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THE MATHEMATICAL FORMS1 OF NATURE , THE TENSORS .

Introduction , homogeneous and isotropic space, , the second law of Newton, the mathematical forms of nature, the formalism of tensors in geometry and physics.

INTRODUCTION . One of the central tenets of physics and geometry is that their laws are applicable in every region of the Euclidean space. In other words, if someone is running an experiment here (measurement ) and has a certain effect, then someone else performing the same experiment elsewhere , should retrieve the same results. The two experimenters by running our hypothetical experiment , it is reasonable to use a coordinate system . Usually the two systems are not identical , since the execution of the experiment is in another place and with different orientation (relative to the stars ) of axes . But we expect the " same results" in both experiments ! What exactly is meant by this proposal ? Not necessarily mean that the two experimenters will find the same numbers in all measurements, for example the numbers that identify the position of a point (the coordinates) are different in different coordinate systems . What we really expect is that the physical or geometrical laws ( equations ) that appear to apply to a system will apply to another. We say that in fact the natural and geometric laws do not depend on the choice of coordinate system. That is, if a law of nature ( Newton's second law , Pythagorean theorem ) is verified in a coordinate system then automatically will be verified in any other system . Where results, however this possibility of formulating laws ? It is described in the cosmological doctrine ( for Popper) for the homogeneous and isotropic space.

Homogeneous why testimonies of observations in different parts of the site does not change , and isotropic because the same happens for observers investigating in any direction in space .... Wikipedia

The bases of this doctrine are revealed in what we call mathematical forms of nature a phenomenon that we shall detect to the following example.

Here the forms have the Aristotelian meaning.

THE SECOND LAW OF NEWTON

Let us take a Cartesian system ( orthogonal ) axes. The coordinates of a particle is given then by the triad (x,y,z) and if the projections of the force ( think a pair of charged particles , one fixed to the origin O and the other at the point P , in which the force is applied ) to the axes of a Cartesian system are (Fx,Fy,Fz) then the motion of the particle satisfies according to Newton's second law the three equations:

.(1) Consider a new coordinate system by rotating the original system around an axis at a particular angle . Suppose that the shift is on the axis z and therefore the coordinates in the two systems are linked through the ( linear ) transformation shift : (2)

. Let us calculate the projections of force in the new coordinate system . This requires the determination of the projections of the forces to new axes that can only be achieved if we accept the principle that the forces exerted on a body can be added to the rule of the parallelogram. This is the first axiom of Newton. Newton essentially requires that the power is a " vectorial " size , without writing clearly , and Galileo that applies the principle of the independence of forces . We will then have that Fz=Fz as the z-axis is stable. The force on the exerted

axis x, the Fx will be given by the projection on this axis of the force FX calculate the Fy .

along x axis, and the projection of the force Fy exerted along y axis . Similarly we Therefore projections of power are transformed as follows :

..(3)

. What form has Newton's law in the new system? Differentiating the ( 2 ) and making use of ( 3 ) we have

Therefore the form of the equation remains unchanged, Newton's law applies to the new coordinate system . This is called covariance of Newton's law as to the rotation of the rectangular reference system . If now we denote the three components of force by the symbol

and the acceleration with

Newton's second law can be written as ( vector form) and now applies to all Cartesian systems with the same origin 2 . But because in a ' transfer ' of the system , the coordinates of the vectors do not change , the vector equation still applies. The location and direction then of the system leaves the vector equations unchanged in form. THE MATHEMATICAL FORMS OF NATURE .

The first mathematical forms of nature that man

discovered were the

numbers . The strong premature impression of the concept of form of beings, that later proclaimed by Aristotle, appears in the doctrine of the Pythagoreans "Everything is number ." Now, the simplest mathematical form of nature, towards the homogeneous and isotropic space is, as we see, the vector . Later this form proceeded deeper, in spaces not homogenous and not isotropic, in surfaces, in curved space and in other
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The appellation invariance would tend to make us believe that neither side had

varied at all, which would , of course, be incorrect. So it is customary to speak of the covariance rather than of the invariance of vector and tensor equations. It expresses the fact that both sides have varied in exactly the same way.

media , extending the concept of vector in this of tensor . For example, the description of the pressure and tension at each point of an elastic medium which has undergone deformation is given by a second order tensor 3. ( vectors are first class tensors ). Willard Gibbs linked tension with tensor since it was impossible to express the situation in a three-dimensional space of an elastic medium with only three components. Now the stress tensor is the mathematical form of the deformation of the elastic medium. What happens with the homogeneous and isotropic space ? We see in the example that the coordinates of the force is transformed in the same manner as the coordinates of the position. The change of the coordinates of a specific change of the reference system is not arbitrary but obey certain mathematical rules4 . This conclusion is based on the physical assumptions of Newtonian mechanics to the nature of the force , which is the result of experiments and observations. So the form of the vector was found in nature and was

developed in mind by mathematics ( the form can not be separated from things, despite
except with intellectual energy ... Aristotle Physics193b 5)

This particular behavior of components , enables us to discover a criterion of objectivity. The components themselves do not have absolute existence, do not transcend the reference system. They represent but partial aspects of vectors mere modes or shadows varying as they do, with our system of reference. But in the vector can be assigned an objective existence which exceeds the reference system , since the components in another system obey strict mathematical rules. If they were not linked together by the stringent mathematical rules we have referred to , we should to recognise that we could not contemplating the same vector when we

passed from the first coordinate system to the second. Thus the set of numbers (1.2 , -3 ) by itself is not any form . To obtain mathematical and physical meaning therefore must not only determine whether these numbers are the components relative to a base vectors ( reference system ) , but also which of the infinite number of bases was chosen. The tendency of mathematics for generalization through abstraction is always ahead of us . The vectors were considered as tensors of first order (relative to the reference system ) while the scalar sizes ( as classical mass) zero-order tensors . And tensors ? (Always relative to a reference system ) is mathematically
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Concepts and methods of theoretical physics by Robert Bruce Lindsay Dover

p. 298
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The rules of the orthogonal linear transformations of Cartesian system.

sizes dependent of components, which as in vectors but more complex , have specific rules of change in a change of the reference system. It is one of the "higher genera " of Aristotelian forms . Let now pass to one of the most important characterisics of vectors (and tensors). The fact that their components are submitted to the same rules of change when we pass from one coordinate system to another, proves that if two vectors (tensors) situated at the same point of space are equal that is if the components of the one are equal to the components of the other in our coordinate system, this equality will inevitably endure in any other coordinate system. In other words, the equality of two vectors (tensors) in a point of space constitutes an equality global, which a change in our coordinate system can never destroy. So the equations between vectors (tensors) , often called vector equations and tensor equation exhibit the remarkable property of remaining unaffected by a change of coordinate system (covariance). More generally , the tensor calculus is the study of geometric entities and algebraic forms that do not depend on the reference system. There are many philosophical views on the remarkable correspondence between mathematical reasoning and behavior of the physical world, but none of them is final . But certainly we need to understand that a new mathematical language , more comprehensive and complex , is not something without substance, although the same conclusions can be drawn without using new symbols ( Maxwell wrote his equations without the use of vectors ) . But the development of language contributes to the development of thinking, the more comprehensive the language becomes the more deep becomes our penetration in natural world , mathematical symbols , language- is not a typical theme . The electromagnetic four - tensor of special relativity with respect to orthogonal transformations of space-time , (which was implanted in electromagnetism, as vectors in classical mechanics, after too many attempts) , reveals the close relationship between the electric and magnetic aspects of the electromagnetic field, since they participate as components of ( tensor ) which gives this union an objectivity . It is the mathematical form of electromagnetic reality . The mathematics generalize, the deeper understanding of the nature ! Special relativity with the tensor writing is a special case of general relativity . Indeed today one of the constant pursuit of geometry and physics is to find the widest possible sets of transformations through which physical - geometric laws remain unchanged , ( same format ) and then is proving that they are reduced to more and more general unifying principles .

TENSORS AND GEOMETRY OF RECTILINEAR SYSTEMS . To understand all the foregoing, it will give the easiest example of tensors, these of linear reference systems, as well as and the geometric reality installing to such systems, changing the formulas of rectangular Cartesian systems we know from school. THE GROUP OF LINEAR TRANSORMATIONS . Even the three variables 1,2, 3 transforming in a new set, x 1 , x 2 , x 3 under the following lineal transformation
1 1 1 2 1 3 x 1 = C1 x + C2 x + C3 x 2 2 x 2 = C12 x1 + C 2 x + C 32 x 3 3 2 3 3 x 3 = C13 x1 + C 2 x + C3 x

where C ij constants, in matrix form we have

1 x 1 C1 2 2 x = C1 x3 C3 1 1 C2 2 C2 3 C2 1 x 1 C3 C 32 x 2 3 3 C3 x

With the summation convention we have

x i = C ij x j ...................................(1.1.1)

The matrix

( C ij )

is called matrix of transformation5 and its determinant

Cij ,determinant of transformation. It is

C ij =

x i ........................................(1.1.2) x j

If we suppose C ij 0 then matrix of (1.1) is reversed so we have

1 x1 c1 2 2 x = c1 x3 c 3 1

c1 2
2 c2 3 c2

1 x 1 c3 2 2 c3 x .......................(1.1.3) 3 3 c3 x

where the matrix (c ij ) is the ( C ij ).

r m So applies Cm cs = sr ...........................(1.1.4)

The transformations (1.1) form a group.

And (1.3) is written x i = c ij x j .............................(1.1.5) With c ij =

x i ..................(1.1.6) x j

and Ci j ci j = 1..........(1.1.7)

DEFINITION OF VECTOR6 AND TENSOR

. 1, 2, 3. The

We have the functions 1,2, 3 (components) of variavles

triplet (1,2, 3 ) or r with r=1,2,3 is called contravariant vector or contravariant tensor of order one for the transformations (1.1.1) when for a linear transformation (1.1) of variables, the r are transformed as the variables xr viz

ar =

x r k a = Ckr a k .............................(1.2.1) k x
1 C2 2 C2 3 C2 1 a1 C3 C32 a 2 ................(1.2.2) 3 3 C3 a

Or in matrix form
1 a 1 C1 2 2 a = C1 a 3 C3 1

Similarly the triplet of functions (1, 2, 3) or r is called covariant vector7 or covariant tensor of first order, for the transformation (1.1.1) if in a transformation (1.1.1) r the r tranform

ar =

x k ak = crk ak ............................(1.2.3) x r
c12
2 c2 2 c3

Or in matrix form
1 a1 c1 1 a2 = c2 a c1 3 3

c13 a1 3 c2 a2 .......................(1.2.4) 3 c3 a3
).
c
i j

the matrix (c ij ) being the inverse of ( C ij So we have

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The vector should not for the time to connect with the known vector geometry, it will

be in the next chapter. Now I mean it as an ordered triplet of numbers transformed with the particular mode
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The terms covariant and contravariant were introduced by James Sylvester. In

Cartesian orthogonal systems the two concepts coincide.

2 3 a 2 = c1 2 a1 + c 2 a 2 + c 2 a 3

or

2 2 a 2 = C12 a 1 + C 2 a + C 32 a 3

ENSORS OF HIGHER ORDER . Having r and r and multiplying every component of the first with every component of the second we have a system a mn = x m n with nine components

a 11 , a 12 , a 13 .....
In the new components (1.1.1) we have
r m s n r s mn a rs = (Cm x ).(Cn ) = Cm Cn a ............(1.3.1)

The system a mn is called contravariant tensor of second order as the transformations (1.1.1) or of type transformed as in (1.3.1) Similarly, we call a covariant tensor of second order or of type 2 , a similar system product of two covariant vectors that is tranformed

2 0 if in a linear change of variables it is 0

ars = crmcsn amn ...........................(1.3.2)

Having defined the covariant and contravariant tensors relative to linear transformations, the mixed tensor (as in linear transformations) is defined as a set

Tstr of quantities that (in a linear transmormation of variables) they transform as

m Tstr = Tnp

1 x r x n x p r n p m = Cm cs ct Tnp ...........(1.3.3) of type m s t 2 x x x 2

rs p j kl Or Tmn = Ckr Cls cm cn Tpj ..............(1.3.4) of type 2

GEOMETRY AND TENSORS introduction To understand the concept of tensor, we will follow their applications in the extension of geometry in rectlinear systems , which is the main mission. How that will formulate the laws of Euclidean geometry (which we learned in school and probably we did not notice that referred to rectangular Cartesian systems) on any rectlineal systems. Now tensors and vectors will get geometric significance. The transition from the theory of tensor to geometry of linear systems will be based on the following assignments. .

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1. The variables xi of the previous chapter , will now be considered as coordinates of a point in three-dimensional space in linear reference systems . 2.. I know that the coordinates of two rectlineal reference systems with common origin are associated with linear transformations. Vectors in oblique (not orthogonal) systems will be covariant or contravariant . They are defined by the laws of transformation of the components of the previous chapter , that now acquire geometric significance. THE DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS . Consider two points P1, P2 with orthogonal system and It is known that
1 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 d 2 = (12 ) 2 = ( y1 y1 2 ) + ( y1 y 2 ) + ( y1 y 2 )

r coordinates respect to Cartesian y1r , y 2

r the rectilinear coordinates to another oblique. x1r , x2

r m r r m If y1r = cm x1 , y2 = cm x2 then

1 2 2 3 3 m m n n d 2 = [c1 m cn + cm cn + cm cn ]( x1 x2 )( x1 x2 )

If g mn =

c
r =1

r r m n

c =g nm .........................(2.3.1)

m n then d 2 = g mn ( x1m x2 )( x1n x2 ).............(2.3.2)

Especially the distance of P (xr) from the origin is

d 2 = g mn x m x n .....................................(2.3.3)
The ( 2.3.3 ) is the Pythagorean theorem to any linear reference system if and only if gmn is a tensor! Because then the distance d remains unchanged

g mn x m x n = g ij

x i x j x m i x n j x x = g ij x i x j = d 2 m n i j x x x x

The tensor gmn is the mathematical form of the relationship between two reference systems , which is the link and ensure the flow of the laws of geometry from system to system , although it is difficult to imagine it as the natural state because of its many components. Is the cosines of the angles formed by the new axes with old ones, that is a real physical situation , so a "superior genus " ofAristotelian form . THE INNER PRODUCT OF VECTORS .

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Consider two vectors Ar , Br with magnitudes A and B. If the angle of their directions then we can prove ( from the relationship AB2 = OA2 + OB2 2OA.OB.cosh) the relation

g mn Am B n = AB .......... ..............( 2.6.1)

where gmn is the former tensor that defines the distance d2 in the oblique system . This invariant is the inner product of vectors Ar , Br , at oblique system , the extension of the known size of orthogonal systems . (Second member ) The invariance relations

g mn A m B n of the inner product is obtained directly from the

x i x j x m i x n j g mn G V = g ij m G V = g ij G iV n i j x x x x
m n

The production of relations that carry the metric geometry of orthogonal systems known from school , in oblique systems, continues with starring always the metric tensor . Later in curved spaces ( initially in surfaces ) tensors are expressed relative to the curvilinear coordinates , the meaning is the same but the math is more complex . APPLICATION IN PHYSICS: THE LAW OF NEWTON .

In the tensor formalism, we will now show the covariance of Newton's law in linear systems with given origin ( rotation) . In the system K we have :

Fk =

d ( m k ) dt

Multiply by

x k and summing with respect to k we have x r

x k d x d Fk = ( m k k ) Fr = ( m r ) x r dt x r dt
So the equation remains the same in the new system ( covariant ) , and the mathematical formalism demonstrates the power of generalization, m and t are invariant in classical mechanics. Sources . From my book : tensor calculus www. mpantes. gr www.mpantes.gr mpantes on scribd