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TSUNAMIS OF SEISMIC ORIGIN -Science, Disasters and MitigationN. SHUTO Faculty of Policy Studies, Iwate Prefectural University Iwate 020-019 , !a"an Abstract Present knowledge of tsunamis are reviewed and discussed. The tsunami generation mechanism is not yet fully understood. Theories are examined in relation to observed tsunami henomena. !onditions to be satisfied in numerical simulation are summari"ed. #n addition to loss of human lives$ several disasters are tabulated. %efense works including coastal structures$ city lanning and revention systems are briefly introduced. Three sub&ects in urgent needs are the dee 'sea measurement of tsunamis$ transfer of tsunami knowledge and strengthening of coastal cities against tsunamis. 1. Introduction Since ()*+,s$ tsunami science and technology have been develo ing remarkably$ assisted by the rogress of seismology and com uter science. #n ())+,s$ more than ten disastrous tsunamis occurred in the Pacific. #nternational coo eration is successfully established to survey tsunami heights and to understand the tsunamis. #n the resent a er$ the knowledge commonly used in these works is reviewed and the roblems to be solved in the near future are discussed.

-. !. .al/0ner$ 1. Pelinovsky$ 1. Okal$ !. 1. Synolakis 2eds.3$ Submarine 4andslides and Tsunamis ('5. 67++8 9luwer -cademic Publishers. Printed in Netherlands

2 2. Science of Tsunamis 7.( :1N1;-T#ON O< TSUN-=#S Since Thucydides$ a :reek historian$ recogni"ed in >7? @! that a tsunami on 1uboea #sland was the result of an earthAuake$ many tsunamis were generated and recorded in the world. !auses are submarine earthAuakes$ landslides$ and volcanic action. The most of causes are submarine earthAuakes. Not the ground shaking but the vertical sea'bottom deformation generates a tsunami. The greater an earthAuake is$ the larger the vertical dis lacement is and conseAuently the greater tsunami is generated. This rule is a licable to the ordinary tsunamigenic earthAuake with a serious exce tion$ tsunami' earthAuake. Since the Nicaraguan tsunami in Se tember ())7$ more than ten tsunamis gave damages in the Pacific. Three of them were tsunami'earthAuakes. #n the ()*+,s$ the method to determine the tsunami initial rofile generated by submarine earthAuake was develo ed. #n ()*($ =ansinha and Smylie B(C ro osed a method to estimate sea bottom dis lacement caused by an earthAuake if fault arameters were given. 4ater B7C gave a more com lete set of analytic formulas to com ute the surface dis lacement due to a fault laced in an elastic homogeneous half's ace. #n ()*>$ 9anamori and !i er B8C o ened the way to calculate fault arameters from seismic records with the aid of the advancing high's eed com uter$ by using the ()?+ !hilean earthAuake as an exam le. !ombined these two$ the final dis lacement caused by an earthAuake$ i.e. the initial tsunami rofile$ can be estimated. This method has been most o ularly used since then. Sometimes$ however$ the tsunami initial rofile thus determined cannot satisfy the tsunami energy distribution measured along the shoreline. This difference may be due to heterogeneity of fault movement$ existence of sub'faults$ dynamic movement of fault$ or so on. There is only one exam le of the measured tsunami rofile. Plafker B>C determined the vertical dis lacement caused by the ()?> :reat -laska earthAuake$ by dis lacement on islands and by com arison with a re'earthAuake to ogra hy. -long the direction of the short axis of the deformation area$ the tsunami initial wave is about >D+ km long with one trough and one crest. The wave height is ? m. This long wave is considered to correlate with the ma&or energy of the earthAuake and is$ therefore$ estimated from the fault arameters. Near its crest$ a shar rise was found. This rise about ? m high and 8+ km wide at its base$ although its contribution to tsunami height is a arently im ortant$ can not be estimated from seismic information. This rise may be caused by a sub'fault. These short wave com onents are not im ortant in case of a far'field tsunami. 1ntra ed and scattered by islands and seamounts on the route of ro agation$ their systematic wavy sha e will be lost. Only long eriod com onents can arrive at distant shores$ not disturbed so much by to ogra hy along the ath. #n case of a near'field tsunami$ short eriod com onents that are not estimated from seismic information are very im ortant and are considered to be the ma&or reason of the discre ancy between the measured tsunami heights on the shore and the com uted. #t is often noticed that the initial tsunami rofile based u on fault arameters should be made nearly double in order to ex lain the measured tsunami traces.

3 The mechanism of tsunami earthAuake is not yet clearly understood. <ukao BDC ex lained two tsunami earthAuakes at the 9urile Trench by sub'faults in the thick sedimentary wedge at the leading edge of the continental lithos here. Tanioka et al. B?C consider that tsunami earthAuakes at the Ea an Trench are the result of the horst and graben structures of sea bottom$ which gives the scattered contact "ones in the subducted sediments along the inter late boundary. The generation mechanism by other causes is not yet clearly understood$ although many researchers have been studying. 7.7 P;OP-:-T#ON -N% ;UN'UP - ma&or tsunami in the ocean is several tens kilometres long and several meters high. #t is long and small com ared to the ocean de th of several kilometres. The linear long' wave theory is successfully a licable if the travel distance is not long. <or a long travel$ e.g. over the Pacific Ocean$ other consideration is reAuired. <irstly$ the eAuations should be described with the s herical co'ordinate system$ because the earth is a s here. Secondly$ the !oriolis term should not be missed. Thirdly$ the freAuency dis ersion term of the first order a roximation should be included$ if the 9a&iura arameter relating to the dimension of the source$ the travel distance and the water de th is smaller than > B*C. Under these conditions$ the linear @oussinesA eAuation is often used. - roaching the shore$ the wave height increases and the water de th decreases. Then$ non'linear characteristics of water motion reAuire the shallow'water theory including the bottom friction term$ in which the am litude dis ersion term becomes im ortant. The boundary between the linear long'wave theory and the shallow'water theory is a roximately the water de th of 7++ m. - roaching further the shore$ a tsunami shows many faces in relation to water de th$ bottom slo e$ wave height and wave length. #f a tsunami is like a ra id tide without breaking front$ the shallow'water theory is successfully a lied. #f a tsunami with breaking front comes nearly normally to the shore$ the shallow'water theory is also a licable if the tsunami runu height is the ma&or concern. #f a tsunami with breaking front runs along the shore as an edge bore that follows sometimes the ordinary refraction law de ending u on the water de th but sometimes ro agates neglecting the law$ there is no theory a licable at resent. - hydraulic ex eriment revealed that a slight change in the side boundary condition resulted in a big change in waveform B5C. <or a tsunami with an undular'bore front$ higher order dis ersion terms are reAuired. The @oussinesA eAuation$ Peregrine eAuation or :oto eAuation should be used in accordance with the strength of non'linearity. @ut accuracy and limit of these eAuations are not yet well determined. Tsunamis finally run u and down the shore. Since eAuations in the 1ulerian descri tion cannot ex ress the front condition$ a roximate moving boundary conditions are introduced. <or ordinary to ogra hy on land where the slo e is gentle$ the shallow'water theory in which the vertical acceleration is neglected is a licable. #n the rare cases of very stee slo e$ the vertical acceleration of water flow becomes non'negligible and other eAuations than the shallow'water eAuations are reAuired. Tsunamis run u on land and leave sediments as a roof of their existence. =any aleotsunamis were excavated. No work succeeded until now to ex lain the magnitude and movement of aleotsunamis from sediment sam les.

4 7.8 %1S#:N O< NU=1;#!-4 S#=U4-T#ON %ifference eAuations are not the original differential eAuations but are the a roximate eAuations of the latter. Numerical errors are inevitable. Fhen difference eAuations are solved$ several conditions should be satisfied to ensure the accuracy of the results and the stability of com utation. #n addition to the !<4 condition that is reAuired for the wave eAuation$ several other conditions should be satisfied. #n case of the lea frog scheme used in <%= com utation$ more than 7+ s atial grids are reAuired within one local wavelength. =ore than D+ s atial grids are necessary at the front of runu waves$ if an a roximate moving boundary condition is used B)C. :rid lengths should ex ress well tsunami diffraction and refraction due to local to ogra hy. There is no criterion to design s atial length in relation to to ogra hy$ although several attem ts are made. #n case of other schemes$ e.g. <1=$ numerical inaccuracy due to truncation error should be examined well. There are two crucial factors in the due evaluation of the computed results. The first one is the initial condition and the second the sea bottom topography. An initial profile constructed from seismic data always requires, particularly in case of a near-field tsunami, some adjustment as described in 2.1. The sea bottom topography that governs refraction then determines the path and convergence of tsunami, is not always precise data. The most popular sea bottom topography is the chart, the main purpose of which is to ensure the route of navigation. The area far from the route is sparsely measured and imprecisely determined by interpolation. This method often misses sea topography im ortant in refraction.
#$%&' 1( )inds, ty"es and causes of tsuna*i disaster Human 4ives %rowned. @uried by sands. #n&ured hit by debris etc. %isease caused by swallowing alien substances during drifting. Houses Fashed away. %estroyed. <looded. @urnt. !oastal Structures Toe erosion$ dis lacement and overturning of sea walls$ sea dikes$ breakwaters and Auay walls. Scattering and subsidence of concrete blocks. Traffics ;ailway 1rosion of embankments. %is lacement of rails and bridges. ;ails buried by sands. Highway %is lacement and falling down of bridges. Overturning of bridge abutment by scouring. 1rosion of embankment. !losure of traffic by debris on roads. Harbour !hange in water de th 2erosion and de osition3 !losure of ort area due to trans orted debris and cars. !losure of ort entrance by fishing gears washed'away. !ollision of shi s in harbour. 4ifelines Fater su lies %estruction of hydrants by collision of debris. 1lectricity Overturning and washed'away of electric oles. Power lants flooded. Tele hone %amage to tele hone lines and oles. !ut'off of underground tele hone line at the &unction to the aerial lines. Submergence of tele hone receivers. <ishery

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%amage to fishing boats. %estruction and loss of rafts$ fishes and shells in aAuaculture. 4oss of fishing nets and other fishing gears. !ommerce %e reciation of goods by submergence. -griculture Physiological damage to cro s due to submergence. %amage to farms buried by sands. !losure of irrigation channels filled by sands and debris. <orest Physical damage 2breaking and overturning of trees3. Soil erosion. Physiological damage by seawater and sands. Oil s ill 1nvironmental ollution. S read of fires. <ire 2causes3 9itchen fire. Heating. 1ngine room of fishing boats. Submerged batteries of fishing boats. !ollision to gasoline tanks. 1lectricity short circuit caused by seawater.

The validation of the com uted results$ i.e.$ tsunami height$ is done by com aring them with the tide records and tsunami trace data. Some ty e of tide gauge has hydraulic filtering effect that reduces short' eriod com onents B(+C. Tsunami trace data are often biased because many surveyors are attracted to measure only high values. There is no attem t to validate the com uted velocity$ wave rofile$ wave forces and so on$ exce t one B((C.

6 . !isasters 8.( 9#N%S O< %#S-ST1; Table ( summari"es disasters caused by tsunamis$ collected from documents in the ast. %etailed analysis is carried out in relation to tsunami intensity B(7$ (8C. 4oss of human lives de ends much u on the action of eo le on and near the shore when an earthAuake occurs. Once caught by a water flow even as thin as *+cm$ a erson may be swallowed to drown$ because the current velocity is Auite strong. Fooden houses are weak. On an average$ a wooden house is com letely destroyed if the tsunami height above ground exceeds 7 meters. ;einforced concrete buildings are strong. -ccording to records$ every reinforced'concrete buildings were not damaged exce t for windows and gates and were resistant enough to rotect weak wooden houses behind them. %estructive force is not only the tsunami force but also im act of lumbers$ fishing boats and houses trans orted by tsunamis. #m act force of one lumber is formulated by hydraulic ex eriments B(>C. %amage to fishing boats moored andGor laced near the shoreline begins with the tsunami height of 7 m. #f a shi or a boat meet a tsunami on the sea dee er than 7++ meters$ they are safe because of small tsunami height and gentle tsunami front slo e. =any fishermen want to bring their boats to the dee sea when a tsunami warning is issued. This action may lead them to the very dangerous situation that boats get aground by tsunami ebb near shore and get turned by the next flood before they arrive at the safe lace. Hiolent currents induced by tsunamis are the cause of erosion and de osition. Not only local scouring at the toe of coastal structures but also to ogra hical change of large scale often occurs. No one has ever succeeded to numerically simulate these to ogra hical changes$ artially due to the inaccuracy of com uted currents and artially due to the lack of knowledge about the movement of sediment under tsunami effect. 8.7 TSUN-=#$ O#4 -N% <#;1 1ven in olden days$ tsunami'related fires occurred. -t night on Eanuary 7*$ (*++$ a tsunami suddenly hit the village of =iyako$ Sanriku !oast$ Ea an$ with no recedent earthAuake. fire started from overturned houses and about >+ houses were burnt. The tsunami was generated at the !ascade subduction "one off the western coast of US-. #n the future$ the most ha"ardous effect will be given to the coastal industrial areas by the combination of tsunami$ oil and fire. #f an earthAuake or a tsunami damages oil tanks$ and if the oil s read by the tsunami catches fire$ or if the burning oil is trans orted by the tsunami$ the result is devastating. There were five exam lesI three in -laska$ US-$ one in !alifornia$ US-$ and one in Niigata$ Ea an. -ll of them occurred in ()?>. S read of oil can be numerically simulated$ if eAuations for movement of oil are simultaneously solved with eAuations for tsunami B(DC. -n em irical formula is ro osed to estimate the si"e of the burnt area in terms of the volume of stored oil B(?C. ". Miti#ation of Tsunami $a%ards >.( !O-ST-4 ST;U!TU;1S Tsunami countermeasures consist of three arts from hard wares to softwareI structures$ city lanning and systems.

7 Sea walls and coastal dikes are the ty ical defense structures. They are effective if the tsunami height is lower than their crown height$ or a slightly higher 2may be$ D+ cm or ( m3. #f the tsunami height is higher by more than D m$ they do not work at all B(*C. Tsunami breakwaters are constructed at the mouth of a bay where the water is dee $ in order to limit the water discharge into the bay. Since they are ex ensive$ only a few are constructed. - tsunami gate at the river mouth sto s the tsunami invasion into the river$ in lace of heightening long river embankments. !oastal forests are also one of defense structures. - well'designed coastal forest of the Ea anese red' ine trees works well to sto boats and other floated debris if the tsunami height above ground is smaller then 8 meters B(7C. >.7 !#T. P4-NN#N: The ma&or items in the city lanning are movement of residences to Jtsunami'freeK high ground and establishment of the tsunami'resistant building "one near the shoreline. Since olden days$ the movement of residence to high ground is one of the most effective methods in tsunami defense work. The highest tsunami runu measured andGor com uted for the biggest tsunami in the ast is usually used to determine the tsunami'flooded area. ;ecently in Ea an$ tsunamis that may be generated by the largest earthAuake ex ected from seismo'tectonics are also taken into consideration. The tsunami'free high ground is outside of the area thus determined. #n many documents and after'tsunami survey re orts$ it is recorded that reinforced' concrete buildings are strong enough to resist tsunami force. Only one exce tion is a lighthouse that was hit by the ()>? -leutian tsunami 7+ m high above ground. #f the tsunami height above ground is less than D m$ all the buildings can withstand B(7C. This fact leads to the idea of the tsunami'resistant building "one that cannot erfectly sto the tsunami water intrusion but is ex ected to sto more dangerous floated materials. #n the coastal industrial area$ fishing harbor and leisure boats anchorage$ storage tanks of inflammable materials should be carefully located and rotected against tsunami effects. >.8 TSUN-=# P;1H1NT#ON S.ST1=S #n addition to structures and city lanning$ software should be taken into consideration to com lete the tsunami defense work. The tsunami revention system consists of forecasting$ warning$ evacuation$ ublic education$ drills$ inheritance of disaster culture$ and the relief o eration after disaster. The last way to save human lives is an early evacuation based on the forecasting and warning. -n earthAuake that makes you unable to stand by yourself on a beach is a natural warning of a tsunami. 4eave the beach as soon as ossible and climb u to a ground higher than 7+ m. This is the rule to save the lives from the danger of the near'field tsunami generated by tsunamigenic earthAuake. -nother rule is Ja loud booming noise could mean a tsunami is coming.K This noise may be generated by the breaking front of a tsunami higher than 7.D meters B(8C. =any countries have their own tsunami forecasting and warning systems. =ost of them use the em irical relationshi s between earthAuake magnitude and tsunami magnitude for tsunamigenic earthAuakes. The forecasting system in <rench Polynesia uses the mantle magnitude and is effective for a tsunami earthAuake$ too.

8 #n - ril ()))$ the Ea an =eteorological -gency renewed its forecasting system based u on numerical simulation for nearly (++$+++ cases. This is also for tsunamigenic earthAuakes. ;ecords of broadband seismogra hs are used to make the correction for a tsunami earthAuake. The ublic education is the crucial key to save human lives. #t is very rare for any erson to ex erience lural large tsunamis in his life. #f a erson has a sim le knowledge that a tsunami will come after an earthAuake$ and if he behaves wisely to climb u to high ground$ he will be saved. This knowledge should be transferred to the future generation and to coastal residents in every tsunami'risk areas. The most difficult is to find an effective way to continue this knowledge for several tens or hundreds years. &. Conc'udin# Remar(s The most urgent sub&ect in research as well as in ractical a lication is the im rovement of the method to determine tsunami initial rofiles with seismic data alone. #n order to solve this roblem$ we need observation networks in the ocean. Ocean'bottom seismogra hs near tsunami sources are indis ensable to understand the details of fault movements. %ee 'ocean tsunami gauges will catch tsunamis at or &ust after their birth. New technologies such as satellite hotometry are desirable to obtain a lan of tsunami rofile. Fith these data$ a further develo ment in tsunami research becomes ossible. The second is the continuation of tsunami knowledge to future generation as well as the transfer of it to those who live in tsunami'risk areas but have no clear tsunami history. 1very means such as ublic education$ TH media and others should be used. @ut it is Auite difficult is to kee coastal residents, continuous attention. #n the Sanriku region$ the most tsunami'risky area in the world$ s ecial drills once a year have been carried out on the =emorial %ay of the ast tsunamis with artici ators constantly reducing in number. To find a way to break this situation is an urgent task. Thirdly$ kee ing the fact in mind that disastrous tsunami occurs once er tens or hundreds years$ the coastal residents should make their town resistant to tsunamis at every occasion when the town is changed and develo ed. The knowledge for this reinforcement should be given in terms of building codes and Gor manuals. References
(. =ansinha$ 4. and %.1. Smylie 2()*(3 The dis lacement field of inclined faults$ %ulletin of t+e Seis*ological Society of $*erica$ )1$ (>88'(>>+. 7. Okada$ .. 2()5D3 Surface deformation due to shear and tensile faults in a half's ace$ %ulletin of t+e Seis*ological Society of $*erica$ *&$ ((8D'((D>. 8. 9anamori$ H. and E.E. !i er 2()*>3 <ocal rocess of the :reat !hilean 1arthAuake$ =ay 77$ ()?+$ P+ysics of 'art+ and Planetary Interiors$ +$ (75'(8?. >. Plafker$ :. 2()?D3 Tectonic deformation associated with the ()?> -laska 1arthAuake$ Science$ 1",$ (?*D'(?5*. D. <ukao$ .. 2()*)3 Tsunami earthAuakes and subduction rocesses near dee 'sea trenches$ !( ,eo"+ysical -esearc+$ ,"$ 78+8'78(> ?. Tanioka$ ..$ 4. ;uff and 9. Satake 2())*3 Fhat controls the lateral variation of large earthAuake occurrence along the Ea an Trench$ #+e Island $rc$ )$ 7?('7??. *. 9a&iura$ 9. 2()*+3 Tsunami source$ energy and the directivity of wave radiation$ %ulletin of t+e 'art+.ua/e -esearc+ Institute, University of Tokyo$ ",$ 58D'5?). 5. Uda$ T. et al. 2()553 Two'dimensional deformation of nonlinear long waves on a beach$ -e"ort 0o(2122, Public Forks ;esearch #nstitute$ ((8 . 2#n Ea anese3.

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). Shuto$ N. 2())(3 Numerical simulation of tsunamis'#ts resent and near future$ in 1. N. @ernard 2ed.3$ Tsunami Ha"ard$ 9luwer -cademic Publishers$ %ordrecht$ .(*('()(. (+. Satake$ 9. et al. 2()553 Tide gauge res onse to tsunamisI =easurements at >+ tide gauge stations in Ea an$ !( Marine -es($ ")$ DD*'D*(. ((. Takahashi$ T.$ <. #mamura and N. Shuto 2())83 Numerical simulation of to ogra hy change due to tsunamis$ Proc( I#S39 $ 7>8'7DD. (7. Shuto$ N. 2())83 Tsunami intensity and disasters, $dvances in 0atural and #ec+nological 4a5ards -esearc+$ ($ ()*'7(?. (8. Shuto$ N. 2())*3 - natural warning of tsunami arrival$ $dvances in 0atural and #ec+nological 4a5ards -esearc+$ +$ (D*'(*8. (>. =atsutomi$ H. 2()))3 - ractical formula for estimating im ulsive force due to driftwood and variation features of the im ulsive force$ !( 4ydraulic, 6oastal and 'nviron*ental 'ng($ Ea an Society of !ivil 1ngineering$ No.?++$ ##'>>$ (()'(7> 2in Ea anese3. (D. :oto$ !. 2()5D3 - simulation method of oil s read due to tsunamis, Proc( !a"an Society of 6ivil 'ngineers$ No.8D*$ ##'8$ 7(*'778 2in Ea anese3. (?. Shuto$ N. 2()5*3I S read of oil and fire due to tsunamis$ Proc( I#S372$ (55'7+>. (*. Shuto$ N. 2())D3I Tsunamis$ disasters and defence works in case of the ())8 Hokkaido'Oki 1arthAuake Tsunami$ $dvances in 0atural and #ec+nological 4a5ards -esearc+$ "$ 7?8'7*?.