CHILI PEPPER Chili pepper (from Nahuatl chilli, chilli pepper, chilli, chillie, chili, and chile) is

the fruit of plants from the genus Capsicum, members of the nightshade family, Solanaceae. Chili peppers originated in the Americas. After the Columbian Exchange, many cultivars of chili pepper spread across the world, used in both food and medicine. Chili peppers have been a part of the human diet in the Americas since at least !"" #C. $here is archaeological evidence at sites located in southwestern Ecuador that chili peppers were domesticated more than %""" years ago, and is one of the first cultivated crops in the Americas that is self&pollinating. Chili peppers were domesticated at least in different parts of 'outh and Central America. Christopher Columbus was one of the first Europeans to encounter them (in the Caribbean), and called them (peppers( because they, li)e blac) and white pepper of the Piper genus )nown in Europe, have a spicy hot taste unli)e other foodstuffs. *pon their introduction into Europe chilis were grown as botanical curiosities in the gardens of 'panish and +ortuguese monasteries. #ut the mon)s experimented with the chilis, culinary potential and discovered that their pungency offered a substitute for blac) peppercorns, which at the time were so costly that they were used as legal currency in some countries. Chilies were cultivated around the globe after Columbus. -iego .lvare/ Chanca, a physician on Columbus, second voyage to the 0est 1ndies in 2345, brought the first chili peppers to 'pain, and first wrote about their medicinal effects in 2343. 6rom 7exico, at the time the 'panish colony that controlled commerce with Asia, chili peppers spread rapidly into the +hilippines and then to 1ndia, China, 8orea and 9apan. $hey were incorporated into the local cuisines. An alternate account for the spread of chili peppers is that the +ortuguese got the pepper from 'pain, and cultivated it in 1ndia. $he chili pepper figures heavily in the cuisine of the :oan region of 1ndia, which was the site of a +ortuguese colony (e.g., vindaloo, an 1ndian interpretation of a +ortuguese dish).

Chili peppers ;ourneyed from 1ndia, through Central Asia and $ur)ey, to <ungary, where it became the national spice in the form of papri)a. Chili is by far the most important vegetable in #hutan. =ocal mar)ets are never without chili, always teemed with different colors and si/es, in fresh and dried form. #hutanese call this crop ema (in -/ong)ha) or solo (in 'harchop). Chili is a staple vegetable in #hutan> the famous ema datsi recipe is entirely made of chilli mixed with local cheese. Chilli is also an important ingredient in almost all curries and food recipes. $he substances that give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin ?&methyl&N&vanillyl&%&nonenamide and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids. Capsaicin is the primary ingredient in the pepper spray used as an irritant weapon. 0hen consumed, capsaicinoids bind with pain receptors in the mouth and throat that are responsible for sensing heat. @nce activated by the capsaicinoids, these receptors send a message to the brain that the person has consumed something hot. $he brain responds to the burning sensation by raising the heart rate, increasing perspiration and release of endorphins. A A""? study reports that capsaicin alters how the body,s cells use energy produced by hydrolysis of A$+. 1n the normal hydrolysis the 'EBCA protein uses this energy to move calcium ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 0hen capsaicin is present, it alters the conformation of the 'EBCA, and thus reduces the ion movement> as a result the A$+ energy (which would have been used to pump the ions) is instead released as heat. $he (heat( of chili peppers is measured in 'coville heat units ('<*), which is a measure of how much a chili extract must be diluted in sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters. #ell peppers ran) at " '<*, New 7exico green chilis at about 2,!"" '<*, ;alapeCos at 5,"""D%,""" '<*, and habaneros at 5"",""" '<*. $he record for the hottest chili pepper was assigned by Guinness World Records to the naga ;olo)ia (from northeastern 1ndia), measuring over 2,""",""" '<*. +ure capsaicin, which is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline&to&waxy solid at room temperature, measures 2%,""",""" '<*.

COMMON SPECIES OF CHILI PEPPERS 2. Capsicum annuum, which includes many common varieties such as bell

peppers, wax, cayenne, ;alapeCos, and the chiltepin $he plant is a perennial, but usually grown as an annual, with a densely branched stem. $he plant reaches ".!D2.! m (A"D%" in). 'ingle white flowers bear the fruit which is green when unripe, changing principally to red, although some varieties may ripen to other colors including brown and purple. $he green foliage is highlighted by purple veins and beautiful purple flowers. 'turdy plants grow 5"&5%( tall and produces 5&3( fruits similar in shape to a ;alapeno, but blac) in color ripening to red.

A. Capsicumfrutescens, $hai peppers.

which

includes

the chiles

deErbol, malagueta, tabasco and

$he Capsicum frutescens species li)ely originated in 'outh or Central America. 1t spread Fuic)ly throughout the tropical and subtropical regions in this area and still grows wild today. Capsicum frutescens is currently native to the ma;ority of Central America as well as Northern and 0estern 'outh America. 1t is believed that C. frutescens is the ancestor to the C. chinese species. +epper varieties in Capsicum frutescens can be annual or short&lived perennial plants. 6lowers are white with a greenish white or greenish yellow corolla, and are either insect or self&fertili/ed. $he plants, berries typically grow erect> ellipsoid&conical to lanceoloid shaped. $hey are usually very small and pungent, growing 2"&A"mm long and 5& mm in diameter. 6ruit typically grows a pale yellow and matures to a bright red, but can also be other colors. C. frutescens has a smaller variety of subspecies, li)ely because of the lac) of human breeding compared to other capsicum species. 7ore recently, however, C. frutescens has been bred to produce ornamental strains, because of its large Fuantities of erect peppers growing in colorful ripening patterns.

5. Capsicum

chinense,

which

includes

the

hottest

peppers

such

as

the naga, habanero, -atil and 'cotch bonnet. Capsicum chinense or (Chinese capsicum( is a misnomer

since all capsica originate in the New 0orld. Ni)olaus 9oseph von 9acFuin (2 A &2?2 ), a -utch botanist, erroneously named the species in 2 originated in China. 3. Capsicum pubescens, which includes the 'outh American rocoto peppers. Capsicum pubescens is a species of the genus Capsicum (pepper), which is found primarily in Central and 'outh America. $he name component pubescens means hairy, which refers to the hairy leaves of this pepper. $he plants, but especially the fruits, are often referred to asrocoto (GuechuaH ruqutu) and locoto (AymaraH luqutu). As they reach a relatively advanced age and the roots lignify Fuic)ly, sometimes the familiar name is tree chili. @f all the domesticated species of peppers, this is the least widespread and systematically furthest away from all others. A very notable feature of this species is its ability to withstand cooler temperatures than other pepper plants. =i)e all other species of the genus Capsicum, plants of the species Capsicum pubescens grow as a shrub, but sometimes as climbing plants. $hey grow into four&meter woody plants relatively Fuic)ly, and live up to 2! years, which gives them, especially with age, an almost tree&li)e appearance. After a first impulse is formed, the plant branches at a height of about 5" cm for the first time, and forms during growth by further dividing into a bushy appearance. 7ore shoots develop from the leaf axils. 'ome varieties have purple discoloration on the branches, as can be observed in other Capsicum species. $he leaves have a !D2A mm long petiole and a leaf blade ovate to !D2A cm long, A.! to 3 cm wide, tapering at the top and the base is wedge&shaped. 1n addition to the relatively long life, Capsicum pubescens differs in many other characteristics from related species. 7ost stri)ing is the eponymous coat, which is on leaves, stems, and sometimes found on the sepals of the flowers. %, because he believed that they

!. Capsicum baccatum, which includes the 'outh American a;i peppers. +epper varieties in the Capsicum baccatumspecies have white or cream colored flowers, and typically have a green or gold corolla. $he flowers are either insect or self& fertili/ed. $he fruit pods of the baccatum species have been cultivated into a wide variety of shapes and si/es, unli)e other capsicum species which tend to have a characteristic shape. $he pods typically hang down, unli)e a capsicum frutescens plant, and can have a citrus or fruity flavor. $he Capsicum baccatumspecies, particularly the A;I pepper, is typically associated with +eruvian culture. $oday the A;I pepper is mainly seen in 'outh American mar)ets. $he wild baccatum species (C. baccatum var. baccatum) is most common in #olivia with outlier populations in +eru (rare) and +araguay, northern Argentina, and southern #ra/il.

USES Chili is widely used, although in much of 'outh America the plant and its vegetable are better )nown as aj, locoto, chile, or rocoto. <owever, this spelling is discouraged by some in the *nited 'tates of America, since it also commonly refers to a popular 'outhwestern&American dish (also )nown as chili con carne (literally chili with meat), the official state dish of $exas), as well as to the mixture of chili powder and other spices used to flavor it. Chili, as in the case of Cincinnati chili, has come to be used for stews that do not actually contain any chile peppers. Chili powder and chile powder, on the other hand, can both refer to dried, ground chili peppers. Chile is an alternate usage, the most common 'panish spelling in 7exico, as well as some parts of the *nited 'tates of America and Canada, which refers specifically to this plant and its fruit. 1n the American 'outhwest (particularly northern New 7exico), chile also denotes a thic), spicy, un&vinegared sauce which is available in red and green varieties, and which is often served over most New 7exican food.

Chilli was the original Bomani/ation of the NEhuatl language word for the fruit (chlli) and is the preferred #ritish spelling according to the Oxford n!lish "ictionar#, although it also lists chile and chili as variants. $he name of the plant bears no relation to Chile, the country, which is named after the Guechua chin ((cold(), tchili ((snow(), or chilli ((where the land ends(). Chile and +uerto Bico are two of the 'panish&spea)ing countries where chilis are )nown as aj, a word of $aIno origin. $here is also some disagreement on the use of the word pepper for chilis because pepper originally referred to the genus +iper, not Capsicum> however this usage is included in English dictionaries, including the @xford English -ictionary (sense Ab of pepper) and 7erriam&0ebster. $he word pepper is commonly used in the botanical and culinary fields in the names of different types of chili peppers.
Culinary uses

Chili pepper plant leaves, mildly bitter but not nearly as hot as the fruits that come from the same plant, are coo)ed as greens in 6ilipino cuisine, where they are called dahon n! sili (literally (chili leaves(). $hey are used in the chic)en soup, tinola. 1n 8orean cuisine, the leaves may be used in )imchi. 1n 9apanese cuisine, the leaves are coo)ed as greens, and also coo)ed in tsu$udani style for preservation.
Psychology

+sychologist +aul Bo/in suggests that eating chilis is an example of a (constrained ris)( li)e riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations li)e pain and fear can be en;oyed because individuals )now that these sensations are not actually harmful. $his method lets people experience extreme feelings without any ris) of bodily harm.
Medicinal

Although some chiles are Fuite hot, most are valued for their soothing effects on the digestive system, relief from symptoms of colds, sore throats and fevers, circulation, especially for cold hands and feet, and as a hangover remedies. +eppers can act as a heart stimulant which regulates blood flow and strengthens the arteries, possibly reducing heart

attac)s. Nutritionally, fresh chile peppers are an excellent source of calcium and vitamin C. Jou can ma)e a chile tincture (medicine), especially from the hottest varieties, by drying the peppers and grounding into a powder. *se one or two tablespoons in warm water for relief of may symptoms. @r pac) chile powder into gel capsules for use when ma)ing a tea is not convenient. Capsaicin is a remar)able health&promoting substance. #ut since burning and irritation are common side effects, it may be wise to start using it slowly and building up a tolerance for larger Fuantities. <ot chili peppers might help fight prostate cancerH 'tudy Capsaicin, the heat& generating element in the chili peppers that delights spicy food lovers around the world, causes prostate cancer cells to )ill themselves, researchers said 0ednesday. A team of *' cancer scientists found in tests on mice that capsaicin could provo)e apoptosis, or programmed cell death, in the cells behind human prostate cancer, the most common cancer among men in the *nited 'tates. Chile peppers, especially hotter varieties such as Cayenne and <abanero, can also be used externally as a remedy for painful ;oints, for frostbite, and applied directly to stop bleeding. $hey stimulate blood flow to the affected area, thus reducing inflammation and discomfort. 'prin)le a little powder into gloves or shoes to help stimulate circulation and )eep the hands and feet warm. $o ma)e a liniment for external use, gently boil 2 tablespoon of hot pepper in 2 pint of cider vinegar. -o not strain, and bottle while hot. 6or toothaches, ma)e an @il out of Cayenne and ma)e a plug out of cotton saturated with the oil. +ress into the affected tooth cavity. 6resh or lightly coo)ed peppers are rich in Kitamin C> indeed this was first isolated in <ungary from bell pepper. <owever, these peppers are best )nown in medicine as sources of capsaicin which is used as an investigatory tool (since it stimulates liberation of 'ubstance +, and is relied on as a cough inducing agent in laboratory studies) as well as a pain relieving medication for topical use in arthritis and neuropathies. +eppers which have pungency increase mucous secretion in the lungs and nose.

$he capsaicin of chile peppers is also used offensively in pepper sprays since it is very irritating to the eyes and respiratory tract. Chile pepper is still used in Ayurvedic therapy to treat peptic ulcers. Currently, capsaicin is used topically in proprietary creams to treat pain and neuropathies, whereas formerly chile&impregnated plasters and poultices were similarly used. $he addition of chile pepper to chic)en soup (with accompanying garlic and other herbs) is recommended as a useful therapy for colds, sinusitis and bronchitis. 7ost people don,t eat chili peppers in large Fuantities, but the amount of vitamin C is still significant. And red chilies (although not green ones) are full of beta&carotene. $he nutritional aspect of hot peppers most interesting to researchers today, however, is capsaicin&&the compound that gives chilies their (burn.( Capsaicin seems to have a positive effect on blood cholesterol, and also wor)s as an anticoagulant. And the (high( that some people experience when eating fiery chili&spi)ed foods is a perfectly safe oneH 'ome scientists theori/e that in response to the discomfort produced by the chilies, (burn,( the brainreleases endorphins&&substances that, at high levels, can create a sensation of pleasure. 1n a study of A"" patients with psoriasis, application of a "."A!&percent capsaicin cream significantly reduced itching, scaling, thic)ness, and redness compared with patients who used a plain cream. Capsicum (Cayenne +epper) can reduce pain which serves as a local anesthetic to ulcerated tissue in the stomach and can even help to control bleeding in the stomach. 'ome individuals may be bothered by eating (Bed +epper( or spicy foods, these foods do not cause the formation of gastric ulcers in normal people. An interesting note is that people suffering from ulcers usually avoid Cayenne +epper, in fact those people may actually benefit from its therapeutic action. $a)ing Capsicum may significantly reduce the ris) of ever developing a peptic ulcer. A Chinese study published in 244! stated, (@ur data supports the hypothesis that the chile used has a protective effect against peptic ulcer disease. Another 244! study found that Capsicum can even protect the stomach lining from aspirin induced ulcers.

Aspirin can cause stomach ulceration in certain individuals or if ta)en with too little water or ;uice. Besearchers have concluded after experimenting with human volunteers that the capsaicin content of capsicum has a definite gastro & protective effect on the mucous membranes of the stomach.5 Eighteen healthy volunteers with normal gastrointestinal mucosa too) chile and water followed by %"" mg of aspirin and water. $he study was conducted over a period of four wee)s. Endoscopy results showed that ta)ing A" grams of chile before the aspirin definitely demonstrated a protective action on the stomach lining. Capsicum has the ability to rebuild stomach tissue. Capsicum has the ability to bring blood to regions of tissue at a faster rate boosts the assimilation of foods that are consumed with it. 'everal clinical studies support this phenomenon. 1t has been thought that Capsicum stimulate the release of substances which increase secretions in the stomach and intestines plus can increase an abundance of blood to the stomach and intestines. 1n fact, Capsicum can increases the flow of digestive secretions from the salivary, gastric and intestinal glands

Irritant weapon

Capsaicin extracted from chillis is used in a spray as a non&lethal weapon.

Crop de ense

6armers in Africa and on the 1ndian subcontinent have found the use of chilis effective in crop defense against elephants. $he chilis are spread on fences and other structures to )eep the elephants away. #ecause the elephants have a large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system the smell of the chilli causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. $his can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.
Food de ense

As birds have a lessened sensitivity to the effects of chili it can be used to )eep mammalian vermin from bird seed.

NU!RI!ION"L #"LUE Bed chilis contain high amounts of vitamin C and carotene (provitamin A). Jellow and especially green chilis (which are essentially unripe fruit) contain a considerably lower amount of both substances. 1n addition, peppers are a good source of most # vitamins, and vitamin #% in particular. $hey are very high in potassium, magnesium, and iron. $heir high vitamin C content can also substantially increase the upta)e of non&heme iron from other ingredients in a meal, such as beans and grains. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers, natural range. $he seeds of the peppers are distributed by the birds that drop the seeds while eating the pods, and the seeds pass through the digestive tract unharmed. $his relationship may have promoted the evolution of the protective capsaicin. +roducts based on this substance have been sold to treat the seeds in bird feeders to deter sFuirrels and other mammalian vermin without also deterring birds. Capsaicin is also a defense mechanism against microbial fungi that invade through punctures made in the outer s)in by various insects.