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Electric Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109-118

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Overview of the transmission line design process

Robert D. Castro
Transmission Systems Engineering and Research Design and Construction Division, Los Angeles Department o[" Water and Power, 111 North Hope Street, Los Angeles, CA 90012-2694, USA
Received 27 March 1995

Abstract An overview is presented for the design of overhead high-voltage transmission lines. Since most lines constructed by Los Angeles Department of Water and Power in recent years have been extra-high-voltage AC, this paper emphasizes the design of 500 kV AC transmission lines built in the southwest United States. Empirically developed practices are presented throughout the paper.
Keywords: Transmission lines

1. Introduction Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) has transmission lines dating from 1915 until the present, and new lines are almost always being planned. For the AC transmission lines, the voltages range from 115 to 500 kV with the number of circuits ranging from one to six per tower. The design process used by L A D W P in constructing high-voltage AC transmission lines is presented in this paper. The design process begins with the required engineering data, then continues with sections on conductor selection, wind and ice loading, maximum tension determination, transmission towers, insulators, ruling span determination, spotting towers, magnetic field effects and environmental criteria.

3. Conductors

3.1. Conductor selection

Historically, L A D W P has used standard round-rod steel reinforced aluminum conductor (ACSR). The reason for ACSR's popularity is its low relative cost and its high weight-to-strength ratio as compared with other conductor material. In addition, ACSR is commercially available in wide ranges of mechanical strength and electric current capacity ratings. The most economical conductor size is determined using Kelvin's law, which states: "The most economical area of a conductor is that for which the annual cost of the energy losses is equal to the interest on that portion of the capital outlay which may be considered as proportional to the weight of the conductor". The most efficient conductor size is achieved by a balance between costs from I2R losses, which decrease as conductor size increases, and installed costs. This is demonstrated graphically in Fig. 1. Typically, conductor selection for a new high-voltage transmission line would be as follows. (a) A number of different candidate conductors (or candidate conductor bundles) are selected based on minimum operational requirements. Minimum operational requirements include thermal capacity (i.e. capacity to carry the maximum anticipated line current for specified time periods and ambient conditions) and maximum allowable voltage gradient effects (i.e.

2. Engineering data The engineering data are obtained from the Transmission Design, Transmission Planning, Resource Planning and Environmental and Governmental Affairs sections of LADWP. Typical design data are outlined below: transmission voltage, levelized current value, amortized life (typically 4 0 - 5 0 years), location of transmission line corridor, environmental constraints.
0378-7796/95/$09.50 1995 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved S S D I 0378-7796(95)00996-U

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R.D. Castro /Electric Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109 118

~Total Cost
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Fig. 3. Two-conductorbundle separated by a spacer.

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Costs

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Fig. 1. Determination of the most efficientconductor size. corona, radio interference, television interference and audible noise limitations). Conductor temperaturesag-tension characteristics may also be considered. (b) For each candidate conductor (or conductor bundle) estimates are made of the line construction (installation) cost and the present worth of the I2R losses over the projected life of the line. These costs are added to obtain the total estimated cost associated with the installation and use of each candidate conductor. The candidate conductor with the lowest total estimated cost is the selected conductor.

3.2. Conductor configuration

To transmit the large amounts of power required by modern power systems, two or more single conductors are bundled to form each phase (or pole) of an AC (or DC) transmission line (Fig. 2). The bundling of conductors increases the effective radius of the phase conductors. This reduces line reactance, corona losses, radio

interference, television interference and audible noise. The disadvantages of bundled conductors include increases in complexity, cost, wind and ice loading and tower requirements. The individual conductors in a conductor bundle are sometimes referred to as 'subconductors'. A 10:1, or near 10:1, ratio of subconductor diameter to subconductor spacing in a conductor bundle is to be avoided if at all practical to do so. This is because a 10:1 ratio tends to promote wind induced (aeolian) subspan vibration which can damage the subconductors. LADWP's present design for a two-conductor bundle is an 18 in. (45.72cm) horizontal separation between conductors (Fig. 3). Future designs may consider a horizontal separation of up to 25 in. (63.50 cm) to eliminate any problems due to aeolian vibration. LADWP's present design for a three-conductor bundle is a 25 in. horizontal separation with a third conductor beneath, 18 in. from each conductor.

3.3. Ground-wire configuration

A ground wire is used to prevent the flashover of a conductor to ground during lightning storms. It is usually made from extra-high-strength stranded steel 1 cable, with a diameter of ~ or 5in. (1.11 or 1.27 cm). L A D W P uses two ground wires. The ground wires should be located above the conductors in such a way that a line through a ground wire and the outside conductor on the same side of the tower makes an angle with the vertical not exceeding 15 . Ground wires should be segmented about every two miles and grounded to the tower every mile after the segmentation. Studies performed indicate that this will lower power losses due to induced voltage on the ground wire.

4. Wind and ice loading A wind and ice loading estimate is necessary to determine at what conditions the loaded design tension will occur. For California, General Order 95 (G.O. 95), Rule 43 on temperature and loading applies. For the rest of the US the National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) Section 23 on clearances applies, as well as any

Fig. 2. Illustration of a two-conductor bundle. (Provided by Stanley G. Flagg Co., Stowe, PA.)

R.D. Castro/Electric Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109 118

111

towers. Historically, LADWP towers used fbr AC lines are of the lattice steel self-supporting type. Other utilities sometimes use guyed towers which have a lower weight than the self-supporting type, and this weight can be further reduced by the use of aluminum instead of steel.

6.1. Tower configuration

The configuration of a tower is determined by both the transmission engineer, who is responsible for meeting the electrical requirements, and the structural design engineer, who is responsible for the structure's adequacy and efficiency. Typical circuit configurations are horizontal, vertical and delta. Generally, the horizontal configuration produces the minimum-height towers, the vertical configuration produces the minimum-width right of way, and the delta configuration minimizes electrical line losses and magnetic field effects for singlecircuit towers. A typical single-circuit suspension tower of horizontal configuration is illustrated in Fig. 5. Typical tower height (as measured from top of footings to conductor attachment point) configurations for towers used by LADWP are given in Table 1. The tower legs are generally designed in increments of 3 ft (0.9 m). Preferred practice is to use the shortest legs possible to make up a tower of the required height. Body extensions are generally available in increments of 18 ft (5.5 m). It is desirable to keep the overall height of the highest tower below 200 ft (61 m) to avoid having to provide lights and other special FAA requirements for towers above 200 ft.

Fig. 4. General loading m a p of the continental United States for loading o f overhead lines.

regulations imposed by the state. A general loading map for overhead lines is illustrated in Fig. 4. As an example, assume a transmission line is to be built in Mono County, CA. Appendix A of G.O. 95 shows this to be a heavy loading area, so Rule 43.1 on heavy loading must be followed. This gives a wind loading of 6 lbf/ft 2 (28.1 N/m 2) in conjunction with ice of radial thickness in. (1.27 cm) at 0 F ( - 17.8 C). NESC provides similar loading estimates.

5. Maximum tension determination

Based on the conductor type selected, the maximum (loaded) design tension is determined. The loaded design tension (i.e. the tension of the conductor with wind and ice loading) is typically specified to be 33%-35% of the ultimate strength under loaded conditions. Unloaded conductor sagged-in tension (60 F (15.5 C), no wind, no ice) is typically 20%-22% of the ultimate strength. For example, assume the conductor selected was a 2312 kcmiP ACSR 'Thrasher'. The ultimate strength of a 'Thrasher' conductor is approximately 5500060 000 lbf (245-267 kN) depending on the galvanization of the core. The loaded design tension is 33% of 60 000 lbf, i.e. 20 000 lbf (89 kN). This tension would occur under the loaded conductor conditions specified in the example above in Section 4 (i.e. 6 lbf/ft 2 wind, 1 in. ice, at 0 F).

6.2. Tower design strength

All towers must be built strong enough to support the conductors and ground wire, including ice loading,
Table 1 Typical tower height configuration (in feet a) Tower Tower Body Tower Tower Tower Body Tower height body extension leg height body extension leg 70 73 76 79 82 85 88 91 94 97 100 103 106 109 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 18 18 18 18 18 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 15 18 21 24 27 112 115 118 121 124 127 130 133 136 139 142 145 148 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64 18 36 36 36 36 36 36 54 54 54 54 54 54 30 15 18 21 24 27 30 15 18 21 24 27 30

6. Transmission towers

Tower loading information based on the loaded conductor and overhead ground wire design tensions, along with the conductor-to-steel electrical clearance, is given to the structural design engineer to design the
t kcmil = 1000 circular mils; 1 c m i l = 5.0671 x 10 - 4 m m z.

" 1 ft = 0.3048 m.

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R.D. Castro Electric Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109 118

t02'

L
L

27"

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35'

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TOWER LEIS ROUND FOOTING I

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36'

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Fig. 5. Typical single-circuit 500 kV AC suspension tower. (Dimensions in ft.)

during the maximum assumed wind loading. In addition, broken-wire capability must be designed into towers. The broken-wire capability designed into towers used by L A D W P is as follows: Single-circuit dead-end towers (Fig. 6) are typically designed for all cables intact on one side of the tower and any combination of broken conductors and ground wires on the other side under normal wind speeds and temperatures. Multicircuit dead-end towers are typically designed for all cables intact on one side of the tower and one ground wire and any combination of conductors broken in one circuit on the other side under normal wind speeds and temperatures. Suspension towers are typically designed for any one conductor or bundle broken in combination with one ground wire broken under normal wind speeds and temperatures. Suspension towers are only used in straight sections of the line.

Typical dimensions for 500 kV single-circuit towers are given in Fig. 5.

7. Insulators The basic electrical requirement of any insulator assembly is that the insulator should sustain a lightning strike without forming a conductor path over the insulator surface. The basic mechanical requirement is that the insulator be able to support the wind and ice loading of the conductor and to withstand lightning, power surges and mechanical abuse without dropping the conductor. The operational performance of a transmission line is largely determined by the insulation. Selecting the insulation levels requires careful analysis. Insulators near refineries, along the seashore or in areas of light rainfall may become so contaminated that considerable overin-

R.D. Castro/Electric' Power SFstems Research 35 (1995) 109 118

113

sulation is required. Under normal conditions, the assembled insulator should have a dry flashover of five times the nominal operating voltage and a leakage path of twice the shortest air-gap distance. The standard insulator is a porcelain insulator with a 10in. (25.4cm) diameter and a spacing of 5~in. (14.6 cm) from center to center. In recent years silicone polymer insulators have been installed in many new lines. The advantage of using polymer insulators is that contamination is less of a problem than with porcelain insulators, which reduces line maintenance. The disadvantage of polymer insulators is that they deteriorate much faster than porcelain and need replacement
sooner.

8. Ruling span determination The ruling span may be defined as the span length in which the tension in the conductor, under changes in temperature and loading, will most nearly agree with the average tension in a series of spans of varying lengths between dead-end towers. To determine the design ruling span, a study involving different tower configurations (e.g. large spans with large towers versus short spans with small towers) in the established right of way is performed to determine the best balance between material costs (larger spans require stronger towers and hardware) and labor costs (shorter spans require more labor and maintenance). Because of the numerous necessary iterations, the ruling span determination is accomplished using computers. First, the right-of-way terrain and tower cost

data are entered into the spotting program and a reasonable ruling span is estimated. The spotting program is run to generate the most economic combination of towers using the catenary constant generated from the estimated ruling span. A resultant ruling span is then calculated from the proposed tower placement. The analysis is then rerun with the resultant ruling span value being input as the estimated ruling span. This process is continued until the difference between the estimated and resulting ruling span is minimal (LADWP typically accepts a 2"/o differential). This resulting ruling span is called the design ruling span. These iterations to minimize the ruling span differential are necessary because a large differential indicates that the tensions and clearances calculated using the estimated ruling span's catenary constant may not accurately reflect the resultant ruling span's tension and clearances. After the terrain is staked by the survey crew, the actual ruling spans for each dead-end to dead-end line segment will be used to calculate conductor sags and tensions. The actual ruling spans are calculated as follows:
//LI 3 + L2 3 -+- L3 3 + . . .

+ Lx3~ 12

where LR is the actual ruling span and L x is the individual span length. The use of a design ruling span appreciably different from the actual ruling span results in unpredictable sags and tensions. Using lower than predicted tensions may cause clearance problems. Higher than predicted tensions may cause aeolian vibration or uplift problems. Typical actual ruling spans on the LADWP system are as follows: In the City of Los Angeles and for voltages of 230kV or less, ruling spans are 600-1000ft (183305 m). This distance is often governed by the right-ofway width available to accommodate a 30 side swing of the conductor under wind. For 230-287 kV lines outside the city, spans are 900 1200 ft (274-366 m). For 500 kV lines outside the city, spans are 12001500 ft (366-457 m).

9. Spotting towers Towers are spotted or located using computer programs. Listed below are the necessary inputs for the programs. 9.1. Topographical data Topographical data are obtained from the field personnel who survey the line with aerial photography.

Fig. 6. Dead-end tower.

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R.D. Castro~Electric Power Systems Research .35 (1995) 109 118

Table 2 Conductor clearances adopted by LADWP for 500 kV AC transmission lines Description Clearance (~) Accessible to pedestrians only Accessible to vehicles Above railroad tracks Above major highways Vertical clearance above buildings, bridges, etc. (clearance above buildings upon which men may walk) Horizontal clearance from buildings, bridges, etc. (clearance from buildings upon which men may work) Radial separation from guy wires and cables from adjoining structures Radial separation from guy wires and cables supported on same tower From communications conductors (e.g. telephone lines) From conductors of other lines From conductors of same line 30 35 39 40 35 15 18.17
11.33

(m) 9.1 2.7 11.9 12.2 2.7 4.6 5.5 3.5 7.6 7.6 5.8

25 25 19.17

Specifically, centerline and certain off-centerline elevation profile data are required.

Th SW D = ~ cosh 2Th
where D is the conductor sag at midspan, W the loaded weight of the conductor, Th the horizontal component of the conductor tension, and S the horizontal length of the conductor span. This equation can be approximated to a high degree of accuracy by the use of Maclaurin's infinite series: WS 2 W {WS2~ 2 ( W~2(WS2~ 3

9.2. Conductor data and configuration

Refer to Section 3 on conductors.

9.3. Loaded design tension

In addition to the loaded design tension, the conditions at which the loaded design tension occurs are also required. Refer to Section 5 on maximum tension determination.

9.4. Conductor clearances

The clearances required vary with the area being traversed. In California, the clearances must meet the specifications outlined in California General Order 95 (G.O. 95), Rules for Overhead Line Construction (Section III, Rules For All Lines, Rules 37 and 38 on clearances). In the rest of the United States the clearances must meet the specifications outlined in the National Electrical Safety Code (NESC) (Part 2. Safety Rules for the Installation and Maintenance of Overhead Electric Supply and Communication Lines, Section 23 on clearances). The conductor low point must never violate the clearance levels specified above. The curve shape assumed by a conductor when suspended between towers is very close to a catenary. The equation for the conductor low point (i.e. the conductor sag at midspan, assuming suspension points at equal elevations) using hyperbolic functions is

This is the basic equation used by most spotting programs for determining the conductor clearance. In general, L A D W P bases its clearance requirements on G.O. 95, since its regulations are more stringent than NESC requirements and most of our lines are built in California. Conductor clearances used by L A D W P for 500 kV lines are given in Table 2.

9.5. Tower data

Tower data outlining relevant information (e.g. costs) on the types of towers are required. Typical tower types for a given line may be as follows: Standard suspension (LS) Heavy suspension (HS) Angle suspension (AS) Dead end (D1) Dead end (D2) Dead end (D3) 1 1 up up up up line angle allowed line angle allowed to 20 line angle allowed to 30 line angle allowed to 60 line angle allowed to 90 line angle allowed

The loading on these towers varies from the LS tower type which carries the smallest loads to the D3 tower

R,D. Castro/Electric Power S~,stems Research 35 (1995) 109-118 Table 3 Typical design loading requirements (in kips ~) for 500 kV single-circuit AC towers Tower type LS HS AS D1 D2 D3 Uplift 115 145 220 293 405 450 Compression 15,0 200 290 350 460 540 Lateral 40 45 81 127 159 186

I 15

1 kip = 100 lbf = 4448.2 N.

type which is designed to carry the largest loads. Table 3 outlines typical design loading requirements for 500 kV single-circuit AC towers.

9.6. Ruling spans

Refer to Section 8 on ruling span determination. Once the required information is input, the spotting program selects the tower types, locations, and heights to be used and the sag and tensions of the lines, using an iterative process that determines the most economical tower type/location that meets the input requirements. The survey crew then goes out into the field and stakes the proposed tower locations. The design engineer inspects the proposed locations to see if there are any conflicts with field conditions. For example, if a proposed tower location is in a wash it needs to be moved. The survey crew then restake the tower locations as needed. The construction contractor, under the supervision of a quality assurance engineer, installs the tower footings at the markings laid out by the survey crew. Generally, a long line in relatively flat terrain averages a ratio of twelve suspension towers to one dead-end tower. As-built elevations are then measured by the survey crew. Based on these footing elevations and previously determined tower heights, revised sag/tensions are then calculated by the sag/tension program and clearance levels checked.

Fig. 7. Environmental concerns have become an important aspect of transmission line design. (Graphic provided by BioSystems Analysis, Inc.)

10.1. Environmental impact study

Once the ROW grant has been issued by the appropriate agency an environmental impact study (EIS) is performed, usually by an environmental contractor. The EIS is a draft environmental report that includes a cursory study of the area, an intensive literature search on the area and the environmental impact of the project. The EIS also calls for additional studies to be done to assess the full environmental impact (Fig. 7) of the project, such as a seasonal plant survey. In case of an endangered animal, such as the desert tortoise in the southwest, the EIS calls for a biological opinion from the US Fish and Wildlife Department. In addition, the EIS also outlines the mitigation measures to be followed during construction and operation of the line. These mitigation measures include, but are not limited to, possible biological, botanical, cultural, anthropological and paleontological effects of the project.

10. Environmental criteria

10.2. Environmental impact report

When the EIS has been released, hearings are held on the project to allow public opinion to be gathered. An environmental impact report is published as a response to these opinions.

An important aspect of any large transmission line under construction is satisfying the required environmental regulations. For rights of way (ROW) on federal government land, the project is supervised by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Division of the US Department of the Interior. For ROW on national forest land, the project is supervised by the US Department of Forestry. Usually, most utilities contract out the environmental work to environmental contracting firms.

10.3. Environmental licensing services

Environmental licensing services become necessary once the tower locations have been determined. The

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R.D. Castro/Electrie Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109 118

environmental contractor does an intensive survey of each section of the transmission corridor. The sections are typically 8-12 miles (13-19 km) in length. The design engineers use this survey information to generate a plan and profile drawing of the section that details tower locations, spans, restricted areas, access routes, and other pertinent survey information. The design engineers also use this information to generate site prescription forms that outline construction layouts to be adhered to during construction. The plan and profile drawings and site prescription forms are reviewed by the BLM, which then issues a 'notice to proceed' for the construction of that section. The plan and profile drawings and site prescription forms are made available to the construction contractor at least 60 days prior to construction of that section.

immaterial (i.e. it does not affect the magnetic field), but the dimensions chosen are appropriate for a 500 kV line.

11.1. Increasing R O W width

Since the EMF is inversely proportional to the distance from a line source, substantially increasing the ROW width does reduce EMF levels. In general, though, this alternative is not economically feasible.

11.2. Increasing tower height

The EMF can be reduced dramatically directly under the transmission lines by increasing the tower height, but the impact is minimal at the edge of the ROW. For example, doubling the tower height from 30 to 60 ft (9-18 m) only reduces the magnetic field by 20%.

11. Field effects of transmission lines

11.3. Phase spacing

Reducing the distance between conductor phases would increase the magnetic field and phase current interaction, lowering the field level at the ROW edge. For example, reducing the phase spacing in a horizontal configuration from 45 ft (13.7 m) to 25 ft (7.6 m) can reduce magnetic levels by 50%. However, noise and interference performance suffer when phases are placed closer together.

The popular press has recently focused public attention on the controversy in the scientific community as to whether there are any adverse health effects from the electromagnetic fields (EMFs) of transmission lines (Fig. 8). As a result, most utilities have begun incorporating methods of reducing EMFs as part of the design process of building transmission lines. Below are specific practices that have been found to lower EMF levels at the edge of a transmission line's right of way. For comparative purposes, magnetic field reduction levels have been illlustrated for a single-circuit AC line carrying 1000 A with a ROW extending 100 ft (30 m) from the centerline. All values (i.e. percent reduction levels) refer to magnetic field levels at the edge of the ROW. The voltage level of the line is

11.4. Line configuration

A horizontal line configuration has a higher level of EMF at the ROW edge than either a vertical or delta configuration. A vertical or delta configuration has 50% lower magnetic field emissions than a similar horizontal configuration. The difference between vertical and delta configurations is minimal at the ROW edge.

/
Fig. 8. Methods of reducing EMF have been incorporated into transmission line design. (Graphic provided by Positron Industries, Inc., Montreal, Canada.)

11.5. Shielding wires

Shield or ground wires placed over lines for lightning protection have little effect on the EMF. Installing shield wires below transmission lines can be made to reduce EMF levels by inducing currents that minimize the resulting magnetic field. This method can be implemented by placing a wire loop around a section of the transmission line on wooden poles placed between the transmission line and the ROW edge. The wire loop is grounded at one point, and a series capacitor is inserted (Fig. 9). By optimizing the current phase and magnitude, the magnetic field may be reduced by 80%.

11.6. Effect of earth resistivity

Lowering the resistivity of the earth actually raises the EMF levels slightly. For example, a resistivity of

R.DI Castro / Electric Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109-. 118

I 17

times the magnetic field levels of a low-reactance configuration.

II
Fig. 9. Shielding power lines with wire loops (cross section).

12. Material specifications Once the design information is determined, specifications are required for the various materials and services needed for construction. Specifications for the following are required: conductors, ground wires, insulators, hardware, accessories, danger signs, tower steel, and construction specifications (Fig. 11).

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Acknowledgements
C, ,A

Suparbundla

I would like to thank Mr Tom R. Taylor of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power for his contributions and suggestions.
L o w - Reactance

[t~)c - ABCl

pz3c - C B ~

Fig. 10. Double-circuit phasing can drastically lower EMF levels at right-of-way edge.

Bibliography
[1] J.G. Anderson (ed.), Transmission Line Rejerenee Book: 3 4 5 k V and Above, Electric Power Research Institute, Pah> Alto, CA, 2nd edn., 1982. [2] Transmission Line Re/erence Book: Wind Induced Conductor Motion, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, CA, 1979. [3] Electrical Transmission and Distribution Rejerenee Book, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, East Pittsburgh, PA, 4th edn., 1950. [4] H.H. Farr, Transmission Line Design Manual, US Department of the Interior, Water and Power Resources Service, Denver, CO, 1980. [5] National Eleetrical Safety Code, IEEE, New York, 1987 edn., 1986. [6] Rules jor Overhead Line Construction, General Order 95, Public Utilities Commission of the State of California, Mar. 1981.

5 ~ / m is associated with a 15% higher magnetic field than a 100 ff~,/m resistivity.

11.7. Effect ?f double-circuit phasing

Configuring a double-circuit vertical line with a lowreactance configuration of A - B C C - B - A can drastically reduce E M F levels over a superbundle ( A - B - C A - B - C ) configuration (Fig. 10). For example, assuming a current of 1000A for each circuit, going in the same direction, a superbundle has three

7O
66

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175

5t ! 50 41 125 3O 100 75
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ZT) 230 kV Slmgle Circull

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500 kV Single Cif cult

"Della"

500 kV

1100 kV

Double Circuit "Stlsckm

Sinolg C~'~i! "Experlmerda! Oellu"

Fig. 11. Configurations of typical transmission towers.

118

R.D. Castro~Electric Power Systems Research 35 (1995) 109 118 [9] H. Rustebakke (ed.), Electrie Utility Systems and Practice, Wiley, New York, 4th edn., 1983. [10] D.G. Fink and J.M. Carroll (eds.), Standard Handbook jor Electrical Engineers, McGraw-Hill, New York, 10th edn., 1968,

[7] Bonneville Power Administration, Electrical and Biological Effects of Transmission Lines: A Review, US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, June 1986. [8] C.A. Powel, Principles of Electrie Utility Engineering, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1956.