Sub Station Engineering

1.
SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Substations INTRODUCTION: In Power System network, in order to transmit and distribute the generated power, it is necessary to install SUBSTATIONS at strategic points to work at required voltage level since HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION is resorted to. The Sub stations are classified as GRID of RADIAL Substations. The Grid station is installed in Grid network to reduce the voltage level from 230KV to 110 KV. The radial Station within Distribution net work to reduce the voltage from 110 KV to 11KV (or 22KV). In essence the substation provides (a) Transfer of voltage level (b) Transmission of the required Power and (c) Adjustment of voltage variations caused by the system voltage regulation. 110/11KV SUB STATION : CLASSIFICATION OF EQUIPMENTS
Sl. No
1.
Classification
Functional
Equipments
a) Bus Bar b) Transformers c) Earthing System
Purpose
To carry Power feeding To transmit Power from one voltage to other To ensure effective grounding for safety & Protective operation. Isolate feeding equipments from source of supply (Potential ) Breaking the Current (Power flow) for normal maintenance; and for isolation of faulty section) To prevent damage to equipment from direct stroke of lightning. Protecting the transformer from the impact of surges. Back up Protection for Surge Diverters. Metering (Voltage and Energy) Metering (Current & Energy) Protection For sensing the fault and give command to breakers to isolate the faulty circuit. For i) Indication of Status ii) Annunciation of the fault iii) Operation of breaker for isolation of faulty circuit. To feed L.T-3Ph. 400V Supply for i) Auxiliaries of breakers & Transformers. ii) Yard & Control room lighting iii) Supply to battery charge Control of A.C.Supply To house equipments with required horizontal and vertical clearances. To house indoor equipments like D.C.System, D.C. & A.C.panels etc.,
2.
Isolation & Control
a) Isolation
b) Breakers
3.
Protection from internal disturbances
a) Earth Mast b) Surge Diverter c) ROD GAP
4.
Protection & Metering
a) Potential Transformer (PT) b) Current Transformer (CT) c) Relays
5.
A.C.System for LT 3phase, 400V supply
a) Station Transformer 11KV/400V.
b) A.C.Panel 6. Housing a) Yard & Structures b) Control room
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T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
LAYOUT OF SUBSTATION A single line diagram called the Schematic layout of Sub-Station should be available, showing the arrangement of the above equipments. A typical layout of a 230 / 110KV Grid station and that a 110/11KV Radial station are shown in Fig. 1 & 2 below. Based on this single line diagram detailed Electrical layout, drawn to scale showing the Plan and Elevation of the Sub Station arrangement is prepared. A civil layout for the lands acquired for the installation of the substation will also be prepared, wherein the Electrical layout will be incorporated in the specified location, showing, Road, control room, Quarters and other civil amenities. In this detailed Electrical layout, the required clearances, Height of structures, space occupied by equipments etc., will be clearly marked so that the Erection Engineer will carryout erection works and installation of equipments accordingly. Fig. 110 KV/11KV Major Substation Layout
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230/110KV Substation(Main and Transfer Scheme)
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FUNCTIONAL EQUIPMENTS BUS BARS The Purpose of bus bar is to receive the Power and feed to the concerned equipments. Types : Strung Bus & Rigid Bus Strung Bus : The Conductor (ACSR) Strung between the two ends of through Disc. insulators and Gripper sets. Sub Station
Rigid Bus
: Aluminium tubes erected and Pedestal insulators over pedestal support structure.
Points: The Main Bus will be of strung bus and the feeding arrangement to equipments will be Rigid bus. The insulators should be cleaned and checked for any breakage, cracks and to be replaced. Since the bus bars are heavy current carrying parts, tightness of the clamps to be checked to avoid glow. The Pedestal Insulators may be Polycone insulator (or) 33 KV rated Foot type insulators conceded.
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POWER TRANSFORMER This is the Main Equipment of Substation. 9 The Purpose of Transformer is Transmission of Power from one voltage level to the other required voltage level, with negligible losses. 9 Reduction to the required voltage level. 9 The drop in voltage in the system is compensated by tappings.
INTERNAL ACCESSORIES:
The transformer mainly comprises of Magnetic core and windings wounded for the 3 phase. Each phase will have a Primary and Secondary winding, wound according to the voltage for which it is put into use. The core and winding Units are placed in a Main tank and filled with Transformer oil. The transformer oil is for insulation and cooling purpose. The leads from the winding are brought out through the bushings for external system connections. The three phase windings on Primary will be connected in DELTA & the Secondary in Star as shown below:
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Delta Three separate windings of each phase will be connected in the form of Delta as below: Here, each phase winding gets the line voltage (HT or EHT) directly and there is no neutral.
Star The three windings of the transformer may be connected in star as shown below: In this type of connections, between two lines two phase windings are connected. The advantage is that we get a neutral point N, Since the phase voltage is less than the one voltage, the level of insulation required for winding is less when compared to Delta connection (where phase and line voltages are same) R -N, Y -N, B -N are called phase voltage (V phase) R -Y, Y -B, B -R are called line voltages (V line) V Line = 3 Vph Power (in watts) = 3 x Vph X Jph X cos (or) 3 x V Line x I Line x cos (Note: Cos is power factor)
Details of Transformer 1) Voltage Rating 2) Current Rating 3) Capacity 4) Tapings 5) % Impedance 6) Vector group
EXTERNAL ACCESSORIES:
:110 KV/11 KV :52.5/525A :10 MVA :-3 To + 9% @ 1.5% :10% :41 Dy11
1) Main tank with valve & cooling arrangement, 2) Bushings with C.Ts. 3) Conservator 4) Tap switch 5) Air release Plug 6) equalizer pipe 7) Explosive vent 8) Temperature indicators 9) Breather 10) Buchholz relay
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MAINTENANCE OF POWER TRANSFORMERS Item of Inspection or Maintenance

1. Checking for unusual noise 2.Checking oil level in the conservator and bushings 3. Checking or leakages of water into cooler 4. Clearing of bushings
Period between Inspection or Maintenance

Daily each shift Daily each shift
Daily each shift Weekly or at every opportunity during prearranged shut -downs. Monthly or earlier if necessary Monthly or earlier if gel has turned pink Monthly or earlier if necessary Monthly
5. a)Inspection and cleaning or breather. b) Reconditioning or replacement of silica gel . c) RenewaI or Calcium Chloride 6. Examination of relief diaphragms to ensure that they are not cracked or broken 7. Checking up or temperature and water flow . alarm for correct operation 8. Ensuring that oil comes out when the air of the transformer 9. Measuring insulation resistance of windings 10. Testing of oil from tank and conservator for dielectric strength on all transformers of capacity over 1000 KVA 11. -do - for Trs. of 1000 KVA and below . 12. Checking up gap settings on bushings of transformer 13. Pressure testing, of oil coolers 14. Testing of transformer oil for acidity 15. Testing of oil in oil filled bushing of . dielectric strength and acidity
Monthly Monthly or at every opportunity release valve is opened on the top cover during pre-arranged shut downs Monthly
Quarterly
Half yearly before and after wet Half yearly.
season
Half yearly. Yearly
Yearly
The following periodical maintenance are recommended for Power Transformers: Annual inspection and maintenance of power transformer should be carried out thoroughly. The following should be checked. Operation of Buchholz relay by pumping air. Oil level in the conservator tank using a dip stick. Check for any cracks is the foundation. Tightening of all loose bolts and nuts. Measuring rod gap. Release of air tank and bushings. Polarisation index valve test with power operated meggar. Checking the stop block in the rail. Check relief diaphragm. Check cooling water and drain piping for leaks. Clear Bushings
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Calibrate temperature indicators and check up operation if temperature alarms and trips. Lubricate all moving parts in on load taps change mechanism. Check and tighten all connections. Check the resistance of the transformer windings. Recording Insulation values of winding by meggering with 1000 Volts Power megger, after removing neutral Earth connection HV to Earth, LV to Earth and HV to L.V. and check the continuity of winding. Oil sample testing : Dielectric strength, Ac content of oil is to be tested. In addition , the other tests conducted are a) Resistivity b) Interfacial tension c) tan delta e) Dissolved gas analysis (DGA)
EARTHING SYSTEM:
The Solidly grounded system ensures speedy & accurate sensitive of fault and isolate the faulty section. Neutral of Transformer secondary is grounded All other metallic parts associated with Electrical equipments should be grounded. Surge divertor should be grounded. Double Earthings should be ensured for each grounding All the groundings should be interconnected. The Earthing system comprises of 1) Earth conductor, 2) Earth connection, 3) Earth Pipe, 4) Earth pit and 5) Earth interconnection. This scheme of grounding is shown below:
EARTH INTER CONNECTION: In order to interlink all the individual Earth Electrodes, it is in practice to lay an earth Mat under the ground level of Substation yard. The Earth Electrodes, in Earth pit are connected to this Earth Mat, running nearby under the Ground, so that the combined Earthing system is formed.
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The Earth Mat is shown below:
MAINTENANCE OF EARTHING SYSTEM
The soil in Earth pit should be kept packed homogeneously. The soil in Earth pit should be kept WET by pouring water. Earth Connections are checked for tightness. Earth pipe to be maintained in tact without corrosion. For improving the Earthing system value, impurities like Charcoal, Railway cinder, Ash, Copper sulphate, Salt etc., may be dissolved and spread uniformly in Earth pit through Water filling. Earth Resistance value to be measured and effectiveness checked, by using Earth Megger. The values are 1) Individual Electrode : < 25 ohms. This should be tested by removing all connection from Electrode. 2) Combined Resistance: < 1 ohm. This should be linked by providing all Earth connection.
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ISOLATION & CONTROL OF EQUIPMENTS: a) ISOLATORS: These are Potential Isolating Switches to isolate the equipments from the source. This should not be used for current breaking. In Sub-station , only Double break (or Center rotating type as it is called) switches are used.
TYPES OF DOUBLE BREAK SWITCHES:
a) Isolator with Arcing horns: Used before transformer to break magnetizing current. b) Isolator without Arcing horns: Used in other places of Sub-station
POINTS:
Tandem Operation for simultaneous operation for the three phases should be ensured. The contact pressure should be adequate to withstand load current. This is ensured by spring & tempered contact leaves. Contact pressure will be > 0.25 Kg. per ampere of normal current rating. The Operation should be free by proper lubrication and by treating the fixed and moving contacts with Petroleum Jelly. The close/open should be done from Ground level. The operating Rod should be earthed safely. The isolator may be hand operated (or) it can be motor operated using A.C. Motor with reduction gear & cam arrangement with limit switches, to stop the motor at the end of closing/opening without overshoot. The Motor operated mechanism will also have the de-linking arrangement to delink motor & gear mechanism and perform the hand operation in case A C Supply fails. b) BREAKERS: The main purpose is: To break the load current or fault current It should be capable of quenching the arc quickly & effectively arising due to interruption of heavy current. The rating of the breaker should be well above the FAULT LEVEL of the substation, so that the breaker is capable of breaking the
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maximum fault current due to 3phase FAULT that may occur near. The rating is defined in MVA and is called as RUPTURING CAPACITY The time of opening should be fast. Modern breakers are as fast as to open in 2 cycles (ie) in 0.06 secs. TYPES OF BREAKERS: The breakers are classified according to the Medium by which arc is quenched. a) OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER ( OCB) : Oil is used for quenching as well as for insulation since metal tank is used.
b) MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER ( MOCB) : Oil of small quantity is used for
arc quenching only. c) VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER ( VCB) : Arc extinguished in VACUUM d) GAS CIRCUIT BREAKER
(GCB) : SF6 gas is used as the medium for quenching arc.
Ratings
Type Rated System Voltage Highest system Voltage Rated Frequency No. of Poles No. of Breaks per pole Rated Normal Current Rated Symmetrical breaking Peak Making Capacity Rated Short Time Current for 3 Sec :20KA DC Component Rated Power Frequency withstand voltage for 1 min Rated Impulse Withstand voltage at 1.2/50micro sec Motor Voltage Coil Voltage Power required by Trip and Close coils Opening Time Total Break Time Make time Mechanism Rated Operating Sequence Applicable Standards :12PVE 20 :11Kv :12KV :50HZ :3 :1 :400/800/1250A :20KA :50KA p
:50% :28/35KV .:75KVp :110/220v AC/DC :24/30/110/220v DC :400w :60ms :80ms :100ms :Motor charged, Spring tripping :0-0.3- CO 3-CO :IS 2516-1920& IEC 56-1987
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Rated Breaking Capacity: It is the current (rms) that a breaker is capable of breaking at a given recovery voltage and under specified condition i.e. PF,RRRV Rated Making Capacity: The peak value of current including D.C. component during the first cycle of current wave after the closure of circuit breaker is known as making capacity Rated Short-time Capacity: It is the period for which the circuit breaker is capable to carry fault current while remaining closed. Rated Normal Current Rating: It is the rms value of current which the circuit breaker is capable of carrying continuously at its rated frequency under specified conditions with temperature rise of various parts within specified limits. Relay Time: The time elapses between the instant of fault & the closure of trip circuit. Circuit Breaker Time: The time elapses between the closure of trip circuit & the final arc extinction Total Break Time:It is the summation of Opening Time and Arcing time. Opening Time: The time interval lapses from the energisation of trip coil to the instant of contact separation. Arcing time: The time from separation of contact to the extinction of arc is called the arcing time Fault Clearing time: The time elapsed between the instance of the occurrence of a fault and the instant of final arc extinction in the circuit breaker i.e F.C.T.=Relay time + Circuit breaker time(Total Break time) Rated Voltage: The rated voltage of a circuit breaker corresponds to the higher system voltage for which the circuit breaker intended. RRRV: It is the rate of rise of re-striking voltage and is abbreviated by RRRV KV/mic.sec)
First pole to Clear Factor: RMS voltage b/w healthy phase &faulty phase --------------------------------------------------------------- =1.2 to 1.5 Phase to neutral voltage with fault removed Duty cycle: The duty cycle denotes the sequence of opening and closing operations which the circuit breaker can perform under specified conditions OPERATING MECHANISM:
The Breaker has two operation :CLOSE / OPEN The OPEN operation is also called : TRIP These 2 operation are speedily performed by using operating mechanisms of the following kind: a) Spring actuated : Use of spring & leavers this can be operated by hand (or) AC Motor b) Hydraulic actuated : Using hydraulic fluid like AERO- shell oil c) Pneumatic Actuated : using air comprised system Any type of mechanism can be employed to any type of breaker.
Details of maintenance procedure: 1)Stationary contact: Visually inspect, when contact space is found uneven, remove it and polish with sand paper. then measure the dimension of stationary contact. When the wear becomes 3 mm or over replace the contact with a new one. Apply thin coat of HITSLUBE 280 Grease to the contact. 2)Moving contact: When it is degraded by large current interruption remove it and polish with sand paper. Apply three coat of HIT ALUBE 280 Grease to the contact.
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3) Arcing contact: When the surface is found- uneven, polish the surface with a smooth out file. Measure the dimension of arcing contact, when the amount of wear becomes 2 mm or over, replace the contact with a new one. Apply thin coat of HIT ALUBE 280 grease to the contact. 4)Insulation nozzle and insulation cover: The nozzle and cover can be removed together with the moving contact. Use wiper to clean up the interior and exterior. Measure the inner diameter of the nozzle. and cover. When the dimensions are enlarged by 1 mm or more, replace it with a new one. 5)Absorbent: Remove the conductor and take out the absorbent case. Replace the absorbent with a new one. Exchange it quickly just before vacuum drying. Dont expose it to the open air. 6Operating cylinder : Remove the cylinder cover. Inspect gaskets. Apply grease to he operating piston guide, main valve guide, main valve rod, pilot valve and operating piston. 7)Operating cylinder: Remove the oil plug and oil. Then supply new oil to the position plug. When drained oil is found contaminate, disassemble and check the oil dash pot. of oil
8) Operating mechanism: Check Pins, Links, Levers, operating rod and split pins check nuts and lock plates for possible looseness. Apply Hit lube 280 grease to pins. 9) Closing Link Mechanism: Clean up and apply thin coat of HIT ALUBE 280 grease to the hook, pins and roller. Check the state of hook arrangement under both closed and open position. 10) Electro-magnetic valve: When the lever is pressed with fingers, the hook is disengaged. Clean up and apply a turbine oil to the hook. Check nuts and bolts for looseness. Check the split pins. 11) Airing valve: Contact a hose to the discharge part and use a measuring cylinder to measure the discharge amount under water. The measured valve should be 300 to 700 Cg/min at the air celled to 15 Kgs. cm. 12) Auxiliary switch: Check the contacts; check terminal for tightening. Apply a thin coat of grease to the pin. 13) Pressure gauge: Clean up and calibrate. 14)Pressure switch :Setting pressure rise or reduce according to whether the adjusting screw is turned clockwise or counter clock wise. Check the operating pressure. 15)Trip-free contractor: If contacts are considerably uneven, repair them using a smooth out file or sand paper.
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QUARTERLY CARE Q.1. External Cleaning of Insulator Prior to monsoon and as & when Shutdown is available or deposits are too thick. Dust / Dirt to be removed. Open the switch cubicle & Remove webs/ dust. Check wiring connection Tightly secured. Check healthiness of relay, Contactors, Etc. Check & Compare the Running Time. Maintenance to be carried out as per instruction manual check for any leakage, check oil leakage, check for alarm, non Return valve to be opened & Cleaned, Verify motor thermal overload is working or not. Check by reducing the pressure up to requisite value. The Switch should enter into blocking zone at specified pressure. Healthiness of alarm can be verified by shorting electrical circuit, not by draining SF6 Gas.
Q.2. Q.3 Q.4. Q.5.
Switch cubicle cleaning Check wiring connection in switch cubicle Compressor Compressed Air Plant
Q.6.
Pressure switch in switch cubicle Verification of SF6 Alarm
Q.7.
Trouble shooting chart for SF6 circuit Breaker

Type of Condition A. Gas Alarm Possible Cause i) If alarm, had come after a very long time and leakage not heavy. Recommended corrective Measures a) Make up the gas pressure with the help of gas refilling device & temperature correction chart Absolute pressure Gauge Pressure 7.0 Bar at 200C 7.3 Bar at 200C 7.6 Bar at 200C 6.0 Bar at 200C 6.3. Bar at 300C 6.6 Bar at 400C
b) If felt necessary then plan the shutdown for searching the leakage and attending leakage thereof ii) If alarm comes on frequently and the leak rate is high : ii) CHECK :1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Electrical Circuit Gas pipe Braze Joints Gas pipe Couplings. Insulator joints. Lip seal Assembly.
Procedure for Checks : Check Healthiness of leak detector The joints to be covered with bags for at least 2 Hrs. The insert the probe of leak detector inside bag & check. If required, replace/ repair the leak joints / gaskets.
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Type condition B.Circuit Beaker
of
Possible Cause
Recommended corrective Measures
Does
not Operate at Impulse close. C)Circuit Breaker does not operate at impulse open. D) Beaker Operates Without impulse. E) Breaker Hunting F) Contact Circuit Circuit to to
No or Low control voltage. Close impulse blocked. Control Circuit interrupted. Magnet ventil plunger sticky. Aux. Switch element. Density Monitor Cable. Tripping Plunger Solenoid in lifted position. No or Low control voltage. Opening impulse blocked. Control circuit interrupted. Aux. Switch element. Density Monitor cable. Magnet ventil plunger stickly. Short Circuit or fault in connecting with control Circuit. Check Plunger.
CHECK & CORRECT :

Positions of Switch Control Voltage Pressure Switch Contacts. Density Monitor Contacts. Magnet Ventil piston.
CHECK & CORRECT :

Positions of Switch Control Voltage Pressure Switch contacts. Density Monitor Contacts. Magnet ventil piston.
CHECK & CORRECT :

Circuit diagram for voltage Control lest insulation. Insulation of Coils.
Faulty anti-pumping relay.
CHECK & CORRECT :
Control Circuit. Anti pumping relay. Clean & Lubricate contact surface in stipulated manner. Reassemble and check resistance. Refer instruction manual for the no. of operations versus fault current. For further guidance please contact nearest ABB office. Locate Faulty pole. Check Driving Mechanism. As well as Magnetic ventiles. Check Electrical Circuit.
Erosion.
Overheating. Warn arcing contacts large No.of operations (Refer Manual)
G) Single Pole operation (pole Discrepancy).
Electrical of Mechanical Fault in operating Device.
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TROUBLE SHOOTING CHART FOR COMPRESSOR Type of condition Possible Cause Recommended Measures A) Compressor Leakage in

corrective
Frequently runs or runs for A longer duration. B) Compressor Fails to start or motor gets overloaded. C) Oil Contamination in pressurized air system.
Pipe Line Joints. Audible leakage Circuit Breaker. Non return valve. Not Working.
Replace joints.
Repair
leaky
in
Replace Non return valve or springs of Non Return valve or clean and refill. Change Oil, Fill correct Grade of oil up to maximum level in the oil level indicator. Blow with compressed air or clean Manually. Open, Clean & Refill after checking. Clean the air filter. Drain oil to Correct level. Change to recommended grade. Open, clean & refit after checking Remove piston and loosen ring. Replace if broken. Check all related parts for wear before fitting. Check & Replace the Breather valve if necessary.
Dirty Oil/ Oil Level low. Cylinder and intercalating dirty.
D) Oil contamination in pressurized air system.
Choked air filter. Oil level high. Oil viscosity too low. Breather valve not working. Piston rings stuck in grooves or broken. Piston to cylinder clearance excessive.
E)
Water in
or
rust crank
Faulty breather
formation Housing F) Unusual
water
in and
Cylinder Rings.
Piston
Inadequate air filter maintenance. Incorrect grade of oil.
G) Compressor knocking
Loose Compressor fan fly wheel, Worn out piston, cylinder, crank, shaft & connecting rod bearings. Loose belts. Leaky joints in pressure lines. Defective seating of inlet & delivery valve plats
H)
Pressure
buildup
time excessive.
Increase frequency of cleaning. Change to correct grade of oil as given in recommended lubricant chart. Adjust or replace if elongated Open and re-tighten. Open, clean & refit after careful check. Replace after checking the related components. Adjust or replace if elongated Open and re-tighten. Open, Clean & Refit after careful check. Replace after checking the related components.
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I) Excessive Belt wean.
Incorrect motor and compressor pulley alignment.
J)
Oil
leak
through
Breather
Breather valve not working. Piston ring stuck in grooves. Piston to cylinder clearance excessive.
Check, adjust using a straight edge or string across the diameter of both the pulleys. Check belt adjustments. Open clean and refit breather. Loosen the piston rings if broken change the rings as a set. Check and change.
PROTECTION FROM EXTERNAL DISTURBANCES: Protection from Direct Stroke of lightning.
To protect all the equipments from the direct Stroh of lighting earth mast is used. Earth mast is a metal spike wit sharp end Height of mast is so chosen that all equipments comes under the protective zone, defined as 450 cone with top of Spike as the APEX of the cone. Effectively grounded to permit the lightning discharge.
PROTECTION FROM SURGES:
The surges are very high peak voltage under very high frequency. This will travel on the line of come to the sub-
station of meet the Transformer winding.& shatter it therefore the surges are to be prevented from entering the Transformer. SURGE DIVERTORS are employed before or after the transformer. Points: Thyrite discs are non-linear resistance & will conduct on high voltage and high frequency, but will act as an insulator for power frequency voltages. For BIL value of peak voltage 900 KV for a
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110/11KV Transformer, surge Divertor will be selected to conduct surges greater than 400 KV peak (1.2 x 50 micro wave) Leakage current monitor & surge counter will be installed on the base of surge ground. As a backup protection, in case surge divertor fails, ROD Gaps are installed on bushing of Transformer on 110KV side with a gap setting of 635 mm (25), PROTECTION & METERING EQUIPMENTS:
In a
Name plate of CT: 600/1A 30VA 5P15 EA-2003 aims at rationalization of Electricity Tariff 600/1A----------Primary and Secondary Current 30VA -----------Burden 5P --------------Percentage Error 15----------------Accuracy Limit Factor
a) Potential Transformer The Secondary rating of PT is 110volts 11 KV / 110 VOLT is shown, In Radial stations, P.T. used for metering only P.T. will have only a small burden (in VA) to feed metercoil Neutral will be floated in Py & Sy.
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b) Current Transformer Each Breaker is associated with a set of C.Ts for Protection & meters Secondary Current: for Protection : 1 amp for Metering : 5 amps Separate secondaries will be available for protection of metering. C.T. Ratios of say 600, 300,
150/1Ampere or 5 Ampere will be available for usage. It is defined as : Ratio available : Ratio set at : C.T. will also have a small burden (say 30 VA) to connect meter or Relay loads. C.T. Secondary should never be open circuited.
c) RELAYS: 3 O/L and 1 O/L Relay Scheme for Transformers and Breakers and Differential Relay for Transformer only C.T. Ratio selection - % Current setting in relay & time lever setting in relay E/L Ralay 40%
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D) METERING:
Rating of meters used 110 V, 5Ampere Deviations of usage from this Current rating (or)Meter dial, will result in adoption of Multiplying factor. 1. Voltmeter - 110VOLT Meter Directly Dialed for 11KV to measure 110 voltage, as fed by 11KV/110V P.T. 2. Ammeter - 5 meter dialed for 300A , connected to adopt 300/5 A C.T. If connects to 600/5 A C.T. then MF=2 3. Energy - Meter is 110V 5A connected to 11KV/110V P.T. of with C.T. of 300/5A, Then energy in 11KV system will be Reading x 6000 units.
E) D.C. SYSTEM : 1. The D.C. system provides reliable DC Source to operate the protection system in Case of FAULT. 2. 30Volt (15 cells) of 64 AH will be used.
Points: 2 Sets of 30V battery will be used, one set for control of feeders and the other set for protection of feeders. At Normal condition charger will supply small DC loads & feed charging current to Battery Heavy trip coil currents supplies by battery. The battery should be kept on wooden stand over insulated pedestal. Maintenance 1. The cell voltage should be around 2 VOLTS & Specific gravity of Electrolyte 1200/270c 2. Battery should be on trickle charge continually. If drained due to continuous tripping it should be put on quick charge & brought to the level. 3. To be tested daily for leakage is detected & for catering of load.
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4. If positive or negative leakage is detected, the faulty section to be isolated & rectified. 5. Battery room should be free of dust ,fire etc & properly ventilated.
PROTECTIVE SCHEME: a) FEEDER PROTECTION :
The Protective scheme consists of Sensing by C-Ts and feeding to relays Activation of relay and closing relay contacts Feeding D.C. Source to the Trip coil of Breaker Breaker tripping & isolating the faulty sections
each breaker should be associated with this protective scheme, to control the section to which it is meant for.
SCHEME DESCRIPTION:
Breaker is in closed condition feeding a 11KV feeder. If any fault occurs on the feeder, the breaker should trip. Cutting off supply to the feeder. The sequence is as follows: Fault occurs on the feeder & heavy current flows thro the circuit The C-T Senses the fault current & high secondary current flows through the Relay coil. The relay contact closes & D.C circuit is closed. With breaker kept on Auxiliary Contacts 4-4& 3-3 are N/c & hence D-C + Ve & - Ve juice is supplied to the trip coil Trip coil energized & the plunger is moved up & trigger the trip latch.
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The Breaker is tripped of Aux Switch moves of the contacts 4-4& 3-3 are now N/o & hence the trip coil current is cut off. Since faulty section is isolated, the current in secondary is zero & hence relay moves back to its normal position, breaking the relay contact. TRANSFORMER PROTECTION: The transformers are controlled by group control breaker on 110 KV side & independent L.V. breakers on 11KV side. If a fault occurs on transformers there breakers should be tripped. The fault on the transformer is identified by: a) over current relay, b) Differential Relay, c) Bucholtz relay of, d) Winding temp relay &, e) P.R.V. Relay
Closing of these contacts by actuation of relay in case of fault initiates the trip circuit of the controlling breaker thro a common relay called MASTER RELAY
L.T.A.C. SUPPLY SYSTEM
A Station transformer of 100KV 11KV/400V as connected to the 11KV Bus. provide A-C supply (Alternative supply) either fed from another substation (or) from a generator will be provided for emergency. The LT A-C supply / Alternative supply is fed to the A-C panel in control room from which it is supplied to the following requirements with power control arrangements.
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To A.C motors of breaker mechanism, Air compressor systems, To cooling fans systems, To battery charger Yard lighting and control room lighting OPERATIONAL FEATURES OF SUB STATION i)POWER HANDLING: The power requirement of the 11KV feeders feeding into distribution network is met by the Power Transformer Capacity adequate transformers will be erected (Max 3 Nos) with 10, 16 or 25MVA capacities as per requirement. If the capacities are not adequate due to load growth and if enhancement of capacity is also not possible , additional substation in load center will be erected. The feeding of loads are monitored by substation attendants as well as monitoring by temperature indicators installed in the transformer (Oil and Winding) . Adequate measures has to be taken if oil alarm comes by shedding some unimportant loads. Capacitor banks will also be erected in SS in order to improve power factor to unity, so that increased M.W. loading can be resorted to. 2) TAP OPERATION Since the sub section in the sending end of power to the load pockets, it is necessary to maintain constant voltage at the of pump motors of power transformer& OLTC operating
secondary, irrespective of voltage received on HV side. This is done by providing On Load Tap Changer. A diagram of tapping coil arrangement with Main primary coil with preselector AND Selector contacts and also its On load
operational features sequence are shown in the two figures enclosed. DECISION OF CLEARANCES The Decision for electrical clearances depend upon the following factors a) Out door or Indoor b) Attended or unattended c) Insulating medium e) Rigid or flexible buses Taking into the above factors, the required spacings & clearances are arrived at based on i) System Reliability consideration ii) Safety to personnel consideration The spacings and clearances requested for a sub station are
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PHASE TO EARTH CLEARANCE PHASE TO PHASE CLEARANCE GROUND CLEARANCE SECTIONAL CLEARANCE BAY WIDTH TO HOUSE EQUPMENTS OR FEEDER TAKE OFF
The Decision made as such is shown in a sample diagram as below.
STANDARD CLEARANCES ADOPTED IN PRACTICE
a)Min clearance for outdoor equipments rigid conductors in air for an attended station
( in mm)
SL. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
VOLTAGE 230 KV 110 KV 66 KV 33 KV 22 KV 11 KV 0.4 KV
PH-PH 3350 1675 1220 915 610 460 380
PHEARTH 1675 1000 750 610 460 305 305
GROUND CLEAR 5485 4570 4570 3660 3660 3660 -
SPACING FOR ISOLATORS
W/O A-H 3350 2135 1525 765 765 610 -
WITH A/H 3960 3050 2135 1220 1070 915 -
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b) SECTIONAL CLEARANCES in MM
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
230 KV 110 KV 66 KV 33 KV & 22 KV 11 KV
4270 MM 3350 MM 3050 MM 2740 MM 2590 MM
c) BAY WIDTH IN METRES 1. 230 KV 2. 110 KV 3. 66 KV 4. 33 KV 5. 22 KV 6. 11 KV d) CLEARANCES FOR INDOOR SS
12.2 9.5 7.0 4.5 3.8 3.5 PH EARTH 220 140 115
SL. 1. 2. 3.
VOLTAGE 33 KV 22 KV 11 KV
PH PH 360 240 180
CONCLUSION The sub station forms part & parcel of the power of the power system net work. The essential equipments installed in a sub station, with the operation and control features are explained in detail which will provide practical utility information
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2. CIRCUIT BREAKERS
1. INTRODUCTION : In low voltage circuits, a switch is used for opening and closing and a fuse is used for over current protection. For high voltage circuits (say from 11KV upwards) isolation of the circuit is done by circuit breakers for switching and protection. A circuit breaker is a current interrupting device. 2. NEED FOR A CIRCUIT BREAKERS: At abnormal conditions such as faults and short circuits the currents are high and they should be interrupted automatically with in a short time. The fault currents can damage the equipment and the installations, if allowed to flow for a longer duration. In order to avoid such a situation, protective relaying associated with switching device is provided in the power system. The protective relays will sense the faults and break the circuits by means of circuit breakers. 3. CIRCUIT BREAKERS COMPONENTS: In general a circuit breaker comprises of 1. A set of fixed and moving contacts. 2. An operating mechanism for making/breaking of the contacts. 3. An arc extinguishing chamber with medium to extinguish the areinside. 4. ARC FORMATION: An arc is formed while the high quantity or current are separated due to fault conditions.The formation of an arc is caused by a column of ionized gas having molecules which have lost one or more electrons.The electrons are attracted towards the anode, with a high velocity and on the way detach more electrons by impact. 5. AN ARC: The electric arc is a self sustained discharge of electricity between electrodes in gas, or vapour which has a voltage drop at cathodes of the order of minimum ionizing potential of gas or vapour. The initation of an arc happens because of the following process. Field Emission. Thermal Emission. Thermal Ionization. 6. ARC EXTINCTION: Various techniques are used to extinguish the arc in the circuit breaker. Mode of arc extinction are a) HIGH RESISTANCE INTERRUPTION This is done by increasing the resistance of the arc. By increasing the length of the arc, voltage across the arc is increased till it is more than system voltage across the contacts.The current is reduced to a value insufficient to maintain it.Then the arc gets extinguished. 7. LOW RESISTANT OR CURRENT ZERO INTERRUPTION: The arc gets extinguished at natural current zero of the alternating current wave and is prevented from restriking again by rapid building of dielectric strength. OPERATING MECHANISM OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS : Circuit breakers have two working positions open and close. During the closing operation the circuit breaker contacts close against the following opposing forces. Electromagnetic forces between contacts, Action of operating spring, Intertia of movable sub assembly, Opposing forces due to medium & Friction. (a) Electromagnetic forces between contacts:When the contacts touch during closing operations electromagnetic forces appear, their magnitude being proportional to square of the current and opposing to the direction of closing While closing, on existing short circuit, these forces are large. (b) Action of operating spring:- If the moving contacts are opened by spring pressure, while closing these springs oppose the closure. (c) Inertia of movable sub assembly:- The movable parts are contacts, their holders tension rods operating links of operting mechanism etc. The mass of these sub- assemblies are quite large and their inertia tries to oppose rapid acceleration. (d) Opposing forces due to medium:- The movable sub assembly has to move in dielectric medium which is compressed air, gas oil at high pressure and density. (e) Friction :- Static and dynamic. While closing the contact, closure should be fast, sure without hesitation, with adequate contact pressure at the end of contact travel. If these conditions are not satisfied, contact welding can result. During the opening operation, the closed contacts are separted as early as possible. The opening should be fast, in order to reduce circuit breaker opening time . The opening time between the instant of receiving trip signal and final contact separation is of the order of 0.030 second (i.e) 1.5 cycles. Opposing forces during opening operation are Electromagnetic forces due to contact grip, Frictions, Opposing forces due to quenching medium & Inertia of movable parts. (a) Electromagnetic forces due to contact grip :The current transfer from fixed contacts to
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movable contacts and then grip oppose the movement of moving contacts. During the short circuit condition, the electromagnetic forces tends to increase the grip of the contacts assembly. The forces of contact grip increases in proportion to the square of current. (b) Frictions:- The various operating links, bearing surfaces, mating surfaces between fixed and movable parts etc. offer static friction. (c) Opposing forces due to quenching medium:The quenching medium (compressed air, dielectric oil, SF6 Gas) may offer substantial opposing forces to the movement. (d) Inertia of movable parts:- Energy in the operating mechanism is utilized in accelerating the movable sub assemblies to the required speed. Types of Mechanism:- The operating mechanism in Circuit breakers are either dependable or stored energy type. Dependent operating mechanism depend on continuity of power supply manual forces during closing. The stored energy type are called independant operating mechanism as they are independent of continuity of power supply or skill of the operator. In such mechanism the energy required for closing is stored in a charged springs or in compressed air hydraulic oil. They can be classified as 1. Spring opened, spring closed mechanism 2. Solenoid closed, spring opened 3. Hydraulic mechanism 4. Pneumatic mechanism etc., Spring Operating Mechanism of CB:- The closing springs charged by rotating the cam which is linked to a system of ratchet gears. The rotation is carried out manually by a handle or through an electric motor. The cam developing on roller compresses the closing springs. At the end of the stoke the loading cam frees itself from the roller. The motor stops through limit switch. The closing spring held by a latch / hook. To close the Circuit Breaker, release the latch/ hook using either the control handle or the closing coil supplied by the station battery with a load of atleast 300 VA through the dragging latch/ hook, the closing springs transmit their stored energy to the lever and its shaft. The latter, acting on lever, closes the Circuit Breaker and loads the opening springs at the same time. The position of circuit breakers closed and opening springs loaded is ensured by another latch/hook. The control mecha-
nism is now ready to carry out the opening/ tripping operation. The closing springs charging is possible by closing the limit switch of the motor or manually. To open/ trip the circuit braker disengage the opening hook/latch by means of control handle or of trip coil. In closing operation the mechanism force will be transmitted to the main shaft assembly through the ratio linkages and in turn bell crank connected in main shaft will push the contact spring, insulated drive rods and moving portion of interrupter upto the point of contact touching. After the contact touch the main shaft moves continuously towards the end of the stoke, further compressing the contact springs, upto the level to give enough contact pressure. During the closing movement the opening spring together until the point of contact separation is reached, after which the drive is maintained by the opening spring along the full stoke. TROUBLE SHOOTING MECHANISM :- The circuit breakers are set for life at the factory to the appropriate setting instructions and should not be distrubed unnecessarily. Before gaining access to Circuit breaker ensure that the instructions given by the manufacturer the contact wear, the snatch gap setting decreases and length of contact pressure setting increases in closed position. The contact pressure spring give sufficient pressure for full 3mm wear of the vacuum interrupter contacts. Mechanism in over travel setting Where it becomes necessary to read just any of the settings originally made in the factory due to distrubance or wear close the Circuit Breaker, adjust nuts at the bottom of the spring post until latch just moves fully under latch pin, check contact pressure spring length, snatch gap and hold open spring length. Reset wherever necessary. Trip Closing coil setting:- Trip coil setting: Loosen trip coil assembly fixing screws adjust gap setting between trip pin and trip coil plunger link to the specified limit say 2 - to 2.2mm lock off using locktite 241. Closing Coil Setting :- Adjust the gap between release roller and electrical release closing coil plunger to 2 to 2.5mm by adjusting release assembly within its mounting and lock off using lock tite 241. Other settings to be checked :1. Dashpot setting 2. Push button Trip ( Pre travel setting) 3. Closing release Electrical 4. Interlock setting.
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Fault Spring will not charge
Cause Motor has wrong or no Operating voltage motor running continuously. Motor shaft broken, motor gear damage. The latch for the tripping device does not functions Disconnection in the wires
Remedy Measure voltage on the motor leads
Change motor
Check Mechanism Check by measuring Voltage Measure the voltage adjust coil adjustment screw Checking closing springs.
Closing of breakers does not take place although there is spring charged indication. Breaker closes and open again (Dummy)
Closing coil does pull
The toggle joint of the mechanism are incorr -ectly adjusted. Main circuit is wrong Wrongly adjusted clearance of opening magnets armature
Adjusts toggle joint. Find fault & adjust
Adjust Adjust.
Could not keep spare Charge. Breaker does not Trip
Over travel of toggle linkage
Trip coil does not function
Measure the voltage Ad just coil grip adjustment.
Main contact closed even breaker in open position. Breaker continuously opens and closes. Breaker will not close Completely
Discontinuity in operating link from linkage assembly
Check operating linkage.
Anti pumping relay wrong
Change relay.
Micro switch arm wrongly adjusted under voltage relay released.
Find fault and adjust.
Pneumatic Operating Mechanism of Circuit Breaker:- Pneumatic operating mechanism consists of piston, air cylinder, control valve, tripping and closing, coil, latch, trigger etc. Opening:- When the trip coil is energized the space of pilot valve is filled with compressed air and the charging valve moves to right. The space in the operating cyclinder is filled with compressed air and the operating piston is driven to the left. The operating rod connected to the operating piston is pulled in the opening direction to drive the puffer cylinder in SF6 breaker at the high speed, through the insulated operating rod in the supporting insulator. Simultaneous with the opening operation the cam rotates and causes the electromagnet valve to return to its original position. As a result compressed air in the space of the pilot valve is exhausted into atmosphere and the charging valve is reset to the original position. As the open state is retained by the link mechanism attached to the end of the operating piston.
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Closing :- When the closing coil is energized, the arc nature is made to rotate causing the hook to be disengaged. Thus the sector line rotates to release the roller and the operating piston is driven to the closing direction by the force of the closing spring, upon completion of closing, the link mechanism is held in a state to be ready for the subsequent opening operation. Fault Compressor frequently runs or runs for a long duration compressor fails to start or motor gets overloaded Cause Leakage in pipe line joints and andible leak in circuit breaker Non return valve not working Remedy Replace / Repin Leak joints Replace non return valve or springs of non return valve or clean and refill. Change oil upto level. Clean air filter check Replace piston, ring assembly. Examine fly wheel key way overhaul compressor unit.
Coil continuation in pressurized air system
Compressor knocking
Pressure build up time excessive Excessive belt wear
Dirty oil / oil level born choked air filter, oil level high, breather valve faulty, piston rings stuck in groove Loose ran fly wheel worn out piston cylinder cylinder crankshaft connecting rod. Loose belt, leaky joints worn out piston rings Incorrect motor compres sor pulley alignment. Incorrect belt tension.
Adjust belt retighter Replace after checking related com ponents Adjust alignment Adjust belt
Pnemo Hydraulic Operating Mechanism:- The main feature of this type is the closure and holding of the breaker provided by oil pressure. The tripping of the circuit breaker is provided by short travel compression springs provided in jack casing whose permanent energy is available at all times. The energy required to close the breaker is stored in two accumulators, one main and one back up. Each accumulator consists of a cylinder, a piston and pressurized Nitrogen. The energy for actuating the closing mechanism of the beaker is transmitted hydraulically to the rotating jack through the oil medium from the Nitrogen gas stored in the accumulators by partial expansion of the gas. The aeroshell oil is maintained at high pressure in the accumulators (300 to 350 KSCM). The pressure built by motor driven hydraulic pump in the accumulators. The Jack piston can be moved with high pressure by opening of hydraulic valves and letting in the hydraulic oil form the accumulator into the cylinder. This movement is utilized to operate the links so as to close the Circuit breaker contacts. During opening the high pressure oil acts on upper area of piston and opening stroke is obtained. Performance of the breaker tested with the following readings. 1. Pre inflated pressure / Tripping pressure Kg / CM2 2. Time taken by the pump motor to build up working pressure Sees 3. Pump motor stopping pressure Kg / Cm2 4. Steady working pressure Kg/ cm2 5. Pressure at which the low pressure lamp goes off kg/ cm2 6. Pump motor starting pressure Kg / cm2 7. Pressure at which the low pressure lamp comes on Kg/ cm2 8. Pressure observed after one closing Kg/ cm2 9. Dip in Pressure on closing the breaker Kg/ CM2 10. Time taken by the pump motor to build up this dip in pressure Secs. Operating Mechanisms Types of Operating Mechanism 1) Spring operated Mechanism 2) Compressed air Mechanism. 3) Hydraulic operating Mechanism. 4) Solenioid Closing Mechanism
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1. SPRING OPERATED MECHANISMS. General description The operating mechanism consists, in principle, of a battery of springs, which are charged by a motor (by hand cranking also) with gears and a control mechanism for carrying and opening operations. Maintenance a) General: Work on operating mechanism should be carried out only when the springs are in discharged condition and the circuit breaker in open position.Clean the operating mechanism whenever required and, if possible, twice in ayear. Pay special attention to the auxiliary switch contacts and the terminal blocks for any possible loose contacts etc.The operating mechanism is to be lubricated with recommended lubricants.The brand of inbricants, periodicity of lubrication and the parts that are to be lubricated are to be followed as per the maintenance manual of the circuit breaker. Check I.R. value of the motor and circuits once in a year. (b) Dash pots: Inspect aligment and adjustment of all dash pots, bumpers, and shock absorbers. Be sure dashpots and shock absorbers have the proper amount of suitable fluid and are free from binding.Dashpots, bypasses,and air valves should be free and adjusted so that they check mechanism movement before the opening stroke is complete and allow it come to its proper position without undue impact.Stops must be adjusted to provide the contect over travel when closing. c) Springs: Inspect all springs -bumper buffer, closing tail, accelerating and balance- for breakage, proper size and set replacing any with a permanent loss of tension or compression. See that all springstops are securely fastened and fubricated. Check for lost or missing springs. d)Slow motion check : See that all links and levers move freely. Operate the mechanism slowly by hand to see that all parts move freely and no undue friction is noticeable.Observe mechanism during several closing and tripping operations to see that everything is in working order. e) Latch: Check all pins, bearings and latches for binding and misalignment. Check latch carefully to see that it is not getting worn so as to unlatch from vibration or struck and fail to trip. f) Electical Operating Mechanism: The first step in checking the electric operating mechanism is to measure insulation resistance of the control cable, trip coil, and closing coil with a 500 V instument .Clean the DPST control switch and apply a little white Vaseline or oxide inhibiting grease to the control and hinge ends.Be sure that trip solenoid has a little free travel before striking the trip lever and a little over travel after engaging the
trip latch.Be sure there is a good connection from the panel to the ground wire.Clean and lubricate all bushings and bearings with oil or grease which will not freeze in winter. Clean the ground surfaces of all latches.Dirt or corrosion here will increase latch resistance and impede tripping. If the metal surface is uneven, polish with crocus cloth or fine emery but be careful not to alter the angle of the latch. Then coat the surface with a thin film of graphite or gun grease. Using the manual control lever, operate the electric mechanism slowly to see that all parts move freely.Do this first with the solenoid connected to the life rod linkage, then with it disconnected. The trip -free latch should reset as the mechanism passes the trip-free position.Check travel of the trip plunger making sure it is long enough to give positive tripping.Compare electrical and mechanical over travel against values given in the manufacturers instructions. g) Locking pins and plate: Check that all pins, locking plates, check nuts etc.,are in place and are properly tightened. h) Interlocks: Check all interlocks for proper action. i) Junction boxes: Examine all junction and conduit boxes for moisture. If it is present,retape connections with rubber and friction tape and apply a good coat of lacquer. To provide good ventilation,1|4 holes may be drilled in the bottom of wo or more junction boxes selected to give a natural circulation of air.Conduit covers should be replaced carefully, installing new gasket if needed. j) Cabinet heaters: Inspect heaters in the mechanism cabinet for loose connections, damaged insulation, or overheating. Turn the power on to see that they are operating correctly. Rust may indicate that they are not working.Heaters should be on at all times to minimise condensation. k) Operating counter: Check the operations counter to make sure it is operating correctly,that the numbers are in plain view,and that the linkage is properly adjusted.At the beginning, and end of the inspection, record the counter reading in the station log book and on the test sheet. l) Painting and partitions of cabinet: Clean and paint the inside of the mechanism housing.Excessive rust here may indicate that air vents are blocked, that new vents are blocked, that new vents or heaters are needed. On some old type breakers,a 1|4 hole may be drilled in the web on the bell crank housing to let water out. 2. COMPRESSED AIR MECHANISM (i) General Description: With suitable air compressed air is stored in air reserviour.This compressed air as utilised to operate the circuit breaker. A centralised air compressor which feeds compressed dry air for a maximam of
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about six breakers is installed in a few places.In certain other places unit compressed air plants are provided for each breaker. ii) Maintenance of compressor: Daily: a. Clean the compressor throughly. b. Check the oil level in the crank case.Replenish with the correct grade of oil if required. c. Check compressor belt tension. d. Drain water from the air receiver. Every 125 hours of Operation (a) Dismantle the suction filter and rinse in petrol or kerosine. (b) After thorogh drying,reassemble on the compressor. Every 500 Hours of Operation (a)The breaker valve should be dismantled,cleaned and checked for perfect seating of the valve. (b) Examine the lubricating oil in the sump-drain the oil if necessary and renew. (c) Dismantle the delivery unloader valve. All the parts are to be throughly cleaned and renew the worn-out parts. (d) Dismantle the solenoid valve.Examine the plunger, guide and O ring.Renew the spares if required. 3. HYDRAULIC OPERATING MECHANISM (f) General Description: Hydraulic drives are of high pressure,as high as 300 kgs |cm2.The hydraulic system generally consists of the drive cylinder,main value, accmulater and control unit. The operating force is produced by differential piston whose,smaller surface area is under constant hydraulic pressure.The larger surface is pressurised for closing and depressurised for tripping. ii)Maintenance: (a) Make a visual leakage check of the hydraulic system daily.Tighten or replace the oil seal wherever neccessary. (b) Check the oil level and its condition every 3 months.Fill in new and correct grade and filtered oil if required. 4. SOLENOID CLOSING MECHANISM (i) General Description: The closing energy is obtained from the electro mechanical force due to heavy current in the solenoid.Tripping spring is generally compressed during closing operation.This kind of mechanism is relatively simple in construction. (ii) Maintenance: (a) Voltage drop up to solenoid: Check operating voltage at the solenoid terminals with full operating current flowing to see that it is adequate for correct operation. (b)I.R Value: Check resistance and Insulation resistance of the solenoid coil. (c) Plunger Movement : Check plunger for stickness in guides.
(d) Fuses : Examine fuses on solenoid circuit. (e) Current : Check closing solenoid current. iii) Trip coil plunger : a) Observe operation during electrical tripping. Check that full energetic snappy action of the plunger is obtained. b) Check plunger for any stickiness. c) Check that the plunger has sufficient travel to assure an adequate impact that will positively release the breaker latch. iv) I.R. Value : Check resistance and insulation resistance of coil. v) Fuses : Examine fuses on trip circuit. vi) Control Relay or contacter : a) Mechanical movement Check mechanical parts for free movements. b.) Arc Chutes : Clean arc chutes. c) Contacts : Examine contacts and renew where necessary. d) Fuses : Examine fuses on control circuit. SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER Maintenance SF6 circuit breaker require very little maintenance. Involved are those parts which are subject to wear and ageing. The paint finish and degree of contamination of insulators should also be checked. Major Inspections Involving examination of Interruptor and electro hydraulic or pneumatic operated mechanisms require thorough knowledge of the maintenance instructions of the manufacturer and stocking of tools and spares. It is desirable that manufacturer is associated with such works. Inspection and Maintenance medium voltage SF6 Circuit breakers during Operation a. General All the inspection and mainterance service must be performed with the circuit-breaker open, the closing springs unloaded and the main and auxiliary electrical circuits disconnected. Failure to observe these rules could cause serious accidents for the operator. During normal operations the circuit breakers require very little maintenance. -The frequency of Inspection and maintenace service is tied, on the other hand to the severity of the operations. which in turn varies according to several elements such as: -Frequency of movements . -value of interrupted current. -power factor -installation environment.
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Conditions that may make more frequent maintenance necessary are : 1) Humidity at high ambient temperature. 2) Corrosive atmosphere 3) Excessive dust and dirt. 4) Frequent, heavy operation 5) Frequent interruptions for breakdowns 6) Plant-long in continual operation without the benefit of even limited inspection or maintenance. 7) Information obtainable from the history of previous inspections. These elements are so variable that it is not possible to give precise indications. In any case, the following rules are recommended. - equip the circuit breakers with movement-counters - circuit breakers that made only rare movements remain closed for long periods must be actuated from time to time to prevent the tendency to grip causing slower opening and closing speeds; -at least once during the first year of operation inspect the circuit-breaker and eliminate dust from the insulating parts. clean and lubricate the contact parts and the elements that transmit the pole shoe movement. - Later, based on information obtained during the fifth year of operation, increase the interval of time between inspections, if warranted; - If the installation position makes it possible, visual inspection of the circuit - breaker is advisable from outside during operation according to the program shown in Table 1 and a series of inspections according to the program shown in Table -2. b. Visual inspection program : To maintain the circuit breaker in good repair, it is recommended to follow the following chart : Table - 1 Inspection program for SF6 circuit breaker. Inspections Operating mechanism Trouble found Damage or loss of parts Accumulated dirt Does not correctly indicate the operation of the device. Excessive accumulation of dust and dirt Remedy Replace damaged or lost parts Clean off dirt Inspect, repair or replace movement - counter
Movement - counter
Medium - Voltage Portion
Clean the insulating parts removing the dust with a dry rag.
C. Inspection Program : To assure the satisfactory operation of the circuit - breaker it is advisable to inspect it periodically according to the following program :Table 2 - Inspection program Inspected Part Insulating resistance on pole (With megger) Prescribed Inspections and Troubles Check standard values; between main terminals and 2000 M (2500v) mass between main terminals and mass with breaker open 2000 M ( 2500v) Check for standard value of 2.4. kg / sq.cm at 200C or value recommended by manufacturer. Remedies Insulation drops noticeable due to accumulated dust. clean with a dry cloth restored.
Gas pressure in each pole (check required in case of pressure switch Intervention)
Restore to standard value with procedures outlined in manufacturers instructions.
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Main circuits
Lack of contact on parts of wiring .
Breaker circuits and are contacts Controls
Bad contact between the wiring and the terminals Dirt deposits, loose screws or nuts, damage or pIaces missing Dry open/close test 5 times repair.
Restore contact using the procedures outlined in manufacturers . instructions. Contact manufacturers .
Remove dirt. Tighten screws and nuts and replace damaged parts. Find nature of troubles, When mounting a new pole on the circuit breaker assembly, the above operations must be performed in reverse order. The electrical life of the circuit breaker depends on the devices used and is linked to wear on the arcing contacts, while the SF6 gas is not significantly altered following power - outs. The example of cumulative breaking current shown below corresponds to what has been verified in direct laboratory breaker tests without reconditioning and to the requirements of the ENELDY 1501 specifications: 4, breaks at 12.5KA + 12 breaks at 7.5 KA + 322 breaks at 3.7KA + 252 breaks at 1.2 KA The cycle described above corresponds approximately to 50 times the full break power, based on statistics for circuit-breaks in medium - voltage distribution plants in operation for at least 20 years. At the end of this test cycle, the device still represents a considerable reserve of electrical life, based on the wear to live parts. G. Mechanical life of the operating mechanism. See the indications in the instructions booklets. An inspection with lubrication every 5000 operations, or every 3 months, is recommended. Recommendations for use of SF6 gas in Medium - Voltage Equipment. a. Protective measures and their purpose In areas where equipment using sulphur hexafluoride as a means of arc-quenching is installed, special written instructions should be displayed for personnel that could be exposed to sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and its by-products of decomposition when operating the equipment. b. Preliminary considerations Sulphur hexafluoride, in its pure state, is an odourless, colourless, non-toxic gas with a density about five times that of the air. For this reason, though it produces no specific physiological effects, it could cause effects typical of oxygen shortage. Due to the effect of the electric arc, a small quantity of SF6 contained in the pole casing (a few % max) decomposes leaving both gaseous and powdery by-products with an acidic reaction and thus potentially aggressive. In a circuit breaker these decomposition products, which as we said are quantitatively insignificant, normally remain closed inside
d. Circuit-breaker life: The life of the circuIt -breaker depends mainly on the degree of decomposition of the SF6 gas, on the wear and tear on contacts due to operation and on the mechanical life of the operating mechanism. c. Gas decomposition An indirect indication can be obtained by measuring the Insulation resistance with Megger at 2500V between the terminals of the pole acceptable value 2000 M according Table 2. d. Wearing of contacts and breaker parts: The state of wear of the contacts can be detected in an indirect way by determining at What point the arcing contacts (fixed and moving) come in touch while the breaker is closing. For this operation the circuit - breaker must be closed very slowly, according to the following procedure. Applicable for a particular make of circultbreaker. (Refer to manufacturers instructions in respect of other makes) - With the circuit - breaker open and off line, insert a tester between the terminals of the pole to be checked. -Slowly rotate the external lever of the poles in a clockwise direction until contact is indicated by the tester, and note distance a in this Position. On a pole with new contacts, dimension a is about 8.5mm for 12-.24 KV breakers and about 13mm for 36 KV breakers (for a particular make of Circuit-breaker). With maximum acceptable pole contact wear, dimension a becomes about 22mm. Pole reconditioning is therefore required for greater values. In this event, it is advisable to have the other poles reconditioned as well. Since special precautions must be taken during reconditioning (absence of moisture Inside the pole and a suitable level of cleanliness of the Internal parts of the pole) manufacturers must be consulted. To replace the pole, first disconnect the main lines connected to the pole terminals and the sheathed auxiliary cables of the pressure switches and for the 500C Circuit -breaker version, the thermostat probe. then remove the safety ring between the shaft and the external pole lever, remove the 4 screws holding the pole to the base and pull out the pole.
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the sealed equipment and absorbed by special filters: The probabillty of contact with decomposed SF6 is extremely low as pertains to these events. c. Gas leaks There is no risk for persons since the quantities of SF6 are modest and decomposed even less. d. Opening the casing for maintenance Considering the long electrical life of the SF6 equipment, the event is extremely improbable. For MV Circuit breakers it in any case advisable to replace the breaker elements, since the operation is simple and rather infrequent. This maintenance service is really only probable for HV circuit breakers. e. Breakage of the casing Considering the pressures used and the dimensioning of the casing, this should be regarded as a highly improbable accidental event. Protective Measures and Procedures In order to prevent the modest risks connected with the use of SF6 in electrical equipment, It is advisable to comply with the following precautions and instructions: a. Make sure there is sufficient natural air exchange in the areas in which the equipment is installed. b. In the event the casings are accidentally broken, the presence of decomposed gas is perceptible even In extremely small quantities (1-3 ppm) because of its pungent. unpleasant odour, and the following procedure should be instituted. -thoroughly ventilate the area and, in the case of Installation in a protective or armoured cabinet,make sure there is efficient air exchange; open the cabinet only after the characteristic odour of decomposed SF6 is no longer Perceptible; -Wear protective rubber or plastic gloves and remove and powder that has escaped from the equipment using throw away rags; -Personal hygiene is important after these operations. Thorough washing with soap and lukewarm water is a sufficient precaution to aviod irritation of the skin and eyes. c. If the pole casings are opened for maintenance, it is advisable to follow the above Instructions after recovering the gas. Maintenance of EHV SF6 Circuit breakers Circuit-breakers require very little maintenance. Involved are those parts which are subjected to wear and aging. The paint finish and degree of contamination of insulators should also be checked. The following are the factors which govern the maintenance of the breaker: - Number of short circuit interruptions - Switching frequency and service conditions - Number of years of service Maintenance and inspection should be carried out in accordance with the inspection schedule. The servicing intervals indicated below are only
approximate and should be suitably altered to suit the operating service conditions. The inspection and servicing jobs have been divided into three groups . -Routine check to be made every 5 years: These checks contain jobs only to be done at earth potential. Draining of SF6 is not necessary. -Minor inspection after 1500 operations or 10 years of service; in the case where in breaker operates more than 1000 times a year, inspection should be carried out after a maximum 3000 operations. -Major inspection. After 3000 operations or 20 years of service. in the case of breaker operating more than 1000 times a year, inspection should be carried out after a maxium 6000 operations. The life of the contacts normally matches the life expectancy of the breaker. If the breaker performs the short circuit interruptions before the inspection becomes due. it is necessary to check the contacts in accordance with the inspection schedule and also after 3000 interruptions of normal rated current. Cricuit-breakers that made only rare movements and remain cIosed for long periods must be actuated from time to time to prevent the tendency to grip causing slower opening and closing speeds. Precautions to be taken Before starting work on breaker Carry out the following: -Isolate the breaker on both the sides. -connect the breaker terminal to earth -disconnect the auxIliary supply -reduce the oil pressure of electro hydraulic mechanism to zero by opening the pressure relief valve. If spring operated unload the closing spring. -transfer the SF6 to the maintenance unit and vent the breaker.If no maintenance unit is available allow the SF6 to escape. -Comply with all local safety regulations. General Instructions for maintenance All the specl pins. lock washers, spring washers of bolted joints should be replaced with new ones when they are opened for maintenance. All the gaskets, O -rings and rubber washers should also be replaced with new ones during reassembly. All the breaker parts dismantled for maintenance should be covered and, protected against ingress of dirt and moisture while reassembly is in progress. Small quantities of mettalic fluoride powder forms because of arc interruption of SF6 gas. This metallic powder when in dry state is insulating and harmless. However the powder is hygroscopic and in the presence of water vapour the dust forms a paste which is conductive as such this metallic fluoride powder should be cleaned with the help of a clean non fluffy cloth or a vacuum cleaner, as soon
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as the interrupter is opened for inspection and servicing to prevent the formation of conductive paste which is very difficult to remove. The cloth once used should be thrown into dust bin separate cloth should be used for each interrupter. During cleaning of the metallic fluoride gloves should be worn. Care is advised when working near the auxillary switches, and the piston rods of operating mechanism since any damage may cause leakage. For decaring and degreasing agents and special compounds to be applied during maintenance.
INSPECTION SCHEDULE Routine Inspection Minor Inspection Major Inspection 1.1. General Checks 1.2 Note the number of Make - and - break operations and any particular occurrences. 1.3 Check SF6 filling 2. 3. 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.0 Draw out the SF6 POLE COLUMNS Open all interrupter units and make a visual check of the contact system and the blast cylinder Check the sliding faces of the crosshead and the cou pling pins and bearings for signs of wear. Examine and clean the operating rod. Replace filters AUXILIARY SWITCH : Sparingly oil the bearings, examine and grease the coupling linkage. Fill in the SF 6 ELECTROHYDRAULIC OPERATING MECHANISM Carry out test operations. Make a visual leakage check of the hydraulic system. Check the oil level and its condition. Drain the oil and clean both the oil tank and the intake filter.
5. 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4
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Routine Inspection Minor Inspection Major Inspection 6.5 Examine the accumulator, the main valve and the operating cylinders 6.6 Fill in new oil 6.7 Check the priming pressure of nitrogen 6.8 Raise the oil pressure in the accumulator to the nominal level. Measure the current input of the motor at this pressure. 6.9 Carry out test operations 6.10 Operate the breaker at reduced operating voltage 6.11 Check the operating pressure of the safety valve 6.12 Check the inner sealing of the hydraulic system 7.0 Check the operating values of the SF6 density monitor and oil pressure monitors. 8.0 Check the breaker pressure gauge for SF6 and pressurised oil 9.0 Check the space heaters 10. Check the anti-pumping feature 11. Check all fully assembled breakers for SF6 leaks 12.1 Check that the external connecting leads are seated firmly. 12.2 Tighten the internal terminals 13.0 Check the paint finish and touch up where necessary.
Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCBs) Inspection Schedule Once a year, a general inspection should be carried out and if necessary the insulating parts should be cleaned with rag. More frequent checks may be necessary if the breakers are installed in a dust laden atmosphere. Breaker operating mechanism The operating mechanism should be oiled and lubricated every 10 years or after 10,000 operations whichever is earlier. Vacuum interrupters Replacing the interrupter is an exception. They may have to be replaced after 30,000 mechanical operations or when contacts have eroded by maximum amount and white dot marked (or coloured mark on burn off indicator in some makes) on moving contact stem of the vacuum interrupter is not visible in breaker closed condition. Use of contact burn off calipers is recommended in certain makes. For guide the following number of operations are given for life of interrupters of certain makes. Manufacturers instructions on paticular makes may be used. For a 36KV, 1250A, 25 KA - VCB 25 KA - 50 16 KA - 90 12.5KA - 225 1250 A - 20000 Normal Current - 30000 For a 12KV - 630A - 16KA - VCB Normal load 2.5 KA 8.0 KA 16 KA - 20,000 - 3,000 - 400 - 100
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Important Before starting any work on breaker isolate, short circuit and earth. Disconnect the auxiliary supply, open and close the breaker by hand until both closing and tripping springs are discharged. Inspections and repairs should be carried out by qualified fitters who are familiar with switchgear of this type with due reference to operating instruction. Only those lubricants, grease and corrosion protection agents recommended by the manufacturer shall be used. Contact resistance Check the contact resistance across the top and bottom pole supports after closing the vacuum interrupter through quick release of closing spring. The contact resistance should be around 15 to 20 micro ohms. This test is recommended as a bench mark while installing the new interrupter. Experience has shown that a degree of spread can be obtained in contact resistance measurements when the circuit breakers is closed, but these do not have the same degree of significance as in other types of circuit breakers. The results show that there is a tendency for the resistance to decrease as the switch is used. Any increase in the resistance figure does not indicate contact erosion as in most breakers and the fact that the contacts are in vacuum precludes the forms of deterioration which would take place in other media.
Check of Vacuum In respect of preservation of the vacuum, the vacuum interrupters feature high reliability. Consequently, checking the vacuum is not included in the mainenance schedule. Checking is advised only in the following cases:1. When it is suspected that the interrupter was damaged externally during transport or installation and 2. After the switchgear has been installed twenty years. Some manufacturers specify a routine maintenance check around once in 4 years, by one of the following methods: a) By mechanically pulling down the moving contact stem of the interrupter. If it moves freely it would indicate that the interrupter is full of air and hence lost vacuum. b) H.V. test- The high voltage test may be undertaken according to manufacturers instructions. Warning 1. On conclusion of this H.V. test bear in mind that the section of the vacuum interrupter may have been capacitively charged. Establish an earth before touching it. 2. Do not exceed the test voltage ratings because inadmissible high X-ray intensities could arise particularly at high d.c.voltages.
Inspection Schedule of VCBs Six months after commissioning and there after once a year General inspection; check tightening of bolts. Clean insulating parts with nonfluffy cloth. Check the mechanism stroke settings. More frequent inspection may be necessary if the breakers are installed on a dust laden atmosphers. Lubricate operating mechanism with approved lubricants. Ensure the coil fixing screws are fully tight and locked by lock - tight fluid. Replace vacuum interrupter as per manufac turers instructions.
Every 10 years or 10,000 operations
After 30,000 mechanical operations or when contacts have eroded a maximum amount Note:
It may be necesary in certain cases to equip the VCBs with surge absorbers to take care of current chopping effects.
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Check point for periodical inspection of VCBs

Sl.No Check point 1. Entire circuit Breaker Check Item Tightness of bolts and nuts Check Method By tightening them with screw driver and spanners Visual check Criteria There should not be any fast ener loosely tigh tened What to do Retighten the loose fastners properly Clean by compressed air flow. Also wipe the accessible components with a clean dry cloth. Remove cause and replace parts. Remarks
Dust and foreign matter
The breaker should be clean and there should be no foreign matter.
Deformation, excessive wear and damage. Lost or missing Parts
Visual check
Visual check
There should be no excessive wear or damage or deforma -tion. There should be no missing parts
Reinstate the missing parts to normal condition. Remove it by compressed air.
2.
Spring operated mech anism.
Dust and for eign matter
Visual check
There should be no dust or foreign matter accumulated on mechanism. Operation should be smooth All these points shall be well lubricated and rotating smoothly.
Smooth operation 1. Lubrication of bearing pin 2. Lubrication of bearing blocks. 3. Lubrication of breaker shaft ends 4. Lubriation of closing latch roller bearing. 3. Vacuum Interrupter Contact wear
Manual operation Visual check and feel
Apply proper grease to these points.
Visual check for Wipe length should Measurement be 3+ 0.5mm with the breaker closed.
Vacuum Pressure
If it is less than 1.0mm, replace the vacuum inter rupter. Replace the vacuum interrupter when Vacuum pressure is not sufficient.
4.
Auxiliary switches
Terminals
Tighten by screwdriver Visual check
There should be Retighten no loose connections There should be no damage and deformation. Replace if damaged
Case and contacts
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3. BATTERY AND ITS MAINTENANCE

I.Introduction: Lead acid storage battery is an electro chemical source of current (voltaic cell) that possesses the capacity of- accumulating and storing energy and supplying it as electrical energy. A battery consists of a set of cells, each set is capable of giving electricity at 2 V per cell. Each cell is having electrodes in the form of plates with terminals brought outside as positive and negative. They are immersed in an electrolyte consisting sulphuric acid diluted with distilled water. 2.Principle of operation : Electrolyte consists of water molecule and sulphuric acid molecule. The atoms of water molecule combine with the ions of a molecule of sulphuric acid. This leads to polar molecules of water callusing separation of molecules of sulphuric acid into positive hydrogen ions negative acid radical ions. H2 SO4 ------- 2H + SO4 As a result of this electrolytic dissociation, ions are formed in an electrolyte. Since the sum of charge carried by negative acid radical ions is equal to the sum of charge carried by positive hydrogen ions, the solution remains electrically neutral. Prior to discharge of any lead acid cell its condition is such that the active material of the negative plate will consist of spongy lead and that of positive will consist of lead peroxide. As a result of interaction of electrolyte with the atoms of lead of negative plate, some of the lead atoms become ionized and two charge positive ions of lead pass over into the electrolytic solution. This leaves the surface of the negative plate charged, with two electrons by each atom of lead that passes into solution. Therefore, negative plate becomes charged negatively in relation to electrolyte, similarly, the positive plate is charged with four charge positive ions of lead. When the plates are connected by means of some conductor, the cell begins to discharge. The electrons on the negative plate passing into conductor and forcing free electrons in the conductor matter into the positive plate. the positive ii) ns of the positive plate attract the free negative ions of the conductor. There is a flow of electrons from negative plate to positive plate and thus there is a flow of current from positive plate to negative plate. Each atom of lead of negative plate gives up two electrons. these two electrons pass into positive plate where they combine with the four charge ion of lead (Pb++) to become two charge ion of lead (Pb++). These two charge ion of lead enters into electrolyte reacts with two charge negative ion of acid radical (SO 4--) and from a molecule of lead sulphate. This lead sulphate is deposited in the form of small crystal on the positive plate. At the same time water is formed near the positive plate. the process is expressed a below:
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T & SS Training Institute, Madurai - 7
PbO2 + 4H+ + SO4-- + 2e - PbSO4 + 2H2 At the negative plate, as soon as the electrons move away from the negative plate a two charge, positive ion of lead which is near the negative plate combines with the two charge negative ion or an acid radical to form a molecule of lead sulphate. This is deposited in the negative plate. Pb++ + SO4-- - 2e- PbSO4 Thus carry two molecules of sulphuric acid, one molecule of lead peroxide and one atom of lead will produce on discharge, one molecule of lead sulphate on each plate and two molecules of water at the positive plate. the substance formed have a smaller reserve energy and hence formation of substances with lower energy level releases energy. Thus chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. During charging positive terminal of the source of electrical energy connected to positive plate of the cell and negative terminal with the negative plate. when negative source of electrical supply sends a current through the cell, electrons are moved out from positive terminal, the positive plate due to difference of electrons, the lead sulphate will undergo oxidation to lead peroxide as below: PbSO4 + 2H20 -2e- 4H++ + PbO2 + S04Simultaneously two electrons will move into negative plate and an atom of lead is formed as below: PbSO4 -2e- Pb + SO4-
The hydrogen ions of positive plate combine with sulphate radical and from molecules of sulphuric acid. Hence during charging the specific gravity of electrolyte increases and during discharge the specific gravity decreases. After all the lead sulphate is converted into lead peroxide and lead, it is called that the cell is fully charged. If the charging is continued, the electrical energy supplied to the cell will then be spent to dissociate the water into hydrogen and oxygen. 2H+ + 2e- 2 O--- 2e - O The dissociation of water is noticed by an abundant evolution of gas at both plates. This gassing or bubbling is a sign of completeness of charge. The above will explain the principle of operation of an lead 3.Components of lead Acid cell : a) Container: Jars of lead acid cells are made of ebonite moulded plastic, ceramics, glass and wood lined with lead sheet. Main criteria is that the container should be acid proof. Normally ebonite is made out of rubber 60% and sulphur 40%. Enough space will be left at the bottom for active material to fall down prevent it from touching the plates.
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b)
Cover: Cover will be made out of ebonite with three or four holes in it to take out positive and negative terminal. Vent for gassing and for pouring acid or distilled water to make up level and vent for fixing acid level indicators.
Electrolyte: Battery grade sulphuric acid at specific gravity 1200 is used. Battery grade sulphuric acid should have a purity of 99.94 percent at specific gravity of 1830 Kg/m3. Electrolyte of 1200 is prepared by having distilled water in a glass jar and pouring acid in small quantities stirring the electrolyte continuously. As heat will be generated during mixing, mixing should be done slowly, Water should not be mixed with acid. Distilled water used for preparation of electrolyte should have a pH value of 6.6. Chemically pure water will have a pH value of 7 and when it is less it is acidic and when it is more it is basic. distilled water prepared from DM water plant or distilled water plant alone be used (or batteries. It should be kept in a clean container with stoppers and handled in clean vessels kept separately for this purpose. Separators: To prevent buckling of plates, positive and negative plates are held together tightly. Separators are provided in between both plates. Separators should have insulating property porous enough to allow gas bubbles to pass through and inactive to acid and lead. Separators are made out of wood, hard rubber, glass fibre, micro porous plastic materials, perforated vinyl plastics and perforated allotted ebonite. Separators will be micro porous and also will have slot to permit gases to travel to the top of the plates. Bi-plast separators made out of vinyl chloride has been found to have sufficient mechanical strength, very high chemical stability and good electrical property. Perforated ebonite is also used as spaces along with other separators to enable large volume of acid to have access to plates. Felted glass fibre separators are used to prevent positive active materials from getting dislodged from plates. Positive plates are normally wrapped in glass fibre cloth and other type of separators are placed on sides. This prevents shedding of positive materials and hence enhances the life of the battery. Positive plates: Positive plates are made out of lead antimony alloy. They are moulded as grills with packet for holding active materials. Grills are moulded in steel form box with molten alloy at a temperature of 400 - 450C. The grills are filled with active materials prepared of lead powder and litharge. Expanders such as lamp black, oak flour, barium sulphate, cotton lines are added to avoid possibility of shrinkage and hardening. The plates are jointed together into a group by connecting the top of the plate by a bar and lug is taken out for terminal connections. After assembly, the positive plates are given treatment forn1ing and they become dark chocolate brown in color.
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Negative plates: Negative plates are also made in the same way but they will be lighter in design and will be filled up with sponge lead. Even lead plates are used as negative plates. Groups of negative plates are held together by a bar and terminal similar to positive is taken out. Positive and negative plates are held together closely to minimize the internal resistance of the cell. Positive and negative cells are interleaved with separators and spacers in between to prevent shorting of the battery. Further tight packing prevents buckling of the plates. Charging of batteries: Batteries are received in dry state. Battery when received is checked for any cracks in the container, damages to terminals, covers etc. The inside of the battery is cleaned well and removed, for dust by blowing air through a blower at slow rate. The cells are assembled as suggested by the supplier. Positive terminals of the next cell is connected to the negative of the cell and thus entire terminals arc connected. Before connecting the terminals are cleaned with sand paper or smooth file to remove the oxide coating. Then thin coating of Vaseline or petroleum jelly is applied and connectors are put and bolted together. Then acid of approved specific gravity pored in slowly in all the cells. The cells are allowed to absorb the acid for 12 to 24 hours. At the end of 24 hours charging is commenced. Before charging, the charge should be checked. The D.C. voltage of the charger should be that of battery. The charger is switched on after putting correct size of fuses. Positive and negative of the charger should be identified. If wires are connected to the terminals and positive and negative leads are put in water and kept at a short distance, say 50 mm active bubbling will occur, in positive and dull bubbling will be occur in negative. Positive and negative can be identified by connecting it to a moving coil voltmeter, if the polarity is wrong, the meter will kick reverse. Another way is to take a big potato and cut it into half. Insert the positive and negative leads 50 mm apart. When supply is switched on, the potato around positive terminal will charge brown due to the action of released hydrogen from the water in the potato with the carbohydrates of the potato. No such thing will occur in negative. After identifying the terminal, the positive of the charger is connected to positive of the battery and negative terminal of the charger to negative terminal of the battery. Charging should be done strictly as per the instructions of the supplier. The charger may be switched on and charged at the current specified by the supplier. Battery log book is opened and hourly readings of charging voltage, current are recorded. Every four hours voltage and specific gravity of the cells are noted. As there will be effective gassing in the cells, all the plugs of the cells should be removed to avoid development of pressure inside the cell. Fans in the battery room should be kept operating continuously. This is very important during the last phases of charging. The temperature of the electrolyte of the cells should be noted every hour and it should
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not exceed 40C because of danger of plate buckling. If is reaches, the charging should be stopped and cells are allowed to cool and then started. While nearing the completion of charge it is necessary to examine all the batteries and make sure that gassing begin simultaneously in all the cells and with the same intensity. Density of the electrolyte will rise slowly initially but rapidly at the end. When the battery is fully charge, the specific gravity would have reached 1200 to 1240 and cell voltage to 2.4 volts. When all the cells have reached this level it is allowed to continue for four hours then charging stopped. Charging should 15e done continuously without break unless for extraneous reason. When charging with M.G. set a reverse power relay should be provided to prevent running of the generator as motor or when A.C. supply fails or voltage goes down. After completion of charging, the cells should be cleaned well with cloth soaked in distilled water to remove all the acid particles settled on the cover and sides of the cells. Then first discharge is commenced by connecting the battery through a switch fuse, ammeter to a resistance box of micrometer or water rheostat or a battery of bulbs or carbon lamps. Discharge is adjusted according to the capacity of battery. Voltage, current, cell voltage, specific gravity are measured every 15 Mts. when the cells are reaching 1.8 volts and specific gravity 1700 to 1800. At this, stage discharging is stopped. The level of the electrolyte is adjusted by adding distilled water or acid according to the specific gravity of the acid in the cell to bring the level of the electrolyte to the same level and also specific gravity to same value. Then second charging is commenced in the same way as was done earlier and the battery is brought to full charge. Thus the battery is charged four times and discharged three times. During initial charging all the parts of the plates may not get full chemical reaction due to bubbling, un-equal acid specific gravity at various places, impurities in plates etc. To provide the plates uniform chemical transformation charging and discharging are repeated. Thus after three operation all parts of the cells would have received equal chemical reaction and buckling and shedding of plates will be minimum at a later stage. Trickle charging: A battery already in fully charged condition is maintained without deterioration by trickle charging. due to impurities in plates and surface leakage, the battery will be draining slowly and up to make up that, battery is charged at I mA per amp. hour of the battery. Also the charger will meet the continuous load of the battery. This will maintain the battery at fully charged condition. Quarterly quick charging: Once in every quarter, the battery should be a given quick charge at the rate specified by the manufacture till all the cells pass well and the cell voltage comes to 2.4 V to 2.6 V and kept at that level four to five hours.
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Battery room: Battery room should be well ventilated with good illumination and situated in such a location that no fumes can come into contact with any electrical plant. A cut out should be provided near the battery terminal to protect the battery from short circuit etc. Battery room should be provided with two number exhaust fans to exhaust fumes outside. Second one will act as stand by as acid fumes will affect the windings of exhaust fan and get repaired often. 2 Nos. Hydrometer, 2 Nos. thermometers, cell testing voltmeter, inspection lamp, rubber gloves, rubber apron
should be provided in the battery room. Cadmium test strip or rod should be provided in each battery room. This electrode is a round cadmium rod about 6 mm in diameter that is soldered to a copper rod. The end of the electrode is placed in a PVC tube provided with holes for the access of electrolyte. PVC tube will also prevent electrode coming in direct contact with plates. Before use cadmium electrode should be immersed in electrolyte with a density of 1200 to 1250. To measure the potential of the positive plates the cadmium electrode, connected to one of the terminals of the voltmeter is immersed in electrolyte, the other terminal of the v6ltmeter is being connect to the terminal pest of the positive plates of the cell. The potential of the positive electrode will be around 2.20 volts. The potential of the negative electrode is measured similarly and will be around 0.2V. The sum will give the total potential of the cell. INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF BATTERIES Battery should be inspected daily in open type cell with Glass container the following points to be observed. 1. Color and Touch of Plates : Positive chocolate brown Negative Bluish gray. Positive smooth greasy feels, negative smooth feel Neither should be harsh nor metallic under brand now. 2. Condition of plates such as crack, distortion, accumulation etc. 3. Outside of the cell container should always be kept class and dry. 4. Condition of the separator and container. 5. The level of the electrolyte should be maintained to the correct level. The cell should be topped up with distilled water only and while doing so, it is preferable to introduce water at a bottom of the cell by a rubber syringe so that it mat get well mixed. But the waste deposits settled at the bottom of the cell should not be disturbed. 6. The electrolyte should fully cover top edges of the plates otherwise the active materials of negative plate will oxidize intensively and sharp reduction in useful life of the battery
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7. Color of cell deposits and clearance between deposit and bottom edge of the plate to be observed. The deposit should be brown and not white. 8. Inter cell connections should be tight and should be without corrosion at points. Joints should be coated with a thin layer of Vaseline or white petroleum jelly to prevent corrosion. It is preferable to use lead strips for interconnecting the cell. 9. Correct voltage should be maintained by adjusting the trickle charger output. The voltage should be within 2.15 V to 2.3 V. The discharge should not be continued beyond the cell voltage of 1.85 V. 10. The specific Gravity is to be maintained at 1200 at 60 F. It should not be taken below 1185. Proper temperature correction is to be made to get correct value. Hydrometer of reputed make should be used to measure the specific gravity 11. If the battery is overcharged at results in unequal expansion of positive plate known as buckling and shedding of active material. Continuous under charging causes sulphation of plates (i.e.) Insoluble while lead sulphate is formed. If sulphation occurs, battery has to be put on charge till its specific gravity rises to normal. Repeated charging will be required to be given to non-metallic the battery. 12. Battery Room : (a) Should be well ventilated with good illumination and situated in such a location that no fumes can come into contact with any(electrical plates) (b) A output should be provided near the battery terminal to protect the battery from the short circuit (c) Naked flame should be taken into battery room. (d) Should be provide with exhaust fans to exhaust acid vapor etc. outside. (e) All wood work, and metal work, and walls should be coated with sold proof paint. (f) Direct Sunlight should not fall on the cells. The battery room should be clean and dry without dust. (g) Insulators of Glass or porcelain are inserted between the stand and battery to prevent Leakage of current. Beside there should be insulator between stand and flooring (h) 2 Nos. Hydrometer, 2 Nos. thermometers, cell testing Voltmeter. Rubber gloves, Rubber apron, inspection Lamp should be provided in the battery room.
TROUBLE SHOOTINGS Hydration : This is the action of water on lead plates. If a battery is exhausted to a point, where the electrolyte is practically water and charging is not given at once (or) if the plates are not entirely immersed in the electrolyte continuously. Hydration will set up as a white creamy substance spreading regularly over the plates. As soon as charging is given acid liberated from the plate attack the lead hydrate forming lead hydrate forming lead sulphate in a condition difficult to recover even by prolonged charging. Stratification: In this case a layer of strong acid lies at the bottom of the cell for lack of circulation. It causes the hydrometer reading to be misleading. It tends to irregular working of the plates. It could be overcome by circulation either thorough stirring up with a paddle or blowing up with an air pump.
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Impure Meter : Contamination of electrolyte by adding impure water is a common trouble. If the water contains lime this will crystalline some of the acid and reduce the specific gravity with a characteristic formation of lime crystal. If the water contains chlorine the positive plate will have depreciation. If the water contains iron this local action resulting in self discharging of the plate even when not doing useful work. Reversed Cell: Because of this the cell capacity falls lower and lower until its voltage falls to zero early on discharge for the reminder of the discharge it is recurring as charge in the wrong direction. The current in amperes discharging from the rest of the battery. For example if a battery be discharging at 20 Amps. And one cell falls to Zero Volts, the cell will be charged for the rest of the discharge at 20 Amps in the wrong direction. Reversed Battery : It is due to shear mistake or bad luck. It is to say if the negative instead of positive terminal of the battery is connected with the negative of the charger. Another possibility is the wrong coupling of row forming the complete battery. In most cases, the plates are ruined or initial charge of the battery is commenced and the fault discovered within 12 hours, than the plates may be recovered. If for a longer duration of charge, say, 50 hours, the positive plates will be
depreciated and negative plates be wrecked. Buckling due to continuous overcharging and sulphation due to continuous under charging with also take place. Weak Cells: Weak Cells should be immediately examined for any possible short circuit or metallic contact between positive and negative plates. Short circuit should be removed and the cell should then be given special additional charge by taking it out of circuit and putting back again after recharging. Continuous presence of a weak cell in battery may sometime cause the
individual cell to reverse its polarity. Rectification of weak cells in time is therefore important. The replacement of a weak cell or any maintenance of the station battery requiring disconnection of the cell should always maintenance of the station battery requiring disconnection of the cell should always be done by availing a total shutdown or suitable bypass clip on connection to short circuit the cell should be established before attempting to cutout the cell.
PROBLEMS IN BATTERIES Problems in batteries could be classified under the following categories : A. Positive : Buckling Sulphating Disintegrating Corroding Breaking up
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B. Negative : Paste blowing Premature gassing Paste shedding Paste sulphating Paste contracting Reverse polarity Hydration C. Positives and Negatives Sulphation Hydration Bad Color Sluggishness through (a) insufficient work. (b) insufficient charge Local action D. Electrolyte : Lower specific gravity Stratification Irregular specific gravity Impure Water Discoloration E. Connections : End or regulating Cells End cell lower in voltage than the remainder Inadequate Insulation Internal short circuits Weak Cells Reversed Cells Reversed Batteries ANNEXURE I Schedule of Maintenance Lead Acid Batteries Sl.No. 01. 02. 03. 04. Item of Maintenance Work Earth fault indicating device check reading of D.C. Voltage Pilot Cell Voltage specific gravity and temperature of electrolyte Battery cell voltages, specific gravity and temperature of electrolyte and cadmium test results Equalizer Charger Periodicity Every Shift Every Shift Weekly Quarterly or when the specific gravity falls by40 points whichever is earlier Annual Quarterly
05. 06.
Inspection testing of battery, relays, check up of instruments Checking control cables for continuity and insulation resistance
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ANNEXURE II Schedule of Maintenance Motor Generators Sl.No. 01. 02. Item of Maintenance Work Feel ball and roller bearing housing for evidence of vibration and listen for any unusual noise Examination and cleaning of commutator surface checking of brushes in holders for fit and free play and examination of brush faces for chipped toes Check coupling and other drive details. See if belt runs steadily and close to motor edge of pulley, clean inside of chain housing Field Rheostat Movement I.R. value of winding cleaning of surface and ventilation passages thoroughly Inspection of rotors and checking of air gap Periodicity Weekly Monthly
03.
Monthly
.04.
Yearly
04.
Yearly
MAINTENANCE OF BATTERIES MONTH Whether Monthly / Weekly* Maintenance done (Yes / No) W1 April May June July August September October November December January February March * Weekly for Lead Acid Batteries Monthly for Ni-fe Cells W2 W3 W4 Reason for Slippage Whether overhaul done as per Schedule (Yes / No) Reason for Slippage
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4. PROTECTION OF SUB STATION EQUIPMENTS

1. Over current relays Introduction: Short circuits in system or equipments use increase of currents. The shorted or faulty portion has to be isolated as quickly as possible. The over current relay which picks up with the Time dependent over current relays are used for primary protection of distribution feeders, rotating electrical machinery and transformers, also back up protection for highvoltage transmission lines. Protection requirements : For the protection of radial feeders and transformers no directional over current relays are used. For the protection of ring mains and grid feeders directional features are included for selectivity. The above relays have to operate for short circuits in its own section and provide back up protection to the next section. Fig., gives a radial System with source at A the relays at station A,B,C & D have to be set suitably such that only faulty section has to be isolated. In case if it is not cleared due to some reason, the adjacent section should be cleared. For a fault beyond station D only relay at station D should act and clear the fault. This selectivity between two stations or more is called gradation or discrimination. Types of relays: a) Attracted armature type: This will pick up instaneously when the value of current increase the set value. With the help of these relays and pick up value adjusted at various sections, the gradation could be made and are called current gradation relays, there is difficulty in action these relays. If there is a fault between BC near B the relay at section A may also pick up as there will be no difference in the fault current. Further the magnitude of the fault current cannot be accurately determined because of its dependent on fault MVA. Hence these relays are used only at locations where the time lag is not desirable. (Fig.2) b) Definite minimum time relays: This is a combination of attracted amature current relay and a time delay relay the currtent relay is set to pick up for the minimum fault MVA and on its pick up this energises a timer which is set for a definite time delay for isolation. With this definite delay at various sections as shown in Fig.3 gradation could be made between two sections. A time delay of 0.5 sec. has to be allowed between two sections for selectivity (discrimination). Due to this the fault close to source is cleared with longer time delay. Hence this is also generally not preferred except under special conditions. c) Inverse definate minimum time relay: The current time characteristic of this type of relay is given in fig.4. the time of operation is less when the current increases and after a cetain value the time is constant, the characteristic could be divided into 3 parts. The first portion takes care of pick up, the second portion inverse characteristic and the third definite minimum time. This is achieved by means of induction type disc relays which inherently provides this inverse characteristic. These type of relays are largely used for both over current and Earth fault protection. Induction disc type extremely inverse and very inversed relays are also available for use at specific locations. Fig.5 gives the internal connection of a inverse relay. In these relays there is feasibility to select the plug settings and time settings for wide ranges. The plug settings for selecting the pick up current of the relay. The time multiplier setting is in the form of an adjustable back stop by which the gap between the back stop and moving contact fixed in the disc is adjusted. Method of connection: The relays are connected to C. Ts. as shown in Fig.6. Separate relays are used for phase fault and earth fault protection. Separate earth fault relays are required because they can be adjusted to provide faster and more sensitive protection for ground faults than phase faults as earth faults are more frequent. Relays used for various equipment in TNEB are as follows. I. Transformers : H.T.2 O/L & 1 E/L L.T.3 O/L . 2. Auto transformers : H. T.3 O/L L.T.3 O/L 3. Radial feeders : 2 O/ L & 1 E/L or 3 O/ L & 1 E/L 4. Grid feeders and ring main : Directional 2 O/L & 1 E/L Settings: For over current relays current taps are selected to allow maximum current safety. The time settings are such that the fault in the section protected clear fast with back up protection to adjacent lines or equipments. For this a time difference of about 0.5 sec. is required between the two adjacent sections to allow for the following: a) Fault interrupting time of the circuit breaker: This is about 0.25 sec. The relay will be in pick up condition with the breaker clears the fault. b) Over shoot or travel: The relay overshoot occurs due to continued movement of relay elements even after the actuating force is removed. This occurs due to the inertia of moving parts on the time allowable is about 0.1 sec.
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c) Errors: All measuring devices such as C. T. and relays are subjected to some errors. To allow for this an additional factor of safety margin is allowed with a time of about 0.2 sec. For earth fault relays sensitive settings could be set as the earth fault relay measures only the residual current which is independent of load currents, the earth fault relay is unaffected by load currents. This permissible low setting on earth fault relays are very useful as the fault current could be limited in magnitude by various methods. Normally for reutral grounds system of TNEB 40% settings are invariably adopted. The time gradation is similar to over current relays. Directional over current and Earth fault relays: When there is feeding at both ends such as in grid feeders and ring main stations, directional O/ L & E/L relays have to be used. For this purpose additional directional feature is included which is controlled by both current and voltage. Differential Protection Introduction: Differential relays are current relays in which the magnitude of current and vector difference between current entering and leaving are compared and is used for operation of relay. The differential relays are employed where fast clearance of faults (instantaneous) are required. These relays are used for protection of 1. Generators 2. Generator -transformers 3. Transformers 4. Transmission lines by Pilot wires 5. Bus bar protection Principle of operation: The differential protection operate on current balance principle. Referring to Fig.7 the current incoming and outgoing is balanced and there is no circulation of current through the relay for fault outside. For a fault inside, the current circulate in the relay and relay operates. However this scheme will be affected by magnetising current, and through fault
currents not balanced due to C. T. ratio mismatch and tap changing.These mismatches met cause unbalance and the relay may act. There will be in rush of magnetising current during charging and due to presence of 2nd harmonics, the relay may act. Thc design of over all scheme must take into account of the above aspects. For this purpose a biased harmonic restraint differential relays as shown in Fig.8 are used for transformer protection. Biased differential relay: The circuit for a biased differential relay is shown in Fig.8. The biased winding provides restraint force under which fault condition so that any unbalanced current may not cause the operation of the relay. During internal faults the whole of the secondary current will pass through the relay operating circuit. From Fig.8c it is seen that the current required to operate the relay increases with increase in spill current during through fault. For internal fault the relay operates at the point where both curve crosses. Harmonic restraint: When transformers are energised there will be inrush of large magnetising current. There will be presence of harmonic components, mostly of 2nd harmonic. Due to this the differential relay may pick up. To block tripping, the 2nd harmonics have to be filtered out. Points to be considered when applying differential protection in 3 phase transformers: a) The C. T. secondary connections must be arranged such that any phase shift due to the vector group of the main transformer is compensated. b) The C.T. ratios must be chosen to suit the main transformer ratio. c) The setting currents should be well above the anticipated spill current during external fault conditions. Diagram currents should be well above the anticipated are given in Fig.9. The internal diagram of a biased, harmonic restrained relay is given in Fig.10.
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+ Trip
A.C.
A.C.
INTERNAL CONNECTION OF O./ L RELAY
3 O./ L. RELAY CONNECTIONS.
3 O./ L. & 1 E./ L. RELAY CONNECTIONS.
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Fig .5 C. 2/OL and 1 E.L. Relay connection.
Fig 7.B. Current balance Scheme.
Fig 8. Biased Differential Relay

Relay Operating Current Current Available
ired
Ope
rati
ur gC
ren
qu t Re
Relay Operating Current
Cur pill
ren
Primary Current T - Transformer B - Biased Winding
Primary Current O - operating Coil
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Current Required to Operate

60 / 1 A
110 / 11 KV 10 MVA, 600 / .577 A
Auto Transformer
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FIG . 5a. Permissive inter trip over reaching scheme.
FIG . 5b. Acceleration scheme.
FIG . 5c. Blocking scheme.

- 55 T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
Z1 - Zone I Contact Z2 - Zone II Contact Z3 - Zone III Contact & Starter 2T - Zone II Timer 3 T - Zone III Timer TR - Tripping Relay RR - Receive Relay S - Signaling send circuit 2R - Reverse looking impedence relay STL - Short Time lag relay.
Fig : 5, Transfer Trip Scheme (Under Reaching)
Fig :5 Permissible inter Trip (under Reaching Scheme.)
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Distance Protection General: In the past when the systems were small and where radial feeders were adequate, instantaneous over current and earth fault relays were evolved. As the system grew complicated IDMT Relays were developed to provide better discrimination than the instantaneous relays. Later they were made directional to give still better discrimination. The above relays except directional were single quantity. Current or voltage operated are provided reasonably sufficient discrimination. At times for short periods, the transmission lines have to be overloadcd due to system disturbance or to meet short peaks. Hence relays to discriminate between over loads and faults were investigated and a relay where both current and voltage are used to measure the impedence of the line. This is the beginning of the distance relays. Requirement of protective schemes: The protective scheme should be fast enough for the following reasons, a) The shorter the time a fault is allowed to persist the more load can be transferred in a power system without loss of synchronism. b) Elcctrical apparatus may be damaged if they are allowed to carry fault current for long period, c) A persistent fault will lower the voltage resulting in drawing and over loading of industrial drives, One method of protecting a circuit is to arrange the relay to compare the currents entering and Ieaving such as differential protection (unit protection). With the help of pilot wires this can be achieved in case of transmission line also, but is limited by the distance and cost involved and also reliability of pilot wires. Due to the above reasons and also practical limitation of time graded over current system, the distance relays were developed. Principle of operation: A distance relay compares the local current with the local voltage at the relaying point, the local current providing the operating torque and the local voltage providing the restraining torque. So at balance point two torques are equal, K1 I2 = K2V2 or V K3 = Z I In other words the relay is at the verge of operating for a constant value of V / I which is an impedance Z. Since the impedance is proportional to distance of the fault from the relaying point. This is also a measure of the distance to the fault, the relay is called distance relay . A simple example of how the current and voltage compensation is made is given in fig.1 using balanced beam relay, The relay is connected at position R and normally receives secondary current proportional to load current and secondary voltage proportional to system voltage. During fault condition, the relay measures VF which is equal to IF ZF
drop in the line and therefore the voltage to current ratio at the relaying point for such a fault would be IF ZF IF = ZF Type of distance relay and their application: The distance relays are classified according to their polar characteristic, the number of inputs they have and the method by which comparison made. The common type compare two input quantities in either magnitude or phase to obtain characteristics which are either straight line or circles when plotted on an R-X diagram. Impedance Relay: The characteristic of an impedance relay if plotted on a R-X diagram would be a circle within the origin as the centre and radius equal to the setting impedance Z. Fig.2a such a relay being non-directional would operate not only for faults in the protected section but also for faults behind the relaying point. It is therefore necessary to add a directional element to this impedance relay to so that the relay would operate for faults in the protected scction only. The torque equation for the dire ctional element is T = KIVI cos ( -0) when = phase angle between V & I. Q = Max torque angle of the relay. Reactance relay: A reactance relay measures component of impedance Z sin and would operate for a constant value of X. The operting characteristic of such a relay would be a straight line parallel to x -axis fig.3. It could be seen that the reactance relay is also non-directional and hence a directional relay is used with a reactance relay. MHO Relay: This is most commonly used relay as a directional relay. The relay is designed such that it operates for a constant value of component Z namely Z cos ( -Q) The characteristic of such a relay is a circle passing through the origin, the diameter circle is the setting impedance Z/Cos (-Q) fig. 3a. Starting relay: Distance relay need a starting relay to sense the fault and pass on this information the measuring element. There are either over current or under impedance relays. Over current starting : Over current starting relays generally of instantaneous type normally set above 1.2 times the full load current. For successful operation, the power system minimum fault current for a fault at 3rd zone reach of the distance relay must not be less than
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1.5 times the setting of the over current starters. Under Impedance starting : There are either plain impedance or MHO type impedance relay. These relay should be sensitive enough to detect faults occurring beyond third zone under minimum generation condition. The starting relay in addition to sensing the existence of fault thc type of fault should also perform the following: a). Apply correct quantities to the mea suring element. b). Select the correct phase for the tripping command. c). Change the distance step according to the distance of fault from the relay location. d) Act as a back -up to the measuring element. Zone of protection: To ensure correct co-ordination between distance relay in a power system it is customary to choose a relay impedance setting of 80% of protected line for the 1st zone. This is to provide a margin against possible over reach which may be caused by transients C.T.P.T. and line parameter errors. The II zone covers the whole Iine plus 50% of the shortest Iine. The III zone is set to cover 25% of the largest 3rd line. The II & III zones are time delayed depending upon the system requirements fig. 4. Theoretically four fault detectors and 18 measuring units are required for providing three time distance step for the 10 varieties of phase to phase and phase to ground faults. Because of the cost and panel space, their number is reduced by using each measuring unit for more than one purpose. a) There can be only one distance measurement unit directional in itself for all kinds of fault, the correct parameter being feed by the starting relay. The tripping time of such relays will be more due to the time delay involved in switching the auxiliary relays to feed the measuring quantities to the measuring elements. b) There can be several distance measuring elements six relays, eighteen measurements no change is made in the input quantities in the 1 or any subsequent steps for such a system. The system however very expensive and is recommended for EHV lines only. The number of relays through six is generally used can be reduced to four, three are connected for all faults involving to ground and one relay for phase to phase faults not involving ground by choosing appropriate measurement.
Out of step blocking: During power swing conditions, the load Impedance may fail to the reach of the starting relay which may cause tripping. This has to be blocked. An out of step block relay or power swing relay is also a MHO relay with an offset characteristic completely cnclosing the MHO starting relays. It operates on the principle of rate of change of impedance presented to the relay, the rate of change of impedance is considerably slower than under fault condition. This relay when it picks up will allow the tripping for a period of say 80 milli seconds. If within this period the impedance as seen by the fault detectors falls with their reach, indicating a fault the trip circuit is kept prepared for tripping. Otherwise the trip circuit is disconnected after 80 milli seconds so that the tripping is not possible. Carrier Inter trip schemers: It could be seen that in the distance scheme, the faults at the end zones are cleared with a time delay of about 0.4 sec. In case of long lines say of about 100 KM the faults in 40 KM are cleared with time delay. To minimise the damage to equipments it is necessary that faults are cleared as fast as possible further it may be necessary to reclose the circuit as quickly as possible to keep the system standard for successful reclosing the breakers at both ends should open simultaneously. For this carrier aided inter trip schemes are provided along with distance schemes. Some of the carrier inter trip scheme are given in Fig. 5a, 5b, 5c, 5d & 5e. Protection of power transformer Introduction : Protective gear is applied to transformers to detect internal faults and the conditions likely to cause them. Transformer faults are generally caused by the failure of insulating materials weakened by impurities, over heating, or mechanical damage resulting from repeated external short circuits. The risk of short circuits between phases is very small, but there is an almost equal risk of inter turn fault is closed to a line terminal. Transformers are generally protected externally to approximately 80 per cent of their specificd insulation level, and failure of this external protection can allow steep fronted voltage surges, which may create high stress between parts in the winding, to enter the transformer; less severe stress occurs some way down a star connected winding where the incident wave coincides with that portion of the wave reflected from the neutral point. Although the surge condition is more likely to initiate a fault between parts of the winding, then an earth fault, the follow through power frequency current may eventually cause a fault to earth. Faults in on load tap changing equip ment can be between tappings of the transformer winding between phases and to earth.
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2. Over heating protection: Overheating is due to exccssive loading, failure of the cooling system of core faults e.g. short circuited laminations persistent over heating causes premature deterioration of the insulation and there by shortens the life of the transtormer. Overheating is detected by measuring the oil temperature the thermometers may be of the hydraulic type (mercury-in-steel) vapour pressure, or liquid-expansion patterns using a Bourden (tupe indicator), or of the electrical-resistance type. They are arranged to record the highest oil temperature of winding hot spots. To take advantage of the short time over load capacity of transformer the themometers are designed with a thermal time-constant similar to that of the windings. Figure 1 shows a Bourden, the gauge with its bulb in an oil filled packet at the top of the transformer tank. With indicators for hot spot temperature measurement, a heater, energised from a phase etc., is also mounted in the pocket. The thermometer thus measures top oil temperature plus an increment proportional to the load. By design this increment is arranged to be the same as the difference between top oil temperature and that of the winding hot spot. The indicator is generally fitted with mercury switches to give an alarm at say 90C and to trip the circuit breaker if the temperature rises, any another, 15C. Over heating protection is usually fitted to, medium and large size transformers. 3. Buchholz relay: Buchholz can be used on transformers fitted with conservators. Transformer temperature indicator
1. Bourden take indicating instrument 2. Alarm 3. Trip 4. Capillary tube 5. Oil filled pocket 6. Thermometer bulb, 7. Heats. 8. Main Tank 9. CT around one phase conductor 10. Mercury switches
The action of a fault with in a transformer tank is to break down the oil into gaseous products, the gas passes along the pipe line from the transformers tank to the oil conservator. The severity of the fault governs to the rate of gassification; for instance, incipient and low current faults produce a stream, of gas bubbles which flow towards the conservator, whereas a severe short-circuit causes a sudden surge of oil followed by the exhausting of the gaseous products. This action is used to operate the Buchholz relay. The most common form of the relay is shown in figure 2. A chamber containing two floats, each carrying a merury switch is mounted in the inclined pipe line between the transformer tank and the oil conservator. Gas rising to the conservator lodges in the upper part of the relay vessel, and when a given quantity has collected the upper float will have fallen sufficiently to operate the mercury switch to give an alarm. The reason for an alarm rather than tripping is two fold; firstly, the condition on giving rise to slow generation of gas do not generally call for immediate disconnection of the transformer, and secondly, the release of trapped air also operate the upper float. False alarm from the later cause are most likely when the transformer is first loaded after filling or refilling with oil, an oil surge, indicating a severe fault, deflects the lower float and the mercury switch connected there to trips the transformer circuit breaker. The Bucholz device is the only method of detecting certain types of fault It is particularly useful to detect incipient winding faults, failure of laminations and core bolt insulation, and inter turn shorts to other forms of protection. The speed of operation of the relay on surge obviously varies according to the severity of the fault. For a fault some distance down the winding it my below (0.5 sec), but for terminal faults it may be as high as speed of differential protection. Evidently faults in the connecting Ieads external to the transformer and in tap change compartments and the like which do not communicate with the main tank are not covered by the Buchholz relay, Where transformers are not fitted with a conservator the Buchholz relay is in appIication. Hermitically sealed transformers are common in the United states. The American practice is to fit these with hydraulic relays which respond to the rate of change of pressure in the gas cushion above the oil. 4. Faults In the Auxiliary units: Faults are classified under two ideas. a) faults in the auxiliary equipments. b) Faults in transformer windings and connections. Transformer oil Level : Low oil level is dangerous condition. Alarm is provided by float switch. The magnetic oil level gauge is used for this purpose.
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Oil pumps, forced air fans : Alarms are provided for their failures. Flow indications : Alarms are also provided for the failure of oil flow, water flow indicated by flow meters. 5. Earth Faults : Current distribution for earth faults with various tansformers varies with the type of connection. The fault current varies from a minimum to a maximum depending upon the location of fault in the winding from neutral end. Therefore the phase connected over current relays do not provide adequate earth fault protection. If the system is solidly earthed some transformer differential protective equipments adequately covered the majority of faults, but in general separate earth fault protection is necessary. a) Frame leakage protection : Earth faults with in the transformer or tap changer tank may be detected by a frame leakage scheme. In British practice this protection is only used to indicate a faulted unit in a bank of paralleled transformer. The transformer tank is lightly insulated from the earh. The metal-frame work is earthed with a primary of a e.t. in between as shown in figure -3. The concrete foundation of the tranformer and the cable boxes are slightly insulated from the earth, the resistance to earth being about 12 to 20 ohms. In the event of an through the primary of the c.t. while so it is sensed by the earth fault relay. Principles of frame - leakage protection of transformer b) Restricted Earth fault protection : Restricted earth fault protection is sensitive only to earth faults with in the zone bounded by the C.Ts. A C.T. is fitted in each connection to the protected winding, and the C.T. secondary windings are connected in parall to relay. Fig.4 shows restricted earth fault protection of star and delta windings. If there is no neutral earth connection with in the protected zone, the neutral C.T. is omitted as in figure (4b). The outputs of the C.Ts. is proportional to the sum of the zero sequence currents in the line and neutral earth connection if the latter is within the protected zone. For internal faults this sum is equal to twice the total fault current but for external faults zero sequence currents are either absent or sum to zero in the line and neutral earth connections. c) Methods of treating three phase four wire system. Figure : Restricted earth fault protection. or sum to zero in the line and neutral earth connections. The primary operating current (P .O.C.) required is governed by the method of system earthing and the transformer connection. With a star con-
nection is not possible to protect the whole winding because the fault current tends to zero the nearer the fault is to the neutral point. The P.O.C. of 10 percent leaves 10 percent of the winding unprotected, the lower the P .O.C. there greater is the portion of the winding protected, but it must not be so low that operation by the unbalanced capacitance current of the circuit occurs within the protected zone on the incidence of an earth fault elsewhere in the system. For earth faults on a solidly earthed star winding a P.O.C. of 50 per cent of full load is generally adequate. 6. Over current relays: Although phase connected over current relays do not adequately protect transformers against earth faults they are suitable for phase faults protection, provided that thc relatively low speed of operation can be tolerated and that they discriminate correctly with other relays. Differential protection is generally uneconomical for power transformers below about 5 MVA. For transformers above % MVA, if differential protection is used as a main protection, over current protection is used in addition, as a back up for sustained through faults. For small transformers, over current protection may be provided simply by means of a fuse on H. V. side. The connections for over current protection is shown in figure t.
Three over current relay Fig.5. While selecting the over current protection of transformer the following aspects need consideration: a) Magnetising current in rush: IDMT relays are not affected by the current in rush as they have enough time lag. Instantaneous over current relays should be high set to avoid mal operation. b) The fault current in primary and secondary side of the power transfonners are different for phase faults. Lower value should be selected for setting of over current relays. c) Primary full load current should be considered while setting the over current relay. d) The setting of IDMT over current relay is generally 125 percent of transformer rating to take care of normal over loads. Enough time delay should be provided as per the application.
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A B C A B C
Relay a) Neutral point earthed within protected Zone.
Relay
Earthing Transformer
Relay Relay a) Neutral point not earthed within protected Zone.
Relay
c) Method of treating three phase four wire system, Figure. restricted earth fault protection or sum to zero in the line and Neutral earth Connections.
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e) The setting of instantaneous over current relay on primary side should be more than asymmetrical value of fault current for three phase fault, on the secondary side of transfonner. This setting is generally adequate to take care of magnetising current in rush. 7. Differential Protection :It is also called as Biased Differential protection or Merz price protection. a). Principle of Differential Protection : It is that which responds to the vector difference between two or more similar electrical quantities. In transformer protection, the current transformers are provided at each end say H.V. and L.V. bushings. When there is no fault in the windings and for through faults, the differential current I1 - I2is zero vide fig.6 i.e. when there is no internal fault, the current entering is equal in phase and magnitude to current leaving the winding. The C.Ts. are of such a ratio that during the normal conditions for external faults leaving the winding. The C.Ts are of such a ratio that during the normal conditions for external faults (through faults) the secondary currents of C.Ts are equal. These currents say I1 and I2 circulate in the pilot wires. The polarity connections are such that the currents I1 and I2 are in the same direction in pilot wires during normal conditions or external faults. Relay operating coil is connected at the middle of pilot wires.
it is not possible to connect the relay coil to the equipotential points, this difficulty is overcome by connecting adjustable resistors in series with the pilot wires. They are adjusted on site to obtain equipotential points. 2. C.T. Ratio errors during short - circuits : The current transformer may have almost equal ratio at normal currents. But during short circuit conditions, the primary currents are unduly large. The ratio errors of C.Ts on either side differ during these conditions due to : i) Inherent difference in C.T. characteristics arising out of difference in magnetic circuit, saturation condition etc., ii) Unequal d.c. components in the short circuit currents. 3. Saturation of C.T. magnetic circuits during short circuit condition: Due to these causes the relay may lose its stability for through faults. To over come this difficulty, the percentage Differential Relay, or Biased Differential Relay is used. It is essentially a current balance type differential relay with additional restraining coil. The current flowing in the restraining coil is proportional to (I1 +I2 )/2 and this restraining current prevents the operation during external faults. Bccause with the rise in current, the restraining torque increases and I1-I2 arising out of difference in C.T. ratio is not enough to cause relay operation. 4. Magnetizing current inrush in transformer while switching in : When the tranformer is connected to supply a large (6 to 10 times full load) current in rush takes place. This certainly causes operation of differential relay though there is no fault in the transfonner. To avoid this difficulty, Harmonic, Restraint is provided for the differential relay. This relay filters the harmonic component from the Inrush current and feeds it to the restraining coil. The magnetising current contains a large content of several harmonics. This harmonic content is used for obtaining restraining torque during short switching in of transformer. Tap changing causes change in transformation ratio of a transformer thereby the C.T. ratios do not match with the new settings, resulting in current in pilot wires even during healthy conditions. This aspect is taken care of by biased differential relay. 5. Biased or percentage Differential relay : a) Description: The reason for using this modification of differential relay is to overcome the trouble arising out of differences in C.T. ratios for high values of external short circuit currents. The percentage differential relay has an additional restraining coil connected in the pilot wire as shown in figure 7.
(Normal Conditions and Trough fault) Fig.6 Principle of differential relay price protection of transformer. During normal conditions and external fault the protection system is balanced and the C.Ts. ratios are such that secondary currents are equal. These currents circulate in pilot Wires. Differential Current I1 - I2 which flows through the relay coil is zero. I1- I2 = c (normal conditions or external fault) This balance is disturbed for internal faults when fault occurs in the protected Zone, the differential current I1 -I2 flows through the relay operating coil and the relay operates if the operating is more than the restraining torque. b) Difficulties in differential relays in Generator and Transformer protection. 1. Difference in pilot wire lengths : The current transformers and machine to be protected are located at different sites and normally
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Protected Zone Ampere Turns (I1 + I2) n 2 I1 I1 I2 I2
Restraining coil at biased coil Fig.7 percentage differential relay In this relay the operating coil is connected to the mid point of the restraining coil. The total number of ampere turns in the restraining coil becomes the sum of ampere turns in its two halves I1N/2 +I2 N/2 in N turns. For external faults both I1 and I2 increase thereby the restraining torque increases which prevents the mal-operations. The operating characteristic of such a relay is given in Fig.8. The ratio of differential operating current to average restraining current is fixed percentage. Hence the relay is called Percentage Differential Relay. The Relay is also called Biased Differential Relay because the restraining coil is also called a Biased coil as it provides an additional Flux.
Relay operates in this Region
with respect to load currents on H.V. side are displaced in phase with respect to load currents of corresponding phase on L.V. side. The power transformers are ground according to the phase displacement, e.g.
Group I : Star, Star phase displacement = 0 Group 2 : Star, -Star, phase displacement = 180 Group 3 : Delta -Star, Phase displacement = Minus 30, Group 4 : Delta -Star, Phase displacement = Plus 30
Chore
effect of spring
Relay does not operate in this Region
I1 - I2 resticing 2 current
Average
Fig.8 Operating characteristics of percentage differential relay or biased differential relay. The percentage or biased differential relay has a rising pick up characteristic. As the magnitude of through current increases, the restraining current increases. 6. C.T. connections for differential relays: I) In both the cases three current transformers (C, Ts.) are required at each side of the protected transformer. The connection of C. T. secondaries are such that during normal conditions and for external faults, no current should flow through the relay operating coil. There is an inherent phase displacement between vectors representing the voltages inducted in high voltage winding and low voltage windings and having same marking Ietter and corresponding neutral points in case of star delta transformers. Hence
In thc circulating current differential protection, the phase displacement in line currents on two sides introduces phase difference in secondary currents of C.Ts. on two sides. The C.T. connections should be such that the resultant current fed into the pilot wires from either sides are displaced in phase by an equal to the phase shift between the primary and secondary currents to get this arrangement, the following rules are followed : 1. Secondary C.Ts. Connection in delta side of power transformer are connected in Star, with such arrangements, the phase displacement between currents gets cancelled with the phase displacement due to Star/Delta connections of C.T. Secondaries and the current fed to pilot wires from both sides are in phase during normal conditions. 2. The neutrals of C.T.Star and Power transformer star connections are grounded.
Differential operating current I1 - I2
C.T.Ratios: Current ratios of C.Ts. on each side will be different depending upon line currents of power transformer and connections of C.T. ratios. The currents fed into pilot wires from each end should be the same for normal conditions. Suppose this current is 1 Amp., then secondary current of delta connected C.T. will be 1/3 = 0.577 amps and Star connected C.T. will have 1 Amp. The Star - Star transformers come under group 1 or group - 2, having phase displacement of 00 or 1800 respestively. The C.T. secondaries on both sides are connected in delta.
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5. OPERATING INSTRUCTION FOR RADIAL SUBSTATION

Operating instruction are the guidelines for the substation operators. The main objective of the operating instruction is to give a definite direction to the operator to act in a quick and methodical way by following the sequence and correct procedure under the following circumstances.
a)
In case of a planed operation such as issue of line clear on lines and availing of shutdown on equipments etc.,
b)
In case of emergent circumstances such as breakdown of lines and failure of equipments in order to isolate the faulty section of lines or equipments immediately and to restore early supply with minimum interruption. Since during these operations the operator become nervous and acts with tension.
i)
It relieves the operator from tension and if he follows the sequences of operation, wavering of mind is avoided.
ii)
It avoids mal-operation thereby safe guard the equipment from failure damage.
iii) iv)
It reduces interruption of supply. It gives coordination among various persons involved in the same substation and the nearby substations. This purpose could be achieved only if the instructions are elaborate, giving each and every information to be known to the operator. The important points to be covered in the instructions are
a)
Geographical location of substation, the area fed by that substation.
b)
Sources of supply to the substation i.e. Normal feeding and the alternate feeding.
c)
Details of equipments in service showing their loading capacity and their limitations. The CT/PT ratios available and set at etc. Any other facility such as on load tap changer etc.
d)
Isolating
arrangements.
Their
locking
and
interlocking
arrangements. Earth switches etc. e) Sequence of operation, paralleling arrangements.
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T & SS Training Institute, Madurai
f)
Protections available, connected, annunciation I indications provided in case each relay operation and resulting methods.
g)
Outgoing feeders, the size of conductors, their current carrying capacity, Breaker capacity, CT ratio available and adopted sectionalizing switches connected to that feeder with their location numbers. Single phasing, and paralleling arrangements available.
h)
Complete layout of the substation showing the incoming and outgoing feeders, Power Transformers CTs / PTs connected breakers and Lightning arresters.
i)
Circuit diagram of AC / DC circuits and its alternate feeding arrangements.
j) k)
Fire fighting equipments available and their location. Method of issue of line clear and its cancellation and normalization of feeders and equipments
J)
Important loads, essential loads, continuous process industries, Important VIP areas, offices, hospitals fed by the feeders should also be made available.
m) n)
As a Dos and Do nots. Brief responsibility of the operator.
The above details give a complete picture of the substation to the operator and basic knowledge about the equipments and their type of operation, protections provided.
Even though the operating instructions are general guide lines, in case of emergencies it may need some minor deviations considering safety aspects and the operator has to make own judgment For example when a 11 K. V feeder trips the normal operating instruction are
A. 11 KV feeder Trips with Bell / alarm and relay indication 1) Accept the alarm. 2) Note down the relay indication. 3) Go to the yard verify whether there is any untoward happening. 4) After confirming that every thing is normal, reset the flag indication. 5) Charge the feeder again. 6) If stood OK, crack the ammeter switch and confirm all the three phases are loaded equally or as before.
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During the above coarse of operations if some body phones up from outside stating that some conductor had snapped in. that feeder. Are we to follow the sequence of operation as per the operating instruction and to charge the feeder again or not to charge the feeder? If we charge the feeder simply following the operating instruction word by word it may end in a brutal killing. Hence in such junctions the operator must apply his mind and come to a later judgment and should not charge the feeder. He should inform the concerned area engineer of the above incident and ask him to verify the correctness of information. He must also make note of the information received and his judgment and the action taken by him in log Book and appraise his Asst. Exe. Engineer of the portion immediately and get his ratification for the duration.
It has been a convention to classify the post of the operator as a nonsensitive post. But the actual position is it is the most sensitive post. The operator has to be vigilant all the eight hours and he should be sensitive to the change of humming noise of the transforD1er, another vibration arcing noise, fluctuations in voltages, sudden changes in load pattern etc. There are cases, the sensitiveness of the operator has made him to sense the arcing inside the breaker and he had taken a bold decision and switched off the breaker be fore it lead failure. Sometimes the breaker would have tripped without much noise but the alarm would not have come. Had the operator been sensitive he would have identified the tripping by noise in the yard and sudden change in the reading. Since the operators are to be sensitive throughout his shift.
Before going into actual operation let us see certain Dos and Do nots.
DOS 1) Before take over the shift check the condition of all equipments in service and make entry in the log of the conditions. 2) Verify whether any L.C. is pending. If so verify the points of isolation, Earthing etc find also the availability of keys of the Isolators. 3) Crack the Ammeter crack switch at the time of taking over, after each tripping, after each charging of the breaker and also after each fluctuation. 4) Watch the hourly reading of the ammeter voltmeter check the loading in all the three phases each time. Record the reason if there is any abnormal changes. 5) Watch for any abnormal noise, fluctuation arcing inside the equipment and Bus bar clamps, Bushing clamps. Isolators by going round the yard every hour and after every operation. 6) Check the Battery condition every shift and charging current every hour.
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7) 8)
During night, switch off the yard lights and watch for hot spot or arcing. When the transformer percentage impedances are not equal, the sharing of loading will not be equal while they are connected in parallel. In that case the proportionate loading should be watching.
9)
L.C. should be issued only if the local loading conditions are permissible for the issue of LC even though it was approved well in advance.
10)
L.C. should be issued only to the person for whom it is approved for the work for which it is approved.
11)
Instruction for opening and closing of Isolators should be given to the switch Board operator one after another, only after completion of each operation and physical verifications.
12)
Equipment or line separation from supply should be physically verified before issue of line clear.
13) 14) 15)
Opening of Isolator in all the three limbs should be physically verified. Equipment or line should be earthed only after proper discharging. Each operation should be recorded in the log book in sequence without omission and ambiguity.
16)
Protection relay flag indication should be watched every hour and any abnormal indications should be Quoted in the log book and intimated to concerned AE/MRT, AE/maintenance.
17)
Tripping of feeders and issue of LC should be recorded in Red Ink along with indications and observation.
18)
When ever main supply fails trip .all the radial feeder breakers and contact the operator at the feeding and substation or LD center for ascertaining the reason and for further normalizing of the load.
19)
While charging the transformers alone without toad reduce the tap position to avoid high voltage in the station.
20)
After issue of L.C, keep the key in LC key board and the L.C.key board should be locked and kept under the custody of operator only.
21)
In case of issue of L.C. or returning of LC through phone (ascertain) the correct person by cross checking. 1) The person in the other end should be recalled by the operator after closing the phone. 2) 3) The nearby person should be asked to talk and identify the person, Name of work proposed and carried out and the approval number or LC number should be asked.
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22)
Before charging the equipment, the proper removing of Earthing, isolation of men and materials to the safe distance and suitability for energisation should be checked by the operator in person.
23)
All the Tripping messages and breakdown should be informed to the concerned jurisdiction staff by the operator and to AEE in charge of SS without delay for arranging verification.
24)
After Isolation Men on Line Do not switch on Boards shall be fixed at each and every point of isolation in such a way that the Board cannot be removed unless the lock is opened. After isolation and discharging green flags and Safe for work Boards shall be put on the equipment.
25)
Operator should be conversant with the AC fuses, DC fuses of each equipments and the current point of isolation.
26)
Operation should be conversant with the protection arrangements connected to each equipment and their purpose and method of resetting.
27)
Operator should be conversant with the location of fire fighting equipments and the mode of operation of these equipments in case of fire.
28)
Operator should be conversant with loading of each Power Transformer and feeders so that when one transformer trip, he can adjust the load to that of other transformer.
29) 30)
The feeders should be energised only through breakers. While issue of LC always open the incoming side isolator first and then the outgoing side isolator.
Do Nots : 1) 2) 3) 4) Do not fail the sequence of operation mentioned in the operating instruction. Do not charge the feeder through the isolator. Do not open the Isolators on load. Do not fail to check the current in all the three phases after every charging or Tripping of breaker to confirm correct closing or opening of contacts. 5) 6) 7) Dont fail to crack the Ammeter while taking hourly reading. Do not depend on your subordinate for physical verification wherever required. Do not give instruction for more than one operation at a time even though it is a time consuming process. 8) Do not issue LC without physically verifying that the equipment or line has been taken off form both main and auxiliary supply. 9) Do not cancel the LC without physical verification that the earthing has been removed and men and material have been removed to a safe distance.
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10)
Do not fail to confirm that the supply has been switched off in the feeder or equipment before it is discharged and earthed.
11)
Do not Trip anyone LV breaker of the Power Transformers when the Transformers are loaded above 50 and are in parallel.
12)
Do not depend on single auxiliary equipment (i.e.) relays etc. since there are chance for their failure.
13)
Do not charge the transformer if both the HV & LV breakers tripped due to actuation of differential relay, Buchholz relay.
14) 15) 16)
Do not fail to put back AC & DC fuses before charging the feeder. Do not use water or foam on electrical fire. Do not reset the flag indication immediately after accepting the alarm and it should be reset only before charging the breaker after confirming their entry in the log book.
Now, let us see the operating sequence of a 110 KV radial substation for the following emergency operation.
1) 2) 3)
Fluctuation of Buckholz relay. 110 KV Bus fault. 11 KV feeder fault
and for the following planned shutdowns. 1) 2) 3) 110 KV G.C. LC without interruption Power Transformer LC 11 KV Feeder
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a)
Due to failure of station
Only lights & fans will switch off in the control room and in the yard. But three will be Power Transformer humming noise. There wont be any alarm.
b)
Due to Tripping of L.V Breakers In this case O/L Relay indication and LV Breaker Trip alarm and Lamp indication will come. Besides there will be no supply. If GC did not trip there will be Power Transformer Humming noise.
c)
Due to Tripping Both GC + LV Breaker
i) This may happen due to O/L & E/L in that case O/L or E/L relay flag along with Breaker Trip alarm and Lamp indication will come. As the GC has also tripped there will not be any Power Transformer
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Humming Noise. Besides there will be no station supply.
ii) This may trip due to master relay which will act under the following condition. i) Buckholz bottom Relay actuation or . ii) differential Relay actuation or iii) Winding Temperature Trip Relay actuation iv) Pressure Relief valve actuation. In these cases the alarm will be a separate Bell or Hooter the flag will appear in the corresponding relay trip lamp will appear in the GC and LV breaker along with alarm. There will be no station supply
d)
Due to tripping of 110 KV Feeder
In this case no indications mentioned in above three cases will appear. The only indication will be no humming noise and no station supply. If thcrc was 110 KV line PT indication it will vanish. In this case there will be no alarm or relay flag except if no relay is available.
e)
Due to 110 KV Load shedding
as above
Hence whenever there was supply failure the operator has to identify the cause of failure from the above indication. The normalisation is as below.
a)
In case of station supply failure: He has to check the H.G. fuse and L. T. fuses of the transformer and arrange to renew
the same. If H.G. fuse did not stand station transformer may be faulty. If LT Fuse did not stand cable or feeder fault is to be rectified,
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b)
In case of Tripping of L. V. breaker 1) 2) 3) Accept alarm. Note down Relay Indication Go to the yard. Investigate for any external damage or towards in the LV breaker 11 KV Bus and 11 KV feeder Breaker 11 KV LAS etc. If there is any untoward inform the concerned for rectification. If there is any untoward in any section of feeders of L. V. isolate the corresponding section. 4) 5) 6) Hand trip all the feeder breakers. Reset the relay. Charge the L. V. breaker one by one check the station Bus voltage on all the three phase. Confirm there is no fluctuation. 7) Charge the feeder breakers one by one crack the ammeter of the feeders for normal loading. 8) Verify the loading in the power transformer in all the three phases if there is fluctuation, check cause of fluctuation from the feeder ammeters trip the concerned feeder.
c)
Due to tripping of both GC & LV breakers i) Due to O/L or E/L relay:
1. Accept the alarm 2. Note down the flag indication in all feeders. 3. Go to the yard. Investigate for any external damage in the feeder breaker 11 KV Bus PT & LAS, LV breakers. Power Transformers and GC breaker. If there is outwards isolate that defect wise area. Inform the concerned. 4. Hand Trip all the feeder breakers. 5. Reset the relay indication. 6. Charge the G.C. breaker, watch the Humming Noise in the Transformer. 7. If the Humming Noise is normal charge the L. V. Breakers one by one and note down the Bus Voltages In all the three phases. 8. If the 11 KV bus supply is okay charge the 11 KV feeders one by one. Crack the ammeter crack switch in each feeder and verify for equal loading or for any fluctuation verify the loading in the three phases of the power transformer also. 9. While charging the G.C. breaker as mentioned in item (6) above, if the G.C. breaker trips there may be fault in the zone between G .C. breaker and L. V. breaker including the
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transformers. Had there been any fault inside the transformer the concerned power transformer relays and master relay would have been acted. 10. 11. Accept the alarm / Hooter/ Note down the flag indication. If there was actuation of Power Transformer Relay &master relay either the differential relay flag or bucholz relay flag or the winding Temperature relay flag or PRY relay flag would have come along with master relay trip. 12. Go to the yard and verify whether there is physical failure between the GC and LV breaker zone. In case of transformer fault verify whether there is Gas collection in i. the Buckholz Relay abnormal temperature or spurt out oil through pressure relief valve or failure diaphragm etc. 13. If there is transformer fault isolate the transformer by opening the incoming and outgoing LV side isolator of the particular transformer. If there is no fault in the transformer or any other external fault is not visible open the incoming side isolator of all the power transformer. 14. 15. 16. Reset the relay indication. Charge the G.C. breaker alone and verify all the three phases are closed. Close the incoming side isolator of individual power transformer one by one. Verify both transformer are having normal humming noise. During this operation if the G.C. breaker trips again while closing anyone of the incoming side isolator of the power transformer again. Accept alarm. Isolate the particular for further detailed examination verify if there gas collection or external damage in that particular transformer or any other portion in that area. Reset the flag indication charge the G.C. breaker with the other transformer alone verify whether Humming noise is as usual. 17. 18. Now charge the L. V. breaker and verify for equal bus voltage in the 11 KV Bus. In case both the transformers are healthy then put on the 11 KV feeder loads one by me. If one transformer only is healthy, charge the 11 KV feeders such that total load is with in one transformer capacity. 19. Some times for the 11 KV feeder Fault the relay flag would have come and the breaker would have tripped. This would have caused tripping of GC & LV. This would have come to knowledge while noting down the relay indication in (2) above. Such feeder should be identified at the time of Hand tripping in item (4). These breakers may not be able to trip for mechanical reason. They should be test charged before putting them in service. ii) Tripping of both GC & L V breakers due to actuation of master relay and buckholz relay or differential relay or winding temperature high relay or pressure relief actuation. valve
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1) 2)
Accept the alarm. Note down the flag indications. (In case of buckholz the alarm could not silenced until the DC fuse is removed.
3)
Go to the yard. Investigate for external damages or spurt out of oil or fire etc. If there is fire take immediate action to putout the fire by using foam before it spreads to the nearby transformer give fire alarm or siren so that others could come for assistance if necessary to inform fire service. If no fire or external damage verify whether there is Gas collection in the Buchholz relay. In case of winding temperature high form and the cooling oil pumps would not have worked or would have tripped. Note down there things.
4)
Isolate the transformer in which the defect is suspected by opening the incoming and outgoing isolator. Remove the DC fuse for the above transformer.
5) 6)
Hand Trip all the 11 KV feeder breakers. Reset the master relay alone, leaving the relay flags of defective transformer as it is
7)
Charge the G.C. breaker with the Healthy Transformer alone watch the Humming Noise for health sound verify the 11 KV Bus voltage in all the three phases.
8)
Charge the 11 KV feeders one by one such that total load is with in one trans former capacity.
9) 10)
Inform the AEE/ AE maintenance immediately above the suspected transformer fault for arranging testing of the defective transformer. Sometimes if there is furious actuation of buchholz, differential relay, the same should be got confirmed from MRF and the transformer should be put in service only after their clearance.
d) Tripping of 110 KV feeder fault/load shedding 1) In this case there will be no indication except the stoppage of supply, humming noise in the power Transformer. Also watch to P. T. lamp if any provided in 110 KV line. 2) Contact the feeding end substation and ascertain the cause of failure of supply if it is fault tripping inform him about the condition of your substation. Because the feeder would have tripped for the fault in the station also. If no fault confirm the same to the feeding end operator. In case of fault tripping he will ask all the radial S:S. operator to isolate there loads. Then hand trip all the feeders & G.C. In case of Load shedding, the operator at feeding end will give
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the duration of load shedding. Now also hand trip all the feeder loads and wait for the receipt of main supply. 3) Again contact the feeding end S.S. operator whether the feeder has been charged OK and whether you can normalise your SS loads. On receipt of confirmation first charge the G.C. breaker, then L. V. breakers one by one and then the 11 KV feeders. Sometimes the supply would have failed during peak hours when the Power Transformer is kept at maximum tap. In that case when the main supply is resumed, there will be high voltage in the substation before switching on 11 KV feeder loads. then high voltage may cause actuation of differential relay or relay components. Hence the tap should brought to normal tap and the voltage can be increased after putting the load by operating the OLTC. 4) If the operator in the feeding end says that 110 KV feeder did not stand and ask for operation of the 110 KV isolator no (2). 5) 6) confirm that the feeder is dead. Open the isolator no. 2 confirm to the operator at feeding end ask him to charge the feeder up to your substation. 7) 8) If it stood OK, normalize your substation as before. At that time of charging of 110 KV feeder as in operation 6 above, if your notice any 110 KV Bus fault inform the same side operator about the fault. Inform AEE/AE maintenance for rectification. 9) If there is 110 KV Bus fault or LAS fault after the G.C. breaker it will be recalled while charging the G.C. breakers.
10)
Incase of 11 KV Bus fault or .11 KV Las failure it will be revealed while charging the anyone of the LV breaker.
e) Tripping of 11 KV Feeder on fault : 1) 2) 3) Accept alarm. Note down Relay Indication. Go to the yard verify for any visible failure and whether all the three limbs have opened. 4) 5) If there is no outwards. Reset the flag indication. Charge the feeder breaker. If stood okay crack the Ammeter and watch all the three phases are loaded.
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6)
Also go to the yard again verify there is no abnormal noise and all the three lamps are in closed position.
7)
Incase if the feeder trip again on fault after the operation in 5. repeat the operation I to 6.
8)
If the feeder breaker trips second time also, isolate the breaker by opening the incoming and outgoing side isolators. Test charge the breaker alone. If it stood okay, Trip the breaker, close the isolators. For all the above operation the time war operation shall vary substation to substation depending upon the yard and equipment location. Hence the time should fixed based on achieved experience, wait for about 10 minutes for receipt of any information from the field about any fault in the line. In case of Rural feeder we can wait for 20 minutes also.
9)
Give third charge if it trips again, declare the feeder faulty. Inform the concerned field officers of patrol of the feeder and attending the fault and to give a confirmation report. Till then keep the AC & DC fuses kept removed.
10)
On receipt of. field confirmation report about attending of fault or no fault put AC & DC fuses. Reset the flag indication charge the breaker. If it stood okay repeat operation. Crank the ammeter and verify that the feeders are loaded in all the three phases and go to the yard verify physically all the three limbs are closed and no abnormal sound is heard.
11)
If all the three phases are not loaded there may be jumper opening or improper closing of breaker. Contact the nearby consumers over phone and ask them to check they receive supply in all the three phases. If the nearby consumer receive three phase the line upto that area will be okay. Inform the field people to check their area for opening of jumpers. Even if the nearby consumer says he did not get supply in all the three phases, it may be due to impartial closing of isolator or breaker which would been identified on physical verification immediately after charging.
12)
In such case of breaker or isolator defective inside the SS. Hand trip the feeder immediately and inform AE/Maint for attending to the defect.
On all these cases the observation by the operator will be of prime importance and save the failure or accident and helps to resume supply early.
So far we have seen the operator sequences for emergency operators now we will take up a planned operation i.e. issue of L.C. Any planned shutdown should programmed will in advance and should be got approved by the competent person. In case of interruption of supply it should be informed to the concerned area section officers and their concurrence should be
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obtained well informed through Radio and Newspapers. Important and essential service consumers should be informed.
All the L.C. shutdown approval are issued for a particular work to the particular staff and for particular period it is always issued with a condition that the LC/shutdown could be availed only if the local loading condition permits. So the duty of the operator is to verify the shutdown has been approved and the individual is authorised person and it can be issued on that day and the condition of Back feeding mentioned in the shutdown approval could be arranged on that day or whether the interrupts could be permitted. He should also get the concurrence of the AEE incharge of the substation before issue of L.C. informing of the approval and station local condition.
L.C. on line can be issued on phone if the authorised person first contact the operator in advance and fix the time and give the phone number from which he will contact. As soon as he comes on phone again and request for LC he should ask to close the phone. The operator should call him to confirm the phone location and the person correctly.
L.C. on 110 KV G.C. breaker without interruption 1) 2) Verify the L.C, approval and confirm the field staff are ready to take up the work. Close the 110 KV G.C. breaker bye pass switch No.5 keep the key of the isolator in the LC, board. Now we are closing the 110 KV Isolator on load. As this is only a parallel switch it will not give any arcing. Verify the load in the G.C. breaker is reduced by 50 in all the three phases. If the isolator did not close properly the loading may differ. In that case open the Isolator again and close correctly. 3) Hand trip the G.C. breaker. Now once again crack the ammeter crack switch and verify there is no load through the breaker in all the three limbs. In case of partial opening of any one phase can be identified from this. 4) Remove the Interlock key from the G.C. breaker and put on the incoming side isolator and open the incoming side isolator No.2 and lock it verify all the three knifes are opened. 5) Open the outgoing side isolator No.4 and lock it verify all the three knifes are opened properly keep the keys in the LC Board. Now the equipments have been isolated from supply. 6) 7) Use the discharge rod and discharge first all the three phase of outgoing side. Provide the earth rod on both incoming and outgoing sides of the breaker so that they are fixed to the earth effectively. 8) Remove AC & DC fuses for the breaker.
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9)
Guard the area of work by tying of rope and fixing of flag. Put on LC board on the breaker panel.
10)
Now issue line clear in the printed numbered LC book. Fill up correctly the name of the equipment which is safe for working, the portion of the breakers and isolators; Their number and whether they are locked whether the equipment has been discharged and earthed whether additional earthing is to be done by the receiver of LC etc. should be mentioned and should be signed by the issuing officer and receiver with date and time.
11)
This should be recorded in the log book in red ink. On completion of work, the receiver should give a certificate that the works have been completed. He has removed the earthing provided by him at site, and the men and materials have also been removed and also the equipment is safe for energising. On receipt of the certificate duly signed the operator has to go to the yard and verify physically. Whether the earthing, men and materials has been removed and confirm whether the equjpment is safe for energisation. Then only he has to cancel the L.C. has been issued to some other person, he has to wait for return of the L.C. by all. After cancellation of all the L.C. permit. the operator should start his sequence of operation for normalisation.
1)
Remove the earth rods provided on both the incoming and outgoing side and guarding rope the caution board are all removed.
2) 3) 4)
Confirm whether the breaker is fit for energisation. Put the AC & DC fuses and idle charge the breaker alone by local close trip switch. Close the incoming and outgoing side isolators now the breaker has been charged upto the contacts on both side, Watch for any abnormal Hissing sound. If any Hissing sound is heard immediately open the isolators.
5) 6)
Put on the interlock switch. Close the breaker from the control room. Crack the ammeter and verify all the three phases are loaded.
7) 8)
Go to the yard watch for any abnormality. Confirm every thing is normal. Open the bye pass switch isolator No.5 see all the three knifes have opened clearly. Now we are opening the isolator on1oad. In this case since it is in parallel no arcing will occur. Now the load in the G.C. breaker would have doubled confirm the same in all three-phases.
The said operations cover the L.C. on G.C. breaker without interruption. If there is no bye pass switch then there will be a total shutdown. In that the sequence of operation will change.
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1)
Contact the concerned S.S. and confirm the quantum local they can permit as back feeding.
2) 3) 4) 5)
Hand trip the 11 KV feeder breakers, L:C. breakers & GC breakers on by me. Open the 11. KV bus side isolator of L. V. breaker-and 1.10 KV transformer isolators. Close the isolator in the 11 KV line for availing back feeding. Charge the 11 KV feeder of the concerned feeder and energise the 11 KV bus from the nearby S.S supply.
6)
Now station supply IS resumed. Also charge any other feeder to which back feeding is to be extended.
7)
In other feeders which are kept hand tripped, the incoming outgoing isolator has to be opened.
8) 9)
Now open the incoming and outgoing isolators after removing the breaker interlock. Discharge and earth the G.C. breaker on both sides, guard the area, put on L.C. board and issue LC as mentioned above.
After issue of L.C. inform the operator of the substation back feeding this station of the local availed by him and to maintain the supply.
After returning of the L.C. the sequence of normalisation are
1)
Verify whether the men and materials are removed and the equipment is safe for energisation.
2) 3) 4) 5)
Put on AC & DC fuses. Check the local closing and tripping operation. Remove the earthrods, Close the incoming and outgoing isolators. Put on the breaker interlock switch. Verify the 110 KV main supply is available and inform the feeding end operator about the normalisation operation.
6) 7)
Charge the G.C breaker check the 110 KV bus isolator on all the three phases. Close the 110 KV side isolator and transformers one by one confirm the transformers are healthy.
8)
Remove the back feeding by Tripping all the 11 KV feeder breaker and opening the back feeding isolator.
9) 10)
Confirm there is no supply in the 11 KV Bus. Close the L. V. breaker Isolators to the 11 KV Bus close the L. V. breaker one by one and the 11 KV Bus is energised along with station transformer.
11)
Watch the station voltage and 11 KV Bus voltage in all the three phases.
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12)
Normalise the feeder breakers one by one and check for loading in all the three phases of 11 KV and L.V breakers.
L.C. on Power Transformer and L.V. breaker 1) Verify the approval of L.C. and confirm that L.C. can be given on that day depending up on local condition. 2) As the local is to be limited with in one transformer capacity confirm the local in the S.S. If the loads are more than one transformer capacity certain loads are to be shed confirm whether the concurrence is obtained for shedding of these feeders. 3) 4) 5) 6) Hand trip the 11 KV feeders which are to be shed to contain the load. After reduction of the load Hand Trip the L.V breaker of the Power Transformer. Open the incoming and outgoing side isolators 6 & 7. Remove the AC & DC fuses of the power Tr.1 see that the cooling fans are stopped. 7) Discharge and earth the transformer on both sIides of the transformer and the L.V breaker. Put on the caution board and garden the area. 8) Issue the line clear in the proper form mention that the nearby transformer is alive and safe distance is to be maintained while working on dead equipments.
Normalisation 1) After returning of the L.C. verify for the removal of men and material and the whether the transformer is safe for energisation. 2) 3) Remove the earthing. Put on AC & DC fuses. Dont forget to put the buckholz & differential relay fuses. 4) 5) 6) Close the 11 KV isolator no.6 watch for healthy Humming Noise. Close the 11 KV LV side isolator No.7. Close the L. V. breaker and watch for loading in all the three phases. There will be reducing in load on the Power Tr.1I verify the sharing are correct in all the , three phases. 7) 8) Normalise other 11 KV feeders. Go round the transformer yard verify for healthiness of the Power Transformer humming noise, loading etc.
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L.C. on 11 KV Feeders / Lines Verify for the L.C. approval and concurrence from the field. As the work spot in case of line L.C. will be far away the operator could not physically verify the work place before normalisation. Hence he has to take into confidence of the receiver of L.C. for normalisation hence it is a must that the individual who availed the L.C. should come in person and return the LC giving due certificate.
Sometime it may happen that there may not be sufficient time to come to the S.S. for returning the L.C. In such case LC may be permitted to return over phone. It should be intimated in advance. In that case the operator has to take all necessary precaution to confirm the L.C. is returned by the correct individual only. For this he may ask the near by person to identify the phone number, the persons available there and the L.C. number, works done, removing of men and materials etc.
The sequence of operations are verify whether back feeding has to arranged for the loads fed by the feeder or breaker.
If no back feeding is necessary inform the concerned area office that L.C. is going to be issued and there will be interruption. I) Hand Trip the 11 KV breaker of that feeder. Crack the ammeter and confirm that there is no load in all the phases. 2) Open the incoming side isolator first and then the outgoing side isolator and lock them. Put the key in the LC Board. 3) Discharge both sides and put earth on both side if the L.C..is to be issued on breaker or in case of line L.C. discharge and earth the line. While discharging one rod only used for discharging the three phases and for early three rods should be provided tightly and connected earth. 4) 5) Put on the caution board. Issue LC with instruction to provide discharging and earthing at site since there may be induction due to neighboring line or lightning.
On return of LC get a certificate whether the earthing has been remove. All men materials have be cleared to a safe distance and the line is fit for energisation. In case of more than one L.C. await for receipt of cancellation of all L.C.
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I) 2) 3) 4)
Remove the earth rod printed on the line/equipment & caution board. Close the incoming side isolator of the breaker and put 011 the A/C DC fuses. Test charge the breaker if OK hand trip the breaker again. Close the isolator oil the outgoing side of the breaker.
5)
Close the breaker verify all the three phases are loaded and there is no fluctuation.
6)
Go round the breaker and verify whether there is any abnormality in the breaker and power transformers.
Some exceptional cases. It may require for the person who has availed the L.C. to go on other personal urgent works. In such cases second L.C. has to be issued to another person for the same work that has been asked relieve the individual. Then the original LC has to be returned by the individual and cancel. At no circumstances the L.C. can be transformed.
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6. EARTHING PRACTICES IN SUBSTATION
INTRODUCTION
Nothing is quite common or abundantly available throughout world in the Earthing soil. Most of us think earth as some thing to be used for planting or to be excavated for a building foundation. Yet, it also has an electrical property-conductivity that is put to practical use every day in individual plants and Electrical utilities. Broadly speaking earth resistance is the resistance of the soil to the passage of electrical current. Actually earth is a poor conductor compared with normal conductor like copper. But if the area of path for the current is large enough, the resistance can be quite low and earth can be a conductor. Earthing is foremost important for the safety of human beings, Animals, Consumer Property and utilities equipment. In this article, the importance of Earthing requirement of good Earthing, the factors which influence the property of the diverting medium earth, condition monitoring of earth and method to improve the earth conditions are discussed in depth. OBJECTIVE OF EARTHING Prime Objective of Earthing is to provide a Zero potential surface in and around and under the area where the electrical equipment is installed or erected. To achieve this objective the non-current carrying parts of the electrical equipment is connected to the general mass of the earth which prevents the appearance of dangerous voltage on the enclosures and helps to provide safety to working staff and public.
REQUIREMENT OF GOOD EARTHING

a) Good earth should have low resistance
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b) It should stabilize circuit potential with respect to ground and limit overall potential rise. c) It should protect men material from injury or damage due to over voltage. d) It should provide low impedance path to fault currents to ensure prompt and consistent operation of protective relays, Surge arrester etc., e) It should keep maximum potential gradient along the surface of the substation within safe limits during ground fault.
FACTORS INFLUENCE THE CONDITIION OF EARTH

The following factors in the earth should be maintained within the limit irrespective of seasons so that the earth should fulfill the above requirements. FACTORS a. b. c. d. e.
Kind of Soil Soil resistivity Moisture Content Salt Content Condition of Electrode Temperature Co-efficient
CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHING
Earthing can be classified into the following categories based on the purpose for which the part of the equipment connected to the general mass of earth. a. b. c. d. System Earthing Equipment Earthing Reference Earthing Discharge Earthing
SYSTEM EARTHING
Earthing associated with current carrying parts of the equipment is called system Earthing. The system security, reliability, performance, voltage stabilization, all relied only on the system Earthing. Eg. Earthing Neutral of Transformer, Surge arrester Earthing
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System Earthing Methods : a. c. Solid Earthing Reactance Earthing d. b. d. Resistance Earthing Thro Grounding Transformer
EQUIPMENT EARTHING
Earthing associated with non-current carrying parts of Electrical Equipment are called as Equipment Earthing. Safety of operator, consumer, safety of their property are mainly based on Equipment Earthing. Eg. Body of the Transformer, Body of Motor.
FACTORS THAT CHANGE THE REQUIREMENT OF EARTH ELECTRODE a. If a plant or electrical facility can expand in system or new plants continue to be build larger and larger, such change creates different routes in the electrode. What was formerly a suitable low earth resistance can become obsolete standard. More number of metallic pipes which were buried underground become less and less dependable as effective low resistance ground connection. Most of the location, the water table gradually falling. In a year or two area end up with dry earth of high resistance. These factors emphasize the importance of a continuous, periodic program of earth resistance testing.
EARTHING PRACTICES
Transmission lines:
i) E.H. T. lines: For 110 KV lines one aerial earth wire through the towers and for 230 KV lines and two earth wires are run. As per I.S. code, the aerial ground wire is to be connected to earth at least in 4 towers in every mile (1.6 Kms.)
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ii)
H. T. Lines: These towers (each) are earthed through earth pipes.
The earth rods are driven at the base of the tower if the earth resistance is less than 15 Ohms. If it is not possible, two rods are driven within} a distance of 200 feet, wherein again the resistance is not to exceed 25 Ohms. iii) L.T. lines: All stay wires arc provided with guy shackles at a height
not less than 3 meters from the ground. The cross arms arc also earthed at specified intervals. Major sub-stations : Earthing of equipments in the major sub-stations is taken much care. The various Earthing are discussed in the paras to come.
Power transformers:
i) The transformer body or tank is directly connected to earth grid. In addition, there should be direct connection from the tank to the earth side of the lightning arresters. Ii) iii) The transformer track rail should be earthed separately. The neutral bushing is earthed by a separate connection to the earth
grid. clearer to the tank sell and collars.
Potential and current transformers:

The bases of the CTs and Pts. are to be earthed. All bolted cover plates of the bushing are also to be connected the earth grid.
Lightning arresters :
The bases of the L.As. are to be earthed with conductors as short and straight as Possible (for reducing impedance). The earth side of the L.As. are to be connected directly frolJ1 the equipment to be protected. Each L.A. should have individual earth rods, which are in turn connected to earth grid.
Circuit breakers:
the supporting structures, C.T. chambers, P.T. tanks, Cable glands etc., are to be connected to earth.
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Other equipments: All equipments, structures, and metallic frames of switches and isolators are to be earthed separately.
Fences:
Providing separate earth or connecting to the station earth depends upon the distance of the fence the station earth. If the distance is within feet, an inter-connection made to the station earth. If not, the metallic fences are earthed by means of earth rods spaced at not more than 200 feet. The gates and support pans may be earthed through an earth rod. The cable wires passing under metallic fence are to be buried below at a depth of 26 or are to be enclosed in a insulating pipe (P. V.C or asbestos cement) for a distance of not less than 5 feet on each side of the fence.
Ground wires :
The ground wires over the station arc connected to the station earth. In order that the station earth potentials during fault condition5 arc not applied to transmission line ground wires and towers, all ground wires coming to the stations shall be broken . It an insulated on the fir5t tower external to station by means of strain disc. insulators.
NATURE OF AN EARTH ELECTRODE

Resistance to current through an earth element has following three components. a. Resistance of the earth electrode itself and connection to it. b. Contact resistance between the electrode and soil adjacent to it. c. Resistance of the surrounding earth.
TYPE OF ELECTRODES
b. c. d. Rod Type / Pipe Type of Electrode Flat / Strip Electrode Plate Electrode
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Rod Type / Pipe Type of Electrode Substation : i) ii) 40 mm twin rod with 10 mtr. length. 100 mm /150 mm Cast Iron Pipe with 3 mtr. length.
Distribution : i) 40 mm inner dia 2.9 mm thick 3 mtr. length G I Pipe.
Resistance = R = 100 log 2 L d
4L
ohms
Where
= Soil Resistivity in ohm metres L = Length of Pipe / Rod in metres d = diameter of Pipe / Rod in metres
a.
Flat / Strip Electrode
Flat or Strip electrode should be buried at a depth of not less then 0.5 mtr.
Resistance = R = 100 log 2L
2L2 wt
ohms
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Where
= Soil Resistivity in ohm metres L = Length of Flat/Strip in metres w = Length of Flat/Strip in metres t = thickness of Flat/Strip in metres
The resistance of Flat / Strip decreases appreciably with increase in its length.
Plate Electrode
In Power Stations & Very Big Substation which are having high fault level plate type of electrode are used. Plate Size 1200 x 1200 x 12.5 mm. 600 x 600 x 9.40 mm
Resistance = R =
4/A
ohms
Where
= Soil Resistivity in ohm
metres
A = Area of both sides of plate in m2.
Earthing conductor :
The metal parts of equipments arc connected to the low resistance electrodes by the earth conductors of suitable size as annexed in Annexure III. The basic observations to be taken into account are:
i) ii)
Bare Aluminum conductor should not be buried in the soil. The copper strip to be used depends on the size of the bolts used. If the size of the bolts are greater than 1 dia, strip width to be selected is not to be less than 2.
iii)
The conductor should carry fault current at least for 1/2 second and the area of cross section in sq. inches is given by the fault current- 15,000.
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Joints:
While laying earth conductors joints are to be minimized and they are to be well-brazed or closely welded. The 1/2" dia. galvanized steel bolts at 11/211 centre are also used for joints.
Earth resistance:
The fault current is to be cleared as quickly as possible and this is done by having the earth resistance low. The standard values of earth resistance to be maintained at various sub-stations are given in Annexure IV.
Earth grid:
Bonding all metal parts of the system to be earthed, the earth conductor and the earth electrodes put all together form and Earth Grid.
General considerations:
i) ii) iii) iii) All earth connections are to be made visible as far as possible. The earth leads should not be set in concrete. No series connections are to be made for earths. Preferably, the Earthing conductors should not be run-in metal conduits.
MONITORING THE CONDITION OF EARTH

For monitoring the healthiness of earth, the condition monitoring equipment used is EARTH MEGGER.
Specification :
Rated Voltage : 30 to 250V
Range of Resistance
: The preferred effective ranges of the meters shall be chosen from those given below 1)0 to 3 ohms and its multiplies of 10 2)0 to10 ohms and its multiplies of 10
Two types :
a). Four terminal Earth Megger which is exclusive used for Soil Resistivity Measurement. This can be converted as three terminal by connecting P1 & C1 together. b). Three terminal Earth Megger.
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Marking (i) For 3 Terminal Meter Current Terminal C or H Potential Terminal P or U Earth Terminal E CHECKING AND TESTING The Earthing systems are to be inspected regularly. Regular checking or joints and broken connections, if any and rectifying the same will prove to be of immense help in maintenance of earth grid and equipments. The condition of the electrodes, joints are also to be checked. If the electrodes are corroded immediate steps for replacement are to be taken. The earth resistance is to be measured periodically as in Annexure V. The megger, or testers are used for this purpose. (ii) For 4 Terminal Meter Terminal Terminal C1, P1, C2 P2
Current Potential
Maintenance of low earth resistance:

As discussed earlier, low earth resistance Path is a must for clearing the fault current instantaneously. For achieving -low earth values, the following ways are followed: i) A number of electrodes are connected in parallel thereby providing a low resistance. ii )The ground surrounding the electrodes is treated with common salt which reduces the resistance by 80%. Calcium chloride and magnesium sulphate may also be used. In general practice in T.N.B.B. charcoal and common alt are used for obtaining low resistance value.
STANDARD MEGGER VALUE

Combined Earth Value should not exceed
Individual Value within 10 ohm

a. b. c. for Major Sub Station for Minor Sub Station Power House 1 Ohm 2 Ohm 0.5 Ohm
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METHODS TO IMPROVE SOIL RESISTIVITY The following are the methods to lowering the earth resistance. Using Bendonite Powder a. b. c. Lengthen the earth electrode in the earth Use multiple rods Treat the Soil- Using Bendonite Powder Using Fly Ash Using Safe Earth Electrode(SSE) Using Erico GEM
EARTH MAT DESIGN

Earthing System in a Sub Station comprises of Earth Mat or Grid, Earth Electrode, Earthing Conductor and Earth Connectors. EARTH MAT OR GRID Primary requirement of Earthing is to have a low earth resistance. Substation involves many Earthings thro individual Electrodes, which will have fairly high resistance. But if these individual electrodes are inter linked inside the soil, it increases the area in contact with soil and creates number of parallel paths. Hence the value of the earth resistance in the inter linked state which is called combined earth value which will be much lower than the individual value. The inter link is made thro flat or rod conductor which is called as Earth Mat or Grid. It keeps the surface of substation equipment as nearly as absolute earth potential as possible. To achieve the primary requirement of Earthing system, the Earth Mat should be design properly by considering the safe limit of Step Potential, Touch Potential and Transfer Potential. STEP POTENTIAL - which is the potential difference available between the legs while standing on the ground. TOUCH POTENTIAL - which is the potential difference between the leg and the hand touching the equipment in operation.
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The factors which influence the Earth Mat design are a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Magnitude of Fault Current Duration of Fault Soil Resistivity Resistivitiy of Surface Material Shock Duration Material of Earth Mat Conductor Earthing Mat Geometry
The Scope is to calculate the following i. Size of Earth Grid Conductor ii. Safe Step and Touch Potential iii. Mesh Potential (Emesh) iv. Grid configuration for Safe Operation v. Number of Electrodes required
DATA NEEDED a. Soil Resistivity b. Resistivity of Crushed Rock c. Crushed Rock Surface Layer Thickness d. Switch Yard overall Dimensions e. Earth Fault Level f. Duration consider for earth fault.
I. CALCULATION OF SIZE OF EARTH GRID CONDUCTOR

Conductor Area A= I Tcap x 10
4
x ln Ko + Tm Ko + Ta
tc r x Pv Simplified formula for Steel Grid Conductor
Area A = I x /t K
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Where
A = area of earth conductor in mm2. I = short circuit current in KA. t = duration of short circuit current in seconds. K factor = 80 for steel. If mat is made of Flat then A = Area of Flat
Give allowance of 35 % for corrosion If it is a conductor A = r2 r = /A/
STANDARD FLATS i) ii) iii) 10 x 6 20 x 6 30 x 6 iv) v) vi) 40 x 6 50 x 6 50 x 8 vii) viii) ix) 60 x 6 65 x 10 75 x 10
ROD 40 mm Mild Steel Rod
The Mesh Potential always less than the permissible touch & step potential. Then only the design is considered as safe.
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Annexure 2
Earth Electrodes
Stations Plate Electrodes Pine electrodes
a) Larger Power Stations and Major sub- stations
G.I. Plates of 120 x 120 cm and i)G.I. Pipes of 152mm 12.5 mm thick
diax3.048mts. long and not less than 12.5. thick. ii) In case of G .1. or steel pipes, not smaller than 38 mm internal diameter.
b) Small sub-stations 60 x 60cm G.!. plates of9.4 mm G.I. pipes of 50.8 min thick internal diameter and 3.058 mts., long.
Annexure 3 Earth conductors

a) Main and subsidiary connection : Cross Section not less cm;{Copper) b) Branch connections : Cross section not less than 64.5 sq. cm. than 161sq.
Periodicity of measuring earth resistance a)Major Sub-stations Power Stations b)Distribution Transformers ..Monthly ..Bi-annual
V. CONCLUSION
The various practices and standards are to be followed in respect of providing Earthing in our systems. If proper Earthing is not done, there is every likelihood of equipment getting damaged and also have to be personnel -public and staff. Hence due attention is to be given in providing and maintaining of earth grid properly and in good condition.
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7. LOAD DISPATCH AND FLOW MANAGEMENT

Introduction Electricity cannot be stored and has to be generated at the time of need. The load is not fixed. It will vary in random from time to time. To oversee the timely varying demand and set the generation so as to meet it with optimum utilization and economic operation of the system a centrally controlled station is required, This centrally controlled station is called as load dispatch centre for effective & economic load dispatch and flow management. Loads can be classified as below. 1. Industrial HT &: LT. 2. Agriculture. 3. Domestic 4. Commercial HT & L T 5. Public Lighting 6. Traction etc., Load Forecasting: The load in the grid will vary from time to time. To arrange for the generation from various resources tile load at a time has to be forecast so that the load and the generation can be matched. Load forecasting has to be done taking into account the following points. Type of the day-on Sundays load will be minimum and on Fridays load will be maximum. Sunrise / Sun set timings. When the sun sets earlier the lighting load on the grid will be earlier and vice versa. Temperature and humidity deviation: At high temperature during summer the consumers will draw more power to meet their requirement Any known shutdown of EHT consumers. Agricultural load requirements / During Winter the agricultural load will be low and during Summer Agricultural load will be at its maximum. Comparing the load in the previous week I month I year with suitable tolerance for load growth.
By using the above guidelines the load that will be incident in the grid is forecast to meet the morning and lighting peak hours of a day. Once the load incident on the grid for that day is determined, it is the duty of the engineers of load dispatch centre to prepare a generation schedule for the period in question as to bow they are going to meet out the load by utilizing the various generating stations in the state and the states share from the central generating stations. Generation Scheduling: a. Hourly load. b. Spinning reserve to be maintained. c. Incremental cost of generation of various units. d. Hydro station characteristics: cascading / conventional. e. Network limitations. f. Capacity of other system to buy or sell. g. Maintenance outage plan of generating stations and transmission lines.
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Generation stations in the GRID: Hydel Thermal Nuclear Diesel Gas Windmill (Non -conventional) To match the generation with the load and for load flow management the load dispatch centre is essentially required and that becomes the backbone of the grid system. The load dispatch centre perform the following functions. 1. It matches the load with the generation. 2. Reliability of supply. 3. Regulation of voltage and frequency. 4. Economic operation. 5. System maintenance scheduling. Grid System: A high voltage line in between a sending station and a receiving station is called a transmission line. The A.C. transmission system may be of radial, ring or inter connected. When the supply is fed from one end of the source then it is called radial system. In this system if a breakdown occurs the consumers connected to this system will be affected till the breakdown is rectified. .When all the generating stations are interconnected from which the supply is given to all the loads is known as interconnected system. Interconnected system in a state forms the grid of that state. If theInterconnected system is connected with the interconnected systems of the nearby states this forms the regional grid. India has the following five regional grids 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Northern region: comprising Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, UP, Delhi and Chandigarh. . Western region: Gujarat, MP, Maharastra, Goa, Daman and diu, Dadar Nagar, Haweli. Eastern region: Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal. Southern region: AP, Kamatka, Tamilnadu, Kerala & Pondicherry. North Eastern region: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Nagland, Tirupura.and Mizoram. .
Techno economic benefit of the integrated operation: I. Reduction of generating capacity due to diversity of loads. 2. Reduction in standby capacity. 3. Increase in size of generating unit. 4. Optimization of Hydro and thermal generation. 5. Better system reliability and security. 6. Better frequency stability. 7. Load fluctuations compensates one another better 8. Mutual Assistance during emergencies. Problems encountered in Regional Grid Operation: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Low frequency operation. Over-drawls from central stations particularly at low frequencies. Not backing down during high frequency. Inadequate reactive power compensation. Inadequate system reserve. SLDCS & RLDCS not adequately equipped. Lack of appropriate interregional tariffs. Communication bottlenecks. - 97 T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
Nowadays HVDC transmission is vastly catching up due to the following advantages. 1. Only active power is transmitted. 2. Independent of A.C. system frequencies. 3. Fast Control. 4. No increase in short circuit currents. Facilities to tie the regional grids which are operating at different frequencies -through HVDC back to back Inter regional links are available in which one regional system is converted to D.C. and then inverted to A.C. system at the same location to match the other region grid so as to tie both the regional grids. Power system reliability includes the following aspects Reliability of supply Regulation of voltage. Regulation of frequency.
Reliability supply is achieved through : a. b. c. d. Improved power system protection. System interconnection. Larger capacity in generation and transmission lines. More reliable equipments
Regulation of Voltage : Effects of low voltage and low frequency a. It will effect the consumers apparatus adversely. b. Industrial output reduced. c. Performance of electrical equipments will be poor. Hence the voltage and frequency are to be maintained with in the specified security limits. General Guide lines for Voltage Control It is not desirable to transmit the reactive power, It should be locally compensated. Voltage is affected by both active and reactive power. Generators, synchronous condensers should have sufficient reactive margins under normal conditions. Generating stations should generate maximum VAR without affecting active. generation and generators should absorb reactive power during off peak hour and when the voltage is high. Generation of Var can be achieved by idle charging of EHV lines.
Over - Voltage Control : Request power plants to increase VAR absorption with respect. to capability curve. Avoid injection of V AR beyond 103% of voltage. Switching on bus, line and tertiary reactors. Switching off capacitors. Operating OL TC. Operate Hydro generators as synchronous motor. Switching of dial EHT lines.
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Low-Voltage Control : Request the near by power plants to increase the V AR generation. Avoid absorption of V AR below 97% of voltage. Switch off local bus, line and tertiary reactors. Switch on capacitor banks. Changing transformer tap positions. Connect synchronous condensers for VAR generation. Charge radial EHT feeders. Shed low power factor loads.
Frequency Control : Frequency Control is achieved by matching the load with generation. Here the load forecasting and generating scheduling plays a vital role. As per IE rule the variation in frequency upto 3% is allowed. If the frequency goes out of the range either low or high, frequency control is done as detailed below. High Frequency Control : Pumped storage plants can be utilized to contain high frequency. The constituents of the grid may be asked to draw their allocated share of power. Under drawing constituents may shut down their machines to have the scheduled drawl. Backing down of generation in thermal station. The output of the hydel machines may be reduced to reduce the frequency.
Under Frequency Control Increase the active generation in all generating stations. The constituents of the grid may be asked to restrict their drawl as per schedule Local Shedding to be carried out to improve the frequency.
Load Shedding : Manual load shedding Automatic load shedding
Manual Load Shedding: To match the generation with load if the load is more, each sub-station operators are called upon to reduce the load so as to improve the frequency. At the same time, to aviod long and frequent interruptions to an area a roaster of all feeders in all the sub-stations can be prepared and load shedding can be done in rotation among these feeders to improve the frequency. Automatic Load Shedding : Manual load shedding will not be more effective at the time of sudden increase of load or sudden loss of generation. To meet this situation Automatic load shedding is being resorted. For Automatic load shedding a set of feeders are set to trip at a certain under frequency so as to have the grid from under frequency conditions. To meet a sudden huge loss of generation and resultant collapse of the grid an islanding scheme have been devised.
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UF System Protection in TNEB To get separated from southern grid during disturbance the following inter-state feeders are tripped with Reverse Power Flow (RPF) and under frequency relay combination. 400 Kv Sriperumpudur - Cuddappah will trip at 100 MW (Export to Cuddappah) when frequency is less than or equal to 48Hz with time delay of 0.5 sec. 2. 440 Kv Salem- Bangalore will trip at 300,MW (Expert to Bangalore) when frequency is less than of equal to 48 Hz with time delay of 1.0 sec. When these 400 KV feeders gets tripped TNEB with Kerala become separated from Andhra and Kamataka. If the frequency is not improving due to generation and load mismatch load release through under frequency relays set at 47:8Hz / Instantaneous obtained. Selected 110Kv feeders would trip on under frequency relay to effect a load relief of 650 MW. Apart from this certain other feeders set at 47.60 / lost. are tripped to effect additional 150 Mw load relief before islanding occurs. On further decline of frequency persisting sub-islanding scheme to get the following block islands will be effected. I. ETPS (combined with B.B. -GTPS) block 2. GMR Vasavi Diesel Generation block 3. NCTPS (combined with TCPL generation block) 4. Neyveli Thermal Power station block 5. Mettur Thermal Power Station block 6. TTPS Hydro block 47.6 Hz / 0.75 sec 47.6 Hz I 0.75 sec 47.6 Hz / 2 sec 47.6 Hz / 2 sec 47.6 Hz / 2 sec 47.6 Hz / 2 sec 1.
During under frequency conditions (in below 47.6 Hz / 2 sec) islanding will take place and the grid, will be separated into blocks as specified above and the block subjected to generation loss or bulk addition of load will only be collapsed and the rest will besafe and thus this system prevents the total system failure. Kinds of grid disturbance : Tamilnadu & Kerala separated from the southern grid. (Southern Block f separation). Total system black out (Entire system will be collapsed) Partial system block out (Particular point on of the grid gets collapsed) System split-up (Each block gets separated with out failure. Brownout (Voltage collapsed).
Causes for Islanding: Sudden loss of generation due to tripping of machines. Unexpected addition of heavy load. Due to tripping of some important feeders resulting in random flow of power resulting in system instability. Sudden over-drawl of power against the allocated share by the constituents of the grid. More imbalances between generation and load.
As soon as islanding has occurred the frequency is maintained in each block within the limits either by manual load shedding during under frequency conditions or by charging of the feeders tripped on under frequency for load relief during high frequency condition. Power supply from the nearby block is extended to the affected block to synchronize their machines. The loads of the .islanded block are given supply In steps based on the generation achieved in that block. Nearby blocks are get tied matching the frequency of both the blocks. -
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8. SAFETY IN SUB - STATION

Prevention of damages to equipments and men working on them due to any accidents is an essential aspect in any establishment. Prevention of accident which is an unforeseen one is more essential aspect of any establishment/ organisation. As accidents occur mainly due to unsafety execution, action and circumstances, these accidents can be avoided by adopting safety precautions, implementing safety producedures and following saftety rules. General safety methods: 1. 2. 3. While execution of any work, that part of equipment or line is to be isolated from the supply. Using discharge rods, charging, current if any is to be discharged. Using Earth rods, all phases/ conducting path are to be property earthed by securing good earthing. When even opening an AB switch or closing AB switch is also advisable and preferable to wear rubber gloves. Use of belt rope is another safety method to be adopted to work on elevated places. So, after getting proper approval, line clear is to be issued to the requested party. But the issuer and receiver should be aware/ have full knowledge about the SS equipments control room panel details etc., The line clear issuing person should clearly record the following: a. Which breaker have been tripped. b. Which A.B switches were opened. c. Where earthing was done. d. What is the safer place / Line to carry on the execution work. Safety arrangements in control room: 1. Key Board should be in open condition so that the keys could be taken out quickly during any urgency. Line clear keyboard should be in locked up condition to prevent other persons from using the keys inside, before the cancellation of the Line clear permit. The keys should be placed in the key board in an orderly manner according to their numbers. Otherwise, the required lock could not be opened in time and the possibility of opening a wrong lock may happen. 2. 3. Rubber mat should be provided on the floor in front of the panel board. The following details should be clearly displayed in the control room Approved operating instruction for all equipments Break down instructions. Operating instructions including for the emergency operations to be carried out in the event of operation of buck holz relay. Differential relay. Differential relay, Group control trip, total supply failure and grid failure. The operator should be fully conversant with the above instruction and he must be able to act quickly and effectively. 4. The Board containing D.C. cable layout. A cable layout panel wiring diagram and earthing layout should be displayed in the control room. This is necessary to attend the faults immediately after their occurence.
4.
5.
Safety methods to be adopted in Sub - Station: If any work is to be attended to any line, first and foremost item of work is to get proper approval from the competent controlling authority for execution of the work specifying the date, time, duration, place of work, affected parties etc., For Grid feeders and Stations, the authorized officer for issue of approval is S.E. (L.D.Centre),Chennai. For 110KV, 66KV radial feeders superintending Engineer / Distribution is the approving authority. Similarly for 33 KV Divisional Engineer in charge of distribution is the approving authority. Above details with the list of authorisied officers is enclosed herewith (enclosure I). Without obtaining proper approval from the competent authority, no L.C. should be issued nor availed by anybody. If the above procedure is not followed, it is nothing but a suicidal. Further it also amounts to murder of others.
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5. 6.
D.C.Earth leakage test system should be available. There should not be any defective power plugs, switches and bulb holders in the control room wiring. One artificial respirator should be available in ready condition. Stools made of insulating material should be used for operating high tension communication equipments (Telephones). Adequate number of rubber gloves, belt ropes, discharge rods, and earth rods in good condition should be available in the control room.
Safety adopted for transformers: 1. Transformers are to be maintained periodically as per schedule. Switches on HV side and LV side are to be isolated after releasing the load tripping the breakers. 2. Kiosks and OCB: All the Live parts of the Kiosk should have H.T. insulation tape. To be protected by wiremesh. It should be vermin proof. Keys are to be kept with inter lock. Whenever to open the door of the kiosk, kiosk should be tripped link should be opened by the interlock key. The opening of the links are to be verified physiclly. After doing all the above precautions, the tank should be lowered down. Proper care is to be taken and it should be kept in mind that supply is available at the roofing. Oil leak should be arrested. Back feeding is avoided. Cotton waste should not be used for cleaning purpose. AB switches: Handle of the AB Switch is to be earthed properly. Blades should be kept at opening position. It should not be closed automatically, proper maintenance is to be done for this. AB switch blades are to be opened fully. AB switches are to be kept locked on both conditions. AB switches are to be opened only after tripping the breakers. Lightning arresters: Lightning arresters are used to bypass the sudden lightning surges and thereby to protect the equipments. Only after proper discharging is done on lightning is done on lightning arresters, it should be attempted to attend to maintenance. Fencing is to be provided around lightning arresters. Door arrangements with lock is to be provided. Separate earth connections are to be provided for lightning arresters.
7. 8.
9.
Battery room: 1. Battery room should be in locked up condition. Naked flame is prohibited inside of the battery room and Smoking prohibited warnings should be kept written on the battery room door. 2. One exhaust fan should be functioning. 3. Accurate D.C. cell testing volt meters, hydrometers and thermometers should be available in the battery room. 4. Pilot cell voltage, specific gravity and temperature should be taken every week. 5. The specific gravity should not be maintained below 1195 at 15.60C and below 1183 at 32.200C allowed. The battery should not be allowed to discharge below 1160. 6. Cell voltage should be maintained between 1.95V to 2.05V. The battery should not be allowed to discharge below 1.85V. 7. Battery should be allowed neither to overcharge nor to undercharge. It should not also be kept idle. 8. Electrolyte level must be checked in every shift. It must be ensured that the level is 10mm above the top of the plates. 9. Weak cells should be rectified then and there. 10. While taking specific gravity readings, care must be taken not to allow the acid to come in contact with the eyes.
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5. Current transformers: Current transformer secondary side is to be short circuited during maintenance and testing. Before doing any testing, the current transformers are to be discharged. 6. Potential transformers: Potential transformers primary side is to be earthed during maintenance and testing. Secondary side is to be earthed at only one place. Whenever giving connection, or removing meters on the secondary side of the potential transformer, the fuses are to be removed and renewed. 7. Capacitors and H.T. Coupling capacitor: Capacitors should be provided inside fencing. Before attempting to do any work, proper discharging is to be done. Then only it should be attempted for maintenance work. Proper earthing should be provided during the execution of the work. After completion of the work, earthing is to be removed. 8. Earth pits: Sub-Station earth connections should be properly maintained so that the earth resistance is minimum. Water should be poured in the earth pits daily. Earth connections, must be capable of protecting the persons working in the electrical equipments and protect in the equipments during heavy fault current. Earth resistance should not exceed the following limits. Grid Stations: 1 ohm Other sub-stations - 2 ohm Distribution transformers 5 ohm. There must be a clearance of 5 feet, between the sub-station fence and the electrical equipments / live points. The fence should be earthed at every 200 feet, separately. Generally the fence earthing should not be linked with the sub-station earthing. But if the clearance is less than 5ft. feet fence earthing must be linked with the sub-station earthing. The iron gates in the sub-station fence should also be earthed separately.
9. Fire fighting equipments:These equipments are to be kept on good and working condition. Proper schedule of maintenance is to be done for keeping them in good conditions. These equipments should be kept at an easily accessible place so as to use them immediately under emergency. Dry sand heaps are to be available wherever necessary. Empty buckets are to be provided. 10. S.S. Yard: 1. S.S. Yard should be provided with fencing. 2. Unauthorised persons should not enter into the yard. 3. Cable ducts are to be provided with slabs. 4. Best illumination is to be provided for the yard. 5. A warning board with a display that Umbrella stick, dogs should not be brought inside the yard is to be provided at the entrance of the yard. 6. A separate room is to-be provided for keeping the empty drums. At the entrance of the room No smoking Board is to be provided. General: 1. The territory of the work spot which was de clared safety to work is to be clearly identified by tying a rope. Inside this boundary is to be further identified by hanging a green flag. 2. Wherever necessary caution boards like Men on working Dont switch on Safe work etc., are to be provided. 3. If any unauthorised, unskilled staff happen to go near the equipments he can do so with the assistance and under the vigil of an experienced, authorised staff. 4. Conversation is strictly prohibited while execution of any work. It should be totally avoided especially when work is being carried out on any bus bars and kiosk. 5. Placing the materials, tools and plants and men are to be at a safety clearance from the live parts. 6. T & Ps like spanners etc are to be lifted and brought down only by means of ropes and not by throwing and catching.
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7. Study and safe ladder with steps at convenient intervals is to be used. To avoid slippage of the ladder, necessary precaution is to be taken at the bottom of the ladder by providing empty gunnies. 8. Lifting of any ladder or rod: (Earth) are to be done only horizontally. Vertical lifting may cause damages by interrupting with the safe clearances. 9. The bus and line links are to be kept opened while doing work on OCB & OMCB. 10. Summing up, 100% care should be taken in adopting and implementing safety rules and precautions.
Conclusion: In each and every sub-station, action should be taken for adopting safety precautions, so as to avoid accidents. Each and every staff should be well educated about the safety rules, precautions and methods. If everybody is aware of the safety procedures, rules, etc., accidents can be eliminated in sub-stations. Copy of Memo No.EPC/A3/T & P/ Genl. dt.12.12.77 from the Chief Engineer/ Distribution/ 157 Anna Salai, Madras -2 Addressed to Superintending Engineer, Electricity System. GCC North, Central and South, Transmission, Rural Electrification and Line Loss and copy to the Chief Engineer General Operation) Thermal Tuticorin Thermal Power Project.
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9. ABB
CARE
A) STORAGE CARE
(I) CIRCUIT BREAKER GETS DELIVERED IN FOLLOWING MANNER: S.No. ITEMS 1. POLES INSTRUCTION OUTDOOR WELL COVERED
ABOVE HFL 2. ACCESSORIES (DENSITY MONITOR CABLE ETC)., 3. 4. 5. 6. TERMINAL CONNECTOR STRUCTURE DRIVE SWITCH CUBICLE INDOOR INDOOR OUTDOOR INDOOR OUTDOOR ON HORIZONRAL
LEVELLED PLATFORM 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. COPPER PIPES CABLES COMPRESSOR RECEIVER DOUBLE ARC CHAMBER GRADING CAPACITOR RESISTOR STACK INDOOR INDOOR OUTDOOR OUTDOOR OUTDOOR OUTDOOR
REMARK : IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO NOTE THAT EQUIPMENT AS INDICATED ABOVE ARE TO BE STORED INDOOR ONLY. THIS IS TO PREVENT DAMAGES DUE TO INGESS OF DUST, RAIN WATER, ETC. UNTIL INSTALLATION OUTSIDE.
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GUIDE LINES FOR PACKING ADVICE

COMP/ RECEIVER CORE GAS 3.5 KG N.A. N.A. CHAM PNEUMATIC SFG. CAPACITOR CONNECTOR 19 ETU ARC PIPE LINE OF GRADING TERMINAL CABLE DOUBLE STACK QTY RESISTOR STRU ACCESS ORIES CTUR E STE/ CB
TYPE OF
SR.
BREAKER &
NO.
VOLTAGE
POLES
DRIVE
SWITCH
CUBICLE
RATING
1 A.B.1 6 LOT LOT
ELF SF 2-1
(1) 72.5 KV /
N.A.
N.A.
1 SET
145 KV 7.8 KG. N.A.
2 A, B 1 6 LOT LOT
ELF SF 2-1
COVER
(1) 72.5 KV /
ED IN
N.A.
N.A.
1SET
145 KV
POLE
3. A,B 1 KG 6 LOT LOT 8.0
ELF SL 1-1 / N.A. N.A. N.A. 1 1SET
ELF SL 2-1
72.5 KV /
145 KV 1 6 LOT LOT 8.0 K.G. 7.0 K.G. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. 1 1 SET
4.
ELF SL 4-1
245 KV
A,B,C 3
5. 1 2 LOT LOT
ELF SL 4-1
(1 POLE)
1 SET
245 KV)
6. 1 4 LOT
ELF SL 4-1 LOT
(2 POLE)
A,B 2
14.0 K.G. 21.6 N.A. N.A. N.A.
1 SET
245 KV) 1 A,B, 1 6 6 LOT LOT LOT LOT
7.
ELF SL 4-2
245 KV
KG. 30.0K
A,B.C, 3 A,B,C 3
N.A. A,B,C, 6
N.A. 6
1 1
1SET 1SET
8.
ELF SL 6-2
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420 KV A,B, 1 K.G. 8 11 OU OUT DOOR OR IN DOOR DO IN DOOR IN DOOR OUT DOOR IN DOOR T 9 10 12 A,B,C, 6 6 6 LOT LOT 45.0 A,B,C 3.
G. 1 1SET
9.
EL (V) FSL
6-2 420 KV 4 5 6 7
PACKING
BOX NO.
13
14
OUT
DOOR
IN
IN OUT DOOR DOOR
OUT DOOR
STORAGE GUIDANCE
COVERE
D ABOVE
DOOR
IN DOOR
OUT DOOR
RFL
1) UNLOADING PRECAUTIONS
i)
No impact unloading to be done
ii)
Proper equipment like bundle rope, lifting hooks adequate capacity crane.
HFL
HIGHEST FLOOD LEVEL
AB
SEPARATELY PACKED IN 2 BOXES
ABC
SEPARATELY PACKED IN 3 BOXES
ABC * =
SEPARATELY PACKED IN 3 BOXES, EACH BOX COMAINING CORONA RINE
*6&7 =
CABLE 19 CORE REQUIRED LENGTH IS SUPPLIED BASED ON CONTRACT GA DRAWING ALSO RETER PACKING ADVICE
*8
QTY OR GAS REQUIRED QUANTITY OF SF6 GAS IS SUPPLIED IN THE CYLINDER ALSO REFER PACKING ADVICE.
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Approximate Weight With Packing Case Pole Arc Chamber Accessor ies 72.5 & 145kv 1300 Kg 3 Poles In 1 Box With Arc Chamber 245 kv 100kg WITH Arc Chamber 420 Kv 1400 KG 1550 KG Arc chamber 150 KG capacitor 450 KG resistor stack 100 KG 250 KG 350 KG Covered in pole 100 KG 250 Kg 350Kg Covered In Pole 100kg 250kg Drive Switch Cubicle 350kg
B) INSTALLATION CARE 1. PRELIMINARY WORK TO BE ORGANISED PRIOR TO INSTALLATION REQUIRED DOCUMENTS : INSTRUCTION MANUAL GENERALARRANGEMENT DRAWING SCHEMATIC DRAWING ARRANGE THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL VERIFY ALL THE MATERIALS AS PER PACKING LIST. LIFTING DEVICE (HOIST, SLING MANILA ROPE) DS FIXED SPANNER SET. 2 NOS 32-36 MM 42-46 MM. TORQUE WRENCH 10-32 NM 3KGM. - 15KGM. TRICHLORETHYLINE. STARCH LESS & FIBER LESS CLOTH (MUL -MUL) WIRE BRUSH ADHESIVE LUBRICANT LOCTITE 241 MOLYKOTE GREASE - (321-R) 2. AIR SYSTEMS : A). CLEAN THE PIPE LINES AS INDICATED IN SEQUENCE USE PULL THROUGH CLEAN WITH WATER JET BLOW COMPRESSED AIR INSPECT FOR FOREIGN PARTICLES. B) ERMETTO CONNECTIONS USE RIGHT ANGLE CUTTING WITH PIPE CUTTER. CLEAN, APPLY OIL &THEN TIGHTEN. OPEN THE JOINT AND INSPECT FOR FORMATION OF GROOVE IN THE PIPE. FORMATION OF GROOVE INDICATES THAT THE JOINT IS PROPER. C). ALL PIPE JOINTS MUST BE CLAMPED D) ENSURE NO RUBBING BETWEEN PULL ROD AND CHANNEL. FOR SPECIFICATIONS OF GAP REFER DRAWINGS (FOR GANG OPERATED BREAKERS 72.5/ 145KV)
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3) GAS SYTSTEM & FILLING A) Verify the Presence of SF6 Gas By once pressing pin of coupling and listen the sound. B) C) D) E) Do not permit moisture while assembly is made. Unless alarm is connected do not connect gas pipe lines. Use two spanner while connecting or disconnecting gas pipe lines. Temperature correction to be incorporated while making up of SF6 gas in the Breaker by referring pressure temperature chart in the instruction manual .
i.e.
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE 7.0 bar at 20C 7.3 bar at 20C 7.6 bar at 20C
GAUGE PRESSURE 6.0 bar at 20C 6.3 bar at 30C and 6.6 at 40C
f) Approx, Gas weight per circuit Breaker. Type : 72.5 KV 145KV 245KV 7.8 KG 21.8KG 420KV(Without Resistor) 30.00KG 420 (With resistor) 45.0 KG
Weight : 3.5 KG
G). All pipe joints must be Clamped 4) Pole column : Crane capacity Max. Weight / Pole Height / Pole (Height of Crane Hook) A) Matching SR Nos. of Poles with SR Nos of Breaker and Drive. B) While lifting pole column protect gas Coupling from damage. C) Not to insert washer in between POLE COLUMN & STRUCTURE for leveling. D) Density monitor fixing Refer instruction manual. E) Fixing of Driving Mechanism it Should be in Trip Condition for 245 / 400KV Breakers. For more details refer instruction manual. 420KV 3 Ton 13 Metres 245KV 2 Ton 10 Metres 145KV 1.5 Ton 8 Metres
C) COMMISSIONING CARE
A) Check SF6 Leakage with detector (Joints must be covered with polythene bag for at least 2 Hours). Insert the probe of leak detector inside polythene bag & Check the Leakage. B) Ensure SF6 Gas going into all 3 phases. Can be achieved by first filling in central pole to normal pressure. Then connect inter-pipe and observe pressure dropping to Half. Rise the pressure once again to normal. Connect Remaining inter-pipe and Observe Pressure Dropping to 2/3. During this period verify density monitor contacts refer (D) finally make up the pressure to the normal pressure.
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C) Check operation of closing interlock while filling air pressure in 245/ 420 KV Breakers. D) Ensure that 245KV and 420 KV Breakers have their own close blocking devices. They should never be interchanged. E) Verify density monitor : Verify contacts & alarm for Refill, While reducing the gas pressure level. (Refer OPERATING & instruction Manual). F) Verify Breaker timings CLOSE OPEN CO G) Never By pass gas density monitor contactor as well as air pressure switch contacts. H) Apply very thin layer of Grease on Tip of the Density Monitor Plug. Then insert the plug inside the socket. Listen Carefully for A Click Sound, to confirm full insertion. I) Check All electrical interlocks are incorporated in the circuit. R Y B
J) Flush air pipes several Times.
D) DAILY CARE
Drain the condensate during early Morning Hours. Draining Should Continue All compressor starts. Record the time in minutes from start of compressor until it stops.
E) QUARTERLY CARE
Q.1. External Cleaning of Insulator Switch cubicle cleaning Check wiring connection in switch cubicle Compressor Compressed Air Plant Prior to monsoon and as & when Shutdown is available or deposits are too thick. Dust / Dirt to be removed. Open the switch cubicle & Remove webs/ dust. Check wiring connection Tightly secured. Check healthiness of relay, Contactors, Etc. Check & Compare the Running Time. Maintenance to be carried out as per instruction manual check for any leakage, check oil leakage, check for alarm, non Return valve to be opened & Cleaned, Verify motor thermal overload is working or not. Check by reducing the pressure up to requisite value. The Switch should enter into blocking zone at specified pressure. Healthiness of alarm can be verified by shorting electrical circuit, not by draining SF6 Gas.
Q.2. Q.3 Q.4. Q.5.
Q.6.
Pressure switch in switch cubicle Verification of SF6 Alarm
Q.7.
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T1) Trouble shooting chart for SF6 circuit Breaker

Type of Condition A. Gas Alarm Possible Cause i) If alarm, had come after a very long time and leakage not heavy. Recommended corrective Measures a) Make up the gas pressure with the help of gas refilling device & temperature correction chart Absolute pressure Gauge Pressure 7.0 Bar at 200C 7.3 Bar at 200C 7.6 Bar at 200C 6.0 Bar at 200C 6.3. Bar at 300C 6.6 Bar at 400C
b) If felt necessary then plan the shutdown for searching the leakage and attending leakage thereof ii) If alarm comes on frequently and the leak rate is high : ii) CHECK :1) Electrical Circuit 2) Gas pipe Braze Joints 3) Gas pipe Couplings. 4) Insulator joints. 5) Lip seal Assembly.
Procedure for Checks :

Check Healthiness of leak detector The joints to be covered with bags for at least 2 Hrs. The insert the probe of leak detector inside bag & check. If required, replace/ repair the leak joints / gaskets.
This trouble shooting charts are for handy guidelines, do not Hesitate to contact us for any further clarifications details at the nearest ABB office (Addresses given on the back-cover page)
Type of condition B. Circuit Beaker Does not Operate at Impulse to
Possible Cause

Recommended corrective Measures CHECK & CORRECT :

No or Low control voltage. Close impulse blocked. Control Circuit interrupted. Magnet ventil plunger sticky. Aux. Switch element. Density Monitor Cable. Tripping Plunger Solenoid in lifted position.
Positions of Switch Control Voltage Pressure Switch Contacts. Density Monitor Contacts. Magnet Ventil piston.
close.
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C)
Circuit
No or Low control voltage. Opening impulse blocked. Control circuit interrupted. Aux. Switch element. Density Monitor cable. Magnet ventil plunger stickly.
CHECK & CORRECT :

Breaker does not operate at
Positions of Switch Control Voltage Pressure Switch contacts. Density Monitor Contacts. Magnet ventil piston.
impulse to open.
D) Circuit Beaker Operates Without impulse.
Short Circuit or fault in connecting with control Circuit.
CHECK & CORRECT :
Circuit diagram for voltage Control lest insulation.
Check Plunger.
Insulation of Coils.
E) Circuit Breaker Hunting
Faulty anti-pumping relay.
CHECK & CORRECT :
Control Circuit. Anti pumping relay. Clean & Lubricate contact surface in stipulated manner. Reassemble and check resistance.
F) Erosion.
Contact
Overheating. Warn arcing contacts large No.of operations (Refer Manual)
Refer instruction manual for the no. of operations versus fault current. For further guidance please contact nearest ABB office.
G)
Single
Pole (pole
Electrical of Mechanical Fault in operating Device.
Locate Faulty pole. Check Driving Mechanism. As well as Magnetic ventiles.
operation
Discrepancy).
Check Electrical Circuit.
TROUBLE SHOOTING CHART FOR COMPRESSOR

Type of condition A) Compressor Frequently runs or runs for A longer duration. Possible Cause Leakage in

Recommended corrective Measures
Replace / Repair leaky joints.
Pipe Line Joints. Audible leakage in Circuit Breaker.
B) Compressor Fails to start or motor gets overloaded. C) Oil Contamination in pressurized air system.
Non return valve. Not Working.
Replace
Non
return
valve
or
springs of Non Return valve or clean and refill.
Dirty Oil/ Oil Level low. Cylinder and intercollertins dirty.
Change Oil, Fill correct Grade of oil up to maximum level in the oil level indicator.
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Blow with compressed air or clean Manually.
Open,
Clean
&
Refill
after
checking. D) Oil contamination in pressurized air system.

Choked air filter. Oil level high. Oil viscosity too low.
Clean the air filter. Drain oil to Correct level. Change to recommended grade. Open, clean & refit after checking Remove piston and loosen ring. Replace if broken. Check all
Breather valve not working.
Piston rings stuck in grooves or broken.
Piston to cylinder clearance excessive.
related parts for wear before fitting.
E) Water or rust formation in crank Housing F) Unusual water in Cylinder Piston and Rings.
Faulty breather
Check & Replace the Breather valve if necessary.
Inadequate maintenance.
air
filter
Increase frequency of cleaning. Change to correct grade of oil as given in recommended lubricant chart.
Incorrect grade of oil.
G) Compressor knocking
Loose Compressor fan fly wheel,
Adjust or replace if elongated Open and re-tighten. Open, clean & refit after careful check.
Worn out piston, cylinder, crank, shaft & connecting rod bearings.
Replace after checking the related components.
H) Pressure build up time excessive.
Loose belts. Leaky lines. joints in pressure
Adjust or replace if elongated Open and re-tighten. Open, Clean & Refit after careful check.
Defective seating of inlet & delivery valve plats
Replace after checking the related components.
I) Excessive Belt wean.
Incorrect compressor alignment.
motor
and pulley
Check, adjust using a straight edge or string across the diameter of both the pulleys.
Check belt adjustments. Open clean and refit breather. Loosen the piston rings if broken change the rings as a set.
J) Oil leak through Breather
Breather valve not working. Piston ring stuck in grooves. Piston to cylinder clearance excessive.
Check and change.
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10. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENT OF CURRENT AND POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS

Er. M.VARADARAJAN B.E., CE/ Retd In Electrical Power system, when a fault occurs it should be isolated with minimum time delay and without affecting other portions of the network. The above task of selective disconnection of the faulted line or equipment can be achieved only when careful choice of the following equipments and detailed analysis of condition of the system are made. 1. Current Transformer 2. Potential Transformer. 3. Circuit Breaker 4. Relay 5. Station Battery 6. Control Cable 7. Station Earthing. Wrong choice of any of the equipments may result in delayed clearance or no clearance of the fault at all. 1. CURRENT TRANSFORMERS The performance requirement can be classified under three broad categories, based on application. (A) Over current protection for HV feeders like 11KV, 22KV, 33KV and 66 KV feeders, transformers. (B) Protection of EHV feeders like 110KV 230KV and 400 KV. (C) Differential protection of Bus bar, Tansformer lines etc., (A) OVER CURRENT PROTECTION The requirment for A is normally met by Indian Standard Specification IS :2705 Part III, and that for C IS : 2705 Part IV. For application B is 2705 Part VI are insisted. The salient features of each specification is disussed. A) The following are the major requirements. 1. Burden 2. Accuracy Class 3. Rated Accuracy Limit factor. 1) Burden The impedance of the secondary circuit expressed in Ohms and Power factor. The burden is usually expressed in volt ampere absorbed at a specified power factor and at the rated secondary current. The importance of the secondary circut is normally the vectorial addition of burden of relay, cable leads and any meters connected in series. Power factor is normally 0.8 Normal available burdens are 15 and 39 V.A. 2) Accuracy Class : Standard accuracy class are 5P, 10P and 15P and their details of error are as noted below :
ratio error at rated Primary current Phase displacement at rated primary current Composite error at rated accuracy limited primary Current.
1) 5 P 2) 10 P 3) 15 P
1% +60 minutes 5% 3% 10% 5% 15%
Before commissioning, the adequacy of the C.T. burden shold be carefully worked out. If the CT gets saturated due to heavy fault current, the relay operating time will increase considerably. If it is found that the CT gets saturated, the following suggestion can be considered to avoid Saturation. 1) Increase CT Ratio 2) Disconnect the instantaneous on LV side to reduce the fault current so that each transformer will feed certain number of feeders in a Sub-station. 3) Avoid parallelling of transformer on LV side to reduce the fault current so that each transformer will feed certain number of feeders in a Sub-station. 4) Disconnect the instantaneous element in the earth fault relay element. 5) Change the CT. B. CT FOR EHV FEEDERS PROTECTION In the IDMT relay for 11 KV, 22KV & 33KV feeders the minimum operating time will be above 100ms. The D.C. Transient normally associated with fault current for 11, 22 and 33 KV system will die down within 20ms. But in 230 and 400 KV system the maximum relay operating time is 40 m.s. and typical relay operating time is about 20 to 30 m.s. only. The duration of D.C. transient depend upon the time constant of the system from generating source to the point of fault. For 230 KV system it may vary from 16ms to 100 ms. For 400 KV system it may vary from 40m.s. to 100 m.s. The D.C. transient will be reduced to less than 2% of its full value after the duration of 4 times of its time constant. The presence of DC transient in the primary fault current will saturate the current transwformer. In order to avoid the saturation, the current transformer has to be over dimensioned. The CT has to be over dimensioned to (1+ X/ R) times the steady state condition. The CT requirement for EHV feeder protection is given as follows:1. Knee point voltage 2. Secondary resistance 3. Accuracy class. The sinusoidal voltage at rated frequency applied to the secondary terminals of the transformer,
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all other windings being open circuted, which when increased by 10%, causes the exciting current to increase by 50%. The general formula for the CT Knee point voltage for EHV feeder protection is : Vk=(X/ R +1) Lf (RCT+RL+RR) Where Vk = knee point voltage X/ R = Reactance to resistance ratio from source to point of fault. If = Primary fault current as expressed in terms of secondary value i.e. Primary fault current divided by CT transformation ratio. RCT = CT secondary resistance RL = Resistance of the cable lead from CT to relay RR = Resistance of the relay In Tamilnadu Electricity Board, for 230 KV system the following are the specifications. CT ratio : 1200 -600/ 1A, normally adopted 600/1 Accuracy Class 5P20/ Vk = 1200 Volts Burden = 50VA CT Secondary resistance : 6 Ohms. In static relay the resistive burden is about 1 Ohm only. The lead burden seldom exceeds 1 Ohm. The fault current is about 600/1 CT ratio, If = 10 Amps. Hence 1200 = (X/R+1) (10) (6+1+1) X/R = (1200 / 80) -1 15-1=14 In 230 KV system the X/R will vary from 5 to 30. It will be less than 10 in most of the locations away from the generating station. Here the saturation can be saved by increasing the CT ratio to 1200. Further in actual fault condition there is always the resistance of the Arc. This may vary from 1 to 5 Ohms depending on the fault current. Addition of the Arc resistance will reduce the X/R ratio. Further, the knee point voltage is always in excess of 1200V. Therefore correct peromance of the relay is always assured under transient condition also. Composite error : Under steady condition, the RMS value of the difference, initegrated over one cycle between a) instantaneous value of the primary current and b) The product of the rated transformation ratio and the instantaneous value of the secondary current. (This includes the effects of phase difference of any turn correction and distortion of wave form). This is generally expressed as a percentage of the RMS value of the expression given below. Composite Error = 100 / IP 1/T (Knis-ip)2dt IP = Primary current T = Duration of the cycle in second . K = Rated transformation ratio. Is = Instantaneous value of the secondary current Ip = Instantaneous value of the primary current.
3. RATED ACCURACY LIMITED FACTOR. The value of the accuracy limit factor for which the accuracy requirements of this specification are most at rated burden. The standard accuracy limit factors are 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30.
400-200/1 Amp. 15 (or 30) VA, 5p15. It means that when primary current of 200 Amps flow, the secondary current will be 1 amp and can feed a burden of 15 ohms (30). When the primary current reaches, 15 times the rated value, the CT can still feed the burden of 15(30) Ohms and the composite error will not exced 5 percent in the transformation. Practically in TamilNadu Electricity Board it is normal practice to provide two (three) over current IDMT relays each with instantaneous element as shown in the diagram. The burden of the IDMT relay at 100% plug setting is 3 V.A. For one amp rated relay it is equal to 3 Ohms. For over current relay the normal practice is to adopt 100% and for earth fault relay 40% plug setting. For O/L element the burden is 3 Ohms (Z) for E/L elements it is Z=3 (0.4)2 Z=3 Z=3/0.16 = 18.7 Ohms. App. The burden of instantaneous element is 5VA or 5 ohms. Hence the total burden in series for an earth fault will be Z O/L ins + Z O/L IDMT + Z EL IDMT = 5+3+5 +18.7 = 13.7 ohms. The current practice in TamilNadu Electricity Board is to use CT of 30 VA.This will develop 450V at its output i.e. 30 x 15 =450. The impedance (Z) and current can vary so that the product should not exceed 450V. In a sub-station where 3 Nos, 110KV/ 22KV, 10 MVA transformers with 10% impedance each are provided, the fault MVA will be 300 when infinite bus is assumed on HV side, Under actual condition the fault MVA will be about 2/3 of this value i.e. 200 MVA. The fault current on LV side will be about 5,200 Amps. When 300/1 Amp CT is used, CT secondary current will be 17.3 Amp. Apparently it may look that with 31.7 Ohms burden, CT will not develop sufficient voltage to drive this current (31.7 x 17.3 = 548.4v). But in the case of IDMT relay, as current increases, core in the relay saturates and the relay burden will reduce to 40% of its value at 10 times the current setting. So the O/L and E./L burden (3+18.7) = 12.7 ohms will be reduced to 8.68 ohms and the total burden will be 18.68 ohms The
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CT will have to develop 16.68 x 17.3 = 323.16V only. The relay will act correctly . Since the feeder IV will be carrying the total current of feeder to III, there is a possiblity that under D.C. transient condition, the CT in this feeder will get saturated. Assuming that the CT is fully saturated and there is no secondary current circulating in feeder IV, then the total current circulation in the circuit due to feeder I to III will develop a voltage due to secondary resistance as given below :C) CT Requirement for High Impedance Differential Relays In this relaying scheme the current entering the bus is compared with the current leaving the bus. In case of fault in the bus, the flow of the current is always towards the bus and the relay operates (A). In case of fault outside the bus (B) the current entering the bus is equal to the current leaving the bus. Hence the relay does not operate. But this is an ideal condition which is not normally met in actual condition. For this application, ratio error should be very minium i.e. the excitation current should be low. For purpose of analysis figure B is redrawn with two feeders only. (i) When CT is not saturated :
If in this case a resistance of 140 ohms is introduced, the current is reduced to 0.5 Amps and the operation of relay is prevented. Further CT III will have to develop 2x70 = 140 volts. For differential protection a separate accuracy class is introduced in the Indian Standard as PS class IS : 2705 part IV. In this class the following details are specified. 1) Knee point voltage Vk 2) CT secondary resistancce Rct 3) Excitation current at a certain point of Vk This should be very minimum. In Tamil Nadu Electricity Board for 230 KV system for the bus bar protection the following standards are specified. 1) CT ratio : 1200 / 1A 2) Vk above 1000V 3) Rct = 6 ohms 4) Excitation current below 30 mill Amps at Rk/2 The above specification will ensure current operation of relay under most severe fault condition. 2. POTENTAL TRANSFORMERS A. For potential transformers two standards are specified : 1) Metering 2) Protection 1) Metering : IS: 3156 Part II Class Percentage Voltage
ii) When CT is Saturated :
Phase displacement (Ratio error) Minutes 0.1 0.1 5 0.2 0.2 10 0.5 0.5 20 1 1 40 3 3 .. The performance of PT shall be with in this range from 80% to 120% rated voltage with burden between 25 and 100% at 0.8 power factor lagging. 2) Protection : IS : 3156 Part III. Class Percentage Voltage Phase displacement Percentage In Minutes 3 3 120 5 5 300 The performance of the PT shall be within this range at any voltage from 5 to 120% of rated voltage with burden between 25 percentage and 100 percentage at 0.8 P.F lagging. Under fault condition the primary voltage actually goes down. Only true transformation of primary voltage is required under reduced voltage level. Hence no over-dimensioning is required. Because of this, single core is used both for metering and protection. With the introduction of static relay, the load due to protective relay is 1 VA, where as the total burden due to many meters will be as high as
When the CT is not saturated, the voltage across the relay terminal -AB is Zero. But when CT IV is fully saturated, the voltage is I (Rct +RL). When Rct =6 ohm, RL =1ohm, If I=10 Amp, Voltage accross AB 70V. The impedance of the relay is approximately 1 ohm. The operating current of the relay is usually less than 1 Amp. The 70 V will drive a heavy current through the relay and the relay will operate which should not occur for a fault out side the bus. In order to avoid the operation of relay resistance of suitable value is introduced in the relay circuit.
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15 to 20 VA. Hence, normally only one core is specified which is expected to meet the specifation both for metering and protection. The following precaution should be taken In selection of PT for protection purpose Three Nos. single PTs or a PT with a five limbed core should be used. Three limbed core should not be used for protection purpose. In three limbed PT both positive and negative sequence voltages will be correctly transformed, but there is no path for zero sequence flux and it will not be correctly transformed. There are two types of PTs available, viz (A) Electromagnetic and (B) Capacitive voltage transformers.
(A) Electromagnetic PT: Electromagnetic PT is just like any other transformer. Only difference is the large transformation ratio such as 1000 or 2000. (B) Capacitive voltage Transformer: It is actually a capaccitance voltage divider with, auxilary transformer. The transformation ratio of auxilary VT is 11KV/ 3/110/3 irrespective of primary voltage divider suitably adjusted. Performance-wise there is no problem with electromagnetic PT. But the cost of electromagnetic PT is higher than CVT at 230 KV level and very much higher at 400 KV level. So it is normal practice to use CVT at 230 KV and higher voltage level. From the examination of figure B, it can be seen that the CVT is a series resonance circuit. During fault condition when the high voltage point is grounded, the charge in the condenser discharges and a sub-harmonic resonance frequency voltage is induced in the secondary of CVT. This voltage becomes predominant when the primary voltage falls bellow 10% of this rated value. As per I.S, this voltage should decay to less than 10% of the peak value before the short circuit, within one cycle of the power frequency. For 50 Hz system this time is 20 m.s. With fast acting relay, this subharmonic voltage will introduce two problems. 1) 2) Wrong directional response Error in measurement of impedance in case of distance protection
This problem is solved by the following methods: 1) The duration of the sub-harmonic voltage can be considerably reduced by loading the PT to its full burden. The relay measurement is inherantly delayed by half to 1 cycle duration. In the relay, the PT voltage is filtered by a filter, tuned to power frequency. This filter is automatically introduced when the voltage falls below 15% of the rated voltage.
2) 3)
So, a careful choice of relaying scheme should be made when CVT is used. Further connection of any auxilary PT should be avoided out-side CVT circuit as it may lead to series resonance. In Tamil Nadu Electricity Board, 0.5 class with 500 VA burden is specified for the Bust VT for protection and metering. The details given above are an over-all view of the performance requirement of current and potential transformers. Since generating capacity, transmission lines and transformer capacity are increasing day by day. It is the primary duty of the protection Engineer to review the entire protection system periodially and make modification if required to improve the performance. REFERENCE 1) IS 2705 part I to IV specification for current Transformers. 2) IS 3156 part I to IV specification for voltage Transformers. 3) Protective Relays Application Guide by GSC Measurements.
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11. SEQUENTIAL QUESTIONS FOR OPERATION OF 110/11KV SUB STATION

Er.H.KAILASARAMAN, M.E., MIE., Executive Engineer/TNEB (Retd.) I. OPERATION INSTRUCTIONS AND OPERATION : 01. 02. 03. 04. 05. What is an operating Instruction? What are the advantages of operation Instructions? Is operation responsible for any happening in the Sub Station? Describe the operational stability to be exercised by the duty operator How a new operator is to be acquainted with the operation of Sub Station? (PARELLEL AND REVERSE PARALLEL SHIFTS)
II
LOG BOOK AND LOG SHEET : 06. 07. 08. Define Log Book and Log Sheet What are the events to be recorded in Log Book? Are operational events to be recorded then and there (or) after completing the specified sequence of operations What are the Parameters recorded in Log sheet
09.
III. LAYOUT UNDERSTANDING : 10. How will you understand the Layout of SS defining the feeding arrangements, controlled isolation arrangement, Power and voltage transfer using transformer, Protective arrangement etc. Which are all the areas in a sub station, where operations have to be carried out. Classify the operations to be performed for which the operating instruction should be available What is the operational equipment to control and isolate the area What is the sequenced procedures to cut off loads and isolate the area
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11. 12.
13. 14.
15. 16.
Why the isolators are called potential isolators? What are the two types of isolators employed in Sub Station and define their usage in its specific location. What do you mean by Inter Lock and define its benefits What are the statistical practical information to be available for the specific operations areas, defined in 11
17. 18.
IV. CONTROLLING BREAKERS : 19. What are the types of breakers employed in SS based on various are quenching mediums What are the types of operating mechanisms employed for the operation of the above breakers How a closing spring of a spring and lever operated mechanism is sequenced for its loading for a subsequent closing operation Is spring loading by motor operation comes with lamp indication in your panel. How will you release the load of spring while giving line clear How a pneumatic (AIR) operated mechanism is sequenced for operation with Air pressure in its reservoir and define cut off/cut in pressure Are you conversant with these cut off/cut in pressures relating to the breakers of pneumatic mechanism, in your SS Are you watching the compressor Run indication lamps, such breakers in your control panel What do you infer, if the compressor is continuously running Are you competent to take remedial operation measures, if such exigency arises. Is there any protective arrangement to trip the breaker automatically, if Air becomes low (or) is the breaker opening operation is locked automatically. In such Air Lockout cases, what will you do to isolate the breaker from service. What do you mean by condensate in the Air reservoir and measures taken by the operator to release the same.? Is it necessary to release the air in the reservoir before giving a line clear for the breaker?
20.
21.
22. 23.
24.
25.
26. 27. 28.
29. 30.
31.
32.
In case of SF6 Gas medium breaker, Are you conversant with working pressures of SF6 gas, exhibited with colour indication (Green, Yellow, Red) Will you trip the breaker with load if SF6 pressure is becoming low beyond the working limit.? In such gas lock out case how will you isolate the breaker from the system. Are you conversant with the operation of all the breaker i.e. close and open by (a) locally mechanically (b) locally electrically (c) by remote electrically (d) tripping thro relays What do you understand by (a) Normal current carrying capacity of breaker (b) Rupturing capacity of breakers (MVA (or) Amps) What do you know about Fault level of the Sub Station and how it signifies with the employment of controlling breakers?
33.
34. 35.
36.
37.
V. PROTECTIVES SYSTEMS & SCHEMES ; 38. What is the protective scheme available for 11KV feeders and for 110KV feeders at sending end ? What are the protective schemes for the power transformer What do you mean about back up protection Define the back up protection for 11KV feeders, Transformers. What are all the equipments and elements available for protection in association with each controlling breaker? Is potential Transformer (P.T.) associated with protection in the radial sub station? What do you know about Flag indication of Relay? Is operation conversant with the significance of flag indication and how to reset it? If a tripping thro Relay occurs, when do the operator reset this Flag i.e. before or after normalizing? Why the flags are to be reset before normalizing? What is meant by Master Relay and where it is employed?
39. 40. 41. 42.
43. 44. 45. 46.
47. 48.
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49.
Will there be a Master Relay from each transformer (or) for the whole transformer bank? What will happen, if healthy Transformer is normalized without resetting the Flag indication of Master Relay?. What are the possible, conditions, when Master Relay Flag could not be reset? What the operator should do to enable for resetting the Master Relay in such conditions? What is the importance of Annunciation legend each controlling area, in the annunciation panel.? Are you conversant with the available annunciation for each controlling area? What is the significance of Accept and cancel the indication in the annunciation WINDOW?
50.
51. 52.
53.
54. 55.
VI. D.C. SYSTEM AND A.C. SYSTEM : 56. 57. 58. What is the importance of the D.C. System What are the components of a D.C. System What are the probable trouble shooting in the D.C. system and quick remedial measures the operation should take on such exigencies?. Why should the operate be conversant with location of D.C. fuses in the panel of controlling areas. Describe the use of A.C. supply system in the various operational areas of SS and strum its importance Is the operation conversant with measures for availing alternate A.C. supply in case of exigencies. Why it is important that the operator should know the location of A.C. fuses in the control panel What the operation should practise for familiarizing such location of D.C. fuses and A.C. fuses.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
VII. SHIFT TAKE OVER : 64. What are all the items to be checked while taking over shift duties
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VIII. NORMAL OPERATION : 65. 66. What do you mean by normal operating condition What are all the observations and checks to be exercised by the operator for the normal condition of operation Is the operator conversant with the statistical information about the operational area as defined in (X-18) Is the operator able to perform the ON Low Tap Changer operation by (i) Remote (ii) Electrically at site (iii) Mechanically at Site. What is meant by Master/Follower control for trip operation Why the transformer should not be set at different taps What is the procedure change the tap if Master/Follower control is not employed? Can the tap be changed for raising the voltage level at the tail end of the feeders What is the significance of tap 9A, 9B & 9C in tap changing? Is the operation familiar with any specific condition imposed for parallel operation of types due to unequal % impedance.
67.
68.
69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74.
IX
SHUT DOWN/LINE CLEAR OPERATION : 75. 76. 77. What do you mean by shut down operation? What do you mean by Line Clear? What the sequence of procedure to be carried out by the operator for shut down L.C. work? What are the sequence of procedure for normalizing after completion of shut down and L.C. work? What is L.C. key board and why it should be kept under lock and key? Is the operation to perform the operation, discharge and earthing personally with the assistance of SS Shift (or) can it be entrusted to others? What are all the items (T&P and consumables) that can be maintained with the custody of operator? What is the significance of keeping discharge rod and earth rods in operaors custody ?
78.
79. 80.
81.
82.
83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89.
Who is the issuer and L.C. in sub station and what is his responsibility ? Who is the receiver of L.C. and what is his responsibility ? Why AE/maintenance of sub station issue L.C. ?
Who are authorized personnel for issue and receipt of line clear What is the necessity for placing and a ladder in SS equipment under L.C.
What are other safety measures to be adopted during L.C. works Do you know that the operator is officially responsible for issue of L.C. in the entire 11KV feeders
90.
Do you also know that be can limit issue of L.C. upto the first series suited of the 11KV feeder the AE/Distribution to avail L.C. of their own, since he is also incharge of the supply on that feeder Whether AE/Distribution can avail L.C. on 11KV feeders of his jurisdiction (or) avail back feeding without informing to the operation Whether the operator should be properly informed AE/Distribution to record all operation performed in the 11KV feeders What are the types of L.C. and the role of the operator and care to be exercised by him in such L.C. Define L.C. permit form and describe the procedures for issue and return of L.C. thro this form
91.
92.
93.
94.
X. BLINK : 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. What is meant by blink and how it serves for minimizing the interruption What is normal duration of blink What is return of blink If duration of blink is extended, what the operator is to do Whether the responsibility can be fixed on the personnel who obtained the blink, if the duration is unnecessarily extended Is the blink can be considered as L.C. What are all the other safety aspects of the blink
100. 101.
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102.
List out operating sequence for availing the shutdown in the operational areas defined in (X) 11
XI. TRIPPING AND BREAK DOWN : 103. 104. 105. Define sequence of instruction for tripping/declaring break down of a 11KV feeder What are the sequence of operation, if L.V. breakers trips as a back up protection. How will you distinguish a tripping of L.V. and G.C. breaker for a transformer failure or for a through fault. Define sequence of operation if (a) Temporary alarm of Transformer (b) MOG alarm of Transformer (c) Buchholz Relay top float of Transformer What are the operating sequence if Master Relay act (Buchholz Relay bottom and other transformer protective Relays) If power transformer failure is observed, can be test charge the transformer What the operator should do if main supply fails due to load shedding What the operator should do if main supply fails due to tripping of 110KV feeder Can G.C. be tripped directly with load for any emergency.
106.
107.
108. 109. 110. 111.
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12. LINE CLEAR

1. All works on electric al equipments, switchgear, and auxiliary equipments shall be covered by proper line clears issued by the operators. 2. Line clears shall be issued by the Operators on duty to authorized persons only. A statement of the powers of J.Es and S.O. s and subordinate staff in respect of the issue and respect of the issue and receipt of line clears is given below:-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-xx-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-xxGrade of Employee Powers to issue and receive line clear Special authorities (Electrical) by virtue of the post held action by Divisional Engineer ( Electrical). (1) (2) (3) -x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-xx-x-x-x-x-x-x1. (a) Junior Engineers All lines and equipments up to Not necessary. S.O. I Grade upto 230 K.V With at least One year experience. (b) Junior All lines and equipments upto Engineers & 110 K.V. s.o. S-I Grade and special-Grade Foremen 2. Section officer II Grade Lines and equipments rated 66.K.V. and below. Special authorisation for 230 K.V.
Lines and equipments Rated 110. K.V.
NOTE:(i) Line clears on Lines or equipments should be issued only by the persons who are in direct charge of the lines or equipments concerned. (ii) Switch board operators/ attendants in independent charge of station, will be treated on par with L.I. but are authorized to only issue and cancel line clears. (iii) Construction Staff will rank on par with their counterparts in the maintenance branch and will be authorized to only receive and return line clears. (iv) When a Wireman has to function as lineman or lineman operator, he should be authorized by name by the Divisional Electrical Engineer on the recommendations of Assistant Engineer ( Electrical). (v) In small stations where Assistant wireman functions as Wireman for normal duties, authorization should be by the Divisional Electrical Engineer. (vi) Helpers should not be treated as authorized persons and should work under the guidance of higher category-officials except selected men in isolated stations who may be authorized by name, when necessary, by Divisional Electrical Engineer on the recommendations of Assistant Engineer, Electrical.
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1. The person applying for line clear should satisfy himself that the equipment on which line clear is being issued for his work is properly and completely isolated on all sides and it is safe for work. 2. Two numbers key boards should be maintained in all substations, one to keep the keys of all the equipments/ line in service, and the other for accommodating the keys of equipments/line out on line clear. The two key boards should be kept under lock and key by the operator on duty. 3. Only one switch operation shall be done at a time by the Assistant operator taking that particular single key only from the operator and after each individual operation the key shall be returned to the operator. The Assistant operators, on receiving the keys from the operator, shall check that the correct key has been handed over to him for the operation involved. A number of keys pertaining to a series of switch operations either for issue of line clear or resumption of normal service should not be handed over to the Assistant operator, by the operator by only one key shall be given at a time for a particular switch operation, although this may entail a larger time for completing the series of operations. This is with a view to avoid non-sequential operations thereby resulting in wrong operations or omission of certain switch operations. 4. The Operator shall verify the isolation of the equipment by checking the semaphore indication wherever possible as and when the switchgear keys are returned to him. The keys of the equipments on the line clear shall be kept in the separate Line clear key board and handed over to relieving operator at the end of the shift. 5. Key of an equipment or switchgear which is the point of isolation for a particular equipment on line clear shall not on any account be given to any person including the person taking line clear, till the line clear is returned. 6. After isolation, Men on lineDo not switch on board shall be fixed at each and every point of isolation in such a way that the board cannot be removed unless the lock is opened. After isolation and discharging green flags and Safe for work boards shall be put on the equipment conspicuously. 7.. When the operations for the isolation of the equipments are over, the operator shall issue line clear to the person who requisitioned for the same in the standard line clear form. 8. The line clear shall be returned only by the person who took the line clear. If it is necessary to transfer a line clear in the course of the maintenance work to some other person, it shall be done by return of the line clear by the person, it shall be done by return of the line clear by the person who first took the L.C. and then the Operator should issue a fresh L.C. to the other person. 9. Before returning the L.C. the person who took the L.C. shall see that the equipment is clear of all materials and earth and is in normal condition ready for service. 10. After the return of the L.C. the Assistant Operator should check that the equipment is clear of men, material, and earth and report the same to the Operator. The operator shall then cancel the L.C. and give the proper key to the Assistant Operator for closing the concerned switches, etc., one at a time, the Assistant operator also should see that the operations are carried out only in respect of the equipment which was on line clear and has been released for service, now. Then the equipment should be serviced.
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13. VOLTAGE VARIATION IN POWER TRANSFORMERS

1: GENERAL Rapid growth of industries and distribution network has resulted in voltage variation in electrical systems. For the healthiness of the electrical equipments and their performance it is very much essential to maintain the system voltage within the prescribed limits. Voltage of the system can be varied by changing the transformation ratio of the transformer, by adding in or cutting out turns of primary or secondary windings. Basically, Tap Chan ging equipment can be divided into: a. OFF-CIRCUIT Tap Changer. b. ON-LOAD Tap Changer. 1.1: OFF-CIRCUIT TAP CHANGER: The cheapest method of changing the turns ratio of a transformer is by using OFFCIRCUIT Tap-Changer. As the name implies, it is essential to de-energise the transformer while changing the tap. An OFF-CIRCUIT Tap-Changer mainly consists of the following three parts [Fig.1.1] : a. Operating handle, projecting outside the transformer. b. Fixed contacts with connecting ter minals, arranged in circular form. c. Insulated shaft with moving contacts. The various circuit arrangements using OFF-CIRCUIT Tap-Changer are a. Linear b. Single bridging c. Double bridging d. Series parallel e. Star-delta.. To prevent unauthorized operation of an OFF-CIRCUIT Tap changer, a mechanical lock is usually provided. Sometimes, to prevent inadvertent operation, an electromagnetic latching device or a micro switch is provided to open the circuit breaker and thereby to de-energise the transformer, while operating the handle and well before the movement of contacts on tap switch. 1.2: ON - LOAD TAP CHANGER: Tap changing ON-LOAD has become necessary * To maintain a constant secondary voltage with a varible primary voltage. * To control the secondary voltage with a variable primary voltage. * To control the flow of reactive KVA between two Generation - systems or to adjust reactive KVA branches of loop circuits. * To control the division of power between branches of loop-circuits by shifting the phase angle position of the output voltage of a transformer. Now-a-days, almost all large power transformers are fitted with OLTC and with the introduction of OLTC, the operating efficiency of the electrical system has considerably improved. The principle of on-load tap changing was developed in late 1920s and requires a mechanism which will need the following two conditions. * The load current should not be interrupted during a tap change. * No section of winding should get short circuited during a tap change. All forms of ON-LOAD Tap chan ging circuit, thus, needed to be provided with an impedance to prevent short circuiting of tapping section of the winding during Tap Changing operation. The impedances can be either a resistor or centre tapped reactor. The tap changer can therefore be classified in general as: a. Reactor type. b. Resistor type. 1.2.1: REACTOR TRANSITION TYPE OLTC: The simplest form of reactor switching is shown in figure [1.2.1]. There is only a single winding on the transformer and a
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switch is connected to each tapping position. Alternate switches are connected together to form two separate groups connected to the outer terminals of a separate midpoint reactor. The winding of the reactor is rated for continuous operation. The sequence of changing of taps is shown in the table on the diagram. In the first position switch S1 is closed and the circuit is completed through half of the reactor winding. To change taps by one position, switch S2 is closed in addition to S1. The reactor then bridges a winding section between two taps giving mid-voltage position. For the next tap changing, the switch S1 is opened keeping S2 closed, so that the circuit is then via the second tapping on the transformer winding. This particular type of tap- changer necessitated a relatively large number of current brea king switches which produced a bulky unit and consequently a large volume of oil was involved. A modified type of reactor tap changer is shown in Figure 12.5. This arrangement uses two separate selectors and two diverter switches. The selectors and diverter switches are mechanically interlocked and the sequence of operation is as follows. A tap change from position 1 to 2 is brought about by opening diverter switch No.2, moving selector switch No.2 from tap connection 11 to tapping conne ction 10 and then closing diverter switch. A tap change from position 2 to 3 initiates a similar sequence, utilizing selector and diverter switches No.3 in place of switch No.2. The use of centre tapped reactor as Transition-impedance was more popular in earlier designs, in spite of the inevitable shorter contact life. One of the main advantages of reactor transition is that twice as many active working positions as that of the number of tappings in the transformer could be obtained. This can be an advantage where large number of tapping positions is required. Reactor transition type OLTCs are at present manufactured and used only in USA.
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1.2.2: RESISTOR TRANSITION TYPE OLTC: Resistor Transition has consid erable advantage of longer contact life, due to relatively short arcing time associated with unity Power factor switching. With the introduction of high speed resistor transition tap changing, it is possible to break the arc at first current zero. High-speed resistor type tap changers have now almost completely superseded the reactor type in many parts of the world, since it is easier and more economical to use resistors mounted in the tap changer and the tran sformer tank need only be designed to accommodate the transformer core and windings. In general, high speed diverter resistor tap-changers fall into two categories. They are: a. Single-compartment type -which carry out selection and switching on the same contacts. b. Double-compartment type -which have separate tap selectors and separate divertor (switching) switch. 1.2.2.1: SINGLE COMPARTMENT TYPE OLTC: The single compartment type employs a rotary form of selector switch with: a. Single -transition resistor (or) b. Double -transition resistor Figure [1.2.2.1 a] illustrates the switching sequence in moving from one tap to the next tap, employing single transition resistor. The switching cycle is known as ASYMMETRICAL PENNENT CYCLE. Tap changers with single transition resistor are suitable for power flow in one direction only and not suitable for power flow in the reverse direction. Figure [1.2.2.1 b] illustrates the switching sequence in moving from one tap to the next tap employing double transition resistor. The switching cycle is known as FLAG CYCLE. Tap changers with double transition resistor are suitable for bi-directional power flow.
Two designs are available in single-compartment type on-load tap-changers. In one design the electrical contacts, transition resistors and mechanical gear arrangement are housed in a pressure tight insulation cylinder which is housed along with the transformer in the same tank. Motor drive for manual/electrical operation is mounted on the tank outside. In the other design, electrical contacts, transition resistors and Geneva gears are housed in a steel tank, which in turn is mounted on the side of transformer tank. The connection between transformer tapping leads and tap-changer is through terminal board of epoxy resin moulding. This terminal-board is mounted either on transformer tank of tap-changer housing, depending on the design and it also acts as a barrier to separate the insulating oil of transformer and tap-changer. Single compartment tap changers for currents upto 600 A and 66 KV voltage class are available at present. 1.2.2.2: DOUBLE COMPARTMENT TYPE OLTC: On larger transformers, the ONLOAD tap changing is more usually arranged with separate tap-selectors and divertor-switches. The tap-selectors are generally arranged in a circular form. The divertor-switches have contacts, operating in rapid sequence, with usually four sep arate make & break units. Figure [1.2.2.2a] shows a typical selector and switching arrangement on the neutral end of the Star connected winding with 16 steps & 17 positions of a transformer. In the diagram the OL TC is shown connected to tap-4. While changing from tap 4 to tap 5, M1 is opened first and the load current gets transferred through transition resistor R1 to A 1. Then A2 closes and two resistors R 1 and R2 are in series across taps 4 and 5. A circulating current due to
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the Step voltage between taps 4 and 5 pass through these resistors. The load current gets divided through each of the resistors to each of the tappings. A 1, then opens and interrupts the circulating current and the load current is transferred to tap 5, passing through resistor R2. Finally M closes and takes the load current and completes the tap change. This sequence of tap change, in most of the designs, takes place within 40 to 80 milli-seconds. For a tap change in the opposite direction, the sequence is reversed. For successive tap changes in the same direction, the movement of tap Selector to the next tap takes place first. However, for the first reversal, the tap selector does not move. This feature is obtained by using a Lost motion coupling in the mechanical drive of tap selector. When the tapping range is large, it is advantageous to halve the length of the tapping winding and introduce a reverse or change-over selector switch. In fig. [1.2.2.2b], the tapped portion of the winding is shown divided into 8 sections and a further untapped portion equal to 8 tapped sections. In fig. [1.2.2.2c], the tapped section of the winding itself is reversed to get double steps. 1.3: TAPCHANGER SELECTION While selecting a tap-changer for a particular transformer, following points are to be taken into consideration. -Voltage class of the transformer- winding and its rating. -Percentage voltage-variation required. -Maximum through current. -Step voltage between adjacent taps. -The switching capacity (maximum through current, step voltage). -Insulation level to ground and between various tappings. -Number of steps and basic connection (linear, reversing or coarse-fine).
-Temporary overloads. -Short-circuit strength required. -Number of operations required (any special duty). 1.4: LATEST TRENDS IN TAPCHAN GER DESIGN At present tap-changers are available for the highest insulation level of 1475 kVp impulse and 630 KV power frequency voltages. Efforts are being made to develop tap-changers suitable for still higher insulation level class. Further efforts are being made for developing tap-changers smaller in size and having high reliability and performance. The use of vacuum switches in the diverter switch of tap-changer is being tried to increase its performance. Also, thyristor-controlled tap-changer will be available in future for very special applications, where excessively high number of operations is required.
Voltage Variation by Tap Changing
Fig. 12.4. On Load Tap Changing by Reaction Transition .
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Linear Fig : 1:2:2:2A
Coarse fine Fig : 1:2:2:2B
Reversing Fig : 1:2:2:2C
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Divertor Switch unit
TAP selector
Double Compartment type Onload Tap Changer Unit
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14. SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND MAINTENANCE

I. Introduction The primary functions of a circuit breaker are interrupting short circuit current, carrying normal currents, switching ON and OFF normal loads, and providing necessary insulating between live parts and earthed parts. The maintenance problems involved with bulk oil circuit breakers were immense. Minimum Oil technology had replaced bulk oil technology during 1950s. Similarly the air -blast technology was developed for obtaining higher performance characteristics. However, the air -blast breakers are quite expensive, and their operation and maintenance cumbersome. Hence and need was felt during 1960s for reduced maintenance. SF6 was first obtained from Fluorine and Sulphur in 1900 by M/s. H.MOSSAN and PLEBEAU. Behavior of SF6 in Electrical field was studied by M/s. H.G. PQLLOCK and P.S. COOPER in 4936 known for over two decades, perfection on commercial exploitation was attained during 1960s. This development made it possible for SF6 gas at low pressure to be used in BIN circuit breakers for insulating and are quenching purposes, Some of the outstanding properties of SF 6 gas which make its use ideal in EHV circuit. breakers are: 1. Inertness 2. Non-toxicity 3. Electro negative nature 4. High dielectric strength 5. Unique are quenching property 6. Chemical and thermal stability 7. Good Thermal conductivity 8. Non corrosiveness 9. Non-Flammability The combined electrical, physical, chemical and thermal properties of SF6 offer the following outstanding features when used in power circuit breaker. 1. Safety 2. Size reduction
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3. Weight reduction 4. Simplified design 5. High degree of reliability 6. Switching of capacitive currents without restrike 7. Very tow noise level 8. Easy for handling 9. Easy for installation 10. Maintenance free service 2. Properties of Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6 ) a) Physical properties: SF6 is a colorless, odorless and non-flammable gas. The fluorine atoms are placed at the corners of a regular octa-hedran with the sulphur atom centrally placed at a distance of 1.58 angstrom units. The bonds are predominantly covalent and the dissociation equation is
SF6 -- SF5 + F __________ The decomposition potential is 15.7 ev. SF6 gas is a very heavy gas and its density is approximately 5.5 times that of air. It is highly stable. It is more compressible than air and follows the law of perfect gases. b)Electrical properties: The di-electric strength of SF6 gas is 3 times that of air at atmospheric pressure and is only marginally reduced by the presence of air as impurity. The dielectric strength increases with increasing pressure. At a pressure of three bars, the dielectric strength becomes equal to that transformer oil. The size and electro negative nature molecule explain this strength. The molecule provides a large electron collision diameter. This results in capture of electrons preventing them from attaining sufficient energy to create additional .current carrying particles. SF6moiecuie also has the ability to store energy in the vibrational and electronic levels of the molecule there by forming stable ions of low mobility.
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The dielectric strength of SF6 remains unaltered over a wide range of frequencies. since SF6 has no dipole moment, the dielectric constant does not vary with frequency. AT 27.30c and atmospheric pressure the dielectric constant is 1.00191 and loss angle is 2 x 10-7. The dielectric properties of SF6 remain unchanged even at low temperatures. Unlike solid insulation materials an electrical breakdown in SF 6 gas does not result in permanent deterioration of its properties. Break down in all filled equipment may result in enormous increased of pressure due to gas formation but such hazards do not exist in the case of SF6 filled equipment. c)Arc quenching properties: The ability to quench arc is unique to SF 6. This results in the high dielectric strength of the gas and the very rapid recovery of dielectric strength after arcing occurs. SF6 is approximately 100 times more effective in this respect than air under similar conditions. The low arc-time constant and its capacity to absorb free electrons due to electro negative nature makes it an excellent medium for arc interruption. The complex molecular motion of SF6 enables it to absorb electric energy and form stable negative ions. Its tendency to form negative ion around current zero results in the fast disappearance of electrons liberated during arcing. Unlike oil, arcing in SF6 will produce no carbon deposits or carbon tracking. The electro-negative property of SF6 may be due to several factors, including its large collision diameter. If stray electron electric field can be absorbed before they attain sufficient energy to create additional current carrying particles though collision, the breakdown can be slowed or even stopped. The large collision diameter of SF6 molecule assists in capturing these electrons. energy can be stored in the vibration levels of the SF6 atom, forming stable negative ions of low mobility. Thus the gas is electronegative in nature and shows .great electron binding capacity. Hence SF6 gas displays splendid arcextinguishing performance .
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The arc time constant is directly proportional to the radius of arc makes it possible to have large number of breakings at full capacity of the breaker. The characteristic curve of the arc is such that the extinction power b low. In a typical case where the extinction power was of the order of 20 KW for an SF6 breaker, the corresponding value of an air blast breaker was in hundreds of KW. Some ion formation process with SF6 are : Resonance capture Positive ion formation Excitation & dissociation : SF6 + e - (SF6) - SF5- + F
: SF6 + e - (SF6+) + 2e -SF5- + F + 2e: SF6 + e - (SF6-) + e -SF5- + F + e
Positive & negative ion formation: SF + e - (SF6-) + e -SF5 + F -+ e d) Heat Transfer characteristics: SF6 has excellent heat transfer characteristic, an important criterion for gaseous dielectric in power applications. The higher molecular weight together with low gaseous viscosity of SF6 enables it to transfer heat by convention more effectively than the common gases. The co-efficient of heat transfer of SF6 is approximately 2.5 tip1es that of air under the same conditions. Hence when the breaker is energized, the temperature rise small. e)Wide temperature range : SF6 in the gaseous state follows the ideal gas laws fairly closely. Consequently the pressure change is only moderate for a considerable change in temperature. The low sublimation points of SF6 assures greater dielectric strength even at low temperature the liquification temperature is 270C at a pressure of 12 Kg / sq. cm. Hence no heater is necessary.
f)Toxity : SF6 is a non-toxic gas and produces no poisonous effect on human body. But the decomposition products produced by the discharge (SF4, SF2, S2, F2
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etc.) are harmful. These products are minimized by controlling of moisture in the interrupter and by absorbing the decomposition products by synthetic zeolite. g)Chemical and Thermal Stability: SF6 gas is inert and it is one of the least reactive substance known under normal operating conditions. It may be heated in quartz to 5000C without under going any decomposition. SF6 does not react with water, acids and alkalis. Tests conducted have shown to SF6 h) Various constants : Some of the outstanding properties of SF6 which makes it ideal for high voltage power applications are: Molecular weight .. Sublimation point at 1 atm .. Density of gas at 21.19 C at 1 atm .. Viscosity liquid at 13.52C .. Gas at 31.16C .. Critical temperature etc. .. Critical pressure bars .. Critical volume cu.metre / g .. Dielectric strength reI N2 = al at 50 Hs -1.2 Mhs.. Dielectric constant at 25C 1atm .. Thermal conductivity at 30C, Cal / Sec. -on C .. 3. Breakdown phenomenon in SF6 : Breakdown in gases takes place when the free electrons gain sufficient kinetic energy Under the influence of an electric field and collide with neutral gas molecules liberating electrons from their outer shells. A chain reaction like this results in an electron avalanche. In the case of electro-negative gases like SF6 this mechanism is slightly modified. The free electrons get attached to molecules forming negative ions. SF6 + e Z SF6 -e. This negative ions are too massive to produce collisional ionization. This attachment represents an effective way of removing electrons which would have otherwise contributed to an electron 146.05 63.9C 6.139 0.305 0.0157 318.80 37.772 1.356 2.3 -2.5 1.002049 3.36 x 10-5 practically no corrosion for various metals exposed
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avalanche. This particular behaviors gives rise to very high dielectric strength for electronegative gases. The breakdown voltage of an electro-negative gas in a uniform field is a simple function of the product of pressure and spacing. the breakdown characteristics in non-uniform fields will be different because ionization may be main aimed locally due to the presence of regions of high stress. This is the corona effect. This may be due to surface roughness, sharp comers, floating conducting or semi-conducting particles. In SF6 equipments special care is taken to ensure that such sharp points do not exist in the breaker so that a fairly uniform field distribution can be achieved. 4. Principles of interruption with SF6 : Techniques employed for interruption with SF6 can be classified into two : a) Double pressure system. b) Single pressure system. The latter can be further classified as double flow fixed nozzle and single flow series piston breakers. a)Double pressure system: The functions of insulation and interruption are performed in separate chambers. SF6 at a pressure of 14 Kg/sq. cm. is stored in a high pressure chamber. This is used for quenching the are SF6 at low pressure (2.5 to 3.5 Kg/sq. cm.) provides the insulation. When the contacts separate under fault, gas at high pressure is forced into the arcing region and then it follows in to the low pressure region. The gas thus exhausted in to the low pressure region is compressed again and returned to the
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high pressure reservoir. The arcing takes place between the arcing tip and arcing ring thus relieving the contact area from the stresses of arc. A filter with actual alumna is kept at the intake of the compressor so that all the decomposition products of gas can be absorbed before re-circulating in to the system. A thermostatically controlled heating system will be provided in the high pressure reservoir to prevent condensation of gas at low temperature. b) Single pressure system : In this case SF6 at low pressure (3 to 6.5 Kg/sq.cm.) provides the insulation and the energy for interruption. The breaker chamber consists of the fixed and moving contacts, and the piston arrangement in the puffer type fixed contact. As the moving contact separates under fault, the piston moves forward with high speed. This compresses the SF 6 inside the hallow fixed contact and forces the gas into the arc resulting in quenching. The force with which the gas could be blast depends on the design of the piston arrangement and the energy of the control mechanism. A further improvement is the Magnetic puffer type breakers where the operating force on the moving contact rod is increased, by magnetic repulsive force. The short circuit current is passed through a set of coils fixed on the support of the moving contact fed. A secondary short circuit ring is positioned and magnetically coupled with primary winding. This ring acts as piston as well. This interaction between the. two fields produces a repulsive force and it pushes the moving contact rod forward. The addition of this simple magnetic drive mechanism improves the interrupting capabilities of the breaker. The single pressure system has an inherent advantage of simplicity in construction. It needs no additional compressor as required in double pressure system. The manufacturing cost of puffer type equipment is lower.
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5. Construction: The arc extinguishing system employs a synchronized double flow single pressure puffer type design. This leads to a simple construction.
The SF 6 circuit breaker mainly comprises of the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. Breaker poles it. Base tube and mechanism box Control unit Air compressor electro-hydraulic operating mechanism
1.Movable Cylinder(Puffer cylinder) Contact 3.Fixed Contct 4.Insulating Nozzle 5.Fixed Piston compression 7.Compressed gas between 1 & 5
2.Moving
6.Gas Trapped in before
8.The arc-being extinguished by puffer action
Fig:Single Puffer Type
Pressure
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5.1.Breaker Pole:
The primary functions of a circuit breaker are carried out of breaker pole. The breaker pole consists of interrupter unit and support insulator.
The interrupter unit consists of fixed contact tube, guide tube, moving
contact tube, puffer or blast cylinder and piston. The fixed contact tube is connected to the top terminal via. Contact support.
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The guide tube is fastened to the lower terminal. The other ends of the fixed contact tube and guide tube which are subjected to arcing during the arc interruption are provided with arc quenching nozzles. the nozzles are made up of graphite materials which keeps the contact wear to minimum. The moving contact tube consists of spring loaded finger contacts arranged in the form of a ring. The front end of the moving contact tube is provided with an arc resistance insulating ring and arcing ring of high arc resistant materials The blast cylinder which is made up of high arc resistant insulating material and the moving contact tube are rigidly coupled to each other and connected to the operating rod in the supporting insulator. The blast piston
which is made up of aluminum is fastened to the lower terminal pad. The fixed contact tube, guide tube, moving contact tube, blast cylinder and blast piston are all housed inside a porcelain ,insulator. When the circuit breaker is in close position current flows from top terminal to bottom terminal through contact support, fixed contact tube, moving contact tube and guide tube. The support insulator apart from supporting the interrupter unit provide insulation between live parts and earthed parts. It houses the operating rod (insulated), one end of which is connected to the interrupter unit and the other end is connected to the mechanism. 5.2. Base Tube mechanism box: The base tube which supports the breaker pole and the mechanism box acts as a local air reservoirs. The mechanism box enclosed electromagnetic valve, closing coil, trip coil and operating cylinder. Lower mechanism case encloses the complete lever system to transmit the operation force from the mechanism box to the breaker pole. 5.3.Control Unit : This accommodates the gas pressure switches, gas density detector, gas pressure gauge, air pressure gauge, air valve heater, auxiliary relays, terminal blocks, etc. for electrical and pneumatic control and monitoring of the breaker. The control devices of the air and SF6 gas systems are common for 3 poles of the breaker.
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5.4.
Compress Since the operating energy requirement is greater the MOCBS either air
compressor or electro-hydraulic operating mechanism is used. 6. The principle of Arc extinction: When the circuit breaker is in closed position the moving contact assembly bridges the fixed contact tube and the guide tube. When an opening operation is initiated, the blast cylinder moves towards the stationary blast piston so that the SF6 gas in the blast cylinder is compressed to a pressure required to quench the arc. The gas compressed during the above process is released only when the contacts are separated with moving contact assembly acting as a slide valve. At the instant of contact separation, arc strikes between the front end of the arc quenching nozzle of the fixed contact tube and the arcing ring of the moving contact tube. The compressed gas in the blast cylinder is released in the break radically as the contacts are separated. As the moving contact assembly moves further, the arc between the front end of the fixed contact nozzle and the arcing ring of the moving contact is transferred from the arcing ring of the moving contacts of nozzle of the guide tube , by gas jet and its own electrodynamics forces. the arc is further elongated by the gas flow axially into the nozzles and safety extinguished. While the arc is being interrupted, the blast cylinder which is made up of arc resistant insulating material enclosed the arc quenching assembly, there by protecting the porcelain insulator from arcing effects. After arc extinction, the moving contact assembly and blast is free of any parts of the chamber which may have a bridging effect or influence the electric field distributor. 7. Operation principles: 7.1. Opening operation: When the trip coil is energized, the space of pilot valve is filled with compressed air and the charging valve moves to right. The space in the operating cylinder is filled with compressed air from the air received and the operating piston is rapidly driven to the left. the operating rod connected to the operating piston is pulled in the opening direction to drive the puffer cylinder at
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the high speed through the insulated operating rod in the supporting insulator. the SF6 gas in the puffer cylinder is compressed and the SF6 gas blast extinguishes the arc generated between the moving and stationary contacts. Simultaneous with the opening operation, the cam rotates and causes the electromagnet valve to return to its original position. As a result, compressed air in the space of pilot valve is exhausted into atmosphere and the charging valve is reset to the original piston. As the open state is retained by the link mechanism attached to the end of the operating piston. 7.2. Closing operation: When the closing coil is energized, the arc nature is made to rotate causing the hook to be disengaged. Thus the sector line rotates to release the roller and the operating piston is driven in the closing direction by the force of the closing spring, upon completion of closing, the link mechanism is held in a state to be ready for the subsequent opening operation. 8. Caution : When operating the breaker observes the following: I)Keep correct SF6 gas pressure and operating air pressure as specified. 2)Operate the stop valves properly. 3)Do not allow ingress of moisture and dust into the SF6 gas supplying point. 4)Do not pump the gas piping and air piping with any object. 5)Do not damage the gasket and seal face on the leakage tight joint in the gas and air system. 6)When opening the circuit breaker by the manual handle. a) confirm that the main circuit is not energized. b) Be sure to turn off the control power supply. c) Confirm that compressed air in receivers is released. d) Confirm that manual operating rod and handle are removed before changing the receiver with compressed air. 7)Do not operate any part other than the manual operating handle before filling SF6 gas at the rated pressure. Do not fill compressed air before filling SF6 gas.
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8)When checking interior parts of interrupter, blow air into the system for sufficiently long time and confirm that sufficient supply of air is available before starting any work.
9.Gas Leak Detection: If the gas leaks through any point, this can result in reduction of pressure and consequent loss of insulation properties Gas Leak detection is done with the help of a halogen torch type detector. The detector works on the principle that SF6 absorbs a certain number of electron when passed through an atmosphere where free electrons flow. The free electrons are generated with in the sector by a small radio active source in the presence of a carrier gas. these electrons are collected at the detector anode and give a small base line current which is amplified. When the probe of the detector is kept near the joints of the SF6 filled equipment and if SF6 leaks out there will be variation in amplified valve of current due to electron absorption by SF6. The variation can be directly calibrated to indicate the magnitude of the leak.
9.2. Detention of presence of conducting particles: This is done by conducting a dielectric test when the test voltage is applied there will be an internal corona if metallic particle or sharp comers are present. The presence of internal discharges is located with the help of an ultrasonic detector which is very sensitive in detecting noise due to internal corona. The sector translates the ultrasonic vibrations into audible frequencies and directly indicates the intensity of sound in decibels. The probe is pressed firmly against the grounded enclosure tube while the conductor is energized at varying AC I DC voltage. If the noise disappears at low voltage, appears at some intermediate voltage and the intensity continues to increase, it is certain that the noise is due to internal corona. It has also been observed that in some cases the
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small sharp potty branched in areas of high dielectric stress get burnt or the particles driven to low stress areas. The effect of conducting particles on the break down strength of SF6 is more serious for power frequency voltage test than for impulses voltage. 10. Performance of SF6 Breaker: SF6 gas circuit breaker combines the advantageous features minimum oil and air blast breakers and exhibits a number of additional advantages over both. 1) 2) It is possible to have large number of breaking operations near full breaking capacity with out any undue wear. Because of the fast recovery of dielectric strength across the parting contacts during interruption. a) These breakers are restrict free while switching of capacitive currents. b) These breakers are incentive to short time faults and are capable of breaking at every high values of RRRV and c) These breakers are suitable for multi-short re closing with out any reduction in breaking capacity There is no necessity to change any parts in the breaking chamber even after a period often years of service in the actual system. This means that there are practically no problem of maintenance for SF6 breakers. The operation is noiseless since the gas is used in a closed circuit. There will be no discharge of arc products into atmosphere. Puffer type breakers are autonomous and independent because no auxiliary equipment is required. Fire hazards are eliminated.
3)
4)
5) 6)
11. Maintenance: SF6 circuit breaker requires very little maintenance involved are those parts which are subject to wear and aging. The degree of contamination of insulators should also be checked. The following are the factors which govern the maintenance of the breakers. i)No. of short circuit interruptions. ii)Switching frequency and service conditions. iii)No. of years of service.
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Maintenance and Inspection should be carried out in accordance with the inspection schedule. This schedule have been divided into 3 group. (i) Patrolling or routine inspection (ii) Ordinary or minor inspection (iii) Detail or Major inspection. The intervals between maintenance schedule for BHEL and TELK make SF6 gas circuit breakers are given below: BHEL Make Sl.No. Item Period Remarks
1.
Routine check
Every five years
Draining of SF6 if necessary
2. 3.
Minor inspection Major inspection
After 1 500 operation or 10 year After 3000 operation or 20 year
Draining of SF 6 if necessary
11.1.General Instructions for maintenance : All the split pins, lock washers, spring washers of bolted joints should be replaced with new ones when they are opened for maintenance. All the gaskets, a-rings and rubber washers should also be replaced with new ones during reassembly. All the breakers parts dismantled for maintenance should be covered and protected against ingress, if dirt and moisture while reassembly is in progress. Small quantities of metallic fluoride power forms because of arc interruption in SF6 gas. This metallic powder when in dry state is insulating and harmless. However the powder is hygroscopic and in the presence of water vapor the dust forms a paste which is conductive. This metallic fluoride powder should be cleaned with the help of a clean non-fluffy cloth as soon as the interrupter is opened for inspection and surviving to prevent the formation of conductive paste which is very difficult to remove. The cloth once used should be thrown into dust bin. During cleaning of the metallic fluoride gloves should be worn.
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For cleaning and degreasing, the materials as recommended should be applied during maintenance. 11.2. Patrolling Inspection: 1. Gas pressure: Read the pressure and convert it to 20C Record the gas pressure, temperature and convert gas pressure. If gas leak is detected, supply SF6 Gas before the gas pressure drops to the lock out pressure. 2. Air pressure: Check whether or not the pressure gauge indicate the specified value Check whether or not any leakage noise audible around the sealed piping joints. 3. 4. Operation counter: Check and Record the number of operation. Space heater: When humidity is high or temperature is low, turn on the heater for the mechanism box and control unit. 5. Others: Check for sings of abnormal noises and contamination of insulators. 11.3. Ordinary inspection: This has to be carried out in the de-energized condition without discharging gas. Perform an operation test to check the minimum operating pressure before starting the inspection cautions (a) Turn off the power surfaces of control circuit to the circuit breaker. (b) Exhaust the compressed air thoroughly from the circuit breaker. 1. Gas leak - Check on the gas system of interrupter unit, gas piping and control unit using a gas leak detector. 2. Mechanism: a) Electromagnetic valve: Check the hook clean up the hook by applying a thin coat of HITALBE 2800. b) Operating cylinder: Apply HITALUBE 289 grease to the piston rod c) Main valve rod: Retighten nuts. d) Oil dash pot : Check the oil level. Transformer oil level should be as high as the plug level.
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3.
Control unit : a) Airing valve: Measure the discharge air of300 to 700 C/C Min. which is satisfactory. b) Auxiliary switch: Check positive contact and each part tightening. c) Air pressure gauge: Calibrate the pressure gauge. d) Pressure switch: Check the local pressure and release pressure. e) Trip-free contactor : Check the contacts. When roughened, correct with smooth out file or sand paper. for normal
4. 5.
Air piping: Retighten the union nuts and bolts. Porcelain insulator: Wipe the insulator surface by wet cloth when excessively dirty, apply insulator cleaner the surface. Measure the
insulation resistance, which should not be less than 100M under dry condition. 6. Operating system: Confirm that the stroke of hinge piece in the operating cylinder is 102 mm 2mm. 7. Other: Check terminals for looseness and tighten them if necessary clean up box interior and paint rusty parts. 8. Checking: After filling the system with compressed air, confirm that all the stop valve in the air system are kept open. 9. Testing: Conduct operation test. Measure the insulation resistance of control circuit. 11.4. Detailed inspection: The following diagram shows the detail inspection procedure for Insulation resistance measurement. Operation Test Close G.C.B. Exhaust air from air receiver Collect SF6 gas in the interrupt unit Open GCB by manual operating handle
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Check the GCB as per the maintenance procedure Check control unit and mechanism box Check interruption Filling with air Air leak check Evacuation Fill with SF6 gas. Gas leak check.
11.5. Details of maintenance procedure: 1)Stationary contact: Visually inspect, when contact space is found uneven, remove it and polish with sand paper. then measure the dimension of stationary contact. When the wear becomes 3 mm or over replace the contact with a new one. Apply thin coat of HITSLUBE 280 Grease to the contact. 2)Moving contact: When it is degraded by large current interruption remove it and polish with sand paper. Apply three coat of HIT ALUBE 280 Grease to the contact. 3) Arcing contact: When the surface is found- uneven, polish the surface with a smooth out file. Measure the dimension of arcing contact, when the amount of wear becomes 2 mm or over, replace the contact with a new one. Apply thin coat of HIT ALUBE 280 grease to the contact. 4) Insulation nozzle and insulation cover: The nozzle and cover can be removed together with the moving contact. Use wiper to clean up the interior and exterior. Measure the inner diameter of the nozzle. and cover. When the dimensions are enlarged by 1 mm or more, replace it with a new one. 5) Absorbent: Remove the conductor and take out the absorbent case. Replace the absorbent with a new one. Exchange it quickly just before vacuum drying. Dont expose it to the open air. 6) Operating cylinder : Remove the cylinder cover. Inspect gaskets. Apply grease to he operating piston guide, main valve guide, main valve rod, pilot valve and operating piston. 7) Operating cylinder: Remove the oil plug and oil. Then supply new oil to the position of oil plug. When drained oil is found contaminate, disassemble and check the oil dash pot. 8) Operating mechanism: Check Pins, Links, Levers, operating rod and split pins check nuts and lock plates for possible looseness. Apply Hit lube 280 grease to pins.
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9) Closing Link Mechanism: Clean up and apply thin coat of HIT ALUBE 280 grease to the hook, pins and roller. Check the state of hook arrangement under both closed and open position. 10) Electro-magnetic valve: When the lever is pressed with fingers, the hook is disengaged. Clean up and apply a turbine oil to the hook. Check nuts and bolts for looseness. Check the split pins. 11) Airing valve: Contact a hose to the discharge part and use a measuring cylinder to measure the discharge amount under water. The measured valve should be 300 to 700 Cg/min at the air celled to 15 Kgs. cm. 12) Auxiliary switch: Check the contacts; check terminal for tightening. Apply a thin coat of grease to the pin. 13) Pressure gauge: Clean up and calibrate. 14) Pressure switch :Setting pressure rise or reduce according to whether the adjusting screw is turned clockwise or counter clock wise. Check the operating pressure. 15) Trip-free contractor: If contacts are considerably uneven, repair them using a smooth out file or sand paper. 16) Ratings of various circuit breakers SF6 : SF6 gas circuit breakers are manufactured in India by M/s.BHEL in collaboration with Siemens of West Germany, MIs. TELK in collaboration with Hitachi of Japan andM/s. Alind in collaboration with DELLE ALSTHOM of France. The ratings of these SF6 breakers are given below: BHEL 1. Rated voltage 2. Rated current 3. Rated breaking current 4. Breaking Time 5. No. of breaks 6. Breaker weight 7. Inspection after KV 123 -420 KV 1200 -4000 KA 25 -63 Ms 40 -65 1 or 2 Kg 2100 -7700 8 -10 yrs. TELK 245 2000 31.5 40 1 4500 6 years ALIND 132 -220 2000 22 -31.5 40 1 or 2 3000 -5000 10 years
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15. SURGE ARRESTERS AND INSULATION CO-ORDINATION
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I.Introduction: Electrical systems by nature involve two forms of protection over current and over voltage since over current protection of electrical equipments are well known to all, it is not elaborated here. Over voltage protection on the other hand, remains a relatively new subject to many engineers. Both types of protection equally necessary for safe system operation. The importance of over voltage protection for a power system can not be over emphasized. Major equipment failures, expensive repairs, personnel safety and plant down time are certain consequences of inadequate protection from voltage surges. Surge arresters are designed to limit dangerous system over voltages. Whether lightingor System- produced-to safe values when they occur on power systems. An arresters is a voltage limiting device. The functions are to discharge energy associated with a system over voltage condition, limit and interruption the power fellow current that follows the transient current through the arresters and return to an insulating state prepared for the next over voltage occurrence. In performing its voltage limiting function, certain protective characteristics of the arrester must be coordinated with the prevailing insulation levels on the system being protected. Insulation
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is a basic factor that must be considered in the application of arresters on a system. Insulation coordination is only a small part of the over all subject of arrester application. Several other factors must also be considered by the engineer when selecting surge protection. The location of the arresters, the inter-connection of ground leads, the insulation level of the protected equipment and the rating of the surge arresters are important in protecting equipment from harmful over voltage. II.Surge Arrester operation: The basic operation of a surge arrester is single. In its noffi1al state, an arrester must act as an insulator. When a high voltage surge occurs. The arrester must cease to be an insulator and must turn into a short to-ground-in million thus of a second. The operation of the most widely used type of surge arresters the value, type of arrester is dealt with. Other types of arresters, such as expulsion arresters and line Oxide arresters (Gapless arresters) are either on the decline or too new for a general discussion at this time. The active elements of a valve type arrester are the spark gap and the valve block. these are housed in a porcelain shell for atmospheric protection and external insulation. The gap assembly consists of a number of inseries air gaps with sufficient dielectric strength to withstand the highest power frequency on the system. During severe over voltage conditions, the gap must always, breakdown at a voltage level some what below the insulation withstand voltage level of the equipment it is protecting, other wise equipment damage and or plant down time will result. the gap therefore serves as the switch which turns on the arrester. the voltage level at which the arrester goes from the passive (insulating) to the active (conducting) state, is called the spark over voltage. The valve block controls what happens after the arrester has been turned on. If only a gap is used, once a surge has been diverted to ground, a dead short circuit exists between line and ground and the 50 hertz-system energy tries to flow to ground causing a fuse, re-closer or breaker to operate to interrupt the system fault current. The valve element does exactly as its name implies. It conducts when surge current is flowing and it ceases to conduct when 50 Hz line current begins to flow. the valve block is able to do this because It is made of a non-linear resistance material, silicon carbide. The valve block offers a very high resistance to 50 Hz current while displaying a low resistance to surge current. In addition, it also consumes the surge energy passes through it.
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Spark over and discharge voltage are the two protective characteristics of an arrester which are used in calculating margins of protection when studying insulation co-ordination. These protective characteristics are published by arrester manufacturers. III. Arrester Classification : There are three classifications of surge arresters used for over voltage protection in a system.
1.Distribution Type: The arresters are generally used in distribution system for equipment protection. Standards distribution arresters are used for protecting oil. Insulated distribution transformers, these arresters are also used as line entrance arresters, for 11KV and 22KV lines. They are the lowest in cost. 2.Intermediate Type : These units cost approximately two or three times as much as equivalent distribution units. For this, the arrester offers lower maximum spark over and discharge voltage characteristics that afford a greater margin of protection plus the capability of discharging large surge levels. These arresters also have a pressure relief system to safely vent internal pressure if the unit falls before the porcelains shell has a chance to rupture. These arresters are used for the L.V. protection of Power transformers in sub-transmission sub-station i.e.110/33/22/11KV and 66/22/11KV sub-station. 3.Station Type: These arresters offer the best protective characteristics and the highest thermal capability but they cost about twice as much as equivalent intermediate units. Like intermediate arresters, station arresters have a pressure-relief system to safely vent internal pressure if the unit fails before a porcelain shell has a chance to rupture. These arresters are generally used in 230KV, 110KV and 66KV systems. 4.Basic insulation level: Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL) is the voltage level that equipment insulation is capable of withstanding without sustaining damage. The voltage withstand of insulation is function of time. Inorder to establish volt-time impulse insulation levels of transformers standard impulse tests standard voltage withstand tests are conducted on selected units as type test. Transformers are subjected to impulse voltage tests (at rated BIL) and a chopped wave test (15% above BIL). A steep front - of wave test (65% above BIL) is also performed on some units. A curve plotted through these three points defines the minimum insulation withstand curve for
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insulation co-ordination (Fig.3) The true withstand level for the transformer lies above the plotted curve. 5. Surge arrester application: With an understanding of how an arrester performs its functions and a knowledge of equipment insulation, we can now move into the application area and consider the several factors that comprise surge arrester application as it relates to over voltage protection of transformers, The selection of surge arresters merit are carefully considered. Various factors have to be taken into account in order to arrive at a reliable and at the same time economical means of protection. The important points are: i)Selection of rated voltage. ii)Selection according to the standards, codes, recommendations for insulation coordination. i)Arrester rating : The voltage rating of an arrester is defined as the highest 50 Hz voltage at which the arrester is designed to operate and reseal effectively after a surge has passed. Because of the system grounding and connection, this, voltage is typically higher than the phase to ground voltage / on the healthy phases will increase temporarily and it depends upon the earthing factor or the system. The selection of an arrester voltage rating for station depends upon grounding system connection and system voltage rating. Also the voltage impressed across an arrester during a surge discharge is directly proportional to the arrester voltage rating that is, a 10,000 Amps surge produces a higher discharge voltage if it is flowed through a 10KV arrester than it does flowed through a 9KV arrester generally it is desirable from the stand point of equipment protection to select the lowest voltage rating for the application. ii)Arrester location: Surge arresters should always be located as close as possible to the terminals of the equipment protected. In the case of transformer protection, mounting the arresters directly on the transformer is the best of insurance. An appreciable distance between the surge arrester, and the protected equipment reduces protection, afforded by the arresters and also increases the voltage impressed upon the transformer at time of surge discharge. Also because of the extra travel distance between the equipment and its arrester, surge wave could rise above the equipment damage point before the arrester comes to its rescue. n addition, the arrester connecting leads should be kept as short as possible because of their voltage contribution to discharge the voltage. During current flow to ground through an arrester, the interconnecting leads provide a voltage contribution because of current passing through an impedance. Depending on surge magnitude, rate of rise type of conductor, a typical value of voltage contribution to discharge voltage by interconnecting leads is i.e. 1.6 KV / foot.
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In practice, the protection range is given by the following simple formula. L = U - Ua x V 2XS Where
Protection range of arrester in meters (measured along the line) Impulse withstand voltage of protected equipment in KV. (BIL of equipment) Spark over voltage of an arrester in K. V. (Peak) of the system. During earth fault conditions, the voltage Velocity of wave progression with V line = 300 meters /micro sec. V cable = 150 meters /micro sec. Steepness of incoming wave front in KV / sec.
Ua V
= =
(The protection range of an arrester increases with the difference between the impulse voltage IV and the spark over voltage Va. Therefore, an arrester with protective level tends to extend the protective range) Example: In a 230 KV Over Head line system
U = BIL of power transformer -900 KV crest U = Impulse spark over of arrester -550 KV crest V line 300 / micro seconds; S = 1000 KV / micro sec. @ L = U-Ua ------- v 2 XS (1000-550) ---------------- X 300 = 52.5m (2 X 1000)
The electrical circuit length between the surge arresters and the transformer bushing technical should not exceed the limits given below: T.N.E.B. practice (Thumb rule) Rated system voltage length KV 230 110 60 iii)Interconnection of Grounds: It is essential that the arrester ground terminal be interconnected with the transformer tank and secondary neutral to provide reliable surge protection for the transformers. Iv)Insulation coordination: . Now let us consider the selection of an arrester according to standards, codes or recommendations for insulation coordination. Calculating the margin of protection is the major part of an. insulation co-ordination study. Insulation coordination is the process of comparing the Meters 60.0 36.57 24.38 Feet 200 110 80 Maximum distance between surge arresters and transformer bushing terminal inclusive of lead
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impulse strength of insulation with the voltage that can occur across the arrester for the severity of surge discharge for which the protection is desired. For a transformer, this means a comparison of the volt-time insulation withstand curve with the impulse and switching surge spark over and discharge voltage curve of the arrester. After determining the rated voltage of an arrester, the protective level has to be carefully selected. For complete protection of the equipment, the protective level viz. the level to which the over voltages are omitted by the arrester, must be lower than the withstand level by a factor of at least 1.2 for lightning surges and 15 for switching surges. The value thus selected must be checked against that given in I.S.S. or the technical details furnished by the arrester manufactures. To arrive at the discharge voltage of an arrester for these calculations discharge voltage for a 10,000 Amps. surge is normally used. The following formula define these two margins of protection calculations: CWW -FOW SO CWW x 100% MP2 BIL -DV + IX) BIL x 100%
MP1 = Where CWW FOW SO BIL DV IX MP
= Chopped -waved withstand voltage of transformer winding = 1.15 BIL = Front of wave spark over of surge arrester in KV (Crest) = Basic Impulse Insulation level of the transformer. = Discharge voltage of the arrester at 10 KA surge. = Voltage contribution of connecting leads at the rate of 1.6 KV / ft. = Margin of Protection
Insulation co-ordination in an important aspect to be considered when surge protective is to be afforded to transformers with reduced BILS
The table below gives the Rod gap setting adopted for various voltages: Gap settings: Gap settings in MM (inches)
System voltage Gap on Transformer Gap on terminal Tower Bushing

230 110 66 1143 (45) 635(25) 394 (15.5) 1118 (44) 597(23.5) 330 (13)
Gap on next three approach towers

1118 (44) 622(24.5) 356 (14)
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vi Protection against direct strokes: i) Protection against direct strokes can be handled by shielding the station equipments by the provision of either a) b) Mast or rods or a net work of overhead ground wires in such a way that equipments and switches of all lie in the protected zone.
ii) iii)
iv)
The protected zone for a rod mast is generally assumed as a cone with a base radius equal to the height of the rod or mast above ground. For small sub-stations it may be sufficient to run one or GI wires across the station from adjacent line towers. Extra wires may be run from the tower to the structure and over the station. The grounds of the station shield should be solidly tied to the station ground bus to prevent difference of surge potential between the shield and other g-rounded parts of the Station.
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16. FIRE SAFETY AND FIRE FIGHTING

I. GENERAL : 1. In India alone about 15,000 people die in Fire and blast. More than Rs.180 crores are being paid as compensation and about 1.5% production is lost in fire. 2.The fire can exist in two different stages. The initial stage i.e. incipient stage of fire and the later state i.e. blaze stage of fire. If the small fire is not controlled in the initial stage it goes to the uncontrollable stage i.e. Blaze stage fire. Detection will be done by the people available at the spot with the help of good given detectors like eyes, nose, ears and skin and warning will be given with the help of mouth but the third stage immediate attack is very important and it can be done only by training and skills in fire fighting. Once the fire goes beyond the stage of control, then only fire brigade can control the fire. We can only assist the fire brigade in bringing down the fire under control. In order to carry out the various jobs involved in fire fighting cycle there must be a group of trained people available in the form of Fire Squad. Basic reason for any fire accident is ignorance and even if people have knowledge about fire, they neglect it i.e. negligence. 60% of the fire accidents are caused, in fact, due to electrical faults i.e. due to usage of substandard materials, nonstandard wiring, improper maintenance, loose connection, over loading and keeping combustible materials under neath main switches or very close to equipments emenating heat. The Fire spreads from one place to another place beause of the heat transfer. There are three different principles of heat transfer. Convection - Heated smoke and air particles travelling upwards. Conduction - Transfer of heat through Solid Particles. Radiation - Transfer of heat through air particles. For keeping fire under control at the time of emergency all the above three principles can be used in the combined away. When a particular department is on fire and when the fire is in blaze stage the adjacent areas can be saved by closing all the possible doors and windows, removing the flammable materials from the adjacent areas and also by continuous cooling of the surrounding areas. In this manner, convection, conduction and radiation are taken care and heat transfer can be prevented and fire can be kept under control. The combustible materials when in hard solid form cannot easily catch fire. But when it is thin, weak and in filamentary nature it can immediately catch fire. For materials in dust form, even a small spark or arc can cause fire with blast. The records in offices kept for years together would have lost strength, decoloured, mutilated and decomposed which will be susceptable for easy catching of fire. If windows and doors are kept opened entry of air will aggrevate even a small fire. Important phone numbers should be
painted on wall above the phone unit for immediate reference during emergency. Adequate means of escape from fire must be provided for all personnel in a works, factory or office building, and the following four requirements should be satisfied: 1. No one should need to go towards the fire in order to escape. 2. All escape routes should be as short as possible, of adequate capacity, and should lead to open air at ground level, either direct or by way of a fire resisting enclosure. 3. Protected parts of escape routes should not be exposed at any point to penetration by smoke or fire. 4. Escape routes should be clearly marked with arrows at every corner and intersection. By observing the following pre-cautions and safty rules we could prevent fire accident to a very great extent. i) DO NOT THROW LIGHTED CIGARATTE BUTTS indiscriminately . Throw them at the appropriate places and ensure that the buring end is put out effectively. ii) DO NOT SMOKE CIGARATTES IN YOUR SEAT in the midst of files. No objection to smoke at a secluded place. iii) DO NOT ACCUMULATE UNWANTED waste materials, such as waste paper, waste cloth etc. They may be disopsed off then and there in the bins provided for. - 160 -
iv) DO NOT LIGHT A MATCH IN YOUR SEAT CARELESSLY : When it is necessary let it be done with required precention. v) DO NOT USE NAKED WIRES for tapping power from the sockets. When two ends of cables are to be connected inevitably, use proper insulation tape. vi) DO NOT OVERLOAD the switches and sockets (Viz) do not use 3 way sockets from one single outlet due to excessive current, the cable/wires slowly gets heated up and is likely to cause fire quite after some time. vii)DO NOT TAKE flammable materials like Kerosene, Petrol near the electrical machinery, as innocent sparks coming out are likely to cause ignition of the kerosene or petrol. viii) DO NOT HANDLE crackers in the office. ix) DO MAKE SURE that you switch-off the fan, light and any other installation near you when you leave the office. II. ON SEEING FIRE:
7. If electricity is involved, switch off thesupply and confirm it. 8. The liquid type extinguishers should not be used unless the electricty is cut off. 9. All persons in that area or floor should be evicted safely without panic. 10. Sraircases or steps away from fire should be used. III. FIRE TRIANGLE Fire is a chemical reaction called COMBUSTION (usually oxidation resulting in the release of heat and light) To initiate and maintain this chemical reaction, or in other words for an out break of fire to occur and continue, the following are essential: a. Fuel - i.e. a combustible substance either solid, liquid or gas. b. Oxygen - usually air which contains, approx 20% oxygen. c. Heat - Required Heat. It varies from material to material The familiar fire triangle depicts the situation.
1. Cry Fire, Fire thus giving an alarm to all. 2. Panic should not be created, as it is more dangerous than fire. 3or4. If fire fighting equipments are available, they can be used to extinguish fire without panic. 3or4. Nearby combustible materials should be removed as to prevent spreading of fire. 5. Fire service may be informed, if necessary. 6. When fire service personnels arrive, the job should be left to them without causing hinderance.
Fire prevention is nothing but avioding the combination or mixing of three elements i.e. fuel, oxygen and heat. IV. METHODS OF FIRE EXTINGUISHING Based on the fire triangle there are different methods of fire extinguishing STARVATION - REMOVAL OF FUEL BLANKETING / SMOTHERING - REMOVAL OF OXYGEN
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COOLING - REMOVAL OF HEAT. Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the above three elements like fuel, oxygen or heat. Starvation - Removal of Fuel This is a method in which the surrounding materials are removed from the seat of fire and making the fire to starve. Without supply of fuel the fire will be starved and extinguished.
Blanketing / Smothering - Removal of Oxygen. In this method in which the oxygen supply to the fire areas will be cut off. Naturally the fire will be off because of lack of oxygen. It is not necessary to prevent the total oxgen supply to the fuel area. This action can be achieved by using cotton blankets, plywood sheets or corrugated boxes over the fuel. Even closing the doors and windows will also serve the same purpose of cutting off the oxygen supply to the affected area. There are different exitinguishing medias through which the removal of oxygen can be achieved. Cooling - Removal of Heat. Water is normally used for cooling the fire because it has the greatest heat absorbing properties. Water is the best fire fighting media for solid fires like wood, leaves, cotton and charcoal. Since water is the best conductor of electricity it should not be used in electrical equipments. Water density is more than the density of other burning liquid fuels, hence in direct form it should not be used for any liquid fuels. V. Fire Extinguishers : Fire Bucket wiht round bottom for holding water or sand. Chemical fire Extinguishers : Sl. Type of Contents of Max. No. Extinguisher Container Range Inner Outer 1. Soda Acid Sulphuric Acid Sodium bi Carbonate (Solution) -do7M
Pressure Developed Inside 7kg/Sq.cm.
Where to use
Where not
B,C,D,E
2. Foam
Aluminium Sulphate Solution CO2 Catridge
7M
3.5 Kg/ Sq.c.m
B.A.
C,D,E
3. Dry Chemical Power
-do(Power)
3M
25Kg/ Sq.c.m.
B,C,D,E
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4. CO2
-------
CO2
Very Close - do -
53Kg/ Sq.c.m --------
B,C,E
5. Halon
------
Halon
A,B,C,E
----
VI. Classification of Fire: S. No Class of Fire Combustible materials Suitable way to extinguish 1. Seperation 2. Water Cooling 3. Dry sand or powder Method Suitable Extinguisher
1.A (Solid Fire)
Paper, wood Cloths,Rubber
Starvation 1. Fire bucket with sand or water Blanketing 2. Soda Acid 3. Dry Powder
2.B (Oil Fire)
Combustible Liquid petrol Grease
1. Foam Blanketing 1. Foam 2. Dry powder or sand 3. CO2 1. Spread powder sand - do-
2. DCP 3. CO2
3.C (Gas)
Gas
Blenkrting 1. DCP 2. Fire bucket sand - do -do-
4.D (Iron)
Magnesium/ Potassium etc. 1. Powder involved 2. CO2 3. Halon gas.
5.E Electricity
- do-
- do-
VII. METHOD OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS OPERATION METHOD OF OPERATION 1. Remove the pluger guard 2. Turn extinguisher upside down and drive the plunger striking knob with a sharp blow on the floor. 3. Hold in upside down position 4. Direct the jet to the base of fire Effective jet length in Meters: 8 - 10 Discharge time in Seconds : 70 - 75
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METHOD OF OPERATION 1.Lift the T handle 2.Turn to right hand side 3.Shake well 4.Hold upside down and direct the jet to the base of fire. Effective jet length in Meters:7 - 8 Discharge time in Seconds :90
Fire Extinguisher - Form 9 Litres I.S.S. 933/ 1976 METHOD OF OPERATION 1. Uncoil the rubber hose 2.Open the wheel value 3.Gently lower the engine untili the handle rests on the ground. 4.Direct the discharge jet to the base of fire. Effective jet length in Meters: 10 Discharge time in Seconds : 90 - 120
Foam Trolley 45 Litre Capacity METHOD OF OPERATION 1. Uncoil the rubber hose 2. Open the wheel value 3. Gently lower the engine untili the handle rests on the ground. 4. Allow the pressure in the gauge to build up to 5.5Kg/Cms2. 5. Open the hand control nozzle & Direct the jet to the fire Effective jet length in Meters: 15 Discharge time in Seconds : 120 - 210
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METHOD OF OPERATION 1.Keep Extinguisher upright and remove safety clip 2.Hold nozzle in hand, strike the Knob 3.Direct jet towards the near edge of fire with a rapid sweeping motion. 4.Drive the fire towards the far edge until the flames are extinguished Effective jet length in Meters: 3 - 4 Discharge time in Seconds : 12 - 15
Fire extinguisher - D.C.P. 5KG. Capacity I.S.S.2171 METHOD OF OPERATION 1.Remove the safety pin & uncoil the rubber hose. 2.Open CO2 cylinder wheel valve. 3.Direct jet near edge of the fire with rapid sweeping. Drive the fire towards the far edge until flames are extinguished. For 22.5Kg. Capacity : Effective jet length in Meters: 5 - 6 Discharge time in Seconds : 40 - 60 For 70Kg. Capacity : (With on/off spray - type applicator) Effective jet length in Meters: 6.5 to 8 Discharge time in Seconds : 75 to 90
DRY CHEMICAL POWER (TROLLEY MOUNTED) EXTINGUISHERS : 22.5Kg + 70Kg CAPACITIES
- 165 -
METHOD OF OPERATION Carry Extinguisher close to the fire 1.Remove Safety pin. 2.Hold the handle firmly 3.Turn wheel valve in Anti clock wise Direction. 4.Direct the discharge to the base of fire.
Discharge time in Seconds : 16
FIRE EXTINGUISHER : CO2 - 3-2 k.g. I.S.S. 2878
METHOD OF OPERATION 1.Move the extinguisher close to the fire. 2.Uncoil the Discharge hose assembly. 3.Remove the safety pin. 4.Turn wheel valve in anticlock wise direction 5.Direct Discharge to the base of fire. Discharge time in Seconds : 20 - 35
Fire Extinguisher Co2 9.K.g Capacity
METHOD OF OPERATION 1.Move the extinguisher close to the fire. 2.Uncoil the Discharge hose assembly. 3.Remove the safety pin. 4.Turn wheel valve in anticlock wise direction 5.Direct Discharge to the base of fire. Discharge time in Seconds : 40 - 60
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METHOD OF OPERATION
1.Remove the locking pin 2.Keep the discharge nozzle in position approach to the fire as close as possible 3.Press the squeeze grip valve and direct jet to the base of fire. The discharge can be controlled by pressing and releasing Grip.
METHOD OF OPERATION : 1.Tilt the extinguisher and ensure there is no blockage in the nozzle. 2.Remove the safety clip, keep your body and face away and strike the knob hard. 3.Hold the extinguisher and direct the jet to the base of the fire. Effective jet length : 30 feet Discharge time in Seconds : 60 Portable Trolley type : 9 ltrs : 45 Itrs and 150 Itrs.
Water Co2 9 Ltrs. IS 940 SODA ACID TYPE : NOTE :- The Bureau of Indian Standards has withdrawn ISI Mark for Soda Acid model because of the operational risks involved during the usage of extinguisher and has advised to replace it with water CO2 Fire Extinguishers.
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METHOD OF OPERATION: 1. Hold the hose near the branch pipe in one of your hands. 2. Remove the safety clip and strike the knob hard by Keeping the face and body away. 3. Hold the extinguisher and direct the jet to the base of the fire. Effective jet length in : 30 feet Discharge time in Seconds : 60 Portable type : 9 Itrs
Mechanical Foam 9 Ites. IS 10204 Trolley type AFFF (Aqueous film forming Foam) Solution is mixed in water CHEMICAL FOAM EXTINGUISHER
: 45 Itrs and 150 Itrs
Note : The Bureau of indian Standards has withdrawn ISI mark for this model because of the operational risks involved during the usage of the extinguisher and has advised to replace it with Mechanical Foam Fire Extinguishers. .
METHOD OF OPERATION: 1. To operate the extinguisher remove the locking pin. 2. Hold the discharge hose firmly and press the squeeze type valve. 3. The powder is released through the dis charge hose and will spread out. 4. While operating direct the powder to the base of the flame and move the jet from side to side in sweeping motion.
(Mono Ammoniom Phoophat Powder and Nirtrogen sab 66 ABC Powder stored pressure type IS : 13849 The Stored Pressure ABC Powder type fire extinguishers are multipurpose type suitable for flmmable liquids, gases and for fires in electrical equipments. It is available in capacities like 1Kg, 2Kg, and 5 Kg.
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VIII. GENERAL PRECAUTIONS : 1. The lids of all extinguishers should be checked for tightness. If two or more threads are exposed out the cylinder should not be used. The high pressure developed in the cylinder could be withstood only if the lid is completly screwed on to the body. Otherwise the lid would come out as a blast and cause serious injury to the operator. All extinguisher should be used in the direction of the wind. There are three pin holes on the periphyery of the lid. When there is any block in the cylinder nozzle or hose the contents will not come out while using. Then the cylinder lid may be unscrewed very slowly. When the holes come up, the pressurised gases will come out thro these holes. Only after the gas completely goes out, the lid can be fully opened. On no account we should think that there is no pressure inside the cyclinder, if contents do not come out during usage. Whenever newly filled, the gas catridge and Co2 cylinder should be checked for its correct weight.
2. 3.
4.
IX. MAINTENANCE OF EXTINGUISHER : a. b. c. d. e. Monthly - cleaning and checking for nozzle block and lid tightness. Quarterly - open the lid. check for free movement of plunger. Clean the outside of the inner container. In foam type the solution should be poured seperately in utensils and stirred. Few drops may be taken out sepertely and mixed together for checking proper formation of white coloured foam. Once in 6 months - The gas catridge should be ckecked for weight. If there is more than 10% loss in weignt of gas, the cylinder may be used in Fire mock drill and then refilled. One in two years- The cylinder should be ckecked for pressure test. Soda Acid and Foam type should withstand pressure of 17.5Kg/Sq.cm for 2.5 minutes and carbondioxide cylinder should withstand pressure of 210 Kg/Sq.cm, for 2.5 minutes. Once in two years 50% of stock of Soda Acid and foam type extinguishers, DCP once in 3 years and Co2 once in 5 years should be used during demonstration / Fire mock drill.
f.
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Sub Station Engineering

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1.

SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Isolation & Control

Protection from internal disturbances

a) Earth Mast b) Surge Diverter c) ROD GAP

Protection & Metering

a) Potential Transformer (PT) b) Current Transformer (CT) c) Relays

A.C.System for LT 3phase, 400V supply

a) Station Transformer 11KV/400V.

b) A.C.Panel 6. Housing a) Yard & Structures b) Control room

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

230/110KV Substation(Main and Transfer Scheme)

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

MAINTENANCE OF POWER TRANSFORMERS Item of Inspection or Maintenance

Period between Inspection or Maintenance

Half yearly before and after wet Half yearly.

Half yearly. Yearly

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

The Earth Mat is shown below:

MAINTENANCE OF EARTHING SYSTEM

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

TYPES OF DOUBLE BREAK SWITCHES:

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

(GCB) : SF6 gas is used as the medium for quenching arc.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

Q.2. Q.3 Q.4. Q.5.

Pressure switch in switch cubicle Verification of SF6 Alarm

Trouble shooting chart for SF6 circuit Breaker

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

Type condition B.Circuit Beaker

Recommended corrective Measures

CHECK & CORRECT :

CHECK & CORRECT :

CHECK & CORRECT :

Circuit diagram for voltage Control lest insulation. Insulation of Coils.

Faulty anti-pumping relay.

CHECK & CORRECT :

Overheating. Warn arcing contacts large No.of operations (Refer Manual)

G) Single Pole operation (pole Discrepancy).

Electrical of Mechanical Fault in operating Device.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

Dirty Oil/ Oil Level low. Cylinder and intercalating dirty.

D) Oil contamination in pressurized air system.

formation Housing F) Unusual

Inadequate air filter maintenance. Incorrect grade of oil.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

I) Excessive Belt wean.

Incorrect motor and compressor pulley alignment.

PROTECTION FROM EXTERNAL DISTURBANCES: Protection from Direct Stroke of lightning.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

The Decision made as such is shown in a sample diagram as below.