the conductor is given by the simple formula :-
Dl = l
o
. . eq. 6-2.23
where :- l
o
= length of conductor at temperature when
erected
= Temperature difference
coefficient of linear expansion
Cu = 17 x 10
-6
K
-1
, Al = 23 x 10
-6
K
-1

eg typical values for a busbar 10 m long and temperature difference of 50 K
are :-
l
an
= 8,5 mm l
Al
= 11,5 mm
The forces applied can be calculated very easily if the change of length due to
temperature (O - Oo) = DO is put equal to the change of length caused by a
mechanical force F
Dl = l
o
. . =
A . E
. F
o
l
eq. 6-2.24
where : F = mechanical force
A = conductor cross-section

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DECEMBER 2001 -30- S.L.D.G. 6 - 2 / 1
__________________________________________________________________________________
E = elasticity modulus Cu = 1,1 x 10
5
N/mm
2

Al = 0,65 x 10
5
N/mm
2

F = .E.A. eq. 6-2.25
For = 1K, A = 1 mm
2
(specific values)
Specific loading
F
1
= .E eq. 6-2.26
F
1
cu
1,87 N / (K.mm
2
)
F
1
Al
1,87 N / (K.mm
2
)

9. REFERENCES
[i] Dynamic short circuit stress of busbar structures with stiff conductors.
CIGRE SC 23, WG 23-02.
[ii] The mechanical effects of short circuit currents in open air
substations.
CIGRE SC 23, WG 23-02.
[iii] CIGRE second South African Regional Conference (May 1994)
Substation Design Tutorial Notes.
[iv] Investigation into the use of tubular aluminium conductors at high
voltage substations (By W.J. Meintjes).
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 0
INSULATION AND CLEARANCES
INDEX

S.L.D.G. 7 - 1 1 INSULATION LEVELS AND CREEPAGE
DISTANCE
1. Reference Document
2. Standard Insulation Levels And Creepage
Distances
3. Basis Of Standard
3.1 Highest System Voltage
3.2 Basic Impulse Insulation Level (B.I.L)
3.3 Power Frequency Test Levels
3.4 Creepage Distances

S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 1 ELECTRICAL WORKING CLEARANCES
2. Standard Electrical and Working Clearances
4. Application : Electrical Clearances

4.1 Maximum Spans For Strung Busbars And
Stringers
4.2 Maximum Spans For Stringers Between Yards
Of Different Voltages
4.3 Jumper Connections
4.4 Connections To Transformers
4.5 Adjacent Equipment
5. Working Clearances
5.1 Application Within Substations
5.2 Separation Distances Between Parallel Power
Lines
5.3 Recommended Timber Restriction In Forestry
Areas

S.L.D.G. 7 - 3 1 NUMBERS OF INSULATOR DISCS
2. Standard Numbers Of Insulator Disks
3.1 General
3.2 V Strings

DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 4 0 CORONA LIMITS
1. References
2. Corona Limits
3. General Information

DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 1

STANDARD INSULATION LEVELS AND CREEPAGE DISTANCES

1. REFERENCE DOCUMENT
Old Electrical Engineering Department Directive EED 14/1/5-1
2. STANDARD INSULATION LEVELS AND CREEPAGE DISTANCES
Table 1 schedules the standard insulation levels and creepage distances. These
standards are at present under review and modifications in respect of the following
points will probably be introduced :-
a) differentiation between internal and external insulation levels,
b) introduction of switching-surge test levels,
c) significant changes to the power-frequency withstand levels, and
d) modified creepage distances in line with I.E.C. recommendations.
3. BASIS OF STANDARD
3.1 Highest System Voltage
i) For system voltages up to 330 kV
V
max
= 1,1 . V
nominal
eq. 7-1.1
ii) for system voltages of 400 kV and above
V
max
= 1,05 . V
nominal
eq. 7-1.2
3.2 Basic Impulse Insulation Level (B.I.L)
The B.I.L for a given system voltage is derived as follows :-
3.2.1 a) For non-effectively-earthed systems
V
a
= V
max
eq. 7-1.3
b) For effectively-earthed systems
or V
a
= 0,8 . V
max
eq. 7-1.4
where :-
V
a
.is the Rated Arrester Voltage in kV rms.
For an effectively earthed system the maximum phase-to-earth
voltage on the two healthy phases with an earth fault on the third
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phase does not exceed 80 % of the arrester rating. On non-
effectively-earthed systems the healthy-phase voltages can rise to
the full phase-to-phase voltage under earth-fault conditions.
In general, systems up to 66 kV are non-effectively earthed and the
BIL for these systems is consequently based on 100 % arrester
ratings. The earthing of 132 kV systems and above is invariably in
the effective category and here the standard BIL's are based on 80
% arrester ratings. 88 kV systems are generally effectively earthed
but as Petersen Coil earthing is sometimes applied, the Standard
provides for two levels of insulation.
3.2.2 Typical impulse spark-over voltages (V
R
) for arresters are as
follows :-
3.2.2.1 For Gapped Arresters
V
R
= 3,3 . V
a
kV (peak) for V
a
less than 25 kV
eq. 7-1.5
= 2,8 . V
a
kV (peak) for V
a
= 25 to 150 kV
eq. 7-1.6
= 2,6 . V
a
kV (peak) for V
a
greater than 150 kV
eq. 7-1.7
Note : V
a
in kV rms.
3.2.2.2 For metal-oxide arresters
(To be added to next the issue)
3.2.3 Typical values for the volt-drop in the lead between the arrester and
earth (V
L
) for steep-fronted impulse currents are :-
V
L
= 15 kV (peak) for V
a
less than 25 kV eq. 7-1.9
a
= 25 to 150 kV eq. 7-1.10
a
greater than 150 kV eq. 7-1.11
The impedance of the arrester earth connection is almost entirely
reactive and this connection should therefore be made as straight
as possible. Reducing the resistance of the earth connection by
doubling the number of earth straps serves no purpose
3.2.4 The protective level held by the arrester (V
p
) is :-
3.2.4.1 For gapped arresters
V
P
= V
R
+ V
L

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= 3,3 . V
a
+ 15 kV (peak) for V
a
less than 25 kV
eq. 7-1.12
= 2,8 . V
a
a
= 25 to 150 kV
eq. 7-1.13
= 2,6 . V
a
a
greater than 150 kV
eq. 7-1.14
3.2.5 The B.I.L. should be greater than V
p
by at least 20 %. In addition
an allowance must be made for altitude which affects the impulse
strength according to the relative air density (RAD).
3.2.5.1 For gapped arresters
Thus B.I.L. V
p
.
) RAD (
2 , 1
kV peak at sea level
eq. 7-1.15
Since RAD = 0,79 for 1800 metres above sea level
eq. 7-1.16
B.I.L. 1,51 . V
p
kV (peak) eq. 7-1.17
The actual values chosen are the nearest I.E.C. levels. The
same B.I.L. is specified for internal and external insulation;
at altitudes above see level the internal insulation will thus
be stronger than the external insulation.
3.3 Power Frequency Test Levels
The power frequency test levels selected are generally in accordance with
I.E.C. and can be approximated by the formula :-
P = 0,45 . (B.I.L.) - 15 kV rms eq. 7-1.18
3.4 Creepage Distances
Standard creepage distances are based on the following :-

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TABLE 1 : STANDARD CREEPAGE DISTANCES VS POLLUTION
LEVELS
System
Nominal
Creepage in mm/kV (of max phase-to-phase volts)
Voltage Normal Pollution Special Pollution Exceptional
Pollution
132 kV and below
Above 132 kV
20
15
20
20
25
25

Exceptional Creepage : Should generally be specified for station
within 5 km of the coast, or wherever
exceptionally high pollution is anticipated.
Special Creepage : Should generally be specified for stations
within 15 km of the coast, or wherever
unusually high pollution is anticipated.

TABLE 2 : STANDARD INSULATION LEVELS AND CREEPAGE
DISTANCES BASED ON GAPPED ARRESTERS
Nominal
System
Highest
System
Impulse
Voltage
Sixty-second
Power
Creepage Distance Over External
Insulation
Voltage

(kV rms)
Voltage

(kV rms)
Withstand Test
At Sea Level
(kV peak)
Frequency
Withstand Test
At Sea Level
(kV rms)
Normal

(mm)
Special

(mm)
Exceptional

(mm)
3,3
6,6
11
16
3,6
7,2
12
17,5
45
75
95
110
16
22
28
38
70
140
240
350
70
140
240
350
125
180
300
440
22
33
44
66
24
36
48
72
150
200
250
350
50
70
95
140
480
720
960
1400
480
720
960
1400
600
900
1200
1800
88

132
100

145
380
(450)
550
150
(185)
230
2000

2900
2000

2900
2500

3600
220
275
330
400
245
300
362
420
825
1050
1300
1425
360
460
570
630
3700
4500
5500
6300
4900
6000
7300
8400
6100
7500
9000
10500

Notes : Bracketed figures for 88 kV are for full insulation and are to be used
only if the system is not effectively earthed. The figures given for
systems of 66 kV and below assume non-effective earthing. This
table is based on gapped arresters using over-voltage factors as
indicated in equations 7-1.5, 6 and 7.
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TABLE 3 : PROPOSED STANDARD INSULATION LEVELS AND
CREEPAGE DISTANCES BASED ON METAL OXIDE
ARRESTERS (To be provided in the next issue)
Nominal
System
Highest
System
Impulse
Voltage
Sixty-second
Power
Creepage Distance Over External
Insulation
Voltage

(kV rms)
Voltage

(kV rms)
Withstand Test
At Sea Level
(kV peak)
Frequency
Withstand Test
At Sea Level
(kV rms)
Normal

(mm)
Special

(mm)
Exceptional

(mm)
3,3
6,6
11
16

22
33
44
66

88
88
132

220
275
330
400
525
765

Notes : Bracketed figures for 88 kV are for full insulation and are to be used
only if the system is not effectively earthed. The figures given for
systems of 66 kV and below assume non-effective earthing.

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S.L.D.G. 7 2

ELECTRICAL AND WORKING CLEARANCES

Old Electrical Engineering Department Directive EED 14/1/5-1.

2. STANDARD ELECTRICAL AND WORKING CLEARANCES
Standard clearances are given in Table 1.

Phase-to-earth electrical clearance (C
e
) is based on the formula :-
C
e
= 2,26 . (B.I.L.) - 20 mm (rounded off) eq. 7-2.1
Phase-to-phase electrical clearance (C
p
) is based on the formula :-
C
p
= 1,35.C
e
up to 650 kV B.I.L. eq. 7-2.2
= 1,25.C
e
for higher B.I.L.s eq. 7-2.3
Working clearances are given by :-
C
wv
= C
e
+ 2450 mm (Vertical clearance) eq. 7-2.4
C
wh
= C
e
+ 1100 mm (Horizontal clearance) eq. 7-2.5

4 APPLICATION : ELECTRICAL CLEARANCES
4.1 Maximum Spans For Strung Busbars And Stringers
Phase-to-phase (S
p
) and phase-to-earth (S
e
) spacing are determined from :-
S
p
C
p
+ (2.conductor sag) eq. 7-2.6
S
e
C
e
+ (1.conductor sag) eq. 7-2.7
Use of the full sag implies swinging of the conductors to 90
o
, a condition
which is unlikely due to wind but which might result from short-circuit
forces.
With the spacings obtainable on the present standard steelwork, the
maximum permissible spans for various conductor sizes, conductor
tensions and system voltages are as given in Table 2. These spans
basically give the maximum permissible distances between conductor
attachment points and thus represent directly the distances between
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suspension points. For the distance between strain beams add twice the
effective length of the insulator string given in the table. For maximum
distance between strain beam and suspension beam add the length of the
insulator string once only.
It should be appreciated that the conditions imposed on the maximum span
allow for the full impulse clearance between phases at a time when the
conductors have swung to 90
o
in anti-phase. Whilst it is desirable that
these conditions be fulfilled at all times, it is permissible to accept
marginally smaller clearances, and have slightly longer spans, in special
circumstances e.g. where terracing results in a span which is, say, 1 metre
longer than the ideal maximum and where the introduction of an additional
portal structure would be difficult.
The spans given in Table 2 are based on phase-to-phase spacings and
clearances since, in general, the present phase-to-ground spacing for
busbars and stringers impose less severe restrictions. The exception to
this generality occurs on bays with extended steelwork (e.g. bus couplers)
where the stringers may pass fairly close to the steelwork of an adjacent
bay. The problem is illustrated by the diagram in Table 3 which list the
maximum permissible spans based on this criteria.
4.2 Maximum Spans For Stringers Between Yards Of Different Voltages
In order to cross a road with transformer connections it is frequently
necessary to string between beams designed for different voltages. Tables
4,5 and 6 respectively applying to 800 mm
2
"Bull", 400 mm
2
"Centipede"
and 160 mm
2
"Hornet" conductors give the maximum span lengths that are
permissible for those stringers.
The calculations are based on the effective phase spacing at the centre
of the span. i.e. :-
Effective phase
spacing
= (phase spacing on HV steelwork
+ phase spacing on LV steelwork).
eq. 7-2.8
Example :
HV yard steelwork : 275 kV
LV yard steelwork : 132 kV
Transmission voltage of span : 132 kV (i.e. the lower voltage)
Conductor : 2 x 800 mm
2
.
From Table 4 the distance between the strain beams should not exceed
29 metres.
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4.3 Jumper Connections
Wind force acting on jumper connections may reduce clearances below the
minimum permissible. To limit swing, jumper weights can be added as
shown in Figure 1.
Figures 2, 3 and 4 illustrate a further problem with busbar jumper
connections where the phase-to-phase clearance between the jumper and
the dropper onto the busbar isolator may be inadequate. The schedule
associated with the recommended end bay sizes to allow for future
extensions or bus section breakers. A specimen calculation for 132 kV is
given on pages 14 and 15 of this document, and is illustrated in Figure 3.
4.4 Connections To Transformers
To ensure, as far as possible, that connections can satisfactorily be made
onto transformers, the clearance diagram of Figure 5 is issued as part of
the transformer specification.
In this diagram :-
L = Phase-to-earth clearance
Y = 2,4 metre structure plus phase-to-earth clearance which is the
minimum height above ground that one would expect for a
lightning arrester or current transformer. In practice these
devices are generally larger than just the -E clearance and
this allows for some sag in the conductors.
X = Distance from edge of transformer to first supporting device.
For the lower voltages this will generally be a current
transformer (CT) with the surge arrester (SA) tapped off
between the CT and the transformer. At the higher voltages
the first support will generally be a SA mounted at least -E
clearance away from the transformer.
4.5 Adjacent Equipment
Figure D shows two examples of clearance problems that can arise with
adjacent items of equipment.
In the upper diagram the distance from breaker terminal 'M' to the CT is
less than that between the breaker terminals 'M' and 'N'. The gap across
the breaker is thus being short-circuited by the CT. The CT tank is also
effectively reducing the -E clearance on the breaker. In general,
equipment should be so located as to avoid reducing clearances on
adjacent apparatus.
Because of voltage-grading problems, manufacturers generally
recommend clearances around lightning arresters as shown by the lower
diagram of Figure 6.
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5. WORKING CLEARANCES
5.1 Application Within Substations
While working clearance to live metal is desirable for the safety of
personnel engaged on operations or maintenance, it is not practical to
ensure that such clearance exists from every position in an H.V. yard which
a person might conceivably be able to occupy. For example, a man
stepping up onto the first lacing member of an equipment support structure
to read a nameplate almost immediately finds himself less than working
clearance below live connections
Since personnel cannot be prevented from getting off the ground it is
concluded that :-
WORKING CLEARANCES SHALL APPLY AT GROUND LEVEL ONLY.
A PERSON STEPPING OFF THE GROUND CANNOT RELY ON HAVING
WORKING CLEARANCE AND MUST TAKE WHATEVER OTHER
MEASURES MAY BE NECESSARY TO ENSURE HIS OWN SAFETY.

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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 1 : STANDARD ELECTRICAL AND WORKING
CLEARANCES BASED ON GAPPED ARRESTERS

System
Nominal
System
Highest
Minimum Electrical
Clearance In mm
Working Clearance
In Metres
Voltage
(kV)
Voltage
(kV)
Phase-To-
Earth
Phase-To-
Phase
Vertical Horizontal
*
3,3
6,6
11
15
3,6
7,2
12
17,5
80
150
200
230
110
200
270
310
2,5
2,6
2,7
2,7
1,2
1,2
1,3
1,3
22
33
44
66
24
36
48
72
320
430
540
770
430
580
730
1050
2,8
2,9
3,0
3,2
1,4
1,5
1,6
1,8
88

132
100

145
840
(1000)
1200
1150
(1350)
1650
3,3
(3,5)
3,7
1,9
(2,1)
2,3
220
275
330
400
245
300
362
420
1850
2350
2900
3200
2300
2950
3600
4000
4,3
4,8
5,4
5,7
2,9
3,4
4,0
4,3

Notes : Bracketed figures for 88 kV are for full insulation and are to
be used only if the system is not effectively earthed. The
figures given for systems of 66 kV and below assume non-
effective earthing.

Beam
Jumper
Jumper Weight
Jumper
z
z-y x
O
x
P
W
b
d
(a) Side View (b) End View
l l

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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 2 : MAXIMUM SPANS : BUSBARS AND STRINGERS (BASED ON
GAPPED ARRESTERS)
(Based on phase-to-phase spacings and clearances)
System
Nominal
Voltage
Phase-
To-Phase
Spacing
Average
Effective
Length
Conduct
or
Tension
Max. Span In Metres Between Suspension
Points

(kV)

(metres)
Of Strain
String *
(metres)
(kN per
phase)
1 x
160
(mm
2
)
1 x
400
(mm
2
)
1 x
800
(mm
2
)
2 x
400
(mm
2
)
2 x
800
(mm
2
)
11 0,914 0,9 9,0 68 43 30 27 18
4,5 48 31 21 19 13
22 0,914 1,2 9,0 58 37 26 22 15
4,5 41 26 18 16 11
33 0,914 1,4 9,0 49 31 21 16 11
4,5 34 22 15 11 8
44
66 1,83 1,6 4,5 52 34 23 21 15
4,5 52 34 23 21 15
88 2,44 2,0 4,5 73 44 30 29 20
9,0 103 62 42 41 28
4,5 73 47 32 29 20
132 3,048 2,5 9,0 100 64 44 39 27
18,0 - 91 61 56 38
4,5 71 45 31 28 19
220+ 4,57 3,0 18,0 - 115 79 75 52
9,0 - 76 52 49 34
275+ 4,57 3,5 18,0 - - - 61 42
9,0 - - - 38 26
330+ 7,01 Straight
4,3
18,0 - - - 94 64
Vee
4,7
9,0 - - - 67 46
400+ 7,01 Straight
4,7
18,0 - - - - 61
Vee
5,25
9,0 - - - - 43

*
+ See Note 4

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DECEMBER 2001
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_______________________________________________________________________________________

Notes :
1. Sag =
T . 8
L . w . 8 ,
2
9
eq. 7-2.9
where :- w = mass in kg/m
L = span in metres
T = Tension in Newtons
Sag =
2
Spacing) Conductor clearance (Phase spacing Phase +
eq. 7-2.10
2. Conductor spacing for - twin conductors : 150 mm
- triple conductors : 165 mm
3. To calculate the spans, the tensions used were 90 % of the values given in the
table.
4. The Stringer spans for voltages from 220 kV to 400 kV may be determined by
phase to earth clearances and for these voltages reference should also be made
to Table 3.
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DECEMBER 2001
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_______________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 3 : MAXIMUM SPANS : STRINGERS ON EXTENDED BAYS (BASED ON
GAPPED ARRESTERS)

System
Nominal
Voltage
Bay
Size
Distance
To
Steelwork
Conductor
Tension
Max Span In Metres Between Strain Beams

(kV)

(m)
x
(m)

(kN/Phase)
1 x
160
mm
2

1 x
400
mm
2

1 x
800
mm
2

2 x
400
mm
2

2 x
800
mm
2

66 7,62 1,67 + 1 4,5 55 37 26 24 18 *
+ 2 3,0 48 32 23 22 16
88 8,53 1,48 4,5 68 48 34 33 24 *
10,36 3,25 4,5 77 48 34 33 24
132 12,19 2,62 4,5 76 50 36 33 24 *
220 15,24 2,90 9,0 - 80 57 54 38
18,29 5,85 9,0 - 82 58 55 40 *
275 15,24 2,94 9,0 - - - 42 31
18,29 5,85 9,0 - - - 45 33 *
330 23,77 4,40 9,0 - - - 72 52
400 23,77 4,40 9,0 - - - - 46
* Determined by phase-to-phase clearance considerations.

x

x =

+1 =

+2 =
distance from centre line
of phase to edge of
steelwork.

for free standing portal
using 66/25/1 or 66/32/1
beam.

for free standing portal
using 66/50/1 beam (two
bays).

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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 4 : MAXIMUM SPANS : 800 mm
2
(Bull) STRINGERS BETWEEN YARDS
(BASED ON GAPPED ARRESTERS)

L.V. Yard Transmission Conductor H.V. Yard Steelwork (kV)
Steelwork Voltage Per 33 44 66 88 132 275 400
(kV) (kV) Phase Maximum Span In Metres Between Strain Beams
11 1 23 28 32 36
2 15 20 22 25
22 1 21 28 35
33 2 13 19 31 24
33 1 18 26 30 34 40
2 11 18 20 24 28
44 44 1 - -
2 - -
66 66 1 - - 26 30 34 40
2 - - 18 21 24 28
88 88 1 - - - 36 37 43 55
2 - - - 24 26 31 38
132 132 1 - - - - 36 42 53
2 - - - - 24
29
37
275 220 1 - - - - - 58 74
2 - - - - - 40 51
275 2 - - - - - 33 47
400 330 2 - - - - - - 55
400 2 - - - - - - 53
Based on phase-to-phase spacings and clearances.
Conductor Tension : up to and including 132 kV - 4 kN/Phase 275 kV and
above kN/Phase.
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

2
(Centipede) STRINGERS
BETWEEN YARDS (BASED ON GAPPED ARRESTERS)

L.V. Yard Transmission Conductor H.V. Yard Steelwork (kV)
Steelwork Voltage Per 33 44 66 88 132 275 400
(kV) (kV) Phase Maximum Span In Metres Between Strain Beams
11 1 33 40 47 52
2 21 28 32 35
33 22 1 29 39 46 50
2 18 26 30 34
33 1 25 37 42 48 57
2 14 25 28 33 40
44 44 1 -
2 -
66 66 1 - - 37 42 48 57
2 - - 24 29 33 40
88 88 1 - - - 48 52 61 79
2 - - - 34 36 43 55
132 132 1 - - - - 50 62 76
2 - - - - 33 40 52
275 220 1 - - - - - 82 104
2 - - - - - 55 72
275 2 - - - - - 45 65
400 330 2 - - - - - - 75
400 2 - - - - - - -

Conductor Tension : Up to and including 132 kV 4 kN/Phase.
: 275 kV and above - 8 kN/Phase.
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

2
(Hornet) STRINGERS BETWEEN
YARDS (BASED ON GAPPED ARRESTERS)

L.V. Yard
Steelwork
Transmission
Voltage
Conductors
Per
H.V. Yard Steelwork (kV)
Phase 33 44 66 88 132
kV kV Maximum Span Between Strain Beams
11 1 50 64 73 80
33 22 1 44 60 69 77
33 1 37 56 65 73
44 44 1 -
66 66 1 - - 56 65 73
88 88 1 - - - 77 79
132 132 1 - - - - 76

All conductor tensions 4 kN per phase.

Beam
Jumper
Jumper Weight
Jumper
z
z-y x
O
x
P
W
b
d
(a) Side View (b) End View
l l

FIGURE 1 : JUMPER CLEARANCES
In Figure 1 (b)
P = Horizontal wind force on jumper
W = Total weight of jumper (including conductors, spacers, jumper weights)
[For simplicity the forces are assumed to act at lowest point of jumper]
Taking moments about O : W(X.Sin) = P(X.Cos) eq. 7-2.11
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
W
P
= Tan eq. 7-2.12
Y = X.Tan eq. 7-2.13
Clearance to Column = Z - Y eq. 7-2.14
where :-
P = G(.l.d + n.a) eq. 7-2.15
d = Conductor diameter (m)
G = wind force = 440 N/m
2
of projected area
n = number of jumper weights
.l = jumper length (jumper assumed circular)
X 1,1 Phase to earth clearance eq. 7-2.16
W = 9,81 (.l.w
1
+ n.w
2
+ 2.w
3
) eq. 7-2.17
w
1
= Conductor mass (kg/m)
w
2
= jumper weight mass = 25 kg
w
3
= mass of spacer (kg) (2 assumed)
a = projected area of jumper weight
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 7 : JUMPER CLEARANCES (BASED ON GAPPED ARRESTERS)

kV l

(m)
Cond b

(m)
X

(m)
n P

(N)
W

(N)
Z

(m)
Y

(m)
Z-Y

(m)
Reqd
clearance
(m)
Cond/
phase
66 1,73 Cent 0,23 0,85 0 62,4 60 2,70 1,08 1,62 0,77 1
2,62 1,54 2
Bull 91,3 128 2,70 0,87 1,80 1
2,62 1,75 2
88 2,1 Cent 0,26 0,93 0 76 73 2,70 1,32 1,38 0,84 1
2,62 1,30 2
Bull 111 155 2,70 1,10 1,60 1
2,62 1,55 2
132 2,58 Cent 0,35 1,32 0 93 90 3,84 1,55 2,29 1,20 1
3,67 2,12 2
Bull 136 190 3,84 1,25 2,59 1
3,67 2,42 2
220 3,14 Cent 0,36 2,04 2 153 658 2,59 0,47 2,12 1,85 1
2,43 1,96 2
Bull 206 780 2,59 0,52 2,07 1
2,43 1,91 2
275 3,6 Cent 0,36 2,59 2 170 674 2,43 0,63 1,80 2,35 1
Bull 230 813 2,43 0,70 1,73 2
330 4,4 Cent 0,36 3,19 2 199 702 4,26 0,87 3,38 2,90 1
Bull 272 872 4,26 0,95 3,30 2
400 4,8 Bull 0,36 3,52 2 2,95 905 4,26 1,10 3,16 3,20 2

B
PLAN
B
A
A

4267
3048 3048 4877
B
h
W
k
y
R
Y
Beam
width
x
0
X
Dropper
R
2488
914
Isolator
Foundation Level
Column
Column
Busbar
beam
C
L
C
L
C
L
y
7
6
2
0
1
8
2
9
2
4
3
8
C
L
914

h
D l
Centre
Phase
R
r
k
FIGURE 2 : SPECIMEN CALCULATION FOR 132 kV
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DECEMBER 2001
-14-
S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
SECTION A-A
Y =
=
=
3353 - Busbar beam width, X = 7010
3353 - 305
3048 mm
Y - y =
=
3048 974
2074 mm
Assume dropper is parabolic : y = a.x
2
h = Phase-earth clearance
+ 10%
For x = X and y = Y, = 1320 mm

a = 2
X
Y
= 6,203 . 10
-6
mm
-1

k =
=
(Y-y) h
2074 1320
754 mm
For x =

y =

3962 (i.e. distance from 0 to
centre phase)
6,203 . 10
-6
(3962)
2

974 mm

SECTION B-B
Insulator string length, l = 2579 mm
For D = 4267 (i.e. 15240 bay : 4267 + 3048 + 3048 + 4877)
r
1min
= 2667 mm
For D = 3048 (i.e. 12192 bay : 3048 + 3048 + 3048 + 3048)
r
2min

= 1880 mm
Min phase-phase clearance : 1650 mm

See Fig 2. Sheet 2 for 132 kV jumper profile :
r
1
= clearance for bay size 1
r
2
= clearance for bay size 2

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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 8 : END BAY DIMENSIONS (BASED ON GAPPED ARRESTERS)
Phase-To- Bay Size 1 Bay Size 2 Recommended
Voltage

(kV)
Phase
Clearance
(mm)
Dim.

(m)
r
1

(mm)
Dim.

(m)
r
2

(mm)
Bay Size
Dimension
(m)

Remarks

66 1050 9,754 1880 7,620 1220 a) 9,754

b) 7,620
a) For bay
adjacent to
bus section
b) Adequate
for end bay
88 1150) 10,363 2590 8,534 1700 a) 10,363

b) 8,534
a) For bay
adjacent to
bus section
b) Adequate
for end bay
132 1650 15,240 2670 12,192

1880 15,240
220 2300 18,283 4750 15,240

2690 18,288
275 2950 18,283 4115 15,240

2110 18,283
330 3600

See Fig B
Sheet 3
400 4000

See Fig B
Sheet 3

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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

7 7
R
W
B
7
7
4,877
0,5
6,5 6,5
2,05
5,877
4,877
d

PLAN
All dimensions in
metres
4,877 7 7 4,877
Stringer Beam
Busbar Beam
h
B
0,5
Isol.
L
1,0
5,877
2,05
K
l
Z
d
13,106
20,42
6
,
5
B
W
R
C

ELEVATION
h = 1,1 . -E clearance
= 3,52 m
z = 2,678 m
For d = 2,25m, minimum
allowable distances
between column
foundations,

K = 6,077 m
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Insulator string length : l
y (m)
I
II
Jumper Profiles
x (m)
K
R
I
R
II
(b)
Isolator
Blade C
L
I : Special creepage l = 6 m
II : Normal creepage l = 5 m
Min - E clearance 4 m
For d = 2,25 m
R
I
= 4,65 m R
II
= 5 m
B

FIGURE 3 : END BAY DIMENSIONS
(400 kV)
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 4 : END-BAY DIMENSIONS
(JUMPER PROFILES)
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 5 : TRANSFORMER CLEARANCES
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

Head
Current Transformer
Circuit Breaker
M
q
t
N
p
s
x
Tank
If x is too small
p < q
s < t
R
Other live parts
Earthed metal
R
R

R = -E Clearance
FIGURE 6 : SURGE ARRESTER CLEARANCE
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

5.2 TABLE 9 : BUILDING RESTRICTION FROM CENTRE LINE OF
POWER LINE
22 kV
and below

9

metres
33 kV BEAR CONDUCTOR 11 metres
33 kV H-POLE 15,5 metres
88 kV (HORIZONTAL CONDUCTOR SPACING) 15,5 metres
132 kV 15,5 metres
275 kV 23,5 metres
400 kV 23,5 metres
400 kV (FOR NEW LONGER SPAN LENGTH) 27,5 metres
765 kV 40 metres
533 kV CAHORA BASSA (FROM CENTRE LINE OF
CONDUCTOR)
15,5 metres

5.3 TABLE 10 : SEPARATION DISTANCES BETWEEN PARALLEL
POWER LINES (SEE ALSO FIGURE 7)
22 kV
and below

12

metres
33 kV 14 metres
44 kV 14 metres
66 kV 14 metres
88 kV (DELTA CONDUCTOR SPACING) 15 metres
88 kV (HORIZONTAL CONDUCTOR SPACING) 21 metres
132 kV 25 metres
132 kV (DOUBLE CIRCUIT) 32 metres
275 kV 32 metres
400 kV (FOR NEW LONGER SPAN LENGTH) 35 metres
765 kV 60 metres
533 kV CAHORA BASSA (FROM CENTRE LINE OF
CONDUCTOR)
40 metres

5.4 TABLE 11 : RECOMMENDED TIMBER RESTRICTION IN FORESTRY
AREAS
66 kV 33 metres
88 kV 33,5 metres
132 kV 36 metres
275 kV 38,5 metres
400 kV 38,5 metres

Note : Trees in the proximity of transmission lines shall be limited in height
to their horizontal distance from the nearest conductor.

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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 2 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

X Y Z
RESTRICTION TOWER CRS.

FIGURE 7 : TRANSMISSION LINE AND TERMINAL TOWER
SEPARATION AND WIDTH RESTRICTION

TABLE 8 : MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED DISTANCES BETWEEN
TERMINAL PORTAL AND TERMINAL TOWER
40 m Slack Span up to 132 kV Steelwork to terminal tower
50 m Slack Span 132 kV to 400 kV Steelwork to terminal tower

TABLE 9 : MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED DISTANCES BETWEEN
TERMINAL PORTAL AND TERMINAL TOWER
VOLTAGE
(kV)
X
(m)
Y
(m)
Z
(m)
11 11 12 SINGLE OR TWIN TRIPLE
22 11 12 CONDUCTOR CONDUCTOR
33 11
44 11 14
66 11 14
88 11 15
132 15,5 21 8,02
220 25 10,22
275 23,5 32 11,10
330 23,5
400 23,5 35 11,6 12,50
800 400 60 16,0
(Suspension)
23,0
20,0(Strain)
Note : For dimensioning between towers carrying different
voltages use largest distance.
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 3 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 7 - 3
STANDARD NUMBERS OF INSULATOR DISCS
Old Electrical Engineering Department Directive EED 14/1/5-1
2. STANDARD NUMBERS OF INSULATOR DISCS
The number of disc insulators to be used for various system voltages under
normal, special or exceptional conditions of pollution is indicated in Table 2.
3 BASIS OF STANDARD
3.1 General
The recommended number of insulator discs is based on four criteria,
viz. :-
a) Adequate creepage distance :-
No. of discs =
* disc standard 1 of distance Creepage
1 - 7 S.L.D.G. from distance Creepage

eq. 7-3.1
(*292 mm was the creepage distance of 1 standard disc, however,
this figure needs to be checked with that which is currently being
supplied).
b) Adequate phase-to-phase :
No. of discs =
146
2 - 7 S.L.D.G. from clearance earth - to - Phase

eq. 7-3.2
(146 mm is the minimum phase-to-earth clearance per disc)
c) Adequate strength to withstand switching surges up to 2,5 times
maximum line-to-ground voltage for voltages up to 400 kV
Switching surge strength = 575 . (L)
0,6
eq. 7-3.3
where :- L = Length of string in metres
= 0,146 . N
N = No. of discs
Insulation strength required = 2,5 .
79 , 0
1
. 1,1 . 2 .
3
Um

= 2,84 . U
m
eq. 7-3.4
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 3 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
where :- 2,5 = switching surge factor

1
0 79 ,
= Altitude correction factor
1,1 = Factor of safety for withstand
2 = Peak
U
m
= Max. system line-to-line
voltage
Thus 575 . (0,146 . N)
0,6
= 2,84 . U
m
eq. 7-3.5
N =
1,67
m
575
U

146 , 0

2,84
.
1

eq. 7-3.6
Above 400 kV this formula gives an excessive number of discs from
the point of view of economy and switching surge factors will have
to be reduced to lower values.
d) Adequate strength to give reasonable lightning performance.
Experience shows that a level of 1,39 x Equipment B.I.L (1,1 x 1,1 x
1,15 x B.I.L.) has given satisfactory lightning performance. The
number of discs can thus be determined from curves relating
impulse strength to string length. (Note : The 1,39 factor is
historical and was made up of 1,1 external Internal, 1,1 Busbar
External, and 1,15 for altitude).
Table 3 indicates the application of these four criteria in determining
the number of insulator discs for single insulator strings under
normal pollution conditions.
3.2 'V' Strings
'V' Strain strings being under tension present no particular problems other
than a straightforward calculation to ensure adequate earth clearance.
'V' Suspension strings on the other hand do not hang completely straight
because of inadequate weight spans and the suspension point effectively
rises due to the catenary shape of the insulators thereby reducing the
phase-to-earth clearance.
The problem of calculating the amount by which the conductor rises can be
solved by using the formula presented in J.T. Hattingh's book "A Universal
Stress Sag Chart"
Referring to Figure 1
G = .d
M
4.M
o
o
+ 8.M
eq. 7-3.7
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 3 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
S = C +
3.C
2
8.d
eq. 7-
3.8
C
2
= G
2
+ x
2
eq. 7-
3.9
where : M = concentrated load at midpoint
M
o
= total weight of catenary
From these formulae, the following may be derived :-
(1 +
8
3
. k
2
) C
2
- S.C -
8
3
. k
2
.x
2
= 0 eq. 7-3.10
where : k =
o
o
M 8.M
M
+
eq. 7-3.11
An example of the calculations is given in Figure 1 which also schedules
the clearances for various 'V" strings.
x
C
d
S
M
d
G
M
O M
O

FIGURE 1 : V-SUSPENSION STRINGS
M
o
= weight of insulators
= 2 . 3,7 . P . 9,81
= 72,5 . P Newtons
P = No of insulators each having a mass of 3,7 kg.
M = Weight of hardware + weight of span
= 9,81 (20 + span length in metres x conductor mass in kg / metre)
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 3 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Hardware assembly comprises 2 x Ball Clevis, 2 x Socket Clevis, 2 x Suspension Clamp,
1 x Suspension Plate and 2 x Extension Strap for which the mass is :-

mass = 2 . 0,5 + 2 . 1 + 1 + 2 . 4 + 3,5 + 2 . 3
mass = 20 kg
Example :
System voltage : 275 kV
No. Of discs P : 21
Conductor : 2 x 800 mm
2
(mass 2,34 kg / metre)
Minimum span : 15,24 m
M
o
= 72,5 . 21 = 1520 N
M = 9,81 [20 + 15,24 (2 . 2,34)] = 900 N
k =
1520
= 0,114
13280
x = 2286 mm for 275 kV suspension beam
S = Extension strap + Ball clevis + 21 Discs + Socket clevis
= 450 + 82 + 3066 + 60
= 3658 mm
From eq. 7-3.10 : 1,035 C
2
- 3,66 . C - 0,181 = 0
C =
3 66 3 76
2 07
, ,
,
= 3,584 m
From eq. 7-3.9 : C = 3 584 2 286
2
, ,
2
= 2,761 m.
Minimum permissible clearance for 275 kV = 2,35 m.
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 3 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 1 : CLEARANCES FOR VARIOUS V STRINGS

System No. Of Dimension Minimum Clearance to earth
Voltage
(kV)
Conductors Discs x
mm
Span
(m)
Actual
(mm)
Required
(mm)
220 2 x 400 mm
2
17 2286 15,24 1960 1850
2 x 800 mm
2
17 2286 15,24 2000 1850
275 2 x 400 mm
2
21 2286 15,24 2700 2350
2 x 800 mm
2
21 2286 15,24 2760 2350
330 2 x 800 mm
2
25 3048 23,78 2870 2900
400 2 x 800 mm
2
29 3048 23,78 3620 3200

TABLE 2 : NUMBER OF INSULATOR DISCS
System
Voltage
Single String V Suspension String V Strain String
(kV) N S E N S E N S E
6,6
11
22
33
44
66
1
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
2
4
5
7
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
88
132
7
10
7
10
9
13
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
220
275
330
400
13
16
20
23
17
21
25
29
21
26
31
36
17
21
25
29
17
21
25
29

*
13
16
20
29
17
21
25
29

*

N = Normal creepage
S = Special creepage
E = Exceptional creepage
'V' Strings for exceptional creepage will require special consideration
because of the overall length of the strings.
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 3 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 3 : DETERMINATION OF ISOLATOR DISCS FOR SINGLE
STRINGS (NORMAL CREEPAGE)
System Minimum Number Of Discs (250 x 145 mm)
Nominal Criteria Standard
Voltage
(kV)
Creepage Clearance Lightning Switching
Surge

6,6
11
22
33
44
66
1
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
2
3
3
5
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
3
4
5
88
132
7
10
7
10
7
10
3
4
7
10
220
275
330
400
13
16
19
22
13
16
20
22
13
16
21
23
9
13
18
23
13
16
20
23

4. BRIDGING OF ISOLATOR CAPS
This is particularly important since a phase shift across a gap on the same phase
can occur (see Figure 3).
~
B
W
R
INSULATION GAP
W
R
FAULT
B W
R

FIGURE 3
If a single phase-to-earth fault occurs on say the red (R) phase, the neutral will
shift to the phase that is faulting i.e. red phase. The potential on either side of the
insulating gap is therefore different and a flashover can occur. Proper insulation
co-ordination optimisation needs to be done.
Bridging of equipment used for isolating purposes by additional insulators, is
allowed only if leakage currents between the connection at both sided are
positively prevented by a reliable earthing connection (see Figure 2).
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DECEMBER 2001
-7-
S.L.D.G. 7 - 3 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

(a) Not Permitted (b) Permitted
FIGURE 2 : BRIDGING OF ISOLATING EQUIPMENT BY MEANS
OF INSULATORS

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DECEMBER 2001
-1-
S.L.D.G. 7 - 4 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 7 4

CORONA
1. REFERENCES

2. CORONA LIMITS
The maximum system voltages that can be used with various conductors (size and
number/phase) can be calculated from the following formulae :-
TABLE 1 : CORONA FORMULAE
Conductors
Per Phase
Corona Formula
1
E = k
1
. k
2
. k
3
. 4,19.d.log
10

|
|
.
|
\
|
1,9.d
G

eq. 7-4.1
2
E =
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
a.d
1,27.G
.log
a
d
1
.8,39.d .k .k k
10
3 2 1

eq. 7-4.2
3 E =
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
3 2
10
3 2 1
.d a
1,13.G
.log
a
d
1,73. 1
.12,60.d .k .k k
eq. 7-4.3
4 E =
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
4 3
10
.
3 2 1
.d a
G
.log
a
d
. 12 , 2 1
d . 19 , 8 1 .k .k k
eq. 7-4.4
Where :-
E = Maximum line-to-line voltage, kV rms
d = Conductor diameter, mm
a = Spacing between adjacent conductors of a phase bundle, mm
G = Geometric mean phase-to-phase spacing in mm
=
3
L
31 23 12
L . L .
where : L
12
= distance between phases 1 and 2,
L
23
= distance between phases 2 and 3,
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 4 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
L
31
= distance between phases 3 and 1
k
1
= Correction factor for conductor surface
= 0,9 for aged conductor
= 0,8 for new conductor
k
2
= Correction factor for weather
= 1,0 for fine weather
= 0,8 for rain, snow or fog
k
3
= Correction factor for altitude
= 1,0 at sea level
= RAD at altitude
= 0,88 at 1800 m for RAD = 0,79
RAD = Relative Air Density
Corona limit voltages calculated from these formulae for an altitude of 1800 m are
scheduled in Table 1
3. GENERAL INFORMATION
Corona is a discharge in an insulating material, usually air, caused by electrical
overstressing.
The discharge may be manifested as "Visual Corona", "Audible Corona" or
"Glow" discharges
Plume" discharges occur on positive half cycles, may range in length from
a few cms to 15 cms, and are usually accompanied by audible noise
Brush" discharges occur during negative half cycles and are generally
smaller than "Plume" discharges.
"Glow" discharges appear as a faint light around the surface and are often
due to humidity.
The discharges are due to electron avalanches which occur when the electric field
intensity exceeds a critical value. Electrons, having a negative charge, accelerate
towards the conductor during the positive half cycle and away from the conductor
during the negative half cycle. As a result of collisions a stream of electrons is
built up which eventually terminates on the conductor (+ve half cycle) or ceases to
grow any further because of insufficient field strength (-ve half cycle).
Recombination of the electrons with positive ions moving in the opposite direction
causes the emission of energy in the form of visible light.
Corona discharges cause h.f. noise which may interfere with radio and/or
television reception. The RIV (Radio Influence Voltage) is measured in microvolts
by direct coupling to the test specimen. The Radio Influence (RI) is measured in
microvolts/meter via loose coupling with a rod antenna.
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DECEMBER 2001
-3-
S.L.D.G. 7 - 4 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
General RIV levels are
"Plumes" : 10,000
"Brush" : 100-5000 microvolts
"Glow" : 10 microvolts
The effect on radio reception depends on the signal strength from the transmitting
station and the following may be taken as a general guide :-
TABLE 2 : RADIO INTERFERENCE EFFECTS AT VARIOUS DISTANCES
FORM THE SOURCE
Signal Strength

(v/m)
Distance For Freedom From
Interference
(m)
Moderate Interference

(m)
2000
1000
500
100
20
43
68
100
250
-
18
31
50
132
315

TABLE 3 : CONDUCTOR BUNDLES REQUIRED AT DIFFERENT
VOLTAGES

Reference

Overall
Maximum Nominal Voltage As Limit By
Corona - kV
Material Area Diameter 1 2 4
(mm
2
) (mm) Conductors Per Phase
25
40
63
6,36
7,95
10,05
44
66
88

All Aluminium 100
160
250
12,75
16,75
22,25
88
132
132

220
275

275
400
400
500
630
800
26,25
29,75
33,75
38,25
220
220
275
330
330
330
400
400
400
400
25
40
50
7,08
9,00
10,05
44
66
88

SCA
63
100
160
11,25
14,25
18,55
88
88
132

220

275
250
400
500
630
23,45
27,00
30,15
33,70
132
220
220
275
275
330
330
400
400
16
25
40
5,10
6,36
7,95
44
44
66

Copper
63
80
100
10,05
11,25
13,25
88
88
88

160
250
315
400
16,52
21,00
23,85
27,00
132
132
132
220
220
275
275
330
275
400
400

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DECEMBER 2001
-1-
S.L.D.G. 7 - 5 / 0
_______________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 7 5

TAN DELTA VS POWER FACTOR


2. TAN DELTA VERSUS POWER FACTOR
There are a number of factors that characterise the quality of insulation, viz. :-
a) dielectric loss,
b) tan delta or power factor,
and
c) capacitance
With the tangent delta test, all three of the factors can be measured and
determined. The factors tangent delta and power factor are often used
interchangeably. Referring to Figure 1 below, for low insulation losses, the
following is true:-
Tan = cos eq. 7-5.1

Where:-
I
R
I
T
I
C
I
T
C
P
R
P
E

I
R
I
C
I
T
E
E = applied test voltage across the insulation specimen
C
p
= equivalent parallel capacitance
R
p
= equivalent parallel A.C. resistance
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 5 / 0
_______________________________________________________________________________________
I
T
= total current drawn by the insulation specimen as a result of the
applied voltage E
I
C
= quadrature (90
o
) capacitance component of the total current I
T

I
R
= in-phase (0
o
) resistance component of the total current I
T

= dielectric phase angle

= dielectric loss angle
Table 1 below provides a comparason between the percentage power factor and
the dissipation factor. It shows that up to around 30%, the percent power factor is
virtually equal to the to the dissipation factor, this range being the applicable for
the greater part of the measurements and test results, hence the interchangeable
us of these factors.
TABLE 1 : POWER FACTOR VS TAN DELTA
o
%PF(%.cos )
o
%DF(%.tan )
90 0 0 0
84,26 10 5,74 10,05
81,27 15 8,63 15,18
78,64 20 11,54 20,42
72,54 30 17,64 31,45
66,42 40 23,58 43,65
53,13 60 36,87 75
45 70 45 100
0 100 90

3. LOSSES IN THE DIELECTRIC
The loss angle tan delta is a ratio of the capacitive charge currents (I
C
) and the
active currents (I
R
). These currents will flow due to the conductivity of the
insulating material. These two currents can be further separated into components
of losses due to partial discharge (i
PD
) and polarisation (i
p
), that together with the
capacitive currents (i
C
) and conductive currents (i
R
) constitute the total losses (i
ins
)
as shown diagrammatically and vectorially in Figure 2.
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 5 / 0
_______________________________________________________________________________________

i
C
(total)
C
P
R
P
u
ac
I
R
I
C
E
i
T
(total)
i
INS
i
C
i
PD
i
p
i
ac
i
INS

A high dielectric loss will result in the thermal breakdown of the material at a lower
voltage than the expected breakdown voltage. An insulating material with dielectric
losses can be represented by either a series or a parallel combination (parallel
preferred) of resistance and capacitance provided the voltage applied to the
material is sinusoidal. The resistance simulates the loss in the material and the
capacitance simulates the ideal dielectric.
I
R
is the in-phase loss component of the current while I
C
is the imaginary
component of the same.
C
r
I
I
an t = eq. 7-5.2
ins
r
I
I
cos = eq. 7-5.2
For small values of , I
ins
I
C
and tan

cos
p p
R . C .
1
an t
= eq. 7-5.2

4. POWER LOSS
The active part of the power loss can in general be represented by the following
equation:-
P
ac
= .C.U
2
.tan eq. 7-5.3
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DECEMBER 2001
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S.L.D.G. 7 - 5 / 0
_______________________________________________________________________________________

For a coaxial cylindrical condenser:-
2
0 0
0 0
ac
r
R
ln .
.2. . .
Q
.
r
R
ln
.2. . .
. P

=
l
l
eq. 7-5.4
with
Q = E.
0
.
r
.2..r. eq. 7-5.5
P
ac
= . Q
2
.tan eq. 7-5.6
P
ac
= . E
2
. (
0
.
r
)
2
.V
2
.tan eq. 7-5.7
From this equation one can conclude that the active power loss P
ac
, depends on
the following factors:-
frequency
applied voltage
permittivity of the dielectric
volume, measurements
temperature
Insert graph

In the case of the condenser bushing, the total tan delta factor is built up out of
several components. In the OIP case one has the tan delta of the impregnated
paper, the insulating transformer oil and, in extremity, the porcelain in tha case of
a defect.
A defect or contamination of either of these components will have an effect on the
total tan delta factor.
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DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 8 - 0/0
____________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 8 - 0
SUBSTATION EARTHING
INDEX
S.L.D.G. 8-0 0 INDEX

S.L.D.G. 8-1 0 EARTH-MAT DESIGN
2. General
3. Probability Of An Accident
4. Basis Of Design
4.1 Safe Body Current
4.2 Step Potential
4.3 Touch Potential
4.4 Mesh Potential
4.5 Transferred Potential
4.6 Actual Potential In Yard
4.7 Length Of Grid Required
4.8 Soil Resistivities
4.9 Total Resistance Of Mat To True Earth
5. Barrier Fence Earthing Procedure
5.1 Preamble
5.2 Recommendations
5.3 Application Guide For Earthing Of Substation
Fencing
5.3.1 Site boundary fencing
5.3.2 Security fencing
5.3.3 Safety fencing
5.4 General Parameters Applicable To All Fencing
5.4.1 Security level 1
5.4.1.1 Yard safety fencing
5.4.1.2 Site boundary fencing (Boer
fencing)
5.4.1.3 Barrier fencing
5.4.1.4 Transformer fencing
fencing)
5.4.2.3 Barrier fencing - security level
2 requirements
fencing)
5.4.3.3 Barrier fencing - security level
3 requirements
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 8 - 0/0
____________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 8-2 0 COPPER EARTHING CONDUCTOR SIZES
2. Copper Area Required
3. Earthing Copper Sizes
4. Notes On Earthing
4.1 Yard Surfacing
4.2 Fences
4.3 Solid-state Relays
4.4 Earthing Of Equipment

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 8 - 0/0
____________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 8 - 1
EARTH-MAT DESIGN
"Voltage gradients through the ground under fault conditions."
AIEE Committee Report. October 1958.
2. GENERAL
The standard Eskom practice for earth-mats is to bury a horizontal grid of
copper conductors (generally in round, solid form but occasionally of the
stranded type ex transmission lines) about 1 meter below ground level, the grid
extending over the whole area occupied by the substation. All metalwork in the
substation (steel structures, gutters, fences, etc.) is then bonded to this earth-
mat with either 10 mm round or flat copper straps so that a direct low-
resistance path to earth is provided for short-circuit currents.
When these high fault currents flow in the earth, voltage gradients are
established within and around the substation that can be lethal to a person
standing nearby.
Although completely accurate pre-calculation of the gradients is seldom
practical because of the variables involved, sufficient general data is available
on which to base a design that will be reasonably safe.
3. PROBABILITY OF AN ACCIDENT
The probability of an accident depends on the coincidence of several adverse
factors, as follows :-
(a) The fault current must generally be high in relation to the size of the
earth-mat. High fault currents at small substations are the most
dangerous.
(b) Soil resistivity must generally be high and the distribution of fault
current through the bonded earthing system must be such as to
produce high gradients. During the storm season the soil is usually
moist and the resistivity low.
(c) An individual must be bridging two points of high potential difference
during the very short period when fault current is flowing. Since
modern protective systems operate rapidly the total danger period is
unlikely to exceed a few seconds in any one year.
(d) Absence of any significant contact resistance to limit the current
through the body (e.g. rubber-soled shoes, dry hands).
(e) The magnitude of the current flowing through the body and the time for
which it flows must be sufficient to cause harm.
Thus, while voltage gradients are theoretically hazardous, and while it is
impossible to ensure complete safety at all times and at all places, the low
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 8 - 0/0
____________________________________________________________________________________
probability of all adverse factors occurring simultaneously makes it possible to
design an earthing system of reasonable proportions.

4. BASIS OF DESIGN (ALSO SEE S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 SECTIONS 2.4 AND 4)
4.1 "Safe" Body Current
1 mA : Threshold of perception
10-15 mA : Painful and possible lack of muscular control
Greater currents : a) Breathing problems
b) Ventricular fibrillation of the heart
Ventricular fibrillation does not respond to resuscitation and the
threshold of this condition is thus of major concern.
From experimental data the "safe" body current (I
k
) is a function of time
(t, in secs) according to the equation
I
k
2
. t = 0,027 eq. 8-1.1
whence : I
k
=
0 165 ,
t
amps r.m.s. at 50 Herts. eq. 8-1.2
DC values are perhaps 5 times greater and lightning surge currents
even higher.
4.2 Step Potential
I
R
1
R
2
R
0
R
F
R
F
R
K
R
F
R
F
R
1
R
2
R
0
R
K
I
I
K
Step
Potential

R
k
= Body resistance 1000 ohms
R
f
= Resistance under feet 3 .
s

s
= Surface resistivity in ohm-metres
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DECEMBER 2001 -3- S.L.D.G. 8 - 0/0
____________________________________________________________________________________
"Safe" Step Potential = I
K
(R
K
+ 2 . R
F
) =
0,165
t
(1000 + 6 .
s
)
eq. 8-1.3
=
165
t
s
+
eq. 8-1.4
4.3 Touch Potential
I
R
1
R
0
R
F
/2
R
K
R
1
R
0
R
F
/2 R
K
I
I
K
Touch
Potential

"Safe" Touch Potential = I
K
(R
K
+ 0,5 . R
F
) =
0,165
t
(1000 + 1,5 .
s
)
eq. 8-1.5
=
165 0,25 .
t
s
+
eq. 8-1.6
4.4 Mesh Potential
Bonding
Earth Grid
Fault
Man
I
R
K
R
1
R
F
/2
R
0
R
R
1
R
0
R
F
/2 R
K
I
I
K
Mesh Potential
R

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DECEMBER 2001 -4- S.L.D.G. 8 - 0/0
____________________________________________________________________________________

Mesh Potential = Voltage across a man standing in the
centre of the mesh and touching a
structure bonded to the earth-mat
some distance away.
"Safe" Mesh Potential = I
K
(R
K
+ 2 . R
F
) eq. 8-1.7
=
165 0,25 .
t
s
+
(See 4.3) eq. 8-1.8
4.5 Transferred Potential
R
K
R
o
Cable armouring earthed only at
remote station
R
F
/2
I

Safe" Transfer Potential = I
K
(R
K
+ 2 . R
F
) eq. 8-1.9
=
165 0,25 .
t
s
+
(See 4.3) eq. 8-1.10
4.6 Actual Potentials In Yards
Calculations show that the usual range of potentials to be expected in a
yard are as follows :-
E
step
0,1 to 0,15 . .i Inside Yard
0,1 to 0,2 . .i At Periphery
E
touch
0,6 to 0,8 . .i
E
mesh
.i
Where : = soil resistivity in ohm-metres
i = current per unit length of buried grid in
amps per meter
=
I
L
fault

L = Total length of earth grid in metres.
The worst case is the mesh potential
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DECEMBER 2001 -5- S.L.D.G. 8 - 0/0
____________________________________________________________________________________
Actual E
mesh
=
. I. K
L
eq. 8-1.11
where : K is a factor of safety, usually 1,25.
4.7 Length Of Grid Required
By equating the actual mesh voltage with the tolerable or "safe" value
we get :-
. I. K
L
=
165 + 0,25 . P
t
s
eq. 8-1.12
L =
K. . I . t
.
s
+ 165 0,25
metres eq. 8-1.13
e.g. for = 10
3
Dry soil
t = 5 sec.

S
= 3 . 10
3

Then for I = 31 kA then L = 9700 m
I = 25 kA then L = 7650 m
I = 16 kA then L = 4900 m
4.8 Soil Resistivities ()
Wet organic soil 10 ohm-metres
Moist soil 10
2
ohm metres
Dry soil 10
3
ohm-metres
Bed rock 10
4
ohm-metres
Wet crushed stone 3 . 10
3
ohm-metres (can be used for
s
).
4.9 Total Resistance Of Mat To True Earth
Rs =

4 . R L
+ eq. 8-1.14
where : R = Radius of circle (in metres) having the same area as
that enclosed by the grid.
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DECEMBER 2001 -6- S.L.D.G. 8 - 0/0
____________________________________________________________________________________

5. BARRIER FENCE EARTHING PROCEDURE
(REFER ALSO TO S.L.D.G. 20-5)
5.1 Preamble
It was normal practice in Eskom to fence a much larger area than
initially utilised by the substation. The substation electrical safety fence
is earthed to the surrounding earth-mat and also protected on the
outside by a layer of crusher stone. The outer farm boundary fence
and the single barrier fence used at early substations, were not
connected to the substations earthing system. These floating fences
were therefore treated as a separate installation with their own local
earthing. This procedure for earthing has met all the human safety
requirements for step or touch potentials.
To meet changed security requirements, electrical equipment as well as
electrified fences were later on added to the areas traditionally reserved
for the barrier fences. This equipment usually obtains its electrical
supplies from the substation and is normally situated outside the
protective area of the station earth-mat grid within which voltage rise is
controlled to safe limits. This practice created an unsafe environment
for both apparatus and humans in the vicinity of the barrier fence and
access control room. The high failure rate of security apparatus during
the early years of installation has illustrated the effects of transient
ground potential rise.
In view of the above it was essential that proper earthing in the barrier
fence area be introduced. Substation Technology Department and
Engineering investigations (today TRI) jointly developed a prototype
earthing system for evaluation. Two sites were selected on the basis of
soil resistivety for the experimental installation i.e. Venus Substation
(low resistivety) and Proteus Substation (high resistivity). It was clear
from the outset that the prototype installations provided the necessary
protection for the electrical security apparatus.
However, upon investigation it became clear that the now floating outer
barrier fence may not provide the necessary protection for human
safety as a result of the close proximity between the outer and the inner
barrier fences. The latter now forms part of the substation earth-mat
reference system although galvanically isolated, the outer fence and
surrounding area are subjected to high ground potential gradients which
results in unacceptable step and touch potentials. Rectifying the
problem on a deterministic approach can become impractical and we
are currently busy with the development of a probabilistic model to
determine statistical chances of injury to human life in these areas
during network fault conditions.
The investigations have progressed to a point where one can enclose
with confidence a recommendation for the earthing requirements in the
double barrier fence area that would meet all the equipment safety
requirements and which could be further developed should human
safety be proved unsatisfactory.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -7- S.L.D.G. 8 - 0/0
____________________________________________________________________________________
In the past years TRI submitted the Venus prototype earthing proposal
to various distributors and customers for implementation at substation
sites based on the assumption that all problems were successfully
addressed.
TSI was subsequently requested to refrain from the practice until such
time that the system is proven or modified to meet all the necessary
safety requirements. A number of projects in the Western Cape
Distributor Area were put on hold as a result.
The earthing procedure for new substations, where the double barrier
fence system is situated on the terraced area and fully incorporated into
the substation earth-mat, all aspects for both equipment and human
safety are addressed.
5.2 Recommendations
There are two methods of extending the earth-mat to ensure reliable
operation of equipment relating to the substation fencing. They are :-
1. Earth-mat conductor inside the inner barrier fence
2. Earth-mat conductor inside the outer barrier fence.
All the equipment should be connected to the earthmat conductor to
avoid unacceptably high voltages developing across the equipment
insulation during fault conditions in the substation.
The conductor should be the same cross sectional area as the rest of
the earth-mat i.e. 10 mm diameter solid copper rod for current carrying
capacity as well as mechanical strength requirements. The conductor
should be buried at the same depth as the main earth-mat which is
normally 1 m below the surface.
From an equipment point of view both the above mentioned options are
acceptable. However, if one takes into account human safety it is
recommended that Option 2 be followed. The two options are
illustrated in Figures 1 and 2.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -8- S.L.D.G. 8 - 0/0
____________________________________________________________________________________

Outside fence Inside fence
Ground conductor
Ground conductor
Estep
E
t
o
u
c
h
E
t
o
u
c
h
Estep
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

a
t

g
r
o
u
n
d

l
e
v
e
l

(
V
o
l
t
)

FIGURE 1 : EARTHMAT CONDUCTOR INSIDE INNER FENCE
Outside fence Inside fence
Ground conductor
Ground conductor
Estep
Estep
Etouch
Etouch
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

a
t

g
r
o
u
n
d

l
e
v
e
l

(
V
o
l
t
)

FIGURE 2 : EARTHMAT CONDUCTOR INSIDE OUTER FENCE
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -9- S.L.D.G. 8 - 0/0
____________________________________________________________________________________

From Figure 1 it is clear that a person on the outside of the substation
fence is in danger of experiencing high potentials between hand and
foot (Touch Potential) when he touches the fence. The person on the
inside is safe.
Figure 2 shows that the high touch potential of the outer fence can be
corrected by locating the earth-mat conductor just inside the outer
fence. The optimal position would be just outside the outer fence but
copper theft makes this option less attractive. There is also a high
probability that the person on the inside will be safe because he is
inside the earth-mat grid. It must, however, be noted that this study is
still underway and recommendations may still change once the study is
completed.
In summary :-
i) To protect electrical equipment related to the access control
area and the substation fence the earth-mat should be extended
to the fence area.
ii) Due to current carrying as well as mechanical requirements it is
recommended that the 10 mm diameter solid copper rod be
used.
iii) To ensure human safety it is recommended that the outer earth-
mat conductor be placed just inside the outer fence.
iv) The copper rod should be buried at a depth of at least 1 m.

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 8 - 2/1
____________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 8 - 2
COPPER EARTHING CONDUCTOR SIZES
Burndy Catalogue 50, page 83.
Old Electrical Eng. Dept. Directive EED 10/4/1-1.
2. COPPER AREA REQUIRED (SEE ALSO S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 SECTIONS 2.4 AND
4).
For exposed copper i.e. for the connections between equipment and the
earthmat, a temperature rise of 250
o
C is permissible and on the basis of a 5-
second rating the copper area required is given by
A = 11,9.I (mm
2
) eq. 8-2.1
where : I = Fault current in kA, rms.
A rating of 5 seconds is selected firstly because this value exceeds the 3-
second rating normally specified for equipment and, secondly, because modern
protective systems will virtually never require such a long period to clear a fault
of maximum amplitude.
Where the conductor is buried for its entire length, as in the case of the earth-
mat, a temperature rise of 450
o
C can be allowed and the required area is given
by
A = 9,91.I (mm
2
) eq. 8-2.2
Brazed joints to the earth-mat can withstand a temperature of 640
o
C without
harm.
Also refer to S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 paragraph 4.
3. EARTHING COPPER SIZES
A variety of copper rod and strap sizes are available, but for the sake of
standardization it is proposed to limit the number of sizes that are used,
multiple connections being made where necessary to provide the required
current rating. The standard sizes are :-

Rod : 10 mm diameter
Strap : 50 x 3,15 (or 3) mm and
40 x 3,15 (or 3) mm (see note 3)
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 8 - 2/1
____________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 1 : CONDUCTOR ARRANGEMENTS REQUIRED TO MEET
STANDARD FAULT LEVELS.
Fault
Current
Copper Area
Required sq. mm
Main Earth-mat Connections To
Equipment
I
f

(kA)
Rod Strap No. Of
Directions
(Note 1)
Actual Area
(sq. mm)
No. Of
Connection
(Note 2)
Actual
Area
(sq. mm)
12,5
16
20
25
31,5
40
50
125
160
200
250
315
400
500
150
190
240
300
375
480
600
2
4
4
4
6
6
8
160
320
320
320
320
480
640
1
2
2
2
3
3
4
150
300
300
300
450
600
600

Also refer to S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 paragraph 4.
Notes :-
1. Where one connection is made to the earth-mat the current can flow
in two directions. 4 Directions implies 2 connections, 6 directions
implies 3 connections and 8 directions implies 4 connections, each
connection being made to a different side of the rectangular grid.
2. Assumes 50 x 3 mm strap.
3. The 40 x 3 mm strap is for use o multiple-earthed items, such as
fences.

4. NOTES ON EARTHING
4.1 Yard Surfacing
The equations in S.L.D.G. 8 - 1 indicate that the surface resistivity
s

plays an important part in ensuring the safety of personnel. Crusher
stone has a particularly high resistivity and while it is relatively
expensive, it is nevertheless recommended as the yard surfacing
material. The stone is required to be clean, hard, durable and sound
crushed stone of 25 mm nominal size, to be laid with an average depth
of 100 mm. Nowhere should the layer thickness be less than 85 mm
(see Stringing, Cabling, Earthing and Erection Specification for more
detail on layer construction).
4.2 Fences
High potential gradients tend to occur along the periphery of the earth-
mat and fences defining the substation area thus danger zones. To
limit the touch-potentials it is recommended that the earth-mat and the
crusher-stone surfacing be extended 1 meter outside the security fence
with the fence being securely bonded to the mat (see S.L.D.G. 8 - 1
Section 5).
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -3- S.L.D.G. 8 - 2/1
____________________________________________________________________________________
4.3 Solid-state Relays
Attention is drawn to DS1/1-73 which recommends that particular care
be taken to ensure that static relay cases and special relay earth
terminals are adequately earthed. The earthing connections to the
relay panel earth bar should be as straight as possible.
4.4 Earthing Of Equipment
Drawing 0.54/393 (24 sheets) details various standards relating to
substation earthing.

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DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 9 - 0 / 7
_______________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 9 - 0
SUBSTATION FLEXIBLE CONDUCTORS, TUBULAR
CONDUCTORS, EARTH-WIRES AND EARTH-MAT COPPER
INDEX

S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 1 SUBSTATION FLEXIBLE CONDUCTORS, EARTH-
WIRES AND EARTH-MAT COPPER
1. General
2.1 Service Voltage
2.2 Weather Conditions
2.3 Nominal Current
2.3.1 Thermal limit currents
2.3.2 Permissible conductor temperatures for
busbars, stringers and connections.
2.4 Thermal Load Capacity Under Short Circuit
Conditions
2.5 Corona Limits
2.5.1 Calculation of voltage gradient
2.5.1.1 The gradient at the surface for a
single conductor.
2.5.1.2 The gradient at the surface of a
conductor for a three phase
system.
2.6 Conductor Materials
2.7 Layout Of Conductors
3. Earth Wires
4. Earth-mat Copper
5. Calculation Of Short Circuit Forces On Equipment
And Post Insulators
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Short-circuit performance of flexible
conductors between adjacent items of
equipment
5.1.1.1 Data input
5.1.1.2 Report on the results
5.1.1.3 Sag calculations at eight given
temperatures
Appendix A SEIL program flow diagram

S.L.D.G. 9 - 2 2 ALL-ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS
2. Standard Conductors To BS And SABS Standards

_______________________________________________________________________________________
2001Transmission Substation Design and Applications
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 9 - 0 / 7
_______________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 9 - 3 1 ALUMINIUM ALLOY CONDUCTORS
2. Standard Conductors To BS Standards

S.L.D.G. 9 - 4 2 S.C.A. CONDUCTORS
2. Standard Conductors To BS And SABS
Standards

S.L.D.G. 9 - 5 1 COPPER CONDUCTORS AND EARTHING
MATERIALS
1. Reference Documents
2. Standard Conductors
3. Copper Rods And Straps For Earthing purposes

S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 1 TUBULAR CONDUCTORS.
1. Introduction
1.1 Advantages Of Tubular Conductor
2. Basis Of Standard : Guidelines And
Recommendations For The Use Of Tubular
Conductors In Substation Design.
2.1 Mechanical Strength Of Conductors
2.1.1 Tubular Conductor Material
2.1.2 Welded joints and finish
2.1.3 Allowable sag on tubular conductors
2.1.4 Post insulators
2.1.5 Clamps
2.1.6 Drainage holes
2.2 Continuous Current Carrying Capabilities Of
Tubular Conductors
2.3 Thermal Load Capacity Under Short Circuit
Conditions
2.4 Aeolian Vibrations And Damping
2.5 Corona Requirements
2.5.1 Calculation of conductor surface field
strength and determination of corona
inception levels for typical 765 kV,
400 kV and 275 kV arrangements
2.5.1.1 General
2.5.1.2 Corona threshold limits
2.5.1.3 Calculation of conductor surface
field strength using the image
method
2.5.1.4 Effective field strengths for
typical outdoor busbar
configurations (including tables
for 765 kV, 400 kV and 275 kV
arrangements).

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -3- S.L.D.G. 9 - 0 / 7
_______________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 9 - 6
(Cont.)
2.5.1.5 Calculating of optimum bundle
diameter and surface field
strength using Professor
Heymans empimcal formulae.
2.6 Support Structures
2.7 Conclusion And Recommendation

Appendix A : BUSBAR, Program For Rigid
Conductors

Appendix B : CORONA, Program For The
Calculation Of Conductor Surface
Field Strengths

S.L.D.G 9 - 7 1 PROPOSED STANDARDS ALUMINIUM TUBULAR
CONDUCTORS
2. Standard Conductors

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -1- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 9 - 1
SUBSTATION FLEXIBLE CONDUCTORS, EARTH-WIRES AND
EARTH-MAT COPPER
1. GENERAL
Conductors are one of the major components of a high voltage station. They
allow the connection with equipment and therefore the setting-up of the
substation network.
Conductors and connectors should conform to the same electrical and
mechanical strains and stresses as those of equipment.
The reliability of the station will only be ensured if all components (equipment,
conductors and connectors) reply to the same requirements.
The selection of conductors should be made according to basic requirements
i.e. service voltage, nominal current, short circuit current, environmental
conditions and layout of conductors.
The past few years have seen a general trend towards the standardisation of
equipment current ratings with the result that all bulk orders now specify one of
the following ratings :-
400, 800, 1250, 1600, 2500 or 3150 amperes.
To cater for this limited number of current ratings, it is unnecessary to make use
of the full range of conductor sizes which are commercially available in terms of
various National and International Standards, and it is therefore proposed to
standardise on only a few conductors for use in substations.
Table 1 of S.L.D.G. 9-3 indicates the proposed standard conductors which are
based on the relevant BS standard. The original issue of the appropriate
S.L.D.G. document (originally S.L.D.G. 3) was based on SABS standards, but
this has now been dropped in favour of the BS standard for the following
reasons :-
a) Despite the availability of SABS specifications for All-aluminium and
SCA conductors, all conductors purchased to date have in fact been
specified to comply with BS 215,
b) Existing tools for transmission line compression fittings are based on
BS 215 dimensions and as these differ from the SABS 182 dimensions
by up to 2 mm (plus tolerances) in certain cases, there is a danger of the
wrong tools being used,
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

c) Some of the SABS conductors have significantly lower current ratings
than the equivalent BS conductors with consequent economic
implications, particularly for the 400 kV lines.
The full ranges available for the various types of conductor are given in
S.L.D.G. 9-2 to 9-5. The all-aluminium and SCA conductors laid down by SABS
are included for information, but should not be specified.
2.1 Service Voltage
The service voltage taken into account for conductor selection, is to
enable one to calculate the voltage gradient on the surface of a
particular conductor.
The maximum line-to-line voltage (U
max
) is used, but the calculation
uses the maximum phase-to-earth voltage which is calculated as
follows :-
3
U
U
max
max e p
=
eq. 9-
1.1
2.2 Weather Conditions
Necessary data :-
Ambient Temperature
Air humidity
Pressure and altitude
}
}
}

to calculate the voltage gradient
Maximum temperature } to calculate the overheating
Speed and strength of wind
Weight of frost
}
}

to calculate the mechanical strains
2.3 Nominal Current
It is the current that the installation is rated for. This current will
determine the maximum cross-sectional area of the conductor to be
installed, based on the conductor material composition and the thermal
current limits of that particular material.
2.3.1 Thermal limit currents
Calculations of thermal limit currents are based on the heat
balance equation :
I
2
. R = 13,8 . 10
-4
. (V.d)
0,448
. (T-t) - a.S.d. + E.K (T
4
-t
4
) . d eq. 9-1.2
Where :-
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -3- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
I = Current in amps
R = Conductor resistance in ohms/cm at the operating temperature
V = Wind velocity, cm/sec
d = Conductor overall diameter in cm
T = Maximum conductor temperature in
o
K
t = Ambient air temperature in
o
K
a = Conductor solar absorption coefficient
S = Intensity of solar radiation in watts/cm
2

E = Conductor emissivity coefficient
K = Stefans constant = 5,7 . 10
-12
watts/cm
2
/
o
k
4

For South African conditions with aged conductors, the following
values are assumed :-
V = 44,7 cm/sec (1 mph)
T = 348
o
K (75
o
C) or 363
o
K (90
o
C)
t = 313
o
K (40
o
C)
a = 1
S = 0,112 watts/cm
2

E = 1
With these constants, the heat-balance equations for 75
o
C and
90
o
C conductor temperatures become :-
75
o
C : I
2
. R = 0,2655.d
0,448
- 0,0212.d eq. 9-1.3
90
o
C : I
2
. R = 0,379.d
0,448
+ 0,0273.d eq. 9-1.4
The resistance R in ohms/cm is obtained from the standard D.C.
resistance corrected to operating temperature and corrected for
skin effect.
For hand calculations with an error of less than 5 %, I may be
determined from the following simplified equations :-

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -4- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 1 : FORMULAE FOR DETERMINING THE THERMAL
LIMIT CURRENT
Material Thermal limit current (Amps)
75
o
C 90
o
C
SCA or All-aluminium 16,3 . A
0,612
21,3 . A
0,612

Copper 20,5 . A
0,612
26,5 . A
0,612

A = Actual conducting area of aluminium or copper in mm
2
.
2.3.2 Permissible conductor temperatures for busbars, stringers
and connections
Above a critical temperature, conductors start to anneal and lose
mechanical strength. For aluminium, very little loss of strength
occurs at temperatures up to 80
o
C, while at 90
o
C the loss of
strength is small enough to ignore ( 15 % if the conductor is
operated continuously at 100
o
C for a period of 1 year).
For substation applications, the tensions used are well below the
ultimate strengths of the conductors, and a small loss of strength
is therefore not a significant factor in the design. Furthermore,
the constants assumed in 2.1 for the heat balance equation are
somewhat pessimistic in that :-
a) ambient temperatures rarely exceed 25-35
o
C, especially
in winter when the loads are high
b) a solar radiation of 0,112 watts/cm
2
is exceptional, and,
c) a wind velocity of 1,6 kph (1 mph) is low.
Finally, circuits are frequently duplicated and consequently tend
to operate at only 50 % rating or less for most of the time. On
this basis it is concluded that an ultimate temperature of 90
o
C for
aluminium conductors in substation applications is acceptable,
and standard conductors can now be selected to match standard
equipment current ratings as follows :-
400 amperes : 1 x 150 mm
2
"Hornet" - 470A at 90
o
C
2
"Centipede" - 860A at 90
o
C
2
"Bull" - 1353A at 90
o
C
2
"Centipede" - 1720A at 90
o
C
2
"Bull" - 2706A at 90
o
C
2
"Bull" - 4059A at 90
o
C
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DECEMBER 2001 -5- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
2.4 Thermal Loading Capacity Under Short Circuit Conditions
The cross-sectional areas and surface of conductors must be such that
there is no impermissible temperature rise, either in normal operation or
under certain specified fault conditions, so as to reduce the material
strength. The type of fault to be assumed is governed by the system
configuration. The fault current may be determined from the system
short circuit capacity as indicated in Table 2. (Refer also to Figure 1 of
S.L.D.G. 9-2 and Figure 1 of S.L.D.G. 9-5).
TABLE 2 : FORMULAE FOR DETERMINING FAULT CURRENT
FOR VARIOUS FAULTS
Fault Type Formula for Fault
Current (kA)
Relationship with 3
Symmetrical Fault (kA)
k(3)
I"

n
k
.U 3
" S

1
k(3)
I"

k(2)
I"

n
k
2.U
" S

0,866
k(3)
I"

k(1)
I"

n
k
3.U
" S

0,578
k(3)
I"

The thermal stress depends on the duration and magnitude of the short
circuit current, which decays from the maximum value - the peak
asymmetrical short-circuit current - to the steady-state value. The
differences in short-circuits occurring close to the generator are
particularly marked. If the fault occurs at some long distance away, in
which case the generator reactance becomes insignificant in
comparison with that of the rest of the system, the short-circuit current is
virtually constant; the only exception is the transient at the beginning of
the short-circuit caused by the d.c. component. The general formula for
the calculation of the required conductor cross-sectional area is as
follows :-
( ) [ ]
i f
r
d
f f
1 ln .
.
C.
. 4,18
t . I
A
+
= eq. 9-1.5
where :-
A = required cross-sectional area in mm
2

I
f
= the assumed fault current in amps
t
f
= the duration of the fault current which is a characteristic
of the protection scheme, in seconds
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -6- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
c = specific heat capacity
for Cu = 0,0925 cal g
-1

o
C
-1
for A1 = 0,217 cal g
-1

o
C
-1

d
= density
for Cu = 8,9g cm
-3

for A1 = 2,7g cm
-3

r
=
=
resistivity in mm
2
m
-1
at temperature
i
20
[1+(
i
-20)]
20
= resistivity at 20
o
C
for Cu = 0,0178 mm
2
m
-1
for A1 = 0,0286 mm
2
m
-1

= temperature coefficient of resistance
for Cu = 0,00353
o
C
-1

for A1 = 0,00403
o
C
-1

i
= initial temperature in
o
C
f
= final maximum temperature in
o
C
The necessary cross-sectional area of the conductor to be used is
dependent upon the allowable current density in the material, the
duration of the fault, and the allowable temperature rise of the material.
Eq. 9-1.5 may be generalized as follows :
A
I t
k
(mm )
t t
2
=
.
eq. 9-1.6
where :-
k =

=
Coefficient of the material used. (See eq. 9-1.5).
( )
[ ]
4,18 .
c
r
.
. ln 1
f
i
.

d
+
The material coefficient k for the materials can also be calculated from
the following relationship :-
k M . ln
f k
i k
=
+
+
|
\
|
.
|

eq. 9-1.7
where :-
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -7- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
M = material constant (from Table 3).
f
= selected permissible final temperature in
o
C (from Table 3).
i
= initial temperature in
o
C (20
o
C - 45
o
C depending on
ambient conditions)
k
= material constant in
o
C (from Table 3).

TABLE 3 : MATERIAL CONSTANTS

Material
Constant M
k

(
o
C)
t

(
o
C)
k
(at 30
o
C ambient)
Copper 226 235 300 190
Copper (tinned or in
lead sheet)
226 235 150 143
Aluminium 148 228 300 126
Steel 78
(89)
202 300 68 (78)

If required, the allowable short circuit current density J can be calculated
from the above as :-
J
I
A

k
t
(A / mm )
f 2
= =
|
\
|
.
|
eq. 9-
1.8
Example : Assume a 3 symmetrical fault on a 400 kV system where
the conductors are aluminium. The system short circuit
capacity is 20 MVA, and the protection is able to
operate within 0,6 secs.
(
S
k
"
)
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -8- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
I
k
"
(3)

S
k
3. U
N
J
A
=
=
=
=
=
=

"

20000
3.400
28,9 kA

126
0,6
162,7 A / mm
2

28900
162,7
178 mm
2

The aluminium conductor should therefore have a cross-
sectional area of 178 mm
2
or larger to prevent the
temperature from exceeding the allowable maximum
temperature rise. It is usual to select a standard
conductor size greater or equal to the value calculated.
2.5 Corona Limits
The corona loss and H.F. interference from the corona depend on the
maximum conductor surface gradient. For the greatest possible
freedom from interference, as is demanded for densely populated
areas, the maximum surface gradient must not exceed 13 - 16 kV /
cm. The corona loss at these values is of no economic significance.
2.5.1 Calculation of the voltage gradient
2.5.1.1 The gradient at the surface for a single
conductor system is given by :-
E
U
r . ln
2 . h
r
(kV / cm)
p-e max
L
L
=
|
\
|
.
|
eq. 9-1.9
where :-
V
p-e max
= Phase-to-ground voltage in kV.

=
U
3
N

h = Phase-to-ground height in cm.
r
L
= radius of the conductor in cm.
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DECEMBER 2001 -9- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
2.5.1.2 The gradient at the surface of a conductor for a

three phase system is given by :-
E
U
3
.
r . ln
a
r
.
2. h
4. h a
N
L
e
2 2
=
+
|
\
|
.
|
|
eq. 9-1.10

As stated above, gradient values of 13 - 16 kV /
cm in a substation are usually acceptable values,
i.e.
21,2 kV /cm = critical voltage gradient in
air
19 kV / cm = maximum voltage gradient
on line conductors
16 kV /cm = maximum gradient
accepted in substations
The voltage gradient range may be obtained by :-
a) conductors with a larger diameter
b) conductors arranged in bundles :
2 conductors for 400 kV
3 or 4 conductors for 500 kV
4 conductors for 800 kV and so on.
Corona limit voltages for the proposed standard
conductors at an altitude of 1800 m are as
follows :-
TABLE 4 : CORONA LIMIT VOLTAGES FOR
STANDARD CONDUCTORS
1 x 150 mm
2
: 132 kV
1 x 400 mm
2
: 220 kV
1 x 800 mm
2
: 330 kV
2 x 400 mm
2
: 330 kV
2 x 800 mm
2
: 400 kV
These limits fit in well with the system voltage
currently in use.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -10- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Example : A 380 kV (U
max
= 420 kV) yard has
4 x 560 / 50 mm
2
SCA conductor
strung at a height of 9,5 metres
above the ground. The conductor
radius r
L
is 1,61 cm with the four
conductors arranged at the four
corners of a square with sides 10 cm.
The phase spacing is 5 metres. To
calculate the conductor surface
voltage gradient.
The conductor bundle arrangement
:-
1
0

c
m
10 cm
r
T
5

c
m
5

c
m

FIGURE 1
(i)
r
a
2. Sin

n
(cm)
T
T
=
=
=

10
2.Sin
4

7,07 cm

where :-
r
T
=

a
T
=

eq. 9-
1.11

radius of the
circle formed
by the four
conductors in
cm.

the lengths of
one side of the
square formed
by the four
conductors in
cm.
n = number of
conductors
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -11- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
(ii)
=
1 + (n - 1).
r
r
n
L
T
=
+
=

1 4 1
1 61
7 07
4
0 42
( )
,
,
,

where :-
=

eq. 9-1.12

a ratio
(iii)
r
e L T
(n-1)
n . r . r
n
=
=
=

4 . 1,61 . 7,07
6,91 cm
(4 1) 4

where :-
r
e
=

eq. 9-1.13

bundle
equivalent
radius in
cm.
(iv)
E
U
3
.
r
L
. ln
a
r
e
.
2. h
4. h a
2 2
=
+
|
\
|
.
|
|

eq. 9-
1.14

.

eq. 9-1.14

where :-
a =

phase spacing in
cm.

=
+
|
\
|
.
|
|
=
380
3
x
0,42
1,61 x ln
500
6,91
x
2x950
4 x 950
2
5002
13,5 kV/cm

The calculated value lies within the acceptable
range of 13 - 16 kV/cm, and is therefore a
practical arrangement.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -12- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

2.6 Conductor Materials
While copper conductors were used extensively in the past for
substation busbars etc., cost, weight and availability considerations
have virtually eliminated copper in favour of aluminium.
2.7 Layout Of Conductors
The layout of conductors vary from station to station and is dependent
upon a large number of factors, however, conductor phase spacing is
relatively standardized. The conductor layout determines the distances
between phases or ground to phase which are necessary to be able to
calculate the voltage gradient and the electrostatic dynamic stresses.
3. EARTH-WIRES
For inland stations, galvanised steel earth-wires are very commonly used and
are quite acceptable. It has, however, been decided to standardise on an SCA
conductor (Hare) for this purpose since :
a) it has a lower resistance than a steel earthwire,
b) it is more flexible and easier to handle, and,
c) it is freely available since the proposed conductor is a size in common
use on rural systems.
For coastal conditions, corrosion of the earthwire present a problem and for
these applications the proposed standard is an aluminium-alloy conductor (Oak)
having a high resistance to corrosion. The choice of Oak as the standard size
is based on two factors :-
a) It has very nearly the same diameter as "Hare" and hence the same size
of clamp can be used.
b) "Oak" conductor has been purchased in relatively large quantities for
transmission lines near the coast and is thus relatively freely available.
This is an important factor since aluminium-alloy conductors are not
manufactured in South Africa and have to be imported.
As an alternative to "Oak", a 100 mm
2
copper conductor may be used for the
earthwire on coastal substations, but as the quantities involved are small it
might be difficult to obtain.

4. EARTH-MAT COPPER (SEE S.L.D.G. 8 - EARTHING)
The sizes of the copper rods to be used in the main earth-mat and of the copper
straps for the connections between the mat and the equipment, depend on the
maximum short-circuit currents that can be obtained in the station. The same
formulae used in section 2.4 can be applied here.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -13- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
)
Example 1 : Consider a 10 kV system which has a short circuit capacity
of 400 MVA. The fault is assumed to be a double earth
fault, and the fault current is given by I
(
S
k
"
k
"
(2)
, then :-
I
k
"
(2)

S
k
"
2. U
N
eq. 9 - 1.15 =
=
=
(see section 2.4)
400 000
2 . 10
20 kA

The magnitude of the current is the important part used to
dimension the earthing conductor. If the system protection
operates such that t
f
= 1,2 secs., and the allowable maximum
temperature is 300
o
C (ambient of 30
o
C), then the allowable
current density J is given by :-
J
k
t
= (A/mm
2
)
eq. 9-1.16
where :
= ln
300 235
30 235
226
190
.
k ln
cu
f k
i k
M
cu.
=
+
+
|
\
|
.
|
+
+
|
\
|
.
|

=
=
J
190
1,2
173 A/mm
2

The required cross-sectional area is thus :-
A =
=
20000
173
116 mm
2

One can, for example, use single 50 x 3 mm copper strap
or 2x10 mm round copper.
The copper area required for a given short-circuit current (Isc in kA) can also
be determined from the following equations as a means for a quick check :-
A = 9,9 . I
sc
in mm
2
for buried rods (450
o
C ult. temp)
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -14- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
A = 11,9 . I
sc
in mm
2
for exposed straps (250
o
C ult. temp)
Since circuit breaker short-circuit ratings have been standardised at 12 kA, 16
kA, 20 kA, 31,5 kA and 50 kA, matching earth-mat copper sizes can be
selected as follows :-
TABLE 5 : EARTHMAT COPPER SIZES VS FAULT CURRENT
Short Main Earth-mat Earthing Connections
Circuit 1 x 10 mm Cu Rod 2 x 10 mm Cu Rod 50 x 3 mm Cu Strap
Current
(kA)
Number of
connections
Current
capability
(kA)
Number of
connection
s
3 sec
current
capacity
5 sec
current
capacity
Number of
connection
s
3 sec
current
capacity
5 sec
current
capacity
12 2 16 1 17,2 13,3 1 16,5 12,6
16 2 or 4 16 or 32 2 34,5 26,6 2 32,9 25,2
20 4 32 2 34,5 26,6 2 32,9 25,2
25 4 32 2 34,5 26,6 2 32,9 25,2
31,5 4 or 6 32 or 48 3 51,7 39,9 3 49,4 37,8
50 6 or 8 48 or 64 4 68,9 53,2 4 65,8 50,4
For the purpose of designing the earthmat connections, it is assumed that the
fault current at the equipment support is split in the percentages 70 % / 30 %.
This is illustrated in Figure 2.

70 %
30 %
(17,5
kA)
(
8
,
7
5

k
A
)
(
8
,
7
5

k
A
)
(7,5
kA)
2x10mm
1x10mm
Fault
FIGURE 2
For a fault of 25 kA with two connections, 17,5 kA flows in the short leg, and 7,5
in the long leg. The 2 x 10 mm copper rod and the 1 x 30 x 3 copper flat strip
are rated at 26,6 kA and 25,2 kA for 5 sec respectively. These days, protection
operates much faster than this, of the order of 1 second.
It will be appreciated that where the earthing lead is connected to the main mat,
the current divides in half so that the current rating of the main mat copper
needs to be only 50 % of that of the associated earthing connection from the
equipment. The number of earthing connections required from each item of
equipment is determined by the short-circuit current divided by the current
rating of the connecting strap. It follows that where a multiplicity of connections
are necessary, these must in general be made to different sections of the
earthing grid otherwise overloading of the main grid copper can occur. On the
basis of the above comments, the copper sizes indicated in Table 6 are
recommended as Standards. The 40 x 3 mm flat copper is for use on items
which are normally earthed at many points e.g. security fences.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -15- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

5. CALCULATION OF SHORT CIRCUIT FORCES ON EQUIPMENT AND POST
INSULATORS
5.1 Introduction
A number of programs have been developed for calculating the forces
exerted on equipment by flexible and rigid conductors carrying short
circuit currents.
These programs are based on IEC Standard Publication 865 and reside
with Transmission Substation Technology.
5.1.1 Short-circuit performance of flexible conductors between
adjacent items of equipment.
Figure 3 illustrates a typical application of the SEIL program
which calculates amongst other quantities, the short circuit
forces in flexible bus systems. It only considers the conductor
between two attachment points and disregards any counter
balancing forces on the opposite sides of these attachment
points. The program does not account for the weight of any
spacers or droppers down to the equipment, and is only valid for
single and twin conductors. The program also gives sag
calculations for eight different temperatures.
T T
Insulator Insulator

FIGURE 3 : ELEVATION OF A CONDUCTOR SPANNED
BETWEEN ITEMS OF EQUIPMENT
Figure 4 shows the arrangement in plan. If we consider two
spans of conductor, one can also estimate the cantilever forces
on the supporting post insulators as illustrated below.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -16- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
l
l
Y
k
Y
k
Ft
l
2
|
\
|
.
|
|
| Ft
F
k
(Y
k
)

FIGURE 4 : PLAN VIEW

The worst case scenario is when equal forces, in the same direction, are
exerted on both sides of the post insulator and when the conductor is
fixed to the insulator and not allowed to move. For small angles, one
can approximate the angle of conductor deviation ( ) by eq. 9-1.17.
= arctan
2 . Y
k
l
|
\
|
.
| eq 9-1.17
The horizontal cantilever force can then be calculated from eq. 9-1.18.
F
k
= F
t
. Sin eq. 9-1.18
F
k
is the contribution to the total horizontal cantilever force from one side
only. If the span length on both sides is equal, than the total horizontal
cantilever force is twice F
k
. The insulators must be rated for dynamic
forces, the insulator strength usually taken as 1,2 times this calculated
total cantilever force value.
5.1.1.1 Data input
The SEIL program is a Pascal menu driven program
whose flow diagram is illustrated in Appendix A of
this document and which requires the following
information :-
a) Short Circuit :
Yes or No
: Yes means that the short
circuit forces in the
conductor is required. No
means that the sag values
for a variety of temperatures
are required.
b) Cond. Cross area
(mm^2)
: The effective cross-
sectional area of the
conductor in mm
2

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -17- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
c) Cond Weight
(kg / cm)
: The weight of the conductor
in kg / cm
d) Cond. Diameter
(mm)
: The effective diameter of
the conductor in mm
e) Youngs Modules
(N/mm
2
)
: Youngs modulus for the
conductor material in
N/mm
2

f) Coincidence Temp
(
o
C)
: The confidence temperature
is that temperature where
the largest number of
environmental forces, e.g.
wind, may be exerted on
the conductor at the time of
a fault. It is usually taken
as 12
o
C.
g) Minimum Temp : The minimum temperature
is that minimum ambient
value expected in the area
under investigation and is
also the temperature at
which the maximum
allowable tension in the
conductor takes place.
h) Ice
Yes or No
: Yes : The weight of ice on
the conductors
needs to be taken
into account.
No : No ice formation on
the conductors,
therefore no
additional weight
needs to be taken
into account.
i) N-fact for ice load : A factor dependent upon
environmental and site
conditions where
1NF10. Its value is
almost always unity i.e.
NF=1.
j) Wind pressure
(kN/m
2
)
: The prevailing wind
pressure in kPa or kN/m
2
,
for normal conditions this
value is taken as unity.
k) Drag coefficient : For smooth tubular surfaces
this value is normally taken
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -18- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
as unity.
l) Static cable tension
(N)
: This is the static tension in
the conductor under normal
operating conditions in
Newtons.
m) Cable length
(cm)
: The span length between
the two attachment points
under consideration in
centimetres (cm).
n) No cond. / bundle : This can be either a single
conductor, in which case
the additional tension
caused due to bundle
collapse does not have to
be taken into account, or
two conductors which
means that bundle collapse
effect does have to be
taken into account.
o) Phase fault : The type of fault has to be
specified i.e. single phase
to earth (the value 1 is
entered), phase-to-phase
fault (the value 2 is entered)
or three phase symmetrical
fault (the value 3 entered).
It is usual to use the value 3
for worst case conditions.
p) Short circuit cur
(kA)
: The value of the three
phase symmetrical fault.
q) Phase Separation
(cm)
: The distance between the
adjacent three phases in
centimetres.
r) Spring constant : If the value of the spring
constant is not known, then
it is usual to use the value
100.
s) Term expan
(mm4/ka2/s)
: A factor for thermal
expansion Cu = 0,18 and Al
& Al/st = 0,55. Al/ST = 0,34
if ratio Al/ST areas < 6.
t) Do run : When selected, will run the
program with the values
entered as above.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -19- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
5.1.1.2 Report on the results
The results are reported as follows :-
a) Temperature with corresponding forces & sags
Sag calculated without wind & ice load
T
=
Lowest
expected
ambient
temperatu
re
F = the
maximum
static
tension
(the value
entered
under (l)
of the
previous
section in
Newtons.
Y
=
the sag
calculated
at the
lowest
temperatu
re in cm
T
=
highest
expected
ambient
temperatu
re
F = the
minimum
static
tension
calculate
from the
informatio
n
provided
in
Newtons.
Y
=
the sag
calculated
at the
highest
temperatu
re in cm.

b) Swing force in cable
(Ft)
: The maximum tension
in the conductor
during the conductor
swing action under
short circuit conditions
in Newtons.
c) Force during cable fall
(Ff)
: The maximum tension
in the conductor
reached when the
conductor has
dropped after the fault
is removed by the
operation of the
protection system.
d) Horizontal displacement
(Yk)
: The maximum
horizontal
displacement of the
phase conductor from
its real position in
centimetres.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -20- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
e) Force on insulator : This is the maximum
dynamic cantilever
force exerted on the
two supporting
structures at either
end of the conductor
spans under
consideration.

SHORT CIRCUIT FORCES IN FLEXIBLE BUS SYSTEMS

5.1.1.3 Sag calculations at eight given temperatures
If the response to 5.1.1.1 (a), Short circuit, is No, this
implies that a series of sag calculations are required, i.e.
the sags for eight discretely specified temperatures is
required.
TABLE 6 : PROPOSED STANDARD CONDUCTORS, EARTH-WIRES AND
EARTH-MAT COPPER
Ref. Area Number
and dia.
Nominal
dia.
Mass
per km
Max. Resist at Breaking
Strength
Current Rating
(Amperes)
Corona limit
at

(mm
2)

of wires

(mm)

(mm)

(kg)
20
o
C

(ohms / km)

(kN)

75
o
C

90
o
C
1800 m

(kV)
STRANDED ALL-ALUMINIUM FOR BUSBARS, STRINGERS, DROPPERS AND CONNECTIONS
160
(Hornet)
19/3,25 16,25 433 0,182 25,3 365 470 132
(1xCond)
400 (Cen-
tipede)
37/3,78 26,46 1150 0,069 63,1 647 860 220
(1xCond)
330
(2xCond)
800
(Bull)
61/4,26 38,34 2397 0,034 112,0 986 1353 330
(1xCond)
400
(2xCond)
EARTH WIRES
100/18
(Hare)
6/4,72
1/4,72
14,16 425 0,272 35,9 SCA Conductor for stations
more than 15 km from the
coast.
150 (Oak) 7/4,65 13,95 326 0,277 36,0 Aluminium-alloy conductor for
stations less than 15 km from
the coast
100 19/2,65 13,25 943 0,175 41,7 Alternative copper conductor
EARTH-MAT COPPER
Copper Rod 10 - 8 kA at
450
o
C
-
Flat
Copper
50 x 3,15 - 13,2 kA at
250
o
C
-
Strap 4 x 3,15 - 10,5 kA at
250
o
C
-

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -21- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________
APPENDIX A

SEIL....
00 26
A
S
mm
2
m
1
kg / cm
d mm
E N/mm
2
K
-1
Tz
o
C
Tmin
o
C
26 00
n(t) -
t
1
= t
min
t
2
= t
60
n(t) = 2
11
11
01
t
1
- - - - t
n

o
C
14
02
NF =
P
z
=
( . . ) c d Q g
2 2
+
P
d
z
= +
|
\
|
.
| + 0 5
100
9 , . NF . 9,8
F 00 ?
25 03
13 25
16
14
CONDUCTOR PARAMETERS
Cross sectional area
Mass
Diameter
Youngs Modules
Coefficient of expansion
Coincidence temperature
Minimum temperature
Yes
No
R00?
Number of
conductors
(program only
valid for 1 or 2
conductors)
Temperature Data
(x8 values)
ICE
Yes
No
Wind
Q kN/m
2
c Wind factor
A factor 1 NF.10
dependent on
conditions
N/m
g = m
1
.10
2
.9,81
F (N)
l (cm)
Max. static tension in conductor
length of conductor
Yes
No
J
kz
, J
k2
* kA
a cm
n(s)
S N/mm
J
th
kA
c
th
mm
4
/kA Sec
Spring constant of
equipment
Factor of the conductor
related to sag
F
L
A
G

0
4

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -22- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

14
t2>5
o
( )
( )
l
crit
z
z n
F
t t
P m g
=

max
min
'
. .
. )
24
2 2
04
t
o
= t
z
P
o
= P
z
05
C
A E
C
p
F
C
s
o
o
1
2
2
1
24
=
=
|
\
|
.
|
.
.
.
l
11
12 R43
F R32 (F
o
=F
start
)
06
1,020 : n = 20 max
B
i
= (t
i
- t
o
)- . A . E - F
o
+ C
2
t
i
=t
z
07
t
z
>5 07
Pz p
1
g p
1
Po = p
1
08
C4 = (p
. l)
2
. C
1
t
i
=t
o
10
F = F
i
l
l
l
l
( )
( )
.
F F B
C
F
F
C
F
F Fi
i i i
i
i
i
i
= + +
= +
=
+
4
1
2 4
2
3
1
1
i
1
i
(F )
(F )
10
09
Fi = 0,7
12
Yes
No
l l
crit
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
z = z
i
No
Yes
F
i+1
0
No
F
i+1
=F
i
F
i+1
=>F
i
min
Yes
12, 19 . . . . .
F
L
A
G

0
4
t t
P m
o
o
=
=
min
' . . , 10 9 81
2
F
l
Z
l
Z
i+1

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -23- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

F
J
a
k p
' , .
' '
= 0 2
2
2
12
Fl00
Z or F
st
R44
Y or Y
tmin
R45
Z
60
or F
60
R46
y
60
R47
F
i
= N
y
i
= cm
i = i+1
i > n(t)
06
Fl 00
25
16
44 R42, 19 R43
r
F
m n s n
o
=
'
' ( ).9
17
( )
( )
B m n J a m n g
A
A m E.
A n E.
S
A B C
k
k p
n
k
s
s
k k
= +
(
=
+
|
\
|
.
|
|
=
3 9 81 0 2 2
24
10
2
2
2
2
3
1
4
. ' . . , , . / ' . .
. .
. .
.
' '
l
l
18
Bi
m n g
Z n
A Z n
n
OT
o
k OT
=
|
\
|
.
|
|

' . .
. .
( )
( )
60
60 10
19
24
Z
k
, F
t
=
Yes
No
Sag
y
p
F
cm
i
=
l
2
8
100
. '
.
. ( )
Yes
Yes
Short circuit
conductor tension
No
F J
o k
'
, . ' ' = 0 15
3
2
r R
m n g R
n
40
33 '. .

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -24- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

19
r
R
z y
a
ers
=
+
40
1
3
60
.
r
ers
> 0,6 19
r
ers
< 1,8
19
m
=135
o
.r
ers

m
=180
o

m
=82,5
o
.r
ers
+ 31,5
o
20
m
< 70
o
r 0,6
( )
( )
60
2
60
3
40
1 10
=
+
m n
F n
s E.A
n
s
' . .
.
.
.
.
l
l
Ft
F n
m
=
+
60 60
1 8
2 8 0 01
. . .
, , .

F
F
=
46 R42, 21 R43
18
Bi =
10 21
24
E F n F
E.A n s
ela t
s
= +
|
\
|
.
| ( , . . )
.
,
.
15
1 01
60 60
l
E C
J
A n
y
r
th th
th
s
=
|
\
|
.
|
+
10
981 1
6
2
60
2
. .
.
.
.
( ) C
l
y
E E
D ela th
= +
|
\
|
.
| + 1
3
8
2
60
.
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
S
J
A
th
th
=

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -25- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

19
F
k
= x . Z
k
r 0,6
2 r
4.
' . .
'
F
m n g
o
n
Factor 8
19
20
( )
( )
60
2
60
3
40
1 10
=
+
m n
Z n
s E.A n
T
s
' . .
.
.
. .
l
l
4 8
1
60 60
.
'
. .
. .
F
m n gn
or
Z Z n
F
m n g
Z Z n i
F T
n
F T
= +
= +
60
1
60
60 60
1
4
8
. .
.
. .
.
. . .
21
46 R42, 22 R42
0,8 r
18 10
22
24
( )
( )
( )
E k
s
e
th
s
n
n
k E
Z n Z
E.A n s
C
J
A n
y
F
m n g
F
m n g
B
y B y
y
= +
|
\
|
.
|
=
+
|
\
|
.
|
=
|
\
|
.
|
= +
=
= +
|
\
|
.
| +
15
1 0 1
981 1
0 39282 0 88751 0 05643
2
3
1
3
8
2
60 60
2
2
60
2
3
60
60
, .
.
,
.
.
.
.
.
'
' . .
*arctan
'
' . .
* , , . ,
.sin *
. . .
l
l
23
25
Yes
No
Yes
No
Z
F
N
Yes
No
Y
y
F
m n g
m n g
F
k
n
n
=
+
2
60
.
'
' . .
' . .
'
y
k
(cm)

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -26- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

C
F
= 1,15 C
F
= 0,1.r + 0,97 C
F
= 1,05
r 0,5
r < 1,8
22 23
23
C
D
.C
F
.y
60
90
o
<
m
C
D
.C
F
.y
60
. sin
m
23
y
k
=
25
24
M n(s)
1 x F 1,1 x F
RTN
Yes
No
Yes
No
(cm)
Yes

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -27- -S.L.D.G. 9 - 1 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

APPENDIX A

Z,l 03
25
FC 00
J
K
, a, n 13
26
Values 00
n(t) DU 27
END
00 00 05
Yes, Flag 2
Z, l
F, l
No
Yes
No
Yes, Flag 3
J
k
, a, n(s)
No
Yes, No flag
No
Yes, Flag 4
Conductor sag for
n temperatures

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-1-
S.L.D.G. 9 - 2 / 2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 9 - 2
ALL-ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS
a) BS 215 : Aluminium Conductors and Aluminium conductors, steel
reinforced.
Part 1 : Aluminium stranded conductors
b) SABS 182 : Conductors for over head electrical transmission lines
Part 2 : Stranded Aluminium conductors
2. STANDARD CONDUCTORS
Tables 1 and 2 give details of the standard conductors laid down by BS 215 and
SABS 128 respectively. The original S.L.D.G. 8-2 (originally S.L.D.G. 3-2) was
based on SABS 182 but it has now been decided to adopt BS 215 (See
S.L.D.G. 8-1 for the reasons).
TABLE 1 : STANDARD ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS TO BS 215
Reference Area
In
Number
And
Nominal
Diameter
Mass
Per Km
Max.
Resistance
Breaking
Strength
Current Rating
(Amperes)
mm
2
(Old Code
Ref)
Diameter
Of Wires
(mm)

(mm)

(kg)
at 20
o
C

(Ohms/km)

(kN)

75
o
C

90
o
C
22 (Midge) 7/2,06 6,18 64 1,227 4,0 116 143
40 (Mosquito) 7/2,59 7,77 101 0,774 6,3 153 190
60 (Fly) 7/3,40 10,21 174 0,449 9,9 212 267
100(Wasp) 7/4,39 13,17 290 0,269 16,0 288 367
150 (Hornet) 19/3,25 16,25 433 0,182 25,3 365 470
250 Cockroach 19/4,22 21,10 730 0,108 50,5 497 650
400 (Centipede) 37/3,78 26,46 1150 0,069 63,1 647 860
500 (Scorpion) 37/4,27 29,90 1463 0,045 72,2 745 1000
600 (Cicada) 37/4,65 32,54 1735 0,046 90,4 824 1114
800 (Bull) 61/4,26 38,34 2397 0,034 122,0 986 1353
Note : 1. Temperature coefficient of resistance = 0,00403 per
o
C
R
t2
= (1 + 0,00403 . (t
2
-t
1
).Rt
1

2. Current rating equations
I(75
o
C) =
5 o
0,448
10 . 1,22165 . C) 20 R.(at
0,0212.d - 0,2655.d

I(90
o
C) =
5 o
0,448
10 . 1,2821 . C) 20 R.(at
0,0273.d 0,379.d +

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-2-
S.L.D.G. 9 - 2 / 2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 2 : STANDARD ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS TO SABS 182
Reference Area
In
Number
And
Nominal
Dia.
Mass
Per Km
Max.
Resistance
Breaking
Strength
Current Rating
Amperes
mm
2
(Old Code
Ref)
Diameter
Of Wires
(mm)

(mm)

(kg)
at 20
o
C

(Ohms/km)

(kN)

75
o
C

90
o
C
25 (Midge) 7/2,12 6,36 68 1,187 4,1 118 146
40 (Mosquito) 7/2,65 7,95 106 0,756 6,1 155 194
63 (Fly) 7/3,35 10,05 169 0,473 9,3 206 259
100(Wasp) 7/4,25 12,75 272 0,294 14,6 273 348
160 (Hornet) 19/3,35 16,75 461 0,175 24,7 371 478
250 Cockroach 19/4,25 22,25 742 0,108 38,8 495 649
400 (Centipede) 37/3,75 26,25 1127 0,072 59,6 634 842
500 (Scorpion) 37/4,25 29,75 1447 0,056 75,6 712 940
630 (Cicada) 61/3,75 33,75 1862 0,044 96,0 849 1152
800 (Bull) 61/4,25 38,25 2391 0,034 121,8 985 1350

Note : 1. The reference area in square millimetres is the nominal
Renard-Series area which is closest to the actual area of
aluminium.
2. For current rating equations see Table 1.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-3-
S.L.D.G. 9 - 2 / 2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 1 : THERMALLY LIMITED SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS
IN BARE ALUMINIUM CONDUCTORS
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-1-
S.L.D.G. 9 - 3 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 9 - 3
ALUMINIUM ALLOY CONDUCTORS
B.S. 3242 : 1960
Standard Aluminium-alloy conductors to B.S. 3242 are given in Table 9. This
type of conductor is recommended for use in coastal areas because of its
resistance to corrosion and it is proposed that the 0.1 sw. in. conductor (Oak)
be adopted as a standard for earth-wires at substations located within 15 km of
the coast.
These conductors are not manufactured locally. They can be obtained from
Canada under the trade name "ARVIDAL" or from Switzerland under the name
"ALDRAY".
TABLE 1 : STANDARD ALUMINIUM-ALLOY CONDUCTORS TO B.S. 3242
Copper
Equiv.

Code
Number
and dia
Nominal
Diameter
Mass
per
mile
Resist.
At 20
o
C
Min
Breaking
Current
Rating amps
Area
(Sq.
mm)
Word of
wires
(ins)

(ins)

(lbs.)
(Ohms /
mile)
Strength
(lbs)

75
o
C

90
o
C

0.015
0.020
0.025

Box
Acacia
Almond

7/.073
7/.082
7/.092

0.129
0.246
0.276

183
231
291

2.774
2.198
1.746

1290
1625
2045

97
111
127

119
137
159

0.030
0.040
0.050

Cedar
Fir
Hazel

7/.100
7/.116
7/.130

0.300
0.348
0.390

344
463
580

1.478
1.098
0.875

2420
3255
4085

141
168
193

176
212
244

0.060
0.075
0.100

Pine
Willow
Oak

7/.142
7/159
7/.183

0.426
0.477
0.549

693
869
1150

0.733
0.585
0.441

4880
6115
8100

215
246
291

272
313
374

0.125
0.150
0.175
0.200

Mulberr
y
Ash
Elm
Poplar

19/.125
19/.137
19/.148
37/.113

0.625
0.685
0.740
0.791

1464
1759
2053
2344

0.350
0.292
0.250
0.221

10260
12320
14380
16330

334
373
410
442

434
486
535
579

0.250
0.300
0.400

Sycam
ore
Upas
Yew

37/.127
37/.139
37/.160

0.889
0.973
1.120

2961
3547
4700

0.175
0.146
0.110

20600
24700
32700

505
563
662

666
746
886

Temperature coefficient of resistance = 0,00353 per
o
C

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 9 - 4 / 2
_______________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 9 - 4
S.C.A. CONDUCTORS
a) BS 215 : Aluminium conductors and Aluminium conductors
steel reinforced.
Part 2 : Aluminium conductors steel reinforced.
b) Alcon catalogue of B.S. conductor details
c) SABS 182 : Conductors for overhead electrical transmission
lines
Part 3 : Aluminium conductors, steel reinforced
Tables 10 and 11 gives details of the standard BS 215 and SABS 182
conductors respectively. The latter are included for information only. Eskom
have now adopted BS 215 conductors as the standard, mainly because existing
compression tools are based on this standard and because of the danger of
these tools being inadvertently used on SABS conductors.
Data on SCA conductors is included in the Design Guide to enable suitable
clamps to be selected from the droppers to transmission lines.
It is proposed that the 100 mm
2
(Hare) conductor be adopted as a standard for
earth wires at substation located more than, say, 15 km from the coast.
TABLE 1 : SCA CONDUCTORS TO BS 215
Reference
Area Al/steel
Number
and
diameter
of
Nominal
diameter
Mass
per km
Minimum
resistance
Minimum
Breaking
Current
Rating
Amperes
mm2 (Old
Code name)
wires
Al/steel
(mm)

(mm)

(kg)
at 20
o
C (Al
only
ohms/km)
Strength

(kN)

75
o
C

90
o
C
25/4,5
(Gopher)
6/1/2,36 7,08 106 1,089 9,6 126 157
40/70 (Fox) 6/1/2,79 8,37 149 0,778 12,9 155 193
50/90
(Rabbit)
6/1/3,35 10,05 214 0,540 18,4 192 243
63/11 (Mink) 6/1/3,66 10,98 255 0,454 21,6 214 265
100/18 (Hare) 6/1/4,72 14,16 425 0,2722 35,9 290 372
160/40 (Wolf) 30/7/2,59 18,13 728 0,1831 67,4 371 482
250/40 (Bear) 30/7/3,35 23,45 1219 0,1093 111,0 504 665
400/50
(Zebra)
54/7/3,18 28,62 1619 0,06773 129,0 664 888
500/60
(Camel)
54/7/3,35 30,15 1805 0,06076 144,6 707 950
630/75
(Dinosaur)
54/3,95
19/2,37
35,56 2486 0,043 204,9 865 1179

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 9 - 4 / 2
_______________________________________________________________________________________
Temperature coefficient of resistance for aluminium = 0,00403 per
o
C
See also equations on Table 1 of S.L.D.G. 9-2

TABLE 2 : SCA CONDUCTORS TO SABS 182
Reference
Area Al/steel
Number
and
diameter
of
Nominal
diameter
Mass
per km
Minimum
resistance
Min.
Breaking
Current
Rating
Amperes
mm
2
(Old
Code name)
wires
Al/steel
(mm)

(mm)

(kg)
at 20
o
C (Al
only
ohms/km)
Strength

(kN)

75
o
C

90
o
C
25/4,5
(Gopher
6/1/2,36 7,08 106 1,117 9,6 125 155
40/70 (Fox) 6/1/3,00 9,00 172 0,690 15,2 166 209
50/90
(Rabbit)
6/1/3,35 10,05 214 0,554 18,4 190 239
63/11 (Mink) 6/1/3,75 11,25 268 0,442 22,9 218 276
100/18 (Hare) 6/1/4,75 14,25 430 0,275 36,5 289 370
160/40 (Wolf) 30/7/2,65 18,55 760 0,178 72,5 378 491
250/40
(Bear)
30/7/3,35 23,45 1214 0,111 111,4 498 658
400/50
(Zebra)
54/7/3,00 27,00 1443 0,077 128,6 615 820
500/60
(Camel)
54/7/3,35 30,15 1799 0,062 146,2 699 940
630/75
(Dinosaur)
54/3,75
19/2,24
33,70 2238 0,049 184,4 799 1083

Temperature Coefficient of resistance for aluminium = 0,00403 per
o
C
See also equations on Table 1 of S.L.D.G. 9-2

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-1-
S.L.D.G. 9 - 5 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 9 - 5
COPPER CONDUCTORS
1. REFERENCE DOCUMENTS
a) SABS 182 : Part I-1973
"Conductors for over head electrical transmission lines Part I : Copper
wires and stranded copper conductors"
b) SABS 15/14/4, April 1971 (Draft Document) : Metric Electrical
Conductors.
A schedule of standard copper conductors as laid down by SABS 182 is given
in Table 12.
Copper conductors are not normally used as a standard in substations and no
choice of preferable sizes has therefore been made. The data in the Table is
enclosed for general information.
3. COPPER RODS AND STRAPS FOR EARTHING PURPOSES
Table 13 gives details of the standard sizes for copper rods and copper straps
as proposed in a draft document SABS 14/4/4 dated April 1971. No official
SABS standard has as yet been issued.

TABLE 1 : HARD-DRAWN COPPER CONDUCTORS TO SABS 182
(STRANDED)
Reference
Areas
Number
and
Nominal
Diameter
Mass
per km
Maximum
Resistance
Minimum
Breaking
Current Rating
Amperes

(mm
2
)
Diameter
of wires
(mm)

(mm)

(kg)
per km. At
20
o
C
(ohms)
Strength

(kN)

75
o
C

90
o
C
16
25
40

7/1,70
7/2,12
7/2,65
5,10
6,36
7,95
143
221
346
1,150
0,740
0,473
6,63
10,24
15,71
114
149
202
141
185
258
63
80
100

7/3,35
7/3,75
19/2,65
10,05
11,25
13,25
553
693
943
0,296
0,236
0,175
24,66
30,53
41,72
273
306
356
344
397
454
160
250
315

37/2,36
37/3,00
61/2,65
16,52
21,00
23,85
1465
2368
3049
0,114
0,071
0,055
65,27
103,23
130,94
460
613
712
592
803
940
400

61/3,0 27,00 3907 0,043 166,41 824 1097

Temperature coefficient of resistance for copper = 0,00393 per
o
C
_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-2-
S.L.D.G. 9 - 5 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 1 : THERMALLY LIMITED SHORT-CIRCUITED CURRENTS IN BARE
COPPER CONDUCTORS

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-3-
S.L.D.G. 9 - 5 / 1
_______________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 2 : COPPER RODS AND STRAPS : STANDARD SIZES
(SABS 15/14/4)
Copper Rods Copper Straps
Dia. Area Width Cross-sectional area, (mm
2
), for thicknesses of (mm)
(mm) (mm
2
) (mm) 3,15 4,0 5,0 6,3 8,0 10 12,5 16
6,3

8,0
31

50
12,5
16
20
39
50
63
-
64
80
-
-
100
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
10

12,5
79

123
25
31,5
40
79
99
126
100
126
160
125
158
200
158
198
320
-
252
320
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
16

20
201

314
40
63
80
158
199
252
200
252
320
250
315
400
315
397
504
400
504
640
500
630
800
-
788
1000
-
-
-
25

31,5
491

779
100
125
160
-
-
-
400
-
-
500
625
-
630
788
1008
800
1000
1280
1000
1250
1600
1250
1563
2000
1600
2000
2560
40

50
1257

1964
200
250
315
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1600
-
-
2000
2500
-
2500
3125
3938
3200
4000
5040

_______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 9 - 6
TUBULAR CONDUCTORS
1. INTRODUCTION
With increasing substation and power station performances and voltage levels
outdoor switch plants are equipped to a greater extend with tubular conductors
offering extreme technical and economical advantages.
Tubular conductors, consisting of firmly welded tubes, or of single tubes
connected by means of flexible current bridges, have not only proven
themselves in European outdoor switch plants but are also put into use in the
Middle East and elsewhere.
However, the distinctive advantages of the tubular construction method in
outdoor switch plant construction and the good experience made up to now,
should not obscure the fact that the complete spectrum of this technology is still
almost entirely dependent on empirical findings.
1.1 Advantages Of Tubular Conductors
Experiences gained in Austria, Switzerland and the Federal Republic of
Germany clearly show that tubular conductors in outdoor substations
with large rated currents and high short circuit performances are both
technically and economically more favourable than cables.
Compared to cables, tubes sag far less and consequently enable
greater distances between supports as well as the use of lower portal
passages / openings. In addition, at an equal permanent current load
the tubes are lighter than cables and have a smaller surface boundary
field strength, being of particular significance for high operating voltages
(1). The shape of the tube also has a favourable influence on the skin
effect (2).
Notes :-
1. As the radiation surface of a tube conductor is greater than that
of a cable, the tube receives better cooling and therefore is able
to conduct higher permanent currents.
2. The skin effect influences the current distribution within a n
electrical conductor: The outer conductor layers conduct higher
currents than the inside ones and consequently the theoretical
conductancy of the material is not utilized to its limit.
The depth of penetration or skin depth is denoted by .
=
1 1
. f . .

= =
1
eq. 9-6.1
where :-
f = system frequency
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
=
=
It is an important parameter in describing conductor behaviour in
electromagnetic fields. To get an idea of the skin depth, consider
copper, = 5,8 . 10
7

-1
/ m, then
cu
=
0 0661 ,
f
eq. 9-6.2
At 50 Hz,
cu
= 9,35 mm. Remembering that power density carries an
exponential term e
-2z
, the power density is then multiplied by a factor of
0,368
2
= 0,135 for every 9,35 mm of distance into the copper.
Therefore, any current density or electric field intensity established at
the surface of a good conductor, decays rapidly as one progresses into
the conductor. Electromagnetic energy is not transmitted in the interior
of a conductor; it travels in the region surrounding the conductor, while
the conductor merely guides the waves. The currents established at the
conductor surface propagate into the conductor in a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the current density, and they are
attenuated by ohmic losses. This power loss is the price exacted by the
conductor for acting as a guide.
Example : A 50 mm x 100 mm copper busbar is to be used in a
substation to carry large currents. It can be seen that
much of the copper will be wasted as the fields are
greatly reduced in one skin depth i.e. within the first 9,35
mm. A hollow conductor with a wall thickness of 12 mm
would be a much better design.
As a tube, compared to the diameter, has relatively low wall thickness,
the differences in the currents between the material zones located on
the inside and outside are smaller.
The mechanical stress on equipment is also lower with tubular
conductors and with a short-circuit they do not clench together and tear
at the armature fittings, as is the case with cables connected in parallel.
Experiences gained to date have also resulted in a particularly unlimited
longevity of aluminium tubes independent of location or environmental
conditions. The tubes require neither anodising nor a coat of paint as
their natural oxide film has proven to be a sufficient protection against
corrosion.
TUBULAR CONDUCTORS / ADVANTAGES
good electric conductivity
high current carrying capacity
short circuit strength
no surface boundary field strength
smooth surface
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -3- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
close measuring tolerances
maximum tube lengths and tube diameters
large distance between support
low weight
good welding and bending properties
corrosion resistant
no servicing
From an overall point of view, tubular busbars in outdoor switch
plants with high rated currents are in many cases more economic
than cables.
2. BASIS OF STANDARD : GUIDELINES AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
THE USE OF TUBULAR CONDUCTORS IN SUBSTATION DESIGN.
2.1 Mechanical Strength Of Conductors
For high voltage substations with tubular conductors, the mechanical
strength of the clamps, conductors and post insulators is very important.
This is even more so in 765 kV and 400 kV substations where designs
with long span lengths are used. It is therefore essential to make use of
materials having sufficient mechanical strength to withstand short circuit
and / or wind forces.
The following is the basis for the selection of material :-
Theoretical operating temperature of the bar is maximum 85
o
C
Admissible short-circuit final temperature is 200
o
C
Corrosion resistant
Due to the mechanical demands and considering the permanent current
load capacity it is recommendable to preferably use one of the following
aluminium alloys :-
Aluminium forgeable alloy E Al Mg 0.5 F22 Anticorodal 045 (for higher
permanent current load capacity and for the bending of tubes up to
approximately 120 mm ) or E Al Mg 0.5 F25 Anticorodal 050 (for
higher mechanical strength).

TABLE 1 : ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
FORGEABLE ALUMINIUM ALLOY
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -4- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
Abbreviation E AlMgS
i
0.5 F 22 E AlMgS
i
0.5 F 25
Tensile strength Rm, min. N/mm
2
215 245
0.2 limit Rp 0.2, min. N/mm
2
160 195
Adm. Mech. Stress, cond.
Load
1
);
tensile / press.
N/mm
2
H HZ
95 105
H HZ
115 127
Elect. Conduct. At 20
o
C, min
m
mm .
2

30.0 28.0
Elogation at fracture A5, min % 12 10
Coefficient of elasticity E kN/ mm
2
70 70
Coefficient of thermal expansion K
-1
23 . 10
6
23 . 10
6

Special warmth / heat W
s
(gK) 0.92 0.92
Density g/cm
3
2.70 2.79
1
) M = main load (net weight, cables, contact breakers, ice);
A = additional load (wind)
2.1.1 Tubular conductor material
S.L.D.G. 9-7/0, Table 2 details the mechanical properties of a
number of aluminium alloys, two of which are locally
manufactured materials viz. D50S and D65S. It is quite obvious
from the table that the mechanical strength of the D65S alloy is
far superior to that of the D50S material.
The recommendations built into a computer aided design
program called BUSBAR which is resident at Substation
Technology, are also based on the D65S material in the TF
condition. For this reason, the D65S material (or its equivalent)
should always be given preference. A brief description of the
functions of the BUSBAR program is given in the appendix at
the end of document S.L.D.G. 9-2. The program enables one to
determine the maximum permitted span length without otherwise
exceeding the maximum stress limits for a given tubular
conductor size and fault level.
2.1.2 Welded joints and finish
The large sized aluminium tubes are often only available in short
lengths, but joining of two or more lengths by welding to obtain
the required span length have been proved acceptable. A
welded joint using a short piece of inner tube as backing plate,
gives a joint which is mechanically and electrically acceptable. It
is important, however, to follow the tube manufacturers
recommendations with regard to filler rod and weld preparation
meticulously. In this regard, the designer is referred to the
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -5- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
Welding Aluminium Manual TIG and MIG issued by Alcan
Booth Sheet Limited.
A build up of weld beads at the joints to the order of 1,0 - 2,0 mm
considerably improves the mechanical strength of the joint and
will not generate unnecessary corona, provided all sharp edges
are removed.
In order to prevent non-required loads of the surrounding area of
the welded joint (ca. 50 % weakening due to welding) it is
necessary to provide for a minimal bending moment in the joint
area or generally to cut the bending moment (see Figure. 1).
When ordering the tubes the resulting tube lengths should be
taken into account.

A B C D
L
0,8.L 0,7.L 0,7.L 0,8.L
Bus bar Bending moment Support Weld joint

FIGURE 1 : BOTH OUTSIDE WELD JOINTS ARE PLACED AT
THE ZERO PASSAGES OF THE CURVE OF THE
BENDING MOMENT. TO PREVENT THE
INDIVIDUAL PARTS BEING TOO SHORT, THE
THIRD WELD JOINT CAN BE ARRANGED IN THE
MIDDLE OF FIELD BC.
2.1.3 Allowable sag on tubular conductors
More for aesthetic reasons than for any other, the sag of the
conductor under its own weight should not exceed half the
outside diameter of the tubular conductor being used. In the
example given in Appendix A, the maximum allowable span is
20 metres, but the sag is 173,1 mm, which is just less than one
tube diameter. It would then be better to go to a span length of
17 m which translates to a sag of 90,4 mm, i.e. just less than half
the diameter of the 200 mm tube. A quick check of what the sag
for a particular tubular conductor size would be over a given
span can be determined from the Graph 1 of S.L.D.G. 9-7/0.
The sag of a tubular conductor due its own weight can also be
calculated using the following formula :-
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -6- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
f
1
i
Q. L
E. J
s
3
= eq 9-6.3
where :-
f
s
= deflection (sag) of tubular conductor between two
neighbouring supports in cm.
i = a factor depending on the number of supports under
a continuous tube, including welded sections
TABLE 2 : FACTOR (i) VS NUMBER OF SUPPORTS
Number of Supports 2 3 4 5 6 7
Factor i 77 185 145 154 152 154
Q =

=
total weight of the tubular conductor between
successive supports.
m'g
n
l in Newtons
L = length of the span in cm.
E = Youngs Modules of Elasticity
E
cu
= 11 . 10
6
N cm
-2

E
A1
= 6,5 . 10
6
-7,0 . 10
6
N cm
-2

J = moment of insertion of tubes

D d
20
4 4
in cm
4

D = outer tube diameter in cm.
d = inner tube diameter in cm.
m' = mass of tube per unit length (without additional load)
g
n
= gravitational acceleration (=9,81 ms
-2
)
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -7- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

Example 1 : An aluminium tube with outer diameter of
63 mm, wall thickness of 4 mm and with a span
length 6 m, is supported at each end (i.e. 2
supports). The mass per unit length from Table 1
of S.L.D.G. 9-7/0 is 2 kg m
-1
6 m
f
s

J =
6 3 6 3 2 0 4
20
4 4
, ( , . , )

= 32,35 mm
4

Q =
=
2 . 9,81 . 6
117,72 N
f
s
=
1
77
117 72 600
7 0 10 32 35
3
6
, . ( )
, . . ,

1 46
14 6
,
( , )
cm
mm
14,6 mm < 31,5 mm = tube outer
diameter
Example 2 : An aluminium tube with outer diameter of
160 mm, wall thickness of 6 mm and of length
30,48 m is simply supported at the ends and the
centre point.
f
s
15,24 m 15,24 m

____________________________________________________________________________________

DECEMBER 2001 -8- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
J
Q
f
s
=

=
=
=

16 16 2 0 6
20
878
7 84 9 81 15 24
1172 11
1
185
1172 11 1524
7 10 862
3 72
37
4 4
3
6
( . , )
, . , . ,
,
, . ( )
. .
,
(~ )

N

cm
mm

37 mm < 80 mm = tube outer diameter.
2.1.4 Post Insulators (See Also S.L.D.G. 6-2 Paragraph 3)
The cantilever forces on the tubular conductor supporting post
insulators are very much dependant on the type of clamping
arrangement used, i.e. :-
(i) both ends simply supported;
(ii) one end simply supported, the other end fixed;
(iii) both ends fixed.
It has been shown that the clamping arrangement (iii) gives a
much longer span length for the same tube stress than
arrangement (i) but at the same time, the cantilever forces on the
post insulator increases rapidly. However, the BUSBAR
programme developed by Substation Technology, enables the
designer to optimise span length and clamping arrangement for a
given post insulator strength. See page A4 of Appendix A that
illustrates how a busbar post insulator can be sized for a
particular application.
Although the insulator strength required should have a breaking
strength of 1,2 . 7051 = 8461 N, by reducing the span length to
17 m, the required insulator can be debated to a
1,2 . 6482 = 7778 N, or 8 kN post insulator.
2.1.5 Clamps
It is obvious from the foregoing that the mechanical strength of
the clamps is very important, but this matter is being dealt with in
a separate investigation and is excluded from this document.
Tubular clamp dimensions and ratings are given in S.L.D.G. 9-7.
2.1.6 Drainage holes
To prevent the accumulation of condensation and contamination
during later operation, drainage holes are drilled in the tubes.
The intended diameter of bore is 10 millimetres should be
adhered to as a smaller diameter could possibly cause blockage
(cf. Table 3). Prior to the drilling process the later location of the
assembled tubes is to be considered.
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -9- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
Weakening of the cross section only has to be taken into account
for vertical load of the tube.
TABLE 3 : REDUCTION OF MOMENT OF RESISTANCE W
BY A DRAINAGE HOLE WITH A DIAMETER OF
10 mm.
Diameter of tube Factor
60
80
100
120
160
200
0.89
0.91
0.93
0.94
0.96
0.97
2.2 Continuous Current Carrying Capacities Of Tubular Conductors
The current carrying capabilities and the nominal ratings for tubes
manufactured from D65S aluminium alloy are listed in Tables 1 and 2 of
S.L.D.G. 9-7/0.
To obtain a flawless current transition from the tube to the tube clamps,
the tolerances of the outside diameter (including circularity tolerance)
should not exceed half the values as shown in Table 4. The
manufacturer of the tube clamps and the weld joints has to be provided
with the exact tolerances by the tube manufacturer before beginning of
production at the latest.
(Cf. Table 4 on the following page)
____________________________________________________________________________________
D
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2
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1
T
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A
p
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a
t
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n
s

DECEMBER 2001 -11- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

2.3 Thermal Load Capacity Under Short Circuit Conditions
The heating of conductors due to short-circuit currents involves several
phenomenon of a non-linear character and other factors that have to be
either neglected or approximated in order to make a mathematical
approach possible.
For the purpose of this section, the following assumptions have been
made :-
a) Proximity-effect (magnetic influence of nearby parallel
conductors) has been disregarded.
b) Resistance - temperature characteristic has been assumed
linear.
c) The specific heat of the conductor is considered constant.
d) The heating is generally considered adiabatic i.e. the loss of heat
from a conductor during short-circuits is very low. When
repeated short-circuits occur with a short-time interval between
them (i.e. rapid auto-re-closure), the cooling down in the short
dead-time is of relatively low importance, and the heating can still
be considered adiabatic. In cases where the dead-time interval
is of larger duration (i.e. delayed auto-re-closure) the heat loss
may have to be taken into account.
e) The calculation does not take into account the skin effect i.e. the
current is regarded as evenly distributed over the conductor
cross-section area. This approximation is, however, not valid for
cross-sectional areas in excess of 600 mm
2
where the skin effect
must be taken into account although for tubular conductors, the
effect is much smaller.
Tubular conductors are usually chosen to withstand mechanical
stresses due to short-circuit forces and will almost always be more than
adequately rated for short circuit thermal capacity. The cross-sectional
areas of the conductors far exceed the equivalent aluminium stranded
conductors that would be used for a similar application. Nevertheless, a
graph (Graph 2) is provided in S.L.D.G. 9-7 to verify the short circuit
thermal capacity for a range of IEC preferred standard tubes. The
formula shown on Graph 2 of S.L.D.G. 9-7 may be used to calculate the
allowable fault currents for any other tube sizes that may be required
and plotted on log-log graph paper to check their thermal capacities. All
the equations listed in S.L.D.G. 9-1 section 2.4 are also applicable.
2.4 Aeolian Vibrations And Damping.
Under certain conditions, wind can encourage oscillations of tubular
conductors. This is known as aeolian vibration. An abundance of
literature is available on aeolian vibration that substantiates the fact that
some form of damping of the tubular conductors is necessary. Damping
can either be in the form of tuned dampers or stranded conductors
inserted in the tubes.
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -12- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
Tuned dampers are very effective over a narrow bandwidth at the design
frequency, but looses its effectiveness rapidly outside this bandwidth.
This makes it almost necessary to tailor make a tuned damper for every
different span length or clamping arrangement.
On the other hand, an inserted stranded conductor is not so effective as
the tune damper at the design frequency, but it provides a reasonable
degree of damping over a much wider frequency spectrum including the
second and third modes. The inserted conductor is fixed at one end to
prevent partial discharge resulting from contamination that is caused by
the potential differences between the conductor and the tube.
For our purposes the use of the stranded conductor is therefore
preferred and the following guidelines are recommended :-
For 80 to 120 mm tubes - use 1 x centipede conductor for
2
3

length of tube.
For 150 to 250 mm tubes - use 1 x bull or 2 x centipede (see Note
below) conductor for
2
3
length of tube.
Note : In particular disadvantageous cases, a diametrically
opposite insertion of two damping conductors into the
tube could become necessary. The length of the damping
conductor should be
2
3
of the distance between the tube
supports.
2.5 Corona Requirements
The surface field strength on a tubular conductor is dependant on
various factors such as phase spacing, height above ground, tube
diameter, etc.
The corona inception or threshold limits for various single conductors
are listed in Table 5. Theoretically it should be possible to reduce the
figures in Table 5 by a reasonable safety factor and then select a
suitable tube size from Tables 6 - 9 for that particular voltage. However,
another factor that should be borne in mind is the span length that might
necessitate the use of a much larger tube to meet the mechanical
strength requirements as discussed under paragraph 2.1. Under such
conditions, the increased diameter would also contribute to a lower
surface field strength that will allow a weld build up as mentioned under
paragraph 2.1.2.
To give the substation designer a bit of leeway, the recommendation
would be to consider two separate sets of conditions as follows :-
Relatively short span lengths without welds and ;
long span lengths where welds are essential.
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -13- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
2.5.1 Calculation of conductor surface field strength and
determination of corona inception levels for typical 765 kV,
400 kV and 275 kV arrangements
2.5.1.1 General
This section deals with the calculation of conductor
surface field strength, for single and bundle conductor
arrangements and compares inception levels at various
voltages.
2.5.1.2 Corona threshold limits
Empirical expressions that were developed by Peek and
Heymann (University of Pretoria) give corona threshold
field strengths for single conductors as follows :-
Peek :
E 3 m 1
0,03
.
10
2

kV
cm
(rms)
c
= +

eq. 9-6.4
Heymann :
( )
E 2 m 1
0,0937
.
10
2

kV
cm
(rms)
c
0,4
= +
(
(
,4

eq. 9-6.5
where E
c
= Corona threshold surface field strength
= Relative air density (RAD)
= Conductor radius in metres
m = Factor to allow for surface roughness
Typical values for m are as follows :-
1,0 - polished tubes
0,95 - extruded tubes
0,8 - stranded conductor
If RAD is taken as 0,8 typical of 1800 m above sea level,
equations 9-6.2 and 9-6.3 give the values listed in Table
5 below for E
c
.
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -14- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 5 : CORONA THRESHOLD SURFACE FIELD
STRENGTH FOR VARIOUS CONDUCTORS
CONDUCTOR DETAILS PEEK HEYMANN
Type Dia.
(mm)
m Ec
kV / cm
(rms)
Ec
kV / cm (rms)
Centipede 26,46 0,8 17,54 17,14
Zebra 28,6 0,8 17,37 16,95
Bull 38,4 0,8 16,87 16,27
Tubular
Conductor
50 0,95 19,54 18,68
Tubular
Conductor
75 0,95 18,91 17,81
Tubular
Conductor
100 0,95 18,54 17,28
Tubular
Conductor
150 0,95 18,10 16,62
Tubular
Conductor
200 0,95 17,83 16,22
Tubular
Conductor
250 0,95 17,65 15,93

2.5.1.3 Calculation of conductor surface field strength using the image
method.
A
B C
1 2 3 4 5 6
b
2r
S S
GROUND
PLANE
H
H
D
1
D
2
D
3
D
4
D
5

FIGURE 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -15- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
By applying the formulae derived for a three phase transmission line to
a bundle conductor arrangement as shown above, the phase to ground
voltage on conductor 1 is given by :
V
Q
2.
. ln
2. H
R
Q
2.
. ln
D
+
Q
2.
. ln
D
+
Q
2.
. ln
D
S b
Q
2.
. ln
D
2S
Q
2.
. ln
D
2.S b
1
1 2 1 3 2 4 3
5 4 6 5
=

(
+

(
+
(
+

(
+
+
(

. . . .
. .
( )

b S
Volts eq. 9 - 6.6

where :-
V
1
= instantaneous phase to ground voltage on
conductor 1 in volts
Q
1
, Q
2
.....Q
6
= instantaneous charges on conductors
1, 2 ...6 respectively in cou1omb/m.
= the dielectric constant for air in C
2
/Nm
2
.
r = the radius of the conductor in metres
H = height of conductors above ground in metres
S = phase spacing in metres
D
1
, D
2
....D
5
= relative distances between conductors in metres

The instantaneous charge on a conductor is proportional to the
instantaneous phase to ground voltage of the conductor, but due to the
fact that the voltages on the three phases are displaced by 120
o
and the
algebraic sum of the charges , it follows that if the charge
on conductor 1 at any particular instant equals +Q cou1omb/m, then the
charges on the other two phases are -0,5Q cou1omb/m each. This
leads to the following simplification :-
Q
x x
n
=
=
0
1
Q
1
Q
2
= Q
Q
3
Q
4
= -0,5Q
1
= -0,5Q
Q
5
Q
6
= -0,5Q
1
= -0,5Q
Substitute in (eq 9-6.4) above and we get :-
[ ]
V Vn
Q H
r
D
b
D
S
D
S b
D
S
D
S b
Q
P
1
1 2 3 4 5
1
2
2
0 5
2 2
2
= =

(
+

(
+
+
(
+

(
+
+
(
|
\
|
.
|
.
ln
.
ln , ln ln ln
.
ln
.
(
. .
(
Volts)
Volts)
eq 9-6.7
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -16- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

Where V
n
= phase to neutral voltage in volts
[ ] ln
.
ln , ln ln ln
.
ln
.
P
H
r
D
b
D
S
D
S b
D
S
D
S b
1
1 2 3 4 5
2
0 5
2 2
=

(
+

(
+
+
(
+

(
+
+
(
|
\
|
.
|

eq 9-6.8
but the average field strength on the surface of any conductor with
radius r and charge + q cou1omb/m is given by
E
av
=
+ q
r 2. . .
Volt / m eq 9-6.9
Equation 9-2.9 applied to conductor 1 of the above arrangement gives
:-
E
1av
=
Q
r 2. . .
Volt / m eq 9-6.10
where Q = charge on conductor 1 in cou1omb/m
r = radius of conductor 1 in metres
Substitute for Q from eq 9-6.7
[ ]
[ ]
E
V
P
r
V
P r
m rms
or
V
P
cm rms
av
n
n
L
r
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
3
1 1
10
=
=
=
. . .
. .
.
.
/ ( )
. . / (

kV
kV )
eq. 9-6.11
with V
L
in kV (rms) and r in metres.
The average field strength for the other conductors can be calculated in
a similar manner.
However, when wires are close together as in a bundle, the charges
influence each other and bring about a spatial variation of the field. The
actual variation of field strength round the circumference has been
shown by several investigators to closely follow a cosine relationship
given by the equation :-
E
e
= E
av
1 1 +
(
( ) cos n
d
b
. eq. 9-6.12
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -17- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

where :-
n = number of conductors in a bundle
d = conductor diameter
b = bundle diameter
b

FIGURE 2
Experimental results, however, confirm that the corona threshold is
reached when the field strength reaches halfway between the average
value and the maximum value, i.e. when = 45
o
.
This is termed the effective field strength and is given by :-
E
e
= E
av
1 0 71 1 +
(
, ( ) n
d
b
eq. 9-6.13
2.5.1.4 Effective field strength for typical outdoor busbar configurations
Equation 9-6.13 applied to horizontal busbar arrangements, using
single, double and bundle conductors give values for effective field
strengths at line voltages of 765 kV , 400 kV and 275 kV respectively.
Results are shown in Tables 5 to 8.
____________________________________________________________________________________
D
E
C
E
M
B
E
R

2
0
0
1

-
1
8
-

S
.
L
.
D
.
G
.

9

-

6

/

1

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

T
A
B
L
E

6

A

L
I
N
E

V
O
L
T
A
G
E

V
L

=

7
6
5

k
V
,

P
H
A
S
E

S
P
A
C
I
N
G

S

=

1
4

m

H

n
C
E
N
T
I
P
E
D
E
Z
E
B
R
A
B
U
L
L
(
m
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

A

B
C
A

B
C
A

B

C
1
2

1
4
7
,
5
0
4
8
,
9
7
4
7
,
5
0
4
4
,
4
7
4
5
,
8
2
4
4
,
4
7
3
4
,
5
9
3
5
,
6
9
3
4
,
5
9

H

n

T
U
B
E

7
5

m
m

T
U
B
E

1
0
0

m
m

T
U
B
E

1
2
0

m
m

T
U
B
E

1
5
0

m
m

T
U
B
E

2
0
0

m
m

(
m
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

A

B
C
A

B
C
A

B
C
A

B
C
A

B
C
1
2

1
1
9
,
6
9
2
0
,
3
9
1
9
,
6
9
1
5
,
5
1
1
6
,
1
0
1
5
,
5
1
1
3
,
3
6
1
3
,
8
7
1
3
,
3
6
1
1
,
1
4
1
1
,
5
9
1
1
,
1
4
8
,
8
3
9
,
2
1
8
,
8
3
1
4

1
1
3
,
2
2

1
3
,
7
8

1
3
,
2
2

H

=

H
e
i
g
h
t

a
b
o
v
e

g
r
o
u
n
d

l
e
v
e
l

n

=

N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

c
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r
s

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

2
0
0
1
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

S
u
b
s
t
a
t
i
o
n

D
e
s
i
g
n

&

A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

D
E
C
E
M
B
E
R

2
0
0
1

-
1
9
-

S
.
L
.
D
.
G
.

9

-

6

/

1

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

T
A
B
L
E

6

B

L
I
N
E

V
O
L
T
A
G
E

V
L

=

7
6
5

k
V

P
H
A
S
E

S
P
A
C
I
N
G

S

=

1
4

m

b

H
n
C
E
N
T
I
P
E
D
E
Z
E
B
R
A
B
U
L
L
(
m
m
)

(
m
)
E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

A

B
C
A

B
C
A

B
C
5
0
0

5
0
0

1
5

1
2

4

4

2
0
,
3
8

2
0
,
7
6

2
1
,
5
1

2
1
,
7
5

2
0
,
3
8

2
0
,
7
6

1
9
,
0
9

1
9
,
4
4

2
0
,
1
6

2
0
,
3
6

1
9
,
0
9

1
9
,
4
4

1
4
,
9
9

1
5
,
2
6

1
5
,
8
4

1
5
,
9
8

1
4
,
9
9

1
5
,
2
6

6
4
0

1
2
6
1
5
,
6
7
1
6
,
5
0
1
5
,
6
7
1
4
,
7
0
1
5
,
4
8
1
4
,
7
0
1
1
,
6
0
1
2
,
2
2
1
1
,
6
0

H

b

n

T
U
B
E

5
0

m
m

T
U
B
E

7
5

m
m

T
U
B
E

1
0
0

m
m

T
U
B
E

1
5
0

m
m

T
U
B
E

2
0
0

m
m

(
m
)

(
m
m
)
E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

E
e

k
V

/

c
m

(
r
m
s
)

A

B
C
A

B
C
A

B
C
A

B
C
A

B
C
1
2

1
0
0
2
2
1
,
0
2

2
1
,
8
0

2
1
,
0
2
1
2

1
2
5
2
1
5
,
6
1
1
6
,
2
3

1
5
,
6
1
1
2

1
5
0
2
1
9
,
9
0

2
0
,
7
0

1
9
,
9
0

1
2
,
7
0
1
3
,
2
0
1
2
,
7
0
1
2

1
7
5
2
1
4
,
7
4
1
5
,
3
4

1
4
,
7
4

1
2

2
0
0
2
1
2
,
0
0
1
2
,
5
0
1
2
,
0
0

9
,
4
1

9
,
8
3

9
,
4
1
1
2

2
5
0
2
8
,
9
6

9
,
3
7

8
,
9
6

7
,
6
2

7
,
9
8

7
,
6
2
1
2

3
0
0
2
7
,
3
1

7
,
6
6

7
,
3
1

H

=

H
e
i
g
h
t

a
b
o
v
e

g
r
o
u
n
d

l
e
v
e
l

b

=

B
u
n
d
l
e

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r

n

=

N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

c
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r
s

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

2
0
0
1
T
r
a
n
s
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DECEMBER 2001 -25- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

2.5.1.5 Calculation of optimum bundle diameter and surface field
strength using professor Heymanns empirical formulae.
n = 2; b
o
/d = 4 . log
10
(2 . S/d) - 2,2
n = 3; b
o
/d = 6 . log
10
(2 . S/d) - 5,4
n = 4; b
o
/d = 8 . log
10
(2 . S/d) - 8,8
n = 5; b
o
/d = 10 . log
10
(2 . S/d) - 12,2
n = 6; b
o
/d = 12 . log
10
(2 . S/d) - 16,0
E
n
= V
N
. 2/b
o

eq. 9-6.14
where :-
n = number of conductors per bundle
b
o
= optimum bundle diameter (meter)
E
n
= surface field strength kV/m (rms)
V
N
= phase to neutral voltage kV
S = phase to phase distance m
d = conductor diameter m
Optimum bundle diameters and surface field strengths for a
configuration having 14 m phase spacing, are reflected in Table
9.
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -26- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE 9
S = 14,0 m V
n
= 765 / 3 kV
CENTIPEDE ZEBRA BULL
n
b
o
(m)
E
kV / cm (rms)

b
o
(m)
E
kV / cm (rms)

b
o
(m)
E
kV / cm (rms)
2 0,262 33,7 0,279 31,6 0,335 24,9
3 0,337 26,2 0,359 24,6 0,452 19,5
4 0,407 21,7 0,433 20,4 0,542 16,3
6 0,537 16,5 0,569 15,5 0,705 12,5

50 mm TUBE 75 mm TUBE 100 mm TUBE
n
b
o
(m)
E
kV / cm (rms)

b
o
(m)
E
kV / cm (rms)

b
o
(m)
E
kV / cm (rms)
2 0,44 20,1 0,61 14,6 0,76 11,6

100 mm TUBE 200 mm TUBE
n b
o
(m)
E
kV / cm (rms)
b
o
(m)
E
kV / cm (rms)
2 1,03 8,6 1,28 6,9
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -27- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

2.6 Support Structures
Four different types of support structures e.g. tubular aluminium, tubular
steel, H-section and lattice type, have been compared.
From the mass point of view, the aluminium support is the lightest, but is
mechanically too weak. The second lightest i.e. the lattice support is the
most rigid and performs best dynamically. The tubular steel support is
extremely flexible, but a serious draw back of the flexibility is the fact that
during short circuits unacceptable shock loads are imposed on the post
insulators.
The H-section support is not as flexible as the tubular support, but the
mass is almost 53 % more. If a lighter section is used it would probably
suffer from the same disadvantage of the flexibility.
It is therefore concluded that lattice type structures should always be
used where possible.
2.7 Conclusion And Recommendations
Provided the guidelines and recommendations outlined in the above
document are observed, the authors are of the opinion that high voltage
substations using tubular aluminium alloy conductors can be designed
and built with confidence.
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -28- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

APPENDIX A
BUSBAR PROGRAM FOR RIGID CONDUCTORS
INTRODUCTION
Busbar calculates the maximum short circuit forces on rigid busbar systems under fault
conditions. The program uses the method proposed by CIGRE Study Committee 23
(Substations), as published in Electra No. 68.
The package was developed to give guidance in the design of Rigid Busbar Systems.
The algorithm used in the package rests on the following assumptions :-
1. The conductors are assumed to be of infinite length. End effects are ignored.
2. The conductors are assumed to be rigid. The deflection of the conductor under
fault conditions are assumed to be small compared to the phase spacing.
3. The faults are assumed to be balanced.
Interfacing with the program is done via menus. The output of the program can be sent
to the printer, disk, or computer screen.
A printed copy is illustrated on pages A-3 and A-4.

____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -29- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

SHORT-CIRCUIT FORCES ON RIGID BUS SYSTEMS
MAIN MENU
EDIT
RUN
OPTIONS
END
EXIT TO DOS
OPTIONS MENU
NUMBER OF POINTS TO
BE CALCULATED
START SPAN LENGTH
SPAN LENGTH
INTERVAL
START PHASE SPACING
PHASE SPACING
INTERVAL
EDIT THE INPUT DATA
FOR RIGID BUS SYSTEM :
BUSBAR DATA
SYSTEM DATA
CONDITIONS
CALCULATES THE
SHORT-CIRCUIT FORCES
ON THE BUSBAR FOR
THE GIVEN INPUT DATA
RUN WINDOW
EDIT MENU
PRINTER
DISK
SCREEN
NO DEVICE
OUTPUT DEVICE

LEGAL NOTICE
Program BUSBAR has been extensively tested to verify that it is properly executing
the intended calculation algorithm. The calculation method itself represents the state
of the art at the time of writing this package. It remains the responsibility of the user,
however, to satisfy himself that the software and the calculation method are suitable for
the cases to which they are being applied. Neither Transmission Substation
Technology Department, nor the authors, nor any person acting on their behalf
assumes any liabilities with respect to the use of, or damages resulting from the use of,
this package.
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -30- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

An example of the program output
CALCULATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC SHORT-CIRCUIT FORCES ON RIGID
BUSBAR SYSTEMS
Version 3.0
The forces due to the short circuit are calculated according to the method as proposed
by the CIGRE study committee no. 23 and published in Electra no. 66 p37-p69. The
calculations are only valid for D65S. The limitation for the busbar is based on a safety
factor of 2.5 (this included any damping measures). A safety factor of 1.2 is used for
post insulators. This program is based on a wind force of (700 Newton/SQRM) of the
cross sectional area, a profile factor of 0.6 are used in the case of tubes.
The results are only valid for tubes with a maximum wall thickness of 8 mm.
For damping purposes insert the following conductors for the full length of the tube :
(i) for tubes up to 120 mm - one centipede
(ii) for tubes larger than 120 mm - one bull
For further information on the interpretation of the results, please contact the
developers of the package at Transmission Substation Technology Department.
**********************************************************************
TUBE INFORMATION
The tube outside diameter = 200.0 mm
The tube wall thickness = 8 mm
The busbar has both ends supported
Forces Due to 3-Phase Fault are calculated
Forces during windy conditions are calculated
A multispan arrangement is considered
GENERAL INFORMATION
System voltage = 400.0 kV
Nominal Current = 1000.0 A
Fault level = 50.00 kA
X/R ratio = 15.00
Peak Current = 127.78 kA
Busbar span length = 20.00 m
Phase spacing = 6.00 m
Min phase clearance = 4000 mm
Mass density = 2703.00 kg/cub m
Mass per unit length = 13.04 kg/m
Weight force = 127.95 N/m
Wind loading = 84.00 Nm
Youngs modules = 6.9120 E+10 N/sqr m
Ix = 22.2744 E-6
Zx = 0.2227 E-3
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -31- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

TABLE OF SPAN LENGTH (L) VERSUS FORCE AND DEFLECTION

L FREQ MASS MASS + WIND MASS + WIND + SCC FORCE
m Hz Nm MPA mm Nm MPA mm Nm MPA mm (insl)

2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20.0
21.0
134.85
59.93
33.71
21.58
14.98
11.01
8.43
6.66
5.39
4.46
3.75
3.19
2.75
2.40
2.11
1.87
1.66
1.49
1.35
1.22
64
144
256
400
576
784
1024
1296
1599
1935
2303
2703
3135
3599
4095
4622
5182
5774
6398
7054
0.3
0.6
1.1
1.8
2.6
3.5
4.6
5.8
7.2
8.7
10.3
12.1
14.1
16.2
18.4
20.8
23.3
25.9
28.7
31.7
0.0
0.1
0.3
0.7
1.4
2.6
4.4
7.1
10.8
15.8
22.4
30.9
41.6
54.8
70.9
90.4
113.6
141.0
173.1
210.5
77
172
306
478
689
938
1225
1550
1913
2315
2755
3233
3750
4305
4898
5529
6199
6907
7653
8438
0.3
0.8
1.4
2.1
3.1
4.2
5.5
7.0
8.6
10.4
12.4
14.5
16.8
19.3
22.0
24.8
27.8
31.0
34.4
37.9
0.0
0.1
0.3
0.8
1.7
3.1
5.3
8.5
12.9
19.0
26.8
37.0
49.7
65.5
84.8
108.1
135.9
168.7
207.1
251.8
1065
1494
2096
2871
3529
4378
5229
5969
6800
7719
8728
9826
11013
12289
13654
15108
16650
18281
20000
21808
4.8
6.7
9.4
12.9
15.8
19.7
23.5
26.8
30.5
34.7
39.2
44.1
49.4
55.2
61.3
67.8
74.7
82.1
89.8
97.9
0.3
0.9
2.3
4.9
8.6
14.5
22.6
32.7
46.0
63.2
85.0
112.4
146.0
187.1
236.5
295.4
365.0
446.5
541.3
650.7
2377
3565
4753
5942
6658
6223
5965
5827
5772
5777
5828
5914
6027
6162
6315
6482
6662
6852
7051
7257

Conclusions
The max permitted span length is = 20.000 m
otherwise max stress limits would be exceeded.
The insulator must be able to withstand = 7051 N
The recommended min insulator failing load cantilever = 8461 N

____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -32- S.L.D.G. 9 - 6 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

APPENDIX B
CORONA CALCULATION PROGRAM
INTRODUCTION
A computer program based on the image method as discussed in the previous section,
was developed for calculation of conductor surface field strengths, as well as
corona threshold limits.
The corona calculation program will calculate the maximum electric field strength as
well as the corona threshold limit for single and bundle stranded conductors as well as
tubular conductors.
An example of the input and output of the program is shown below for a 200 mm
diameter tubular conductor at 1800 m above sea level.

CORONA CALCULATION PROGRAM
System Voltage (kV) 400.00000000
Number of Phases 3
Phase Spacing (m) 7.00000000
Height above Ground (m) 5.80000000
No of Conductors per bundle 1
Conductor Diameter (mm) 200.00000000
Centipede = 26.46 Zebra = 28.6 Bull = 38.4
Conductor on Circle Y/N N
Bundle should be centered around phase position
Input Co-ordinates should be relative to phase position
and be given in mm
X Pos. of cond. No.1 1.00000000
Y Pos. of cond. No.1 1.00000000
Input effective bundle diameter in mm 1.00000000
CORONA THRESHOLD LIMITS
Relative Air Density 0.80000000
Surface Factor: 0.95000000
Polished Tubes = 1.0
Extruded Tubes = 0.95
Stranded Conductor = 0.8

Maximum Electric Field Strength
Corona Threshold limit = 17.024 kV/cm
Phase 1: 5.3797 kV/cm Corona Absent
Another try? Y/N Y

____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 9 - 7 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 9 - 7
PROPOSED STANDARD ALUMINIUM TUBULAR CONDUCTORS

(a) Alusingen, Tubular Busbars for Outdoor Substations - Aluminium -
Walzwerke Singen GmbH, Federal Republic of Germany.
(Alusingen pamphlet 1/9/78b)
(b) Meintjes, W.J., Oliver, C.G.P. and van der Merwe, W.C.,
Investigation into the Use of Tubular Aluminium Conductors at High
Voltage Substations, Eskom - Republic of South Africa, July 1995.
(c) ASEA BROWN BOVERI, Pocket Book Switchgear Manual,
8 th Edition, 1988.
Table 1 gives details of the standard IEC tubular conductors relating to two
commonly used alloys, namely AlMgSiO,5F22 and AlMgSiO,5F25. The latter
alloy viz. A1MgSiO,5F25 is the preferred alloy since it has greater mechanical
strength with only slightly lower continuous current rating than AlMgSiO,5F22.
Although a large range of tubular conductor sizes are given, those with the
outer diameter sizes shown in bold print, are those that Eskom has standardise
on. The related wall thickness sizes in bold print are the IEC preferred sizes.
Table 2 gives the Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Various Aluminium
Alloys.

____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 9 - 7 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
TABLE 1 : ALUMINIUM TUBULAR CONDUCTORS
a
D

Outer
Diameter
(D)
Wall
Thickness
(a)
Cross-
Sectional
Area
Mass
per Metre
Continuous Current
Rating for
E-AlM SiO,5F22
Continuous Current
Rating for
E-AlMgSiO,5 F 25

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

(kg)
65
(A)
85
(A)
65
(A)
85
(A)
63 4 741 2,00 1150 1530 1110 1480
5 911 2,46 1280 1700 1240 1640
6 1074 2,90 1380 1830 1330 1770
8 1382 3,73 1560 2070 1510 2000
80 4 955 2,58 1400 1860 1350 1800
5 1178 3,18 1560 2070 1510 2000
6 1395 3,77 1690 2240 1630 2160
8 1810 4,89 1920 2550 1850 2460
10 2199 5,94 2110 2790 2040 2690
100 4 1206 3,26 1690 2240 1630 2160
5 1492 4,03 1880 2490 1820 2400
6 1772 4,78 2040 2710 1970 2620
8 2312 6,24 2320 3070 2240 2960
10 2827 7,63 2540 3360 2450 3240
120 4 1458 3,94 1950 2580 1880 2490
5 1806 4,88 2170 2880 2090 2780
6 2149 5,80 2370 3140 2290 3030
8 2815 7,60 2700 3580 2610 3460
10 3456 9,33 2960 3920 2860 3790
12 4072 10,99 3130 4150 3020 4010
160 4 1960 5,29 2520 3330 2430 3220
5 2435 6,57 2790 3700 2690 3570
6 2903 7,84 3060 4050 2950 3910
7 3365 9,08 3270 4330 3160 4180
8 3820 10,31 3490 4630 3370 4470
10 4712 12,72 3830 5070 3700 4900
12 5579 15,06 4060 5380 3920 5200
200 4 2463 6,65 3030 4010 2930 3870
5 3063 8,27 3410 4520 3290 4360
6 3657 9,87 3720 4920 3590 4750
8 4825 13,0 4270 5660 4120 5470
10 5969 16,1 4680 6200 4520 5990
12 7087 19,1 4990 6610 4820 6390
250 5 3848 10,4 4140 5490 3900 5300
6 4599 12,4 4520 5990 4370 5780
8 6082 16,4 5190 6870 5010 6640
10 7540 20,4 5700 7560 5500 7300
12 8972 24,2 6100 8080 5890 7800
14 10380 28,0 6420 8500 6200 8210
16 11762 31,8 6640 8800 6410 8500
300 7 6443 17,4 5810 7700 5610 7440
8 7339 19,8 6140 8130 5930 7850
10 9111 24,6 6720 8900 6490 8600
12 10857 29,3 7180 9510 6930 9190
14 12579 34,0 7490 9930 7230 9590
16 14275 38,5 7770 10300 7500 9950
18 15947 43,0 7920 10500 7650 10140
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -3- S.L.D.G. 9 - 7 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________
a
D

TABLE 1 : ALUMINIUM TUBULAR CONDUCTORS (Continued)
Outer
Diameter
(D)
Wall
Thickness
(a)
Cross-
Sectional
Area
Mass
per Metre
Continuous Current
Rating for
E-AlM SiO,5F22
Continuous Current
Rating for
E-AlMgSiO,5 F 25

(mm)

(mm)

(mm)

(kg)
65
(A)
85
(A)
65
(A)
85
(A)
315 8 7716 20,8 6420 8510 6200 8220
10 9582 25,9 7060 9360 6820 9040
12 11423 30,8 7540 9990 7280 9650
14 13239 35,7 7850 10400 7580 10050
16 15030 40,6 8150 10800 7870 10430
18 16795 45,3 8380 11100 8090 10720
350 8 8595 23,2 7060 9350 6820 9030
10 10681 28,8 7770 10300 7506 9950
12 12742 34,4 8230 10900 7950 10530
14 14778 39,9 8600 11400 8310 11010
16 16789 45,3 8910 11800 8610 11400
18 18774 50,7 9130 12100 8820 11670
400 10 12252 33,1 8750 11600 8450 11200
12 14627 39,5 9360 12400 9040 11980
14 16977 45,8 9810 13000 9480 12560
16 19302 52,1 10100 13400 9760 12940
18 21602 58,3 10300 13700 9950 13230

PROPOSED ESKOM STANDARD ALUMINIUM TUBULAR CONDUCTORS
System
Voltage
Span Length
(Bay Width)
Maximum
Fault
Maximum
Sag At
Recommended Tube Sizes To Meet Both
Strengths And O.D. Criterion

(kV)

(mm)
Level

(kA)
Midpoint

(mm)
Tube
O.D.
(mm)
Wall
Thickness
(mm)
Tube
O.D.
(mm)
Wall
Thickness
(mm)
88 10 16
25
31,5
40
132 12 16 120 4
25 120 4
31,5 120 6
40 120 10 160 7
220 16 25 200 4 - -
& 31,5 200 4 - -
275 40 200 6 250 5
50 200 8 250 6
330 20 31,5 250 6 - -
& 40 250 6 - -
400 50 250 6 - -
63 250 8 - -
765 50

____________________________________________________________________________________
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DECEMBER 2001 -5- S.L.D.G. 9 - 7 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 1 : MAXIMUM SAG VS DEAD WEIGHT OF TUBE
ANTICORDAL-045 (E-AlMgSiO,5) F22
or
ANTICORDAL-045 (E-AlMgSiO,5) F22
____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -6- S.L.D.G. 9 - 7 / 1
____________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 2 : THERMALLY LIMITED SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENTS IN BARE
ALUMINIUM TUBULAR CONDUCTORS

____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-1-
S.L.D.G. 9 - 8
__________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 9 - 8
INSULATED CABLES
1. LAYING OF CABLES
Insulated wires and cables should be laid so that their operating
characteristics are not impaired.
The following should be taken into account :-
Heat dissipation, especially when the cable is routed through areas with
varying thermal conductivity or containing other sources of heat (e.g.
district heating pipes),
Impulse short-circuit currents, especially in the case of single core cables,
Leakage currents and corrosion,
Earth movements, vibrations (machine foundation, bridges, shocks),
Protection against mechanical damage.
Cables should be laid to ensure that the danger of fire, its spreading and
consequences, is reduced as far as possible. The following measures are
necessary, e.g. for exposed cables installed in buildings or in ducts or shafts.
a) Cables should not be laid in or on easy or normally inflammable
material. If this material is a thermoplastic, it must be flame-retardant.
b) Entrances for cables, cable ducts and cable shafts through fire-
partitioning structures (walls or ceilings specified by the Building
Authorities for fire control purposes) should be sealed so as to be fire-
proof.
c) Instrument, control, indication and similar auxiliary cables, which are
indispensable for operation of installations and stations with rated
voltages above 1 kV, should preferably be laid separate from cables
with operating voltage above 1 kV or be protected by means of
partitions.
__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-2-
S.L.D.G. 9 - 8
__________________________________________________________________________________

2. MINIMUM BENDING RADIUS
When laying cables, the bend radius for cables of external diameter D
A

should not be less than the values given in Table 1.
TABLE 1 : PERMISSIBLE BEND RADIUS FOR CABLES WITH RATED
VOLTAGES > 1 kV
Paper-Insulated Cable
Cable With Lead
Sheath Or
Corrugated
Metal Sheath
With Smooth
Aluminium
Sheath Up To 50
mm Dia.
Thermoplastic Cable
Multi-Core 15 . D
A
25 . D
A
15 . D
A

Single-Core 25 . D
A
30 . D
A
15 . D
A

If cables are bent at one point only, e.g. at cable sealing ends, the bending
radii may be reduced in extreme cases to half the value given if correct
treatment (heating to 30
o
C, bending over a template) is ensured. The
manufacturer should, however, always be consulted in all cases.

__________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-1-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 0 /1
____________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 10 - 0
TERMINAL STEMS, CLAMPS AND YARD HARDWARE
INDEX
S.L.D.G. 10-0 1 INDEX
2. Standard Stem Sizes

S.L.D.G. 10-1 1 EQUIPMENT TERMINAL STEMS
2. Determination Of Stem Sizes - Approximate
D.C. Current Ratings For Flat And Round
Copper Bars.
2.1 Flat Bars On Edge
2.2 Hollow Round Bars
2.3 Solid Round Bars
3. Re-rating For Different Current Or
Temperature Rise Conditions
4. Standard Terminal Stems

S.L.D.G. 10-2 1 SUBSTATION CURRENT-CARRYING CLAMPS
FOR FLEXIBLE AND TUBULAR CONDUCTORS
1. General
2. Design - General Features
2.1 A Bolted / Bolted Connector Joint
2.2 A Bolted / Compression Joint (Only With
Stranded Conductors)
2.3 Weld Joint (Only With Tubular Conductors
2.4 Dilation Joints (Expansion Clamps)
2.4.1 Studs for current passage
2.4.2 Bedding types of tube connectors
2.4.2.1 Tube connectors with internal
bedding.
2.4.2.2 Tube clamps with external
bedding
2.5 Tube Vibrations
3. Technical Design
3.1 Contact Areas
3.1.1 Diameter of clamp grooves
3.1.2 Cross grooved channel
3.1.3 Calculation of contact surfaces

____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-2-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 0 /1
____________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 10-2
(Continued)
1 3.1.4 Specific load current (current density)
3.1.4.1 Specific load current for
aluminium conductors
3.1.4.2 Specific load current for solid
conductors (tubes, bolts)
3.2 Contact Force
3.2.1 Requirements for stranded conductor
clamps
3.2.2. Clamping covers (caps)
3.2.3 Screws
3.2.3.1 Protection against loss
3.2.3.2 Materials
3.2.3.3 Lubricants
3.2.3.4 Plain washers
3.2.4 Contact forces at standard conductor
clamps
3.2.5 Contact forces on tubular clamps
3.2.6 Diameter tolerances for tubes
3.2.7 Tensile forces
3.2.8 Flat terminals
3.3 Parts Of The Clamp
3.3.1 Dimensioning
3.3.2 Materials
3.3.2.1 Sand casting
3.3.2.2 Aluminium-forgings
3.3.2.3 Heat treatment
3.3.2.4 Surface treatment
3.3.2.5 Tests
4. Test And Quality Checks
4.1 Type Test
4.1.1 Temperature rise under constant
current load
4.1.2 Electrical fatigue test
4.1.3 Short circuit test
4.1.3.1 Calculation of the highest
possible short-circuit current
at the conductor strand
4.1.4 Corona test
4.1.5 Mechanical tests
4.1.5.1 Strength tests
a) Measurement of the
distortion of mounted
clamps by means of a
strain gauge

____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-3-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 0 /1
____________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 10-2
(Continued)
1 b) Tightening torque test
4.1.5.2 Tensile tests
4.1.5.3 Breaking tests
4.1.5.4 Motion tests
a) Fatigue tests
b) Running tests
4.2 Routine Tests
5. How To Assemble Screw Clamps
5.1 Preparation Of The Clamps
5.1.1 Clamps which are already delivered
with contact paste on the contact
surface
5.1.2 Clamps delivered without contact
paste
5.2 Preparation Of The Conductor
5.3 Assembling Of The Clamps
6. Test On Clamps Conducted By Eskom
6.1 Outline Of Tests Done
6.2 General Conclusions Reached

S.L.D.G. 10 - 3 2 SUBSTATION CLAMPS AND ACCESSORIES FOR
FLEXIBLE CONDUCTORS
1. General
2. Standard Range Of Clamps And Accessories
2.1 Type 'K' Bolted Cross Clamps
2.2 Type 'T' Bolted Clamps
2.3 Type 'KC' Bolted / Compression Clamps
2.4 Type 'TC' Bolted / Compression Clamps
2.5 Type 'Y' Bolted Clamps
2.6 Type 'YC' Bolted / Compression Clamps
2.7 Type '2YC' Bolted / Compression Clamps
2.8 Type '3YC' Triple Conductor Bolted /
Compression Clamps
2.9 Type '3Y' Triple-Conductor Bolted / Bolted
Clamp
2.10 Type 'SPC' Bolted / Compression Clamp
2.11 Type 'Terminal Stem'
2.12 Type '8-Bolt, 12 Hole' Terminal Pad
Adaptor
2.13 Type 'UB' Aluminium U-Bar And Type 'U' U-
Bar Assemblies
2.14 Type 'S' Spacers - Non-current And Current
Carrying
2.14.1 Non-current carrying

____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-4-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 0 /1
____________________________________________________________________________________

S.L.D.G. 10 3
(Continued)
2 2.14.2 Current carrying
2.15 Type 'ACC' Insulated Covers And
Conductors

S.L.D.G. 10 - 4 1 STANDARD RANGE OF CLAMPS AND
ACCESSORIES FOR TUBULAR CONDUCTORS
1. General
2. Test On Clamps
2.2 Conclusions
3. Standard Clamps And Accessories
3.1 General
3.2 Clamps
3.3 Clamps
3.4 Clamps
3.5 Clamps
3.5 Clamps
3.6 Clamps
3.7 Clamps
3.8 Clamps
3.9 U-bars

S.L.D.G. 10 - 5 1 STANDARD RANGE OF SUBSTATION
HARDWARE
1. General
2. Standard Range Of Substation Hardware
2.1 Insulated Assemblies
2.2 Yoke Plates
2.3 Extension Straps
2.4 Jumper Weights
3. Typical Dimensions
4. Sag Caused By Insulators (With Specimen
Calculation.

____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-1-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 1 / 2
______________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 10 - 1
EQUIPMENT TERMINAL STEMS
a) Old Electrical Engineering Department Direction EED 10/5/1-1.
b) Copper Development
2. DETERMINATION OF STEM SIZES - APPROXIMATE D.C. CURRENT
RATINGS FOR FLAT AND ROUND COPPER BARS.
The following equations can be used to obtain the approximate d.c. current
ratings for single flat and round copper conductors carrying a direct
current. The equations assume a naturally bright copper finish, where
emissivity is 0,1 and where ratings can be improved substantially by
coating with a mat black or similar surface. The equations are equally true
for a.c. current provided that the skin effect and proximity ratios stay close
to 1,0 as is true for may low current applications. For high currents (>
770A), this value must be corrected for shin effect (see Table 1), using
Graph 1.
The symbols used are defined below :-
I = current (A)
A = cross-sectional area (mm
2
)
p = perimeter of conductor (mm)
= temperature difference between conductor and the ambient
air (
o
C)
cu
= resistance temperature coefficient of copper at ambient
temperature (
o
C
-1
)
amb
= resistivity of copper at the ambient temperature ( . cm)
2o
= 1,724 . cm @ 20
o
C
2.1 Flat Bars On Edge
( )
[ ]
I
A p
amb cu
=
+
1 02
1
0 5 0 39 0 61
0 5
, .
. .
.
, , ,
,

eq. 10-1.1
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-2-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 1 / 2
______________________________________________________________________________________

Allowing for an ambient temperature of 40
o
C and a maximum
temperature rise of 50
o
C eq. 10-1.1 becomes :-
I = 7,73 . A
0,5
.p
0,39
eq. 10-1.2
2.2 Hollow Round Bars
( )
[ ]
I
A p
amb cu
=
+
1 13
1
0 5 0 36 0 61
0 5
, .
. .
.
, , ,
,

eq. 10-1.3
o
C and a maximum
temperature of 50
o
I = 8,63 . A
0,5
.p
0,39
eq. 10-1.4
2.3 Solid Rod Bars
( )
[ ]
I
A
p
amb cu
=
+
1 78
1
0 68 0 61
0 5
, .
.
.
, ,
,

eq. 10-1.5
o
C and a maximum
temperature rise of 50
o
I = 13,6 . A
0,68
eq. 10-1.6
3. RE-RATING FOR DIFFERENT CURRENT OR TEMPERATURE RISE
CONDITIONS
Where a busbar system is used under new current or temperature rise
conditions, the following formula can be used to find the corresponding
new temperature rise or current :-
( )
( )
I
I
1
2
1
2
0 61
20 2
20 1
0 5
1 20
1 20
=

+
+
,
,
.

eq. 10-1.7
where :-
I
1
= current 1 (A)
I
2
= current 2 (A)
1
= temperature rise for current 1 (
o
C)
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-3-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 1 / 2
______________________________________________________________________________________

2
= temperature rise for current 2 (
o
C)
1
= working temperature for current 1 (
o
C)
2
= working temperature for current 2 (
o
C)
20
= temperature coefficient of resistance for copper at 20
o
C
= 0,00393
o
C
-1

If the working temperature of the system is the same in each case (i.e.
1

=
2
) e.g. for rerating for a change in ambient temperature in a hotter
climate, eq. 10-1.7 becomes :-
I
I
1
2
1
2
0 61
=

,
eq. 10-1.8
Example 1 : To determine the current rating capacity of a 38 mm DIA.
copper stud. The maximum temperature of the stud must
not exceed
90
o
C. An ambient temperature of 40
o
C is assumed. The
resistivity of copper at 20
o
C is 1,724 . cm.
From eq. 10-1.6
( ) I =
=
13 6 19
1624
2
0 68
, .
,

A

Since a current carrying clamp is to be bolted directly onto
the copper stud and that it is very short (135 mm long), skin
effect can be neglected.
The 38 mm stem may therefore have a standard rating of
1600 A without the 90
o
C current limit being exceeded.
Example 2 : To determine the current carrying capacity of a 60 mm DIA
copper stem, with the same constraints as in example 1
From eq. 10-1.6
( ) I =
=
13 6 30
3023
2
0 68
, .
,

A

The 60 mm stem may therefore have a standard rating of
2500 A. Since a current carrying clamp is to be bolted
directly onto the copper stem, skin effect may be neglected,
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-4-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 1 / 2
______________________________________________________________________________________
and the stem may be good for 3150 A. It is, however,
preferable to use a 8- or 9- hole pad for the high currents.
4. STANDARD TERMINAL STEMS
Outdoor electrical equipment such as transformers, circuit breakers,
current transformers, etc., are fitted with H.V. terminal stems having the
following dimensions :-
Nominal Rated Current Main H.V. terminal stems
System
Voltage
(kV)
of Equipment
(A)
Diameter
(mm)
Length
(mm)
Up to 220 Up to 800 26 100
801 to 1600 38 125
275 - 400 1600 to 2500 38 125
or
9-bolt pad to I.E.C. (see
0.54/412 Sheet 23)
0.54/412 Sheet 24)
2500 to 3150 60 125
or
0.54/412 Sheet 23)
0.54/412 Sheet 24)
Equipment having a load-current rating, e.g. circuit breakers, etc., are
specified to be supplied with solid copper stems or pads, electro-tinned to
BS 1872 Classification Sn 12C. Equipment having very small ratings e.g.
lightning arresters, voltage transformers, etc., may be supplied with either
tinned copper or stainless steel stems. Post insulator supports may be
fitted with galvanised iron stems.
Small distribution transformers to SABS 780 and lightning arresters up to
22 kV are not subject to the above ruling.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -1- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 10 - 2
SUBSTATION CURRENT-CARRYING CLAMPS FOR FLEXIBLE
AND TUBULAR CONDUCTORS
1. GENERAL
A clamp has to transmit a constant current almost without any loss from one
conductor to the other. It has to serve for many years without maintenance and
to be resistant against climatic influences and physical loads (e.g. changing
temperature during hundreds of on and off switchings and temperature shocks
up to 200C after short circuits).
In order to facilitate necessary maintenance work, it should be easy to
disassemble and reinstall the clamps.
2. DESIGN - GENERAL FEATURES
In principle there are different ways of connecting lines or tubes with other
conductors or terminals.
2.1 A Bolted / Bolted Connector Joint.
K, T or Y clamps

FIGURE 1 : K-TYPE CROSS CLAMP - FOR STRANDED OR SOLID
CONDUCTORS. STANDARD CONDUCTOR CLAMP WITH
ATTACHMENT SCREW PRINCIPLE. VIA CLAMP CAPS, THE
CONDUCTORS TO BE CONNECTED ARE CLAMPED INTO
THE LIVE LOWER PART BY CONNECTOR SCREWS.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -2- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

2.2 A Bolted / Compression Joint (Only With Stranded Conductors)
YC, 2YC, 3YC, SPC, etc.

FIGURE 2 : SPC - TYPE PALM CLAMP - FOR STRANDED
CONDUCTORS. COMPRESSION JOINTS HAVE
BEEN VERY USEFUL IN THE ESTABLISHMENT OF
FLAT TERMINALS.
The connectors consist of an aluminium sleeve which is welded onto a bolted or
flat terminal. The conductor strand is put into the sleeve and crimped with a
special compressor (pressing power - 1000 kN).
2.3 Weld Joint (Only With Tubular Conductors)
Weld

FIGURE 3 : WELD JOINT FOR A BUNDLE OF THREE TUBE
CONDUCTORS.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -3- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

The Al-transition piece is welded onto the tubular by shielded vert gas metal arc
welding.
TABLE 1 : SURVEY OF THE MOST IMPORTANT TECHNICAL
FEATURES OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF JOINTS.
Each of these three different types of joints has specific advantages and
disadvantages as indicated below in Table 1.
2.1 Bolted Joint
Advantages Disadvantages
Simple Mounting Price
Dismountable Detached parts
Can be used everywhere
2.2 Compression Joint
Compact Design Not discountable
Good contact quality Complicated tools necessary for mounting
Quick mounting Not fit for all situations
Low price
2.3 Weld Joint
Compact Design Not dismountable
Good contact quality Complicated tools necessary for mounting
Low prices Possible destabilization of the heat treated material
caused by the welding process.

2.4 Dilatation Joints (Expansion Clamps)
In tubular conductors, a free heat expansion in one direction must be
possible. The same holds for oscillations of the tubular caused by wind
- in a vertical direction - or by the magnetic effects of a short circuit - in
a horizontal direction. Such oscillations must not be transferred
inflexibly to the post insulator or even to one of the appliances.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -4- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 4 : EXPANSION TUBE CONNECTOR WITH ROLLER
BEDDING
In the expansion connectors, the tube is flexibly bedded and the
bedding elements do not conduct current. For the current tap and the
passage to the next tube or terminal a special unit, the so called stud
for current passage is necessary. (See Figure 4).
2.4.1 Studs for current passage
The stud for current passage consists of one or more highly
flexible aluminium SAL-strand which are welded by a special
welding technique into the so called lugs.
The lugs are cast onto a connector piece or a weld joint that
is attached at the tube and plays the part of a contact piece.
The technical design of the studs which could be part of the
expansion tube connector as shown in Figure 4, or be a
separate unit as shown in Figure 5, depends primarily on the
constant current intensity. In the case of thin stud strands and
high voltages of over 380 kV the risk of corona has also to be
taken into consideration.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -5- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 5 : STUD FOR CURRENT PASSAGE FROM ONE
END OF THE TUBE TO THE OTHER WITHOUT
ANY SIGNIFICANT LOSSES.
2.4.2 Bedding types of tube connectors
In principle it can be differentiated between internal and
external bedding of a strand. In the case of internal bedding
the tube is supported from the inside by a cylinder or a disc.
2.4.2.1 Tube connectors with internal bedding
This method is rarely used but has the advantage of
an easy, optically attractive and cheap construction
of the connectors in many different versions. A
disadvantage of internal bedding is the fact that,
especially in the case of a small internal diameter of
the tube, it is necessary to produce an angular thrust
to effect movement (experience has shown that a
thrust of at least 5 within a circle is necessary). At
the same time, the establishment of a fix point or/and
a tube closing and the adaptation to very different
diameters is not easy.
Equipment
terminal
Disk

FIGURE 6 : INTERNAL BEDDING OF A BUS BAR TUBE -
PRINCIPLE DIAGRAM : THE TUBE IS SUPPORTED
FROM THE INSIDE BY A DISC WHICH IS MADE OF
ALUMINIUM, STEEL OR PLASTIC (SEE : THE
NATURAL RESTRICTION OF THE ANGULAR
FLEXIBILITY BY THE EXTENSION ARM).
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -6- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
Problematic situations have occurred with this type of clamp
where the angular thrust has caused the disc end to jam and
restrict expansion. The equipment terminal is then forced to
bend.

FIGURE 7 : EXPANSION BOLT TERMINAL CONNECTOR WITH INTERNAL
BEDDING AND VIBRATION ABSORBER : THE TUBE IS
INTERNALLY BEDDED INTO A AL-CYLINDER.

FIGURE 8 : THE TUBE SUPPORT WITH EXTERNAL BEDDING.
THE TUBE SLIDES ON A SLIDING SURFACE OR IS
FIXED BY A GRUB SCREW.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -7- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
2.4.2.2 Tube clamps with external bending
Tube clamps with external bedding enclose the tube.
As a rule they are a bit more complicated than the
clamps with internal bedding but offer a greater
flexibility (angular and length expansion), easier
mounting and a great variety of versions. Clamps
with external bedding can be divided into two
subgroups :-
TABLE 2 : CLAMPS WITH EXTERNAL BEDDING
SUBGROUPS
The tube is fixed (the
clamp is flexible)
The tube slides inside
the clamp
roller clamps
tumbler clamps
sliding surface :
aluminium
sliding surface: plastic

FIGURE 9 : ROLLER SUPPORT FOR TUBES. THE TUBE IS
FIXED BETWEEN TWO HALF SHELLS.
FLEXIBILITY IS GUARANTEED BY INSULATED
ROLLERS.

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -8- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 10 : EXPANSION CONNECTOR WITH TUMBLER-
BEDDING OF THE TUBE.

FIGURE 11 : TUBE SUPPORT WITH PLASTIC SURFACE.
THE SLIDING SURFACE IS INSULATED WITH
PLASTIC, THIS IS WHY A POTENTIAL
EQUALISATION BECOMES NECESSARY. THE
RUBBER BULGE IN THE CAP IMPEDES THE
METALLIC NOISE OF THE TUBE WHEN IT IS
SUBJECTED TO VIBRATIONS.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -9- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

2.5 Tube Vibrations
Under certain circumstances, busbars can vibrate because of wind.
Such vibrations are prevented or reduced either by relatively
complicated additional mechanisms (vibration absorbers) or by
inserting aluminium/steel strands into the tubes. It is recommended to
fix the strands on one side (e.g. on the final cap of the tube). The
usual length of the damping strand is about 2/3 of the tubular
conductor span between supports. In some exceptional cases it might
also become necessary to insert two dampening strands, one opposite
the other, into the tube.

3. TECHNICAL DESIGN
3.1 Contact Areas
3.1.1 Diameter of clamp grooves
The first condition for a low resistance of passage is the exact
adaptation of the groove to the diameter of the conductor. For
large product lines this is done by forging the diameter; for
small lines by a separate operation of shape-cutting. The
respective groove diameter is notched into the front of the
clamp body (Figure 12, arrow A). Each end of the groove is
equipped with a so called serve spot which allows an easy
embedding of the served stranded conductor.

FIGURE 12 : CLAMP BODY GROOVES
3.1.2 Cross grooved channel
While the grooves of clamping bolts and tubes have smooth,
cylindrical surfaces, the contact surface of the conductor
channels are cross grooved (Figure 12). The edges of the
cross grooves penetrate the oxidized surface of the strand
and thus improves the contact quality of the clamps.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -10- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

3.1.3 Calculation of the contact surfaces

FIGURE 13 : CLAMP CONTACT SURFACES
d : diameter of shape cutting
l : length of the connector channel
u : length of the free space for serving
s : depth of the connector channel
r
1
, r
2
: rounding radiuses
The contact surface A (mm
2
) with its rounded ends and
eventually existing free space for serving is calculated by the
formula :-
A = [
1 2
2.r - u - . r . 2 s
2
d
2
2
. d
l
(
|
.
|
\
|

] eq. 10-2.1
Here the reduction of the contact surface in comparison to the
theoretical half of the cylinder mantle d . /2 . l ranges
between 10% and 30%.
3.1.4 Specific load current (current density)
A standard for the dimensioning of the graduated set types of
aluminium connectors is the specific current load of the
contact surfaces of 0,4 - 0,1 A/mm
2
.
3.1.4.1 Specific load current for aluminium conductors
Table 3 shows the graduation of the geometry of the
contact surfaces, some conductor examples and the
specific load current in A/mm
2
.
As the specific load current of the conductors
increases with the decreasing diameter of the strand,
this tendency must also be taken into consideration
when dimensioning the contact surfaces.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -11- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

3.1.4.2 Specific load current for solid conductors (tubes,
bolts)
The dimensioning of clamps for tubes and pin joints
is made in a similar way. Here the specific load
current decreases with the increasing diameter of
conductor. Especially for tube busbars, the static
calculation leads to larger tube dimensions than
those necessary only for the transmission of
electricity.
To keep the load current of the contact surfaces low,
a double shell tap (see Figure 14) is established in
the case of a higher nominal current value by
replacing two clamp caps by a second current
carrying half of the clamp. The number of bolts
remains the same. This variant can be used
wherever both halves of the clamp can be
constructively used as current carriers. This means
an important improvement in the distribution of
current within the conductor, as well in the case of
tube terminals, as in that of bolt terminals.

FIGURE 14 : TUBE CONNECTOR WITH
DOUBLE SHELL TAP
The preferred tube dimensions and the respective
constant current values can be found in
S.L.D.G. 9 - 7.
______________________________________________________________________________________
D
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4

:

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0
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2
2

_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_

2
0
0
1
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

S
u
b
s
t
a
t
i
o
n

D
e
s
i
g
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&

A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

DECEMBER 2001 -14- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

Table 4 shows some examples of aluminium busbars
with data of the respective clamps and the specific
constant load current. These were calculated
according to DIN 43 670 under the following physical
conditions for bare conductors in outdoor
substations.
Conductor material E-AlMgSi 0.5 F22
Electricity conductivity 30 m/( . mm
2
)
Wind speed 0,6 m/s
Ambient temperature 35C
Heating at constant current 45C
Final temperature of Conductor 80C
3.2 Contact Force
3.2.1 Requirements for stranded conductor clamps
The second important requirement for a lasting electrical
contact is a sufficiently high contact force between the
conductor and the contact surface of the connector. This is,
above all, necessary for the following criteria :-
(a) Sagging of the strands and the conductors under the
mounting pressure (flow relation strand/connector :
about 70:30)
(b) Dispersion of the friction values in the screw joints
(c) Difference between the coefficients of heat expansion
e.g. of steel and aluminium
(d) The locking of the bolts to keep them from loosening
From the many years of experience in substations and the
sharpened rules for fatigue test results has lead to the
conclusion that for mounting a minimum contact force for
strands of about 120 N per transmitted ampere is
necessary.
3.2.2 Clamping covers (caps)
As can be seen in Figure 15, the contact force is applied by
the tightening of two screws above a clamps cover (cap)
designed as plate grider. The caps can be produced from hot
forged and heat treated pressed aluminium (material list
Tables 11, 12 and 13). Heat treated LM25 sand castings
covered with strengthened cross sections or die cast LM6,
both to BS1490, can be used.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -15- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

FIGURE 15 : CLAMPING COVERS
The caps may contain two blind hole threads with clean
thread surfaces which are cut after the pickeling. Among
other things these blind hole threads have the advantage that
the greased, mounted screw threads are protected from
moisture and corrosion. A combination of the materials
AlMgSi 1 and A2 - F80 for the screws prevents the seizing of
the stainless screws.
The depth of the thread should usually be about 2 . d.
The quality of the aluminium thread in forgings or heat treated
castings (with and without thread inset) has proved its worth
as well in tests in practical use : when exceeding the allowed
tightening torque the screws break before the aluminium
thread is damaged.
To suppress corona effects at high voltages the clamp caps
should be rounded and shaped without cross pieces. As the
clamp caps, adapted to the diameter of the conductor, are not
live, they can also be made without cross grooved channels,
e.g. with a smooth surface.
3.2.3 Screws
Clamps should normally be equipped with screws of the
standard dimensions M10 and M12 with hexagon heads. In
special cases (small diameter of the conductor) M8 screws
can be used and in certain clamps screws up to a dimension
of M16 should be applied. If necessary, for reasons of space
and if no specific clamping force is needed, screws with
cylinder heads and internal hexagon can be used.

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -16- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

3.2.3.1 Protection against loss
A most important criterium for the easy mountability
and the reduced mounting costs of clamps is the fact
that the screws should be equipped with a certain
protection against loss. If standard screws are used,
a polyamide ring (security disc) guarantees that the
screw cannot be lost (Figures 16 and 17).

FIGURE 16 : SCREW WITH SECURITY PROTECTION :
HOW THE SECURITY DISC WORKS

FIGURE 17 : SCREW WITH SECURITY
PROTECTION : HOW THE
SECURITY THREAD WORKS

______________________________________________________________________________________
Furthermore Figure 17 indicates that special screws
M10 with rounded heads and narrow shanks are
screwed into a short holding thread in the lower part
of the clamp and thus cannot be lost during
mounting.
DECEMBER 2001 -17- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
3.2.3.2 Materials
The following materials should be used for screws :
8.8fz, A2-F80, CuNi69. A2-F80 is an austenitic, non
magnetic steel which is used for constructing a so
called passive layer to protect the screw against
corrosion.
While the 8.8-screws obtain their strength through a
thermal process of hardening and tempering, that of
A2-F80-screws is obtained by a cold forming
process. (Because of the resulting inhomogeneity
tensile tests can only be carried out with entire
screws).
The 8.8-screws are hot dip galvanised. Herefore free
qualities are achieved without further treatment.
The torque that should be applied when using a
torque wrench should be engraved in each clamp
(see : Figure 18)
TABLE 5 : SCREWS - A SURVEY

Min. Strength Standard Min. Tighte- Prestressing
Dimen- Material Rp
0.2
Rm Cross Failing ning Force
sion

(N/mm
2
)

(%)
Section

(mm
2
)
Load
**)
(kN)
Torque
***)
(Nm)

*)
(kN)
M10 8.8 FZ 640 800 12 58 46.4 45 25
A2-F80 640 800 0.3d 58 46.4 45 25

M12 8.8 FZ 640 800 12 84.3 67.4 75 35
A2-F80 600 800 0.3d 84.3 67.4 75 35
*) at a total friction number of ges =
0.11 - 0.13
**) (min. ultimate stress Rm) x (standard cross
section) = minimum failing load of screw
***) the tightening torques of 45/75 Nm are
based on the improved friction values,
recommended as sufficient. The screws can,
however, be tightened up to 46/80 Nm

FIGURE 18 : THE DATA SHOULD BE ENGRAVED IN
THE CASTINGS
3.2.3.3 Lubricants
In Table 5, indicated values for the pre-stressing
force can only be obtained if the total friction number
can be brought to 0,11-0,13. Here special attention
has to be paid to a minimum deviation of the
particular values.

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -18- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
With regard to the locking of the screws, it can be
stated that the loosening torque of the connections
with plain washers is about the same as that with
spring lock washers. Therefore it is possible to utilize
the advantages of washers with regard to the
distribution of forces, without loosing the protection
against unintentioned loss of the screws. (Generally
speaking, the use of spring lock washers is only
appropriate in screw connections with low strain
forces. Otherwise the washers are flattened and
loose their security function).
For tube clamps in most cases, the screw dimension
M12 is used. Here the A2 F80-thread must, in some
cases, be coupled with an A2-nut. This combination,
however, is liable to seize and therefore A2-nuts
should be treated in a special way to obviate this.
Another provision against seizing is the adjusting of
the nuts that are sometimes pressed into the
aluminium casting. By this additional check, even
long screws can easily be screwed in by hand.

3.2.3.4 Plain washers
To prevent the yielding of the aluminium under the
pressure of the pre-stressing force, the specific
surface pressure has to be reduced by the
application of suitable plain washers. A value of 120
N/mm
2
is stated as the highest permitted surface
pressure of aluminium alloys. Table 6 indicates the
dimensions and surface pressures of the washers
used.
3.2.4 Contact forces at stranded conductor clamps
Clamps with M10-screws consequently results in a contact
force of 2 . 25 kN = 50 kN.
This means :- 2 caps 100 kN
3 caps 150 kN
4 caps 200 kN
Now it becomes obvious why three or even four caps are
chosen for larger conductor cross sections even if the specific
load current is lower (Table 3). The reason why a higher
number of caps is chosen is that the specific mounting force
stated in paragraph 3.2.1 must not be below 120 N/A to
guarantee years of excellent operation without maintenance
(Table 7).

TABLE 6
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -19- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
Dimension di da a Contact Force Surface
Pressure
(mm) (mm) (mm)
M10 10.5 21 2 25 kN 260 mm
2
96 N/mm
2

M12 13.0 24 2.5 35 kN 320 mm
2
109 N/mm
2

TABLE 7
Cross Section Of
Strand (mm
2
)
Constant
Current
(A)
Number
Of Caps
Contact
Force
(kN)
Specific Contact
Force (N/A)
240 625 2 100 160
500 990 3 150 151
800 1250 3 150 120
1000 1540 4 200 130

TABLE 8 : IN COMPARISON WITH TABLE 7
Material Constant
Current
(A)
Number Of
Caps
Contact
Force
(kN)
Specific Contact
Force
(N/A)

up to 570 2 100 175
Al up to 1100 3 150 136
up to 1660 4 200 125

CU up to 860 2 100 116
up to 1250 3 150 120
3.2.5 Contact forces on tubular clamps
With regard to the items a) and c), the conditions for stranded
conductor clamps quoted in 3.2.1 are more favourable for
tubular clamps. Compared to flexible conductor connections,
there can be a lower number of saggings. In addition, the
dimensions of the tubular clamps compared to the lengths of
screws are larger, thus, the differences between the
coefficients of heat expansion are insignificant.
For these reasons a lower specific mounting force can be
used for tubular clamps than for stranded conductor clamps.
It ranges between 40-80 N/A.
Up to a diameter of 63 mm, M10 screws are used, over 63
mm, M12 screws.
With regard to Table 5 the following contact forces can be
calculated :-
M10/2 caps : 100 kN
M10/3 caps : 150 kN

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -20- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
M12/2 caps : 140 kN
In the case of larger busbars and a higher constant current
intensity, the transmission of electricity happens through two
half shells screwed together, as already mentioned in 3.1.4.2.
By tightening the four M12-connecting screws, each of the two
half shells is pressed onto the conductor with a contact force
of 140 kN. This results in a total compression force of the
contact surface of 2 x 140 = 280 kN.

TABLE 9 : SOME EXAMPLES OF SPECIAL CONTACT FORCES FOR ALUMINIUM
TUBE CONNECTORS.
Al-tubes According To
DIN 43670
Connector contact force
External

(mm)
Thickness
Of Wall
(mm)
Constant
Current
(A)
Threads Number
Of
Caps
Second
Half
Shell
Contact
Force
(kN)
Specific
Contact Force
(N/A)

40 5 1220 M10 2 - 100 82
50 4 1270 M10 2 - 100 79
63 8 2100 M10 3 - 150 71

80 8 2400 M12 2 - 140 56
100 8 2900 M12 2 - 140 48
120 8 3380 M12 2 - 140 42

150 8 4130 M12 - yes 280 68
160 8 4370 M12 - yes 280 64
200 8 5320 M12 - yes 280 53
250 8 6490 M12 - yes 280 43

TABLE 10 : CITED FROM DIN 48084
Conductor Connector contact force
External

(mm)
Thickness
Of Wall
(mm)
Constant
Current
(A)
Threads Number
Of
Caps
Second
Half
Shell
Contact
Force
(kN)
Specific
Contact Force
(N/A)

Al 50 4 1400 M10 2 100 71
63 8 2300 M10 3 150 65
32 solid 1250 M10 2 100 80

Cu 50 6 1865 M10 2 100 53
63 8 2600 M10 3 150 58
32 solid 1250 M10 2 100 80
3.2.6 Diameter tolerance for tubes
From intensive mounting tests it has been found that the
tubular clamps machined with an accuracy of +/- 0.6.. + 2.0
mm can be mounted easily on tubes in a tolerance field of +/-
0.6.. +/- 1.5 (divided tolerances according to DIN).
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -21- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

3.2.7 Tensile forces
The tensile loads due to the high tensile forces of the
conductor and the dynamic forces in the case of a short circuit
should be held safely by clamps.
The following is required according to NEMA CCI-1981 :-
up to a cross section of 107 mm
2
2.3 kN
up to a cross section of 253 mm
2
4.5 kN
a cross section of more than 253 mm
2
9.0 kN
and according to Swedish standards :-
for a cross section of 329 mm
2
15.0 kN
2
20.0 kN
2
25.0 kN
For larger tubes, bolts, flat terminals and conductor bundles
even up to a maximum of 30,0 kN are required.
3.2.8 Flat terminals
The contact areas are to be flat forged in the case of die
forgings and machined in the case of castings.
3.3. Parts Of The Clamp
3.3.1 Dimensioning
The current carrying clamp parts must be dimensioned in a
way that makes it possible for them to withstand all the forces
mentioned in item 3.2 without any distortions. Furthermore
they have to withstand short-circuit current forces and other
external loads. Additionally, the connections between the
electrical contacts need sufficient conducting cross sections
for transmitting current.
It is preferable that clamps generally manufactured from a
single lower part. This means that no busbar clamp is
replaced by various clamps that are welded together.
Standard interspaces between the conductors : 150, 165 mm
and 330 mm.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -22- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

3.3.2 Materials
All castings of aluminium clamps are to be manufactured from
the secondary alloy LM25 in accordance with BS1490 of 1988
(material specifications - see Tables 11, 12 and 13). The low
Cu-content prevents inter-crystalline corrosion and the
minimum content of iron increases strength. The electrical
conductivity is at least 21m/( . mm
2
).
Basic clamp bodies that are hot forged should be
manufactured from the alloy with South African Code 63511,
and heat treated afterwards. This alloy has a minimum
electricity conductivity of 24m / ( . mm
2
).
Table 11, 12 and 13 shows the minimum strength of the
different clamp materials, tested at test pieces, made of
already finished clamps.
3.3.3.1 Sand casting
In the application of sand casting, the treatment of
the sand and the molten material is of utmost
importance. For the regeneration of the sand
rotation, use a sandmixer, and for sand aering use a
sand aerator. The molten material should be
conditioned in crucibles in electric furnaces by :-
(a) degassing and rinsing with nitrogen
(b) refinement with sodium capsules
This leads to fine-graded structures even in the case
of thick-walled castings.
3.3.3.2 Aluminium-forgings
Above all for large product lines and for products the
parts of which have to have a high mechanical
stability, precision forging is a very favourable
method of production.
The problems with Aluminium-forgings are well
known. To forge aluminium is much more difficult
than to forge steel. Especially in the case of larger
and/or complicated forgings, this can result in a
drastically reduced service life of the swage or in
yielding defects. A short survey of the most
important stages of processing :-
1. Preheating of the raw material in a furnace
with circular heating

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -23- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
2. Rough forging process/finish forging
process
3. Heat treatment
4. De-burring
To prevent the risk of over-lappings, the shapes of
the crude material should be adapted to those of the
finished forgings.
3.3.3.3 Heat treatment
After several hours of heat treatment in the electrical
furnace with circular heating at 530C - 167C, the
castings should be quenched in a water bath and
age hardened, again for several hours, at 160C.
From each batch a random hardness test should be
carried out. The achieved hardness must not be
below
80 HB, even in the case of parts with thick walls.
3.3.3.4 Surface treatment
Before the mechanical treatment, the Aluminium-
castings are freed from the grey oxidized surface.
The result should be a smooth, bright, silvery
surface. The Aluminium-forgings should already
have a smooth surface from the forging process, and
should be be pickled. After the mechanical
treatment, the electrical contact areas should be
conserved by a special contact paste.
3.3.3.5 Tests
Castings :-
Examination of the ingot according to the
documentation
Before casting, a sample is to be taken from each
batch, turned and broken. The turned surface
shows the gas porosity value, the break indicates
the fineness of the structure (as the refinement
status of the molten material is fugitive, the
casting test has to be made very quickly. A
constant refinement is not yet recommendable for
voluminous castings).
Hardness test (HB) with finished parts
By random sampling, test pieces are taken from
castings and the tensile strength is measured.

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -24- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
Forgings :-
Each batch of the raw material is examined
according the following criteria :-
Comparison with the documentation (analysis
etc)
Tensile tests with test pieces
Hardness test at different parts
Homogenity test (especially in the final stage
of the crude material)
Generally only registered suppliers are chosen who
deliver first cross material. This is ascertained by
certificates and analyses.
______________________________________________________________________________________
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DECEMBER 2001 -28- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

4. TEST AND QUALITY CHECKS
4.1 Type Test
While hundreds of thousands of already operating substation clamps
are a sufficient basis for modifications, new designs have to undergo
extended tests in order to live up to the severe requirements with
regard to working voltage, constant current, short circuit current and
reliability.
In accordance with the existing inspection rules the following tests are
to be carried out :-
Temperature rise test under constant load current
Electrical fatigue test
Short circuit test
Corona test
Mechanical tests
Although the range of products show a large variety most of the types
are only variants of one basic design. Therefore, a whole group of
similar clamps can be examined by calculations and type tests of the
respective parts of the clamp. With new designs, however, special
tests are almost always necessary. The maximum values for supply
voltage, constant current and short-circuit current are to be
incorporated in the clamp specification, regardless of the maximum
values of the actual conductor. The indicated maximum values of the
clamps are higher than those of the respective conductors.
4.1.1 Temperature rise tests under constant current load
The specimen is mounted on to the relevant conductor and
connected to a circuit by a high current transformer (the
maximum amperage is about 4000 A). A direct current source
is used for measuring the voltage drop. Temperatures and
voltage drops at the specimen are measured by digital
measuring instruments and taken down in a test report.
The examination is passed if the temperature at each point of
the clamp surface used for the test is lower than that of the
connected piece of stranded conductor. An exception are
voluminous bus bar tubes which are, according to the
mechanical calculation of strength, over-dimensional and
therefore remain colder than the clamp with the connected
flexible or tubular conductors.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -29- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

4.1.2 Electrical fatigue test
For this test, according to DIN VDE 021010 T52, a similar test
arrangement is used as in item 4.1.1. The most important
differences are the number of specimens (6) and the special
tension taps at the conductor used for comparison. In
addition a temperature-regulation is used by which it is
possible to maintain a continuous series of heatings day and
night, to an enhanced operating temperature (120C in the
middle of the conductor used for comparison) and afterwards
coolings to room temperature.
Depending on the conductor type, 500-1000 reversals of load
are carried out. During the tests the changes in the voltage
drop at the clamp are observed. The 250th - 500th cycle is
followed by three high current loads during which the
conductor is heated to the temperature allowed during a short
circuit and in between cooled 35C. The fatigue test is
passed if the electrical resistance does not increase for more
than the values laid down in the standards during the whole
test.
4.1.3 Short circuit test
This test requires high electrical amperages. The stress on
the clamp caused by the one-second short circuit current is on
the one hand a thermic load (there can be flexible conductor
temperatures of up to 200C) and on the other hand a
dynamic load, as the sudden field changes lead to extreme
mechanical strains. In addition to the thermic short circuit
tests, critical parts are subjected to a maximum asymmetric
short circuit test (about 200 kA) to examine the dynamic
processes during the short circuit current halfwave and its
consequences for the connection. The short circuit test is
passed if :-
there is no significant increase in the voltage drop
the temperature of the clamp does not exceed the
softening threshold of the material
no marks of scorching are visible on the contact
surfaces
4.1.3.1 Calculation of the highest possible short circuit
current at conductor strand
DIN 57 103 February 82 (VDE 0103/02.1982)
provides a survey of the most important data and
calculation processes for the rating of high current
plants with regard to their thermic and mechanical
resistance against short circuits.

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -30- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
Therefore the highest possible nominal short time
current density S
thN
for Aluminium strand at an
operating temperature of 80C is at the beginning of
the short circuit and at a short circuit temperature of
200C : S
thN
= 83 A/mm
2

4.1.4 Corona test
These tests can only be carried out in darkened and
electrically shielded high voltage test halls. As the spots that
fail the corona test are optically visible, these tests provide
important information about the further development of high
voltage clamps.
The regulation for limiting the corona discharge into the
atmosphere show different extreme values. In the test the
following values are determined :-
The time which luminous discharges start
the time at which brush discharges become visible
at the clamp parts
The intermittence voltage of the brush corona
discharges
The intermittence voltage of the luminous
discharges
In addition, the disturbance fields are measured (electrically in
V, acoustically in dB) (VDE 0212 T53).
4.1.5 Mechanical tests
To find proper dimensions for the clamps, it is necessary to
carry out various mechanical tests.
The connectors must be dimensioned in such a way that
they :-
can withstand the pre-stressing forces without lasting
distortions
are able to transfer contact forces from the screws to
the conductors
have tensile forces adjusted to that of the conductor
can withstand the breaking loads
Furthermore, the operation of the flexible parts must not be
impaired by material fatigue or wear and tear.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -31- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

4.1.5.1 Strength tests
The prerequisites mentioned in the preceding
sections of the technical description, such as contact
surfaces, contact force and strength of the clamp
parts, guarantee a constant operation of the clamps
for many years and without any additional re-
tightening of the screws.
(a) Measuring of the binding strength by
means of pressure measuring cells
The actual existing clamping force inside the
conductor grooves of the substation clamps
is measured in the following way: The
conductor is replaced by a pressure pick-up
and the clamp screws are tightened with a
torque wrench key up to the tightening
torque (Table 5). The measured contact
forces must exceed the following minimum
values :-
1 cap with 2xM10-screws : 50 kN
1 cap with 2xM12-screws : 78 kN
This test is repeated three times.
(b) Measurement of the distortion of
mounted clamps by means of a wire
strain gauge
By this test it is proved that no lasting
distortions occur after the tightening of the
clamp screws.
Wire strain gauges are fixed at the clamp
bodies and at those parts of the clamp caps
which are subjected to the maximum strain.
The connector screws are tightened with a
nominal tightening torque increased for
about 10%. After recording the elongation
values, the screws are loosened. The
remaining elongation must not exceed
0.15%.
This test is repeated three times.

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -32- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

(c) Tightening torque test
The tightening torque test is a very simple,
but also very informative test. The tested
clamp is mounted together with the largest
possible conductor and the screws are
tightened uniformly. Then the gap between
the lower part of the clamp and the caps is
measured taking into account the tightening
torque. What is important is that there still
has to be a gap between the lower part of
the clamp and the cap, even if the tightening
torque is 20% above the actually permitted
value. At the same time, the parts of the
clamp, the screws and the threads still have
to be in a perfect condition after the test.
Experience has shown that at very high
tightening torque the screws break before
the parts of the clamp are damaged.
4.1.5.2 Tensile tests
As the tensile forces of the lashing conductors in the
case of a short-circuit are a mechanical strain for the
clamp, this situation has to be tested, too. The
connection power of the live clamps can, however,
be regarded as very good. (Naturally it happens that
flexible conductors break, especially if they are very
thin). The values required for the non-tentioned
connections inside a substation are therefore a
criterium that is not of utmost importance for the
dimensioning of the clamps.
4.1.5.3 Breaking tests
The magnetic attraction between the conductors
of neighbouring phases occurring in the case of a
short-circuit, are a strain as well for the clamps at
their fixing points as for the conductors and
insulators. Therefore the clamps (especially the
tubular supports) are calculated and designed in
a way that their breaking load is higher than that
of the insulator.
4.1.5.4 Motion tests
a) Fatgue tests
The flexible conductors of the studs for
current passage are to be expanded a few
thousand times to find out if material fatigue
leads (especially at the welding roots) to an

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -33- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
increase in the electrical resistance. At the
beginning and the end of the test the
specimen is to be subjected to a constant
current test. It is then to be tested to
destruction.
This test of the studs for current passage
can also be combined with the short circuit
test.
b) Running tests
Tube supports with rollers are to be tested
with regard to their running quality. The test
is to be carried out in almost the same way
as the fatigue test. The specimen has to
fulfil the same movement a few thousand
times, with the load of the tube to be
simulated by special weights. The
necessary tensile force is measured and the
running surface is to be optically inspected.
4.2 Routine Tests
Depending on the product line, every single clamp is to be examined,
or random tests should be carried out.
The following is a short survey of the check-points :-
CHECK OF THE GOODS DELIVERED
delivery note (which material?)
visual inspection, surface
dimension check
analysis of the factory certificate
hardness test
tensile test
PRODUCTION CHECKS
inspection of the raw material (cast samples, test pieces)
visual inspection (pores, roughness)
dimension check
hardness test
tensile test
examination of the surface treatment (galvanization)
FINAL CHECK IN THE FACTORY
documentation of the order (article no., drawings, marking)
lists of items
dimension check
assembling

inspection of each piece (if necessary)
ESKOMS INSPECTION
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -34- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
Checklist as in Final inspection

5. HOW TO ASSEMBLE SCREW CLAMPS
Clamps are to be delivered in welded plastic bags to prevent pollution and
corrosion.
5.1 Preparation Of The Clamps
5.1.1 Clamps which are already delivered with contact paste on
the contact surfaces
(a) Take the clamps out of the plastic bag immediately
before assembling.
(b) Brush the contact surfaces of the clamp with a clean
wire brush.
Use separate brushes for aluminium and copper
clamps. Mark the brushes.
(c) Wipe off the remaining contact paste with a clean rag.
(d) Apply a thin layer of fresh contact paste and assemble
immediately.
5.1.2 Clamps delivered without contact paste
(a) Take the clamps out of the plastic bag immediately
before assembling.
(b) Apply a thin layer of contact paste and brush with a
wire brush.
Use separate brushes for copper and aluminium
clamps. Mark the brushes.
(c) Wipe off the remaining contact paste with a clean rag.
(d) Apply another thin layer of contact paste and
assemble immediately.
5.2 Preparation Of The Conductor
Brush the conductor immediately before assembling with a clean wire
brush or emery cloth. Use separate brushes or emery cloths for
Aluminium and copper conductors.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -35- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________

5.3 Assembling Of The Clamps
(a) Assemble the clamps caps above if possible.
(b) Tighten the screws according to the engraved tightening torque
step by step crosswise with a torque wrench.
(c) Afterwards inspect the assembled clamps and tighten the
screws again uniformly with the torque wrench.
If these assembling instructions are adhered to, this will increase
the quality and service life of the substation clamps.
Having laid down the number of insulator discs to be used (S.L.D.G. 7-
4), the standard conductor sizes (S.L.D.G. 9-1 and 9-6), and the
standard dimensions of equipment terminal stems (S.L.D.G. 10-1), a
logical development is the adoption of a standard range of current
carrying clamps and yard insulator string assemblies.
The proposed standard range is scheduled on drawing 0.54/412.
Details of ancillary equipment such as U-bars, Spacers, Insulating
covers, Extension Straps, Yoke Plates and Jumper weights are
included on this drawing. For convenience the standard conductor
sizes and the number of insulator discs that are necessary at the
various voltages are also included on Drawing 0.54/412 (Sheet 1 to 3).
6. TEST ON CLAMPS CONDUCTED BY ESKOM
A series of tests were carried out in conjunction with Eskoms Electrical
Research group and the SABS on a wide variety of current-carrying
clamps with the view to establishing acceptable performance criteria.
Basically the following tests were done :-
a) A long-duration high-temperature test to 135
o
C for 100 hours
as a settling-down period.
b) Three short-circuit current tests during which the temperature
was raised to between 180
o
C and 200
o
C within 5 seconds
with a cooling period down to 30
o
C between tests. The
applied current during these tests was of the order of 40 kA.
c) A cycling test of 250 heating / cooling cycles during which a
temperature was raised to 90
o
C over 20 minutes and then
cooled again for 30 minutes.
d) A final temperature-rise test at rated current.
The criteria for acceptance was based on the change in voltage-drop
under the various conditions. Thus for test (a) the change in volt drop
at the end of the test compared with the start, should be less than 15
%, for test (b) less than 50 %, and test (c) less than 15 %. The final

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 -36- S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 /1
______________________________________________________________________________________
temperature rise at rated current should not exceed 45
o
C above
ambient.
6.2 General Conclusions Reached
On the basis of these tests, which were carried out on some twenty
different types of clamps, the following general conclusions were
reached :-
a) Bolted clamps onto solid stems are generally satisfactory.
b) Bolted clamps onto standard conductors are generally
unsatisfactory although acceptable performance can be
achieved if certain design modifications are made.
c) Compression clamps perform well on stranded conductors.
d) The performance of a bolted clamp is significantly improved
if :-
Multiple saddles are used instead of single 4-bolt saddles.
Good quality high-tensile or suitable stainless steel bolts
are used.
Clamps are accurately machined to match conductor and
stem diameters.
Clamps are cleaned and a coating of oxide-inhibiting paste
is applied.

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 - S.L.D.G. 10 - 3 / 2
____________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 10 - 3
SUBSTATION CLAMPS AND ACCESSORIES FOR
FLEXIBLE CONDUCTORS
1. GENERAL
Arising out of the tests discussed in S.L.D.G. 10 - 2 Section 6 the range of
standard clamps has been extended. For the present, the existing clamps
are retained but certain types should gradually be phased out as the new
clamps become available.
2. STANDARD RANGE OF CLAMPS AND ACCESSORIES
2.1 Type 'K' Bolted Cross Clamps
(0.54/412 Sheet 6)
The main feature of the cross clamp is that it provides for either
vertically or horizontally-orientated equipment terminal stems. This
means that stem orientation places no restriction on the design of the
equipment and consequently the preparation of standard bay layouts
is facilitated. Unfortunately the original 'K' clamp required
considerable maintenance to ensure adequate torque levels on the
bolts, particularly when applied to stranded conductors. The design
has now been improved to provide for double saddles, good quality
bolts, and machined and possibly grooved surfaces, but it is
nevertheless recommended that this clamp be restricted to use on :-
a) the smaller conductor sizes (Clamps K1 and K3 up to 500
amps) and,
b) the large K5 clamp when used to connect a standard 38 mm
stem to a standard 38 mm 'U'-bar. U-bar assemblies should,
however be avoided and YC type clamps be used in their
place. The current carrying capacity of the assembly is
restricted by the single K-clamp bolted to a stem.
KC-type clamps should rather be used whenever possible.
2.2 Type 'T' Bolted Clamps
(0.54/412 Sheet 7)
Because of the high costs involved, it is not possible to limit
transmission line conductors to only two or three sizes. A range of
clamps of the bolted type has therefore been necessary to cater for
the connection from the ACSR transmission line conductor to the all-
aluminium substation conductor. Again, however, the bolted clamp
onto a stranded conductor has performance limitations and while
improvements will be made it is recommended that this clamp be
restricted to the small conductor sizes (T1 and T2 up to 500 amp).
TC-type clamps should rather be used at all times.
Since this clamp has three clamping covers, it could be used for
current carrying purposes onto equipment where a through
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 - S.L.D.G. 10 - 3 / 2
____________________________________________________________________________________
connections are required e.g. in-line isolators, instead of using a K-
type clamps.
2.3 Type 'KC' Bolted/Compression Clamps
(0.54/412 Sheet 8)
This is a new design of clamp having the following features :-
a) A bolted cross-clamp end for connecting onto solid equipment
stems. The "cross" feature is retained to cater for vertical or
horizontal stem orientations. At the same time the bolted
connection allows for disconnection when required
b) A compression end for connecting onto a stranded conductor.
These clamps basically provide for all the connections needed
between and onto various items of plant.
2.4 Type 'TC' Bolted/Compression Clamps
(0.54/412 Sheet 9)
This is essentially a Tee clamp having the following features :-
a) A "Run" end of the bolted type but equipped with at least 3
independent saddles for connection to stranded conductors.
The bolts facilitate disconnection of the joint, should this be
necessary.
b) A "Tap" end of the compression type designed for connecting
onto a stranded conductor. The connection can be made at
ground level.
These clamps basically provide for all the Tee connections needed
from busbars, stringers and droppers. They should be used in
preference to the T-clamps and are essential above 500A.
2.5 Type 'Y' Bolted Clamps
(0.54/412 Sheet 10)
A bolted clamp designed for making twin stranded conductor
connections onto a single solid stem. To suit the orientation of the
stem, two versions of the clamp, an in-line and a 90
o
, are available.
Because bolts are used throughout, regular maintenance may be
necessary, particularly on the connections to the stranded conductors.
It is therefore recommended that type 'YC' clamp rather be used and
the Y-clamps only used in applications of low current carrying capacity
or on conductor support equipment such as post insulators.
2.6 Type 'YC' Bolted/Compression Clamps
(0.54/412 Sheet 11)
This clamp is similar to the 'Y' clamp except that the connections onto
the conductors are of the compression type. In addition a 45
o

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 - S.L.D.G. 10 - 3 / 2
____________________________________________________________________________________
derivative is introduced to facilitate stem orientation and represents a
compromise between the in-line and 90
o
versions of the 'Y' clamp.
A spacing of 150 mm between twin conductors has been adopted for
all voltages up to 400 kV.
2.7 Type 2YC Bolted / Compression Clamps
(0.54/412 Sheet 11A)
This clamps is similar to the YC clamp except that the spacing
between the twin conductors is 330 mm. It was really only introduced
for use on stations where U-bar assemblies have been used
extensively and were the 330 mm conductor spacing is to be retained,
purely more from an aesthetic point of view.
2.8 Type '3YC' Triple-Conductor Bolted/Compression Clamps
(0.54/412 sheet 12)
This clamp is similar to the 'YC' and 2YC clamps except that it
provides for a triple conductor and has an overall current rating of
3150 amps. In addition, three versions of the bolted end of the clamp
are available - either a 60 mm diameter stem or an 8-bolt pad or a 9-
bolt pad, the latter two both being to I.E.C. specifications. These are
illustrated in drawing 0.54/412 Sheets 24 and 23 respectively.
2.9 Type 3Y Triple-Conductor Bolted / Bolted Clamp
(0.54/412 Sheet 13).
The 3Y clamp is an extension of the Y clamp concept, but was
specifically developed to be used in conjunction with a post insulator
fitting (described in 7.12) mounted on to a post insulator to support
triple conductors. They are essentially designed for non current
carrying applications.
2.10 Type SPC Bolted / Compression Clamps
(0.54/412 Sheet 13A)
This clamp is similar to the KC type clamp having the following
features :-
a) a 4-bolt pad, the holes which may be drilled at various hole
centres to accommodate a variety of pad types.
b) a compression end for connecting onto a stranded conductor.
2.11 Type Terminal Stem - 38 mm DIA
(0.54/412 Sheet 14)
Terminal stems were developed to be attached to equipment terminals
consisting of 4-hole pads, in order to install clamps with bolted saddle
connections such as the YC variety. It is more common now to
attach clamps directly to the pad terminals in order to eliminate
unnecessary contact interfaces.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 - S.L.D.G. 10 - 3 / 2
____________________________________________________________________________________
The terminal stems are now more commonly used for attachment to
post insulators to be able to install Y and 3Y type clamps in order to
support conductors.
2.12 Type 8-Bolt, 12 Hole Terminal Pad Adaptor
(0.54/412 Sheet 15)
The terminal pad adaptor was developed in order to be able to effect a
connection between a 8-hole equipment terminal pad and three
independent conductor connections in the mode shown below. The
idea is to be able to improve the electrical contact surface-area in
order to increase the current carrying capacity of the connection.
PLAN ELEVATION
This type of connection is, however, not desirable since it introduces
an additional contact interface, where bad installation can cause hot
connections which develop into thermal runaway and eventually
catastrophic clamp failure.
2.13 Type 'UB' Aluminium U-Bars And Type 'U' U-Bar Assemblies
(0.54/412 sheet 16 and 17)
U-bars had in the past been extensively used in conjunction with 3
clamps for connecting single equipment stems onto twin conductors.
The standard U-bar provided for a conductor spacing of 330 mm while
the assembly catered for the various clamps associated with the U-
bar. This assembly has, however been superseded by the 2YC
clamp when required during equipment retrofits due to their poor
current carrying capabilities as a result of the single K clamp
connection onto the equipment stems.

2.14 Type 'S' Spacers - Non-current Carrying And Current Carrying
(0.54/412 sheet 18)
2.14.1 Non-current carrying
Spacers are used to maintain the distances between
conductors of the same phase. Until recently standard spacers
were dimensioned at 150 mm centres for system voltages up
to and including 88 kV, and 330 mm for higher voltages. It was
subsequently decided to adopt only one standard, viz. 150
mm, the main reason for this being the question of short-circuit
forces.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 - S.L.D.G. 10 - 3 / 2
____________________________________________________________________________________
When high short-circuit currents flow through the conductors of
the same phase, the conductors pull together very rapidly
which causes a high impulse load to be applied through the
conductors onto the steelwork. Effectively, the conductors are
stretched and in the process, the tension can increase to levels
which may cause the steelwork to fail.
The closer the conductors are spaced, the lower the resulting
tension, but at the same time the corona level increases so
that
a limit is imposed on the minimum spacing (see S.L.D.G. 7-5
and 9-1).
The magnitude of the forces involved and the effects on
corona has been investigated, with calculations and tests
indicating that a spacing of 150 mm would be satisfactory up to
400 kV.
2.14.2 Current carrying
As opposed to the non-current carrying conductor spacers
which were developed specifically to maintain bundled
conductor separation at a constant distance apart, current
carrying spacers were developed for instances where a single
conductor dropper is connected to a twin conductor busbar, or
two conductor droppers one connected to a triple conductor
busbar. A current carrying spacer is installed on the busbars
at these tap-off points in order to facilitate current sharing
between busbars. It obviates having to stagger tap-off points
along the busbars as was the previous practice.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 - S.L.D.G. 10 - 3 / 2
____________________________________________________________________________________

PLAN ELEVATION

a) Single tap-off on twin conductor busbar
PLAN ELEVATION

b) Twin tap-off on triple conductor busbar
Note : See S.L.D.G. 6 - 3 for the positioning of spacers as
they have a significant influence on the
performance of overhead strung flexible
conductor busbars under short circuit conditions.
2.15 Type 'ACC' Insulated Covers And Conductors
(0.54/412 sheets 19 to 22, and sheets 47 and 48)
A short-circuit between phases on the tertiary circuit of a transformer
can result in excessive mechanical forces being imposed on the
windings. A number of such faults have occurred in practice causing
the windings to collapse.
To minimise the possibility of a phase-to-phase fault, all exposed
connections should be insulated. This involves insulating :-
a) Live heads of tertiary bushings, auxiliary transformer
bushings and bushings of rural transformer/reactors
b) Live metal of surge arresters and any isolators, current
transformers and cable sealing ends
c) All conductors
d) All current-carrying clamps.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001 - S.L.D.G. 10 - 3 / 2
____________________________________________________________________________________
In the past, a variety of methods have been used to achieve the
required insulation including taping, heat-shrink sleeves, and plastic
covers. A range of clear acrylic covers have, however, now been
developed which cater for most of the bushing heads and current-
carrying clamps encountered in practice. Details of these covers are
given on Drawing 0.54/412 sheets 19 to 22, and their applications are
illustrated in drawing 0.54/412 Sheets 47 and 48.
Arrangements have also been made with cable manufacturers for an
insulating layer to be applied to our standard conductors (Bull,
Centipede and Hornet) in much the same way as a cable sheath.
Thus, the means are now available for the vast majority of tertiaries to
be insulated in a standard manner, although some taping may be
necessary in certain cases.
It should be noted that insulation of the tertiary leads will not prevent
short-circuit forces from being applied to the windings, since system
earth faults on the HV and MV sides of the transformer cause zero-
sequence currents to flow in the delta winding, and these cannot be
avoided. However, an LV side phase fault results in the highest short-
circuit current levels and hence the greatest forces, and to avoid these
the tertiary leads are insulated.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-1-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 5 / 1
______________________________________________________________________________________
S.L.D.G. 10 - 5
STANDARD RANGE OF SUBSTATION HARDWARE
1. GENERAL
Hardware components refer to those non-current carrying items needed to
physically support the conductors associated with the electrical system. Drawing
0.54/412 schedules the various items that are used in a substation.
2. STANDARD RANGE OF SUBSTATION HARDWARE
2.1 Insulated Assemblies
(0.54/412 Sheets 26 to 40 and 49 to 53)
For voltages up to and including 220 kV, corona on hardware assemblies
is not a major problem and normal practice is to purchase the various
items making up assemblies as individual units. These items are
therefore individually coded in the Plant Code (See S.L.D.G. 26) to
facilitate summation by computer. The complete assemblies are however,
coded and may be purchased as such.
For voltages of 275 kV and above, the fitting of corona rings is usually
necessary. It is usual to purchase these items as completely assembled
units which are coded accordingly in the Plant Code.
It should be noted that 0.54/412 Sheets 26 - 38 have been superseded by
Sheets 50 - 57.
2.2 Yoke Plates
(0.54/412 Sheets 44, 45 and 54)
Extract from "High-tension News" (Ohio Brass), Vol. 31, No. 4, April 1962,
pp. 8 and 9, "Yoke plate is key factor in V-string performance.
For maximum stability, the intersection of the projected insulator string
centre-line should be on the midpoint of the line joining the conductor
clamp attachment points".
This is illustrated in Figure 1 that also schedules the angles that apply for
various voltages.
2.3 Extension Straps
(0.54/412 Sheet 42)
Where an insulator string is attached at an angle to a beam, two problems
occur :-
a) Clearances to earth may be reduced to below standard values
b) The edge of the insulator disc nearest to the beam may touch the
beam under wind conditions and the disc may crack

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-2-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 5 / 1
______________________________________________________________________________________
These problems arise with 'V' strings, transmission line closing spans and
spans between beams whose centre-lines are offset. In these cases, an
extension strap which is simply a flat steel plate 50 mm wide by 500 mm
long with a hole at each end, should be inserted between the U-bolt on
the beam and the clevis-ball fitting on the end of the insulator string.
2.4 Jumper Weights
(0.54/412 Sheet 43)
To minimise the swing of a jumper under wind conditions, weights can be
fitted to the conductors(s). The standard jumper weight has a mass of 25
kg and its application is discussed in S.L.D.G. 7-3 Section 4.3.

3. TYPICAL DIMENSIONS
Typical dimensions and massed for hardware components are given in Table 1.

4. SAG CAUSED BY INSULATOR STRINGS
The weight of insulator strain strings effectively caused additional sag which
reduces the height of the conductors above ground. Figure 2 illustrates the
method of calculating this additional sag. The calculation of sag due to the
weight of a conductor is described in S.L.D.G. 12 - 2 paragraph 2 - Pantograph
Isolators.

L
100
A
P
B
100
Extn
Strap
Ball Clevis
Insulators
Socket Clevis
Yoke Plate
x
330

FIGURE 1 : A V-STRAIN / SUSPENSION INSULATOR ASSEMBLY
For maximum stability centrelines of insulator strings should cross at P on the line
between A and B

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-3-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 5 / 1
______________________________________________________________________________________
L = L
ES
+ L
BC
+ n.L
I
+ L
SC
eq. 10-5.1
where :-
L = total length of the single string
L
ES
= length of the extension strap (450 mm)
L
BC
= length of the ball clevis (82 mm)
L
I
= length of the disc insulator (146 mm)
n = number of discs in string depending on voltage
L
SC
= length of socket clevis (60 mm)
L = 450 + 82 + 146.n + 60
= 592 + 146.n
The lengths of the individual items above are given in Table 2.

TABLE 1 : PRODUCED FROM EQUATION ABOVE
System
Voltage kV
x From
Steelwork
(mm)
No. Of
Discs
(n)
L

(mm)
x-100

(mm)
Ideal

220 2286
2286
13
17
2490
3074
2186
2186
28,6
o

44,6
o

275 2286
2286
16
21
2928
3658
2186
2186
41,7
o

53,3
o

45
o

330 3048
3048
20
25
3512
4242
2948
2948
32,9
o

45,9
o

400 3048
3048
23
29
3950
4826
2948
2948
41,7
o

52,3
o

For ideal :
o
45 0 , 1
100
100
tan = = =
The effective length (L) of the insulator string can be found in Table 1 above and from
S.L.D.G. 7-3.
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-4-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 5 / 1
______________________________________________________________________________________
O
L
W
I
S
I
= L.sin
W
D
+W
C
+W
H

FIGURE 2 : SAG CONTRIBUTION TO A FLEXIBLE CONDUCTOR DUE TO A
STRAIN INSULATOR ASSEMBLY

Taking moments about 0, assuming insulator string rigid :
T(L.sin) =
(
+ + + |
.
|
\
|
cos . L ) W W W ( cos .
2
L
W
H C D I
eq. 10-5.2
T.tan =
(
+ + +
H C D I
W W W W .
2
1
eq. 10-5.3
tan =
[ ]
T .
) W W W .( W
H C D I
2
2 + + +
eq. 10-5.4
= arctan
(
+ +
T .
) W W W .( W
H C D
2
2
+
I
eq. 10-5.5
Insulator Sag S
I
= L.sin eq. 10-5.6
( )
)
`
+ + +
=
T .
W W W . W
arctan sin . L S
L C D I
I
2
2
eq. 10-5.7
where : W
I
= Weight of insulator string
W
D
= Weight of dropper connected to conductor (if any)
W
C
= Weight of conductor for half the span
W
H
= Weight of hardware for half the span plus droppers (if any)
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-5-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 5 / 1
______________________________________________________________________________________
T = Conductor tension in newtons (N)
L = Length of insulator string
Note : Weight = (Mass in kg) . 9,81 newtons (N)
SPECIMEN CALCULATION
220 kV : Insulator strain string with 2 conductors / phase conductor : 800 mm
2
(Bull)
Mass = 2,39 kg/m
No of discs : 13
Mass of disc : 3,7 kg
Weight of string : 13 . 3,7 . 9,81 = 471,9 N
Weight of hardware : 1 Ball clevis + 1 socket clevis + yoke plate +
2 strain clamps
= 9,81 . 25
= 245,3 N
Allowing 10 m for average dropper & 1 dropper in each of 2 bays
W
D
= 10 . 2 . 2,39 . 9,81
= 468,9 N
For conductor span of 2 bays = 30,5 m
W
C
=
2
1 9,8 . 2,39 . 30,5 . 2

= 715,1 N
For conductor tension of 8,9 kN / conductor x 90 %
T = 0,9 . 8900 . 2
= 16020 N
Length of string
L = 82 + 60+ 100 + 508 + (13 . 146)
= 2648 mm
Allowing for a dropper (2 clamps + 4 spacers) and for a Stringer (2 spacers)
W
H
= (2 . 5 + 6 . 3) . 9,81
= 274,7 N
o
,
,
.
) , , , ( ,
Tan
47 6
1134 0
16020 2
7 274 1 715 9 468 2 2 717
=
=
+ + +
=

Insulator string sag :
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-6-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 5 / 1
______________________________________________________________________________________
S
I
= L.sin 6,47
o
= 2648 . 0,1127
S
I
= 298,38 mm

TABLE 2 : INSULATOR AND HARDWARE
TYPICAL DIMENSIONS AND MASSES

ITEM DIMENSIONS MASS (kg)
Extension
Strap
450
500
5
0
16
18

3,14
Ball
Clevis
18
16 PIN
82
16 mm BALL

0,5
Insulator
Disk
16 mm BALL
254
146

3,7
Socket
Clevis
18
60

1,0
______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-7-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 5 / 1
______________________________________________________________________________________

Twisted
Clevis
16
78
18

0,7
Tongue
Clevis
78
18
16

0,7
Strain
Clamp
C
A

Conductor
400 mm 2
800 mm 2
A
385
508
C
30
42
7,5
10,0
Suspension
Clamp
3 0 5
4 2
7 0

4,0
Yoke Plate
330
100

A 150
330
1,2
2,3
Strain Plate
330
100

3,5

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-8-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 5 / 1
______________________________________________________________________________________
Suspension
Plate
200
100
330

3,5
Conductor
Spacer
A

A 150
330
1,0
3,0

______________________________________________________________________________________
DECEMBER 2001
-9-
S.L.D.G. 10 - 5 / 1
______________________________________________________________________________________

B
e
a
m
"
U
"

B
o
l
t
B
a
l
l

C
l
e
v
i
s
I
n
s
u
l
a
t
o
r
D
i
s
c
s
S
o
c
k
e
t
T
o
n
g
u
e
P
i
s
t
o
l

T
y
p
e
S
t
r
a
i
n

C
l
a
m
p
C
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r
STRAIN : TYPE A
B
e
a
m
"
U
"

B
o
l
t
E
x
t
e
n
s
i
o
n

S
t
r
a
p

(
N
o
t

f
o
r

B

&

B

B
)
B
a
l
l

C
l
e
v
i
s
I
n
s
u
l
a
t
o
r
D
i
s
c
s
S
o
c
k
e
t
C
l
e
v
i
s
S
t
r
a
i
n
Y
o
k
e
P
l
a
t
e
T
w
i
s
t
e
d

C
l
e
v
i
s
T
o
n
g
u
e
P
i
s
t
o
l

T
y
p
e
S
t
r
a
i
n

C
l
a
m
p
C
o
n
d
u
c
t
o
r
STRAIN : TYPES B, BB, C, & CC
Beam
"U" Bolt
Extn. Strap
(Not required
above 66 kV)
Ball Clevis
Insulator
Discs
Socket
Clevis (Tongue)
Suspension
Clamp
Beam
"U" Bolt
Extn. Strap
(Not for EE &
E above 66 kV)
Ball Clevis
Insulator
Discs
Socket
Clevis
Suspension
Clamp
Yoke Plate
Twisted Clevis
Tongue
SUSPENSION : TYPE - D SUSPENSION : TYPE E, EE, F, & FF

______________________________________________________________________________________

SLDG - Book 1

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SLDG - Book 1

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DECEMBER 2001

= hydraulic conductivity of fully developed bed, m/s

= slope of bed, m/m

could vary between 3 . 10

= ratio between dynamic and static conductor stress,

(Hz) eq. 6-2.6a

(Hz) eq. 6-2.6b

- Dynamic factor (stress) for tubular conductor 3

From eq. 6-2.15

From eq. 6-2.6(b)

= 0,52 (From Figure 3)

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