Methods of Mathematical Physics-I

Teach Yourself

June 28, 2020

Springer
Contents

1 Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Scalar, Vector and Dyadic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Kronecker Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Symmetric and Anti-symmetric Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Levi-civita symbol/Permutation symbol/Eplison Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Fundamental Operation with Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Chapter 1

Tensor

Tensor is an entity comprising many components which obey a definite law of trans-
formation between different coordinate system. A point in space of n dimensions can be
specified by a set of n coordinates. This set can be written in the form of x1 , x2 , x3 , ....xn .
0
If a transformation of coordinate is made, the xi becomes xi in the new coordinate system.
Similarly, a set of n components of any vector A i.e. A1 , A2 , ....An denoted as Ai , when
0
transformation occurs these change to Ai , such a set is a Tensor.
If certain transformation laws hold. Tensors are very important in physics e.g. general
theory of relativity and electrodynamics. Scalars and vectors are special cases of tensor.

1.1 Scalar, Vector and Dyadic

Scalar
Scalar is a tensor of rank zero. It is single real number or component. In three dimensional
(3-D) space the number of components of a scalar is 3◦ = 1. Scalar is a quantity which
do not change under rotation of coordinates i.e. it is invariant and transformation law for
0
scalar is Ai = A. Example of tensor of rank zero (i.e. scalar) are mass, charge,speed etc.
Vector
A tensor of rank one. In three dimensional space the number of components of a vector is
0
3 (i.e.3). Components transform under rotation like those of the distance of a point from
a chosen origin. The transformation law for vector’s component is
 CHAPTER 1. TENSOR

3
X X ∂xp
0
Ai = aip Ap = 0 Ap (1.1)
p=1
∂xi

Examples: momentum, electric field, velocity.

Dyadic
Tensor of rank two. In three dimensional space the number of components of a 2nd rank
tensor is given by 32 (i.e. 9)
0
X
Aij = Σq aip ajq Apq
p

Examples: electric field, magnetic field and thermal conductivity of anisotropic media.
Tensors of rank higher than two have no name. A tensor of rank 2 has 9 components in
3 dimensional which can be expressed as
 
A11 A12 A13 
 
 
Aij = A21 A22 A23 
 
 
A31 A32 A33

Covariant Tensor of rank 2 (Apq )

0
X ∂xp ∂xq
Aij = 0 0 Apq (1.2)
pq
∂xi ∂xj

Contravariant Tensor of rank 2 (Apq )

0 ij
X ∂x0 ∂x0j
i
A = Apq (1.3)
pq
∂xp ∂xq

Mixed Tensor of rank 2 (Apq )

X ∂x0 ∂xq
0ii p
Aj = 0 Aq (1.4)
pq
∂xp ∂xj

Apq transformation contravariantly w.r.t. index p but covariantly w.r.t. q.

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 1.2. KRONECKER DELTA

Example
Show that velocity of a fluid at any point is a contravariant vector of rank one.
Solution
Let xα (t) is coordinates of a morning particle with the time t, we have
dxα
Vα = dt
= velocity of particle
In transformed coordinates, the components of velocity are
0 0
0α dx ∂xα ∂xB
V = α =
dt ∂xB ∂t
0
0α ∂xα B
V = V
∂xB
Hence Proved
dxk =?
0
∂x j k 0
dx j =
dx
∂xk
⇒ dxk is a contravariant tensor of rank 1 or a contravariant vector.

1.2 Kronecker Delta


1 when p = q
δpq =
0 when p 6= q
δ11 = δ22 = δ33 = 1. If p, q = 1, 2, 3 then δ12 = δ13 = δ21 = δ23 = δ31 = δ32 = 0. If eˆ1 , eˆ2 , eˆ3
are unit vectors perpendicular to each other, then eˆp .eˆq = δpq . Kronecker delta δkl is really
a mixed tensor of second rank δlk . Our criterion is

0
X ∂x0 ∂xl
i
Bji = k
0 Bl (1.5)
kl
∂x k ∂xj

By using the summation convention, we can write

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 CHAPTER 1. TENSOR
0 0
∂xi ∂xl ∂xi ∂xk
δlk 0 = 0
∂xk ∂xj ∂xk ∂xj

As δlk = 1 when l = k
0 0
∂xi ∂xk ∂xi
0 = 0
∂xk ∂xj ∂xj
0 0
But xi and xj are independent coordinates, therefore the variation of one w.r.t. other
must be zero if they are different and unit if they coincide i.e.
0
∂xi 0
0 = δji
∂j

Hence,
0
0i ∂xi ∂xl k
δj = 0 δ (1.6)
∂k ∂j l

It shows that δlk are indeed the components of a mixed second-rank tensor. When i = j =
1, 2, 3
δii = δ11 + δ22 + δ33 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3

Similarly, for i = j = n
δii = n

Properties of Kronecker Delta

Example
Prove that δji Ajk = Aik
Solution
Consider L.H.S, If i = 1,

δj1 Ajk = δ11 A1k + δ21 A2k + · · ·

δj1 Ajk = A1k + 0 + · · ·

If i = 2,

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 1.2. KRONECKER DELTA

δj2 Ajk = A2k

δj3 Ajk = A3k
.. .
. = ..
δjn Ajk = Ank

Hence

δji Ajk = A1k + A2k + A3k + · · · + Ank

δji Ajk = Aik

Example
Prove that δji δkj = δki
Solution
Consider L.H.S. For i = 1
1 δn
2+···+δn
δj1 δkj = δ11 δk1 + δ21 δk k

= δk1 + 0 + 0 · · ·

i = 2 , δj2 δkj = δ12 δk1 + δ22 δk2 + .....δn2 δkn

= δk2 + 0 + 0

i = 3 , δj3 δkj = δk3

δjn δkj = δkn

Generalizing
δji δkj = δk1 + δk2 + δk3 + ....δkn = δki

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 CHAPTER 1. TENSOR

1.3 Symmetric and Anti-symmetric Tensor

Summation Convention
When a subscript (letter, not number) appears twice on one side of an equation, summa-
tion with respect to that subscript is implied.
Symmetric Tensor
A tensor called symmetric w.r.t. two contravariant or covariant indices if its components
remains unchanged upon the interchange of indices.
If Amn = Anm then tensor is symmetric in m and n.
0 0
If Amn and Anm becomes A mn and A nm in other system then symmetry will be maintained
0 0
in this system if A mn = A nm . As
0 0
0 mn ∂xm ∂xn ij
A = A
∂xi ∂xj
0 0
∂xm ∂xn ji
= A [Aij = Aji ]
∂xi ∂xj
0 0
∂xn ∂xm ji
= A
∂xj ∂xi
0 0
A mn = A nm

It shows that contravariant tensor is symmetric. For covariant tensor

0 ∂xi ∂xj
Amn = Aij
∂x0m ∂x0n
∂xi ∂xj
= Aji [Aij = Aji ]
∂x0m ∂x0n
∂xj ∂xi
= Aji
∂x0n ∂x0m
0 0
Amn = Anm

It shows that covariant tensor is symmetric.

Anti-Symmetric or Skew-Symmetric Tensor

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 1.4. LEVI-CIVITA SYMBOL/PERMUTATION SYMBOL/EPLISON TENSOR

A tensor called skew-symmetric w.r.t. two contravariant or covariant indices if its compo-
nents change sign upon the interchange of indices.

Amn = −Anm
0 0
0 mn ∂xm ∂xn ij
A = A
∂xi ∂xj
0 0
∂xm ∂xn ji
=− A [Aij = −Aji ]
∂xi ∂xj
0 0
∂x ∂x
= − n m Aji
∂xj ∂xi
0
Amn = −A nm

Similarly, for covariant tensor

0 ∂xi ∂xj
Amn = Aij
∂x0m ∂x0n
∂xj ∂xi ji
=− 0 A [Aij = −Aji ]
∂xn ∂x0m
0 0
Amn = −Anm

1.4 Levi-civita symbol/Permutation symbol/Eplison Ten-

sor
   

 
 
 

+1) according to 
form an even 
 are in cyclic order 


 
 
 

²pqr = −1 whether form an odd  or are in noncyclic order

  
 


 
 
 


 
 
 
0 p, q, r do not form any two or more are repeated

A permutation is called even (or odd) if an even (or odd) number of transpositions (i.e.
interchange of two indicies) produces the permutation 1,2,3.

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 CHAPTER 1. TENSOR

²123 = ²231 = ²312 = +1

²132 = ²321 = ²213 = −1
²111 = ²112 = ²122 = · · · = 0

Example
Show that
δij ²ijk = 0

For i = j, δij = 1 and ²ijk = 0

Solution
Hence
δij ²ijk = 0

For i 6= j, δij = 0 and ²ijk = +1 or −1

Hence
δij ²ijk = 0

Example
 
 x22
−x1 x2 
Prove that Apq =   are components of a 2nd rank tensor in two dimensions.
−x1 x2 x21

Solution
A 2nd rank tensor in two dimensions have 4 components,

p = 1, 2 , q = 1, 2

Apq represents 4 components namely

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 1.4. LEVI-CIVITA SYMBOL/PERMUTATION SYMBOL/EPLISON TENSOR

A11 = x22 A12 = −x1 x2

A21 = −x1 x2 A22 = x21

So,
0 0 0 0 0
A11 = x22 A12 = −x1 x2
0 0 0 0 0
A21 = −x1 x2 A22 = x12

Now we evaluate components of a tensor in primed system. Transformation equation for

a second rank tensor is
2 X
X 2
0 ∂xp ∂xq
Aij = 0 0 Apq
p=1 q=1
∂xi ∂xj
2 X
X 2
= aip ajq Apq
p=1 q=1

2 X
X 2 2
X
0
A11 = a1p a1q Apq = [a1p a11 Ap1 + a1p a12 Ap2 ]
p=1 q=1 p=1

= a11 a11 A11 + a11 a12 A12 + a12 a11 A21 + a12 a12 A22
2 X
X 2
0
A12 = a1p a2q Apq
p=1 q=1

= a11 a21 A11 + a11 a22 A12 + a12 a21 A21 + a12 a22 A22
2 X
X 2
0
A21 = a2p a1q Apq
p=1 q=1

= a21 a11 A11 + a21 a12 A12 + a22 a11 A21 + a22 a12 A22
0
A22 = a21 a21 A11 + a21 a22 A12 + a22 a21 A21 + a22 a22 A22

0 0
x1 , x2 are related with x1 , x2 as

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 CHAPTER 1. TENSOR
 
   
0  cos
|{z} θ sin
|{z}θ
x1    x
a12   1 
 =
a11
  
0
x2 − sin θ cos θ  x2
| {z } |{z}
a21 a22

0 0
A11 = x22 = x22 cos2 θ − 2x1 x2 sin θ cos θ + x21 sin2 θ
0 0 0
A12 = −x1 x2 = −x22 sin θ cos θ − x1 x2 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ) + x21 sin θ cos θ
0 0 0
(1.7)
A21 = −x1 x1 = −x22 sin θ cos θ − x1 x2 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ) + x21 sin θ cos θ
0 0
A22 = x12 = x21 cos2 θ + 2x1 x2 sin θ cos θ + x22 sin2 θ

0
x1 = x1 cos θ + x2 sin θ
0
x2 = −x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ
0
(x2 )2 = (−x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ)2

0 0
A11 = x22 = (−x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ)2
= x21 sin2 θ − 2x1 x2 sin θ cos θ + x22 cos2 θ
0 0 0
A12 = −x1 x2 = −(x1 cos θ + x2 sin θ)(−x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ)
= x21 sin θ cos θ − x1 x2 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ) − x22 sin θ cos θ (1.8)
0 0 0
A21 = −x1 x2 = −(x1 cos θ + x2 sin θ)(−x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ)
= x21 sin θ cos θ − x1 x2 (sin2 θ − cos2 θ) − x22 sin θ cos θ
0 0
A22 = x12 = x21 cos2 θ + 2x1 x2 sin θ cos θ + x22 sin2 θ
The corresponding values of the components of tensor given by Eq.(1.7) and Eq.(1.8) are
same. So Apq follows the transformation equation. Hence it is a tensor.

Example
Show that every tensor can be expressed as sum of two tensors one of which is symmetric
and other is skew symmetric in a pair of covariant and contravariant indices.

Solution
For covariant indices, let

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 1.5. FUNDAMENTAL OPERATION WITH TENSORS

1h i 1h i
Amn = Amn + Anm + Amn − Anm
2 2
= Bmn + Cmn

We show that Bmn is symmetric and Cmn is skew symmetric. Now,

1h i
Bmn = Amn + Anm
2
1h i
= Anm + Amn
2
1h i
Bnm = Amn + Anm = Bmn
2
⇒ Bnm = Bmn ∴ Bmn is symmetric.
1h i
Cmn = Amn − Anm
2
1h i
= Anm − Amn
2
1h i
Cnm = Amn − Anm = −Cmn
2
⇒ Cmn is skew symmetric. Similarly, we can prove for contravariant indices.

1.5 Fundamental Operation with Tensors

There are some operation with tensors;
Addition
Two or more tensors can be added provided that they are of the same rank and type i.e
same number of contravariant indices and same number of convariant indices. The sum
of two or more tensors is a tensor of the same rank and type. If Amp
q and Bqmp are tensors
then Cqmp = Amp mp
q + Bq is also tensor.
Subtraction
Two tensors of the same rank and type can be subtracted and difference of two tensors is
also a tensors of same rank and type.
If Amp
q and Bqmp are tensors then

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 CHAPTER 1. TENSOR

Dqmp = Amp mp
q − Bq

Example
If Apq pq
r and Br are tensors then their sum and differences are also tensors.

Solution

0 0
0 ij ∂xi ∂xj ∂xr pq
Ak = 0 A (1.9)
∂xp ∂xq ∂xk r
0 0
0 ij ∂xi ∂xj ∂xr pq
Bk = 0 B (1.10)
∂xp ∂xq ∂xk r
By adding Eq.(1.9) and Eq.(1.10)
" #
∂xi j ∂xr h pq i
0 0
0 ij 0 ij 0 ij ∂x pq
Ak + Bk = Ck = 0 Ar + Br
∂xp ∂xq ∂xk
0 0
0 ij ∂xi ∂xj ∂xr pq
Ck = 0 C
∂xp ∂xq ∂xk r

It implies that Crpq is also a tensor. Similarly by subtracting Eq.(1.9) and Eq.(1.10)
0 0
0 ij ∂xi ∂xj ∂xr pq
Dk = 0 D
∂xp ∂xq ∂xk r

⇒ Drpq is also a tensor as it satisfies transformation laws.

Contraction
If two indices, one covariant and the other contravariant are set equal to each other and
we sum over this repeated index, then the resulting sum is a tensor of rank 2 less than
the original tensor. It is called contraction.
Let Ampr
qs be tensor of rank 5. We set r = q then Ampq mp
qs = Bs (A tensor of rank 3). Again
let m = s in Bsmp , then we get Bssp = C p (A tensor of rank 1). Now contract the second
0
rank mixed tensor Bji .

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 1.5. FUNDAMENTAL OPERATION WITH TENSORS
0
0i ∂xi ∂xl k
0i
Bj → Bi = 0B
∂xk ∂xi l
∂xl k
= B
∂xk l

Since xl and xk are independent coordinates so variation of one with respect to other is
zero. We can write
∂xl
= δkl
∂xk

0
Bi i = δkl Blk
= Bkk

⇒ Contracted second rank mixed tensor is invariant and therefore a scalar.

Outer Multiplication
The product of two tensors is a tensor whose rank is the sum of the ranks of the given
tensors. This product involves ordinary multiplication of the components of the tensor.

Apr m prm
q Bs = Cqs

Example
Prove that Apr m prm
q Bs = Cqs is a tensor.

Solution

0 0
0 ij ∂xi ∂xj ∂xq pr
Ak = 0 A (1.11)
∂xp ∂xr ∂xk q
0
∂xl ∂xs m
0l
Bt = 0 B (1.12)
∂xm ∂xt s
Multiplying Eq.(1.11) and Eq.(1.12)

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0 0 0
0 ij ∂xi ∂xj ∂xq pr ∂xl ∂xs m
0l
Ak Bt = 0 A 0 B
∂xp ∂xr ∂xk q ∂xm ∂xt s
0 0 0
0 ijl
m ∂xi
∂xj ∂xq ∂xl ∂xs
Ckt = Apr
q Bs 0 0
∂xp ∂xr ∂xk ∂xm ∂xt
0 0 0
0 ijl
prm ∂xi
∂xj ∂xq ∂xl ∂xs
Ckt = Cqs 0 0
∂xp ∂xr ∂xk ∂xm ∂xt

Example
Prove that outer product of two vectors is a tensor of rank 2.

Solution
0
Let Cj be outer product of two vectors Ai and Bj

Cji = Ai Bj
0
∂xi α
0i 0 ∂xB
A = A , Bj = 0 Bβ
∂xα ∂xj

0
0i 0∂xi α ∂xβ
A Bj = A 0 Bβ
∂xα ∂xj
0
∂xi ∂xβ α
= 0 A Bβ
∂xα ∂xj
0
∂xi ∂xβ α
0i
Cj = 0 C
∂xα ∂xj β

Direct Product
It is another name of outer multiplication. i.e. direct product of two tensors is a tensor of
rank equal to the sum of two initial ranks.

Aij B kl = Cjikl

Inner Product

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 1.5. FUNDAMENTAL OPERATION WITH TENSORS

If the outer multiplication of two tensors is followed by contraction, the process is called
inner multiplication and resulting tensor is called inner product of two tensors.

Example
Let Amp
q
rs
and Btu are two tensors.
Their outer product is
mprs
Amp rs
q Btu = Cqtu

Solution
Now we make contraction, let

r=u
mprs mps
Cqtu = Dqt

Example
Let ai and bj be the components of a covariant and contravariant tensor respectively.
Then their outer product may be written as ai bj .
Solution
This is actually second rank tensor
0
0 ∂xk ∂xj l
0j
ai b = 0 ak b
∂xi ∂xl
0
∂xk ∂xj
= 0 ak bl
∂xi ∂xl

Contracting (set i=j)

0 0 ∂xk
ai b i = ak b l
∂xl
= δlk ak bl
= ak bk (A scalar product)

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Quotient Rule

If inner product of a quantity with an arbitrary tensor is itself a tensor, then this quantity
is also a tensor.

Example
Let Aij is a quantity such that Aij B i = Cj . Where B i is an arbitrary contravariant vector
and Cj is a covariant vector. We have to prove that Aij is a covariant tensor of rank 2.
Solution

Aij B i = Cj
0 0 0
Let Apq , B p , Cq be their corresponding components then
0 0 0
Apq B p = Cq (1.13)
0
0 ∂x p i 0 ∂xj
Bp= B ; Cq = Cj
∂xi ∂x0 q
Eq.(1.13) becomes
0
0 ∂x p ∂xj
Apq i B i = Cj
∂x ∂x0 q
0p
0 ∂x ∂xj
Apq i B i = Aij B i
∂x ∂x0 q
· 0p ¸
0 ∂x ∂xj
Apq i − 0 q Aij B i = 0
∂x ∂x
Since B i is an arbitrary contravariant vector, so
0
∂x p
0 ∂xj
Apq i − 0 q Aij = 0
∂x ∂x
0
∂x p ∂xj
0
Apq i = Aij
∂x ∂x0 q

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 1.5. FUNDAMENTAL OPERATION WITH TENSORS
0
∂x
Multiplying both side by ∂x0 m

0 0 0
0 ∂x p ∂x ∂x ∂xj
Apq i 0m = Aij
∂x ∂x ∂x0 m ∂x0 q
0
0p ∂x ∂xj
Apq δm = Aij
∂x0 m ∂x0 q
0
0 ∂x ∂xj
Aqm = Aij
∂x0 m ∂x0 q
Replacing index m by p
0
0 ∂x ∂xj
Apq = Aij
∂x0 p ∂x0 q
Hence proved.

Example
 
2
−xy −y 
Show that matrix T =   is a contravariant 2nd rank tensor in 2D.
2
x xy

Solution
0 0 0
We will use x and y 0 . So their values are x = x cos θ + y sin θ and y = −x sin θ + y cos θ

1.

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 CHAPTER 1. TENSOR

0 11 0 0
T = −x y
= −(x cos θ + y sin θ)(−x sin θ + y cos θ)
h i
= − (y 2 − x2 ) cos θ sin θ + xy(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) (1.14)
0 11
X ∂x0 ∂x0
1 1 kl
T = T
kl
∂x k ∂xl
2
X
= a1k a1l T kl
kl

= a11 a11 T 11 + a12 a11 T 21 + a11 a12 T 12 + a12 a12 T 22

= cos2 θT 11 + sin θ cos θT 21 + sin θ cos θT 12 + sin2 θT 22
= cos2 θ(−xy) + sin θ cos θ(x2 ) + sin θ cos θ(−y 2 ) + sin2 θ(xy)
= −[(y 2 − x2 ) sin θ cos θ + xy(cos2 θ − sin2 θ)] (1.15)

0 11
As Eq.(1.14) and Eq.(1.15) are equal so T satisfied transformation law.
2.
0 12 0
T = −y 2 = −(−x sin θ + y cos θ)2
= −[x2 sin2 θ + y 2 cos2 θ − 2xy sin θ cos θ] (1.16)
0 12
X ∂x0 ∂x0
1 2
T = ∂xl T kl i = 1, j = 2
kl
∂x k
2
X
= a1k a2l T kl
kl

= a11 a21 T 11 + a11 a22 T 12 + a12 a21 T 21 + a12 a22 T 22

= sin θ cos θ(xy) + cos2 θ(−y 2 ) + sin2 θ(−x2 ) + sin θ cos θ(xy)
= −[x2 sin2 θ + y 2 cos2 θ − 2xy sin θ cos θ] (1.17)

Eq.(1.16) and Eq.(1.17) are same.

3.

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0 21 0
T = x 2 = (x cos θ + y sin θ)2
= x2 cos2 θ + y 2 sin2 θ + 2xy sin θ cos θ (1.18)
0 21
X ∂x0 ∂x0
2 1
T = ∂xl T kl i = 2, j = 1
kl
∂x k
2
X
= a2k a1l T kl
kl

= a21 a11 T 11 + a21 a12 T 12 + a22 a11 T 21 + a22 a12 T 22

= cos θ sin θ(xy) + cos2 θ(x2 ) + sin2 θ(y 2 ) + sin θ cos θ(xy)
= x2 cos2 θ + y 2 sin2 θ + 2xy sin θ cos θ (1.19)

Eq.(1.18) and Eq.(1.19) are same.

4.
0 22 0 0
T =xy
= (y 2 − x2 ) cos θ sin θ + xy(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) (1.20)
0 22
X ∂x0 ∂x0
2 2 kl
T = T
kl
∂x k ∂xl
X
= a2k a2l T kl
kl

= a21 a21 T 11 + a21 a22 T 12 + a22 a21 T 21 + a22 a22 T 22

= cos2 θ(xy) + sin θ cos θ(−x2 ) + sin θ cos θ(y 2 ) − sin2 θ(xy)
= (y 2 − x2 ) cos θ sin θ + xy(cos2 θ − sin2 θ) (1.21)

Eq.(1.20) and Eq.(1.21) are same.

 
2
−xy −y 
Hence We see that T =   is a tensor.
2
x xy

Quanta Publishers 19 Methods of Mathematical Physics-I