M.Sc.

ELECTRODYNAMICS
AND PLASMA PHYSICS

M.Sc. Physics
Paper-XV
PHY-115

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 CONTENTS
Chapters  Page No.

1. Electromagnetic Field Tensor 1

2. Special Theory of Relativity 23
3. Four Vectors in Electrodynamics 40
4. Single-Particle Motions 68
5. The Pinch Effect 111
6. Single-Particle Motions 130
 CHAPTER – 1 Electromagnetic
Field Tensor

ELECTROMAGNETIC NOTES

FIELD TENSOR
STRUCTURE
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 Introduction
1.3 The Electromagnetic Field Tensor
1.4 Lorentz Transformation of Electric Field and Magnetic Field
1.5 The Invariants of the Electromagnetic Fields
1.6 Maxwell’s Equations in Tensor Form
1.7 Lienard – Wiechert Potentials
1.8 Total Power Radiated by an Accelerated Point Charge
1.9 Relativistic Generalization of Power Radiated by a Point Charge-
Lienard’s Generalization of the Larmor Formula
1.10 Summary
1.11 Glossary
1.12 Review Questions
1.13 Further Readings

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying the chapter, students will be able to:

zzTo study electromagnetic field tensor.
zzTo study Lorentz transformation of Electric and magnetic fields.
zzTo study invariants of the electromagnetic fields.
zzTo represent Maxwell’s Equations in Tensor form.
zzTo obtain Lienard- Wiechert Potentials for a moving point charge.
zzTo determine total power radiated by an accelerated point charge.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

We know that the Lorentz transformation was introduced by consideration of the propagation
equationequation
of an electromagnetic wave. Actually the homogeneous governinggoverning
electromagnetic wave propagation is already in covariant form,
electromagnetic
sinceD’Alembertian
wave propagation is already in covariant form, since operator 22   .  is invariant. In general Maxwell’s
D’Alembertian operator
 x  x
equation and their consequences lend themselves veryMaterial
Self-Instructional simply to1 covariant
description. This follows from the fact that no modifications at all are necessary in
the laws of electrodynamics to make them agree with the requirements of
relativity. The covariant formulation of space-time coordinates in the equations
automatically puts the rest of equations into covariant form. Therefore now we
introduced the electromagnetic field tensor which gives the correct description of
 equationequation
governing electromagnetic
governing wave propagation
electromagnetic is already
wave propagation in covariant
is already form, form,
in covariant
Electrodynamics and equationIngoverning
is invariant. electromagnetic
general Maxwell’s wave propagation is already in covariant form,
equation
 2  and their consequences lend themselves very
equationPlasma
governing electromagnetic
Physics
equation
equation since
governing
governing
simplysince
wave
since propagation
D’Alembertian
electromagnetic
electromagnetic
D’Alembertian
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is
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wave propagation
already
2
 in
propagation
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covariant is form,
.is already invariant.
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This in
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covariant
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In general Maxwell’s

D’Alembertian

operator  x2follows the fact that
 x xis invariant. no modifications
In general Maxwell’s at all
since D’Alembertian operator  and 2 
isconsequences
invariant.     x  x
. Inisgeneral
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covariant
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This follows
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Therefore
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Therefore
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18.218.2 TheThe
18.2
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18.2 ofofelectrodynamics
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THE ELECTROMAGNETIC
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
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equations
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field  E and
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 EEB and and arearewritten
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termselectromagnetic
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 into
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electromagnetic potentials
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 which
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 correct
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 description
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   it accounts
 B  for  BA
B the  curlA AA
intermingling  curlA
curlA of electricand and (18.1)(18.1)(18.1) ...(1.1)
the electromagnetic field, since it accounts
B   A  curlA
for the intermingling of electric (18.1)
B  
B   A  curlA  A  curlA 
   (18.1)
(18.1)
magneticfields.
magnetic fields.    E

A  AA  gradA A
 E    grad     A  (18.2)(18.2)
18.2
18.218.2The TheThe A
EElectromagnetic
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   gradE
 
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 Tensor
Tensor

E
t  AtA  grad  t  
(18.2) (18.2) ...(1.2)
E    grad  grad    t  t t (18.2)
(18.2)
t  t
t Here t    tt 
  field E and B are not four vectors, but the six components
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Here E andHere B
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y , E z (E1 , E 2 , E 3 ) and Bx , B y , B z (B1 , B 2 , B3 ) may be used to develop an
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components
electromagnetic potentials and Eand
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Tensor withiselectromagnetic
known as electromagnetic
four electromagnetic
BB  AA curlA curlA antisymmetric
antisymmetric tensor
potentials rank A rank two
 . This Tensor is known
byrelating
relating it itwith
(18.1)
(18.1) aswith fourfour electromagnetic
electromagnetic
electromagnetic field Tensor F .
potentials A  . This Tensor potentials
fieldThis potentials
Tensor A F. 
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is. Aknown . ThisasTensor isas known is as knownelectromagnetic
.asfield
electromagnetic field Tensor F . F .
FF. . field Tensor
potentials
potentials AisA.known . This
From
asTensor
Tensor electromagnetic
equation known
(18.2)
field Tensor
electromagnetic
electromagnetic
x component
Ffield
of E is Tensor
Tensor
written as
  AA A
AFrom
EE
From    grad
equation grad 
From
(18.2)
From  equation
xcomponent
equation   equation
From of E equation
From
(18.2) (18.2)
writtenx(1.2)
isxequation
component ascomponent
(18.2) ofxExcomponent
iscomponentof(18.2)
written is
asofwritten
E(18.2) as asas
ofEEisiswritten
written
t  t t t (18.2) x componentAofx E iswritten as

E  A   (18.3)

Ex 
 Ax 
B are  not Ax E Ax  EAx x   t xthe  xsixsix components (18.3) (18.3) (18.3) ...(1.3)
Here EE and
Here and B are E notE four
 four
  x vectors,
vectors,
 butbut the components (18.3)
(18.3)
t x x x t t xx t xt Ax 
x

EE , E , E z (E
x , xE y ,yE z (E
, E , E ) and B , B , Bz (B
1 , 1E 2 ,2E 3 )3 and Bx ,xB y ,yB z (B
,B ,B
1 , 1B 2 ,2BNow 3 )3may
) may bebeused used  totodevelop developanan
EAx 1
1
A1   A  A     A t  x 
antisymmetric
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Now two two
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1 electromagnetic
1
t x1 x x t t x1x1 tx x1 t x1
potentialsAA . This
potentials . ThisTensor
Tensorisisknown knownasaselectromagnetic electromagnetic iE i  A i 
field TensorFF. . 
x
 field 1Tensor
iE i A i iE
i iE
iE iAA i ii A i 
t 1 ci x1
iEc x 1 ci A
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From x

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(18.2) 1
 x 
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 1x 1
  asas
EEisiswritten
written   
c c t c x c cct t c ciE
c c1 xcc1x1t cA c xt 1 c ix1 A A
AxAx  x
 1  1 4
EE x 
x   iE x   A1 iE ix AA1iE
 xiE 1A1x A 4  i cA i1 A(1ict
A
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(18.3)
A
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iE A i 4 1 
tt xx       x
 
 1   
1 41 1
c  (ict ) xc1 c  (ict x(4ict xx41 )cx1x1xx4c x1x  x
)c )xx11x(cc1ictc) x4(ict
AA1  1 4 1
NowEEx 
Now x  1   385
tt x1x1 iE x A
iE A1 A A4
iE
385 x  x A
 1  1A385 
4 3854 ...(1.4) (18.4)
(18.4)
iE i  A
iE x x i A1 1 i  i    c
c 
 x
x 
 x
x
385 385 (18.4)
   c x4 4 x1 1
4 1

cc c ctt c cx1x1 iE A A A4

Similarly
Similarly iE y iE 
 yy A2 A22 A 4 4 ...(1.5) (18.5)
(18.5)
iEiE A A   i i  
A ASimilarly
A A  c
c 

 x
x 
 x
x (18.5)
x x
   1 1
  1 1 4 4 c  x 4 
4
4 x 2
2
2
c c  (ict (ict
) ) x1x1c c x4x4 x1x1 iE A A
iE z iE
 zz A3 A33 A A4 (18.6)
(18.6)
 cc
4 4
xx4  xx3 ...(1.6) (18.6)
c x4 4 x3 3
385 
385
Similarly  B can be expressed as in terms
Similarly fromfrom
Similarly from equation
equation
equation (18.1)
(18.1)
(18.1) the
the components
of Bof
components
the components B can
ofcan be expressed
be expressed as inasterms
in terms
2 of
Self-Instructional Materialof the the
the electromagnetic
of electromagnetic fourfour
electromagnetic four potential
as as
potential
potential as
ii jj kk
i j k
    
 B   A 
BB
  
A A xx yy zz
x y z
A
AA A
AA A
Az
Ax xx
y
yy
z
z

A
 relativity.
 cc The   covariant
xx444  xx111 formulation of space-time coordinates in the(18.4)equations
iEc
automatically  x

puts A 
the x
 A
rest of equations into covariant form. Therefore now we
Similarly iE
Similarly iE
iE
  y
y A
 A
A
4
2 
2
 AA
A
1
4
4
(18.5)
(18.5)
Similarly
introduced
iE


yy
ccyc theAelectromagnetic
x2x2 4
2
4 
Ax4x24 2
4
(18.5)of
field tensor which gives the correct description
Similarly  c
the electromagnetic  x
x 
 x
x (18.5)
c iE x44 field,
4
x2 2 since
A
2
A4
it accounts for the intermingling of electric and
iE A 3  A
magnetic fields. 
iE

z
A A  (18.6)
(18.6)
iE AA33 AA44
z 3 4

iE
c z
z
ccz x  x
xx344 xx4 3 3 (18.6) (18.6)
(18.6)
18.2
18.2 The The 
cElectromagnetic
cElectromagnetic
xx4 44 x3x33 Field
FieldTensor
Tensor
Similarlyfrom
Similarly fromequationequation(18.1) (18.1)the thecomponents
components  ofof B canbebeexpressed
Bcan expressedasasininterms
terms
Similarly
Similarly
Similarlyfrom
from
The equation
equation
from equation
electromagnetic
from equation four (18.1)
(18.1) the
the
(1.1)
field
(18.1)potential components
components
the components
vectors
the components E of
of
and B
B can
can be
be expressed
expressed as
as in
in
of B can be expressed as in terms of the
of B can
are be expressed
written in termsin terms
terms
terms
of Electromagnetic
ofthe
of theelectromagnetic
electromagnetic four potential
 as
as Field Tensor
of
of the
the electromagnetic
electromagnetic
electromagnetic
electromagnetic four fourpotential
potential
four
potentials potential
A asand asas as
  i i j j k k
 B   A i iicurlA j jj k kk (18.1)
B   A  
       NOTES
B
B  
 A  x y z
B
E AA
 AA gradx yy zzA   (18.2)
 xxx  yy z zt
t AAx AAy AA
 
z
 AAxxx AA Ay yyy AA
Here E Aand AA A z
z zz
Bx are AA3 AA2four vectors, but the six components
not
AA z Ay y 
B   A 
A A
Az1z, E2, EAy3yyz)
 A
A
and 3 
BxA
,2A
B22y , Bz (B1 , B2 , B3 ) may be used to develop (18.7)
(18.7)
Ex , E
Byx ,x
E z(E 33 
A A (18.7)an
z
B
Bxxx   yyyzy  zzz  xxxx232
xxxx32 3 ...(1.7) (18.7)
antisymmetric y tensor z of2xrank
2 3 2 3xtwo
3 by relating it with four electromagnetic
A.x This ATensor Ais1 known
3AA3 as electromagnetic field Tensor F .
BByA
potentials AA
A 
xxx AAA z 
z zz   AA
A A A (18.8)
(18.8)
B
B yy 
A
 zxz  A 
zx x A 11
1 x
1  A3
33

(18.8)
(18.8)
B yy  
From equation 
zzz (18.2)

xxxx x component
  ...(1.8)
x3xx3 x1xx1 of E is written as
3 1 (18.8)
x3 x1
 AAy AAx AA2 AA1
A
3 1
B   AxAAx x AA
Ayyyy  22  A (18.9)
B zz 
z
Ex   A Axxy A 1A
22  A11 (18.9)
(18.9)
(18.3)
(18.9) ...(1.9)
Bz  xx tyy xx1x1 1x2xx21 2 
B z   x   x 
xx yy xx11 xx22
From equations
equations (18.4)
(18.4) Ato  is clear
(18.9)it isclear
clear that these equations can beexpressed
expressed byaa
From
From equations
Now
equations E(18.4)
x 
(18.4)  toto
to (18.9)it
1 (18.9)it

(18.9)it is
is clearthat these
that
that these
theseequations cancan
equations
equations be expressed
can be
be by aby
expressed by a by a
From equations
equationasasas t x1
singleequation (1.4) to (1.9) it is clear that these equations can be expressed
single
single equation
equation
single equation as
single iE x as i A1 i 
A AA  AA 
 A
F
F
F c A
A   cA
 At c x1 (18.10)
(18.10)
(18.10)
 xxx...(1.10)

F
F
  xxx  

 (18.10)

 iE xxx A1xx  i A1 A4
With  
  
With
With
With c  (ict ) x1 c x4 x1
With
With iEiEx x
 iE
iE FF , B,zBz F12F12
 iEccxx F
x
F
41 41 ,, B F12 385

 cc 
F41
41
41 ,B Bzzz F F12
12
iEiEcy
 iE
iE
y F 
F , B,xB F23F ...(1.11) (18.11)
(18.11)

 iE y
ccyy F F
42

 42 ,, B B x F 23
F (18.11)
(18.11)

iEiE
cc F42
42
42 , B x
x
x F 23
23
23 (18.11)
 cz F , B F
iE F ,, ,B
yB
 y FF31
z
 iE
iEc zzz F
43
 43
31

Also F
 cc c  F
F
43 and F
43
 , B
B
y
y  0
y
F
F 31
31
43 31
c
So FAlso
 is anti
  F and Tensor
F symmetric F  0 of rank two
 where  1,
2,3,4 and  1,2,3,4
and So
So FF is anti symmetric Tensor ofofrank
 is anti symmetric Tensor386 ranktwotwo
 where  =1,2,3.4
where 1, n =1,2,3.4
andand
2,3,4 and
1,2,3,4
386
andF
11 F22 F33 F 44 0 and 386
386
386
F11 F22 iE xF
 F 0 and
F41   F14  ,33 44
c iE
F41   F14 x ,
iE c
F42   F24 y ,
c iE
F42   F24 y ,
iE
F43   F34 z , c
c iE
F43   F34 z ,
F  F 
23 B ,
32 x c
F23F13
F31  
 FB32y and
 Bx ,
F31F
F12  B y and
 FB13z .
21 

So F12 
 F21 
Bz . Self-Instructional Material 3
So  iEx 
 0 Bz  By 
c  iE 
 
 F11 F12 F13 F14    0 Bz  B yiE  x 
 F F F F    Bz  0 Bx  y  c 
11 F23
21  22 13  F14  c iE
F  12 24
 Bx iE  y  (18.12)
 F31 F32 FF33 FF34  F     Bz
 0
z  c
21 22 23 24
 FF4343

iE
FzF3434  ,,
F43 
F 34 , cc
c
F  FF2323
F FF

B ,3232 BBx x, ,

23 32 x
FF3131

FF 
1313 and
BBy yand
F31 
F13 B y and

F12 FF1212
F F.F2121


B BBz z. .

21 z

Electrodynamics and So So
So
So
Plasma Physics
 iE 
iE

B0z 0 BBz z iE
BByxy  x x
 0 B y
c  cc 
FFF11 FF 
 F11 F12 11 1212 FF 1313  FF1414   iE iEy y
13 F14   BB 00 BiE
B  
NOTES   2323FF24B24z 
y
 F FFF21F21 FFF 2222 FF
0 z z Bx  x x 
c  cc  (18.12)
 

F FF21
 22  23 24   (18.12) (18.12)
 F31 F32FF31F3133 FFF F3333FF3434  ...(1.12)

3232 F BB iE
iE 
 By 0BBx x  iE
00z   z z
Bxy y
34
  43FF 
F F FF41F41 FFF
 41 42 43 44   4444
 4242 FF 43
 c  cc 
iEx x iEiE iEz z 
 iE x iEiE iE z y y iE 
y
 cc cc 0cc  00 
 c c c 
Thistensor
This
This
This tensor tensor
istensor
calledisisiscalled
called
called
the the theelectromagnetic
the electromagnetic
electromagnetic
electromagnetic anti
anti symmetricanti
anti symmetric
symmetric
symmetric tensor
tensor
tensortensor
of ofrank
of of
rank rankrank
two. two.
two.
two.
This This
This
This is
is the is
thecovariantthe
covariant covariant
is the covariant
tensor
tensorform tensor
tensor
form form
form
ofofequations of
equations equations
of equations
(1.1)
(18.1)andand (18.1)
(18.1)
(1.2). and (18.2).
and (18.2).
(18.2).
As an As AsAsanananexample
example example
example
let letlet let 1and
1 =and 11 and
and
3or 
3or
 or 131then
333or3
then equation
1then
equation
3 then 1equation equation (18.10) yields
(18.10)
(1.10) yields
(18.10) yields yields
AFF AA A3 3 AA
F  
31313 1 

11
 B from  from
B2 2from
Bequation equation
 fromequation (18.8)
(18.8) (18.8)
(1.8)
x3xx1 1 xx3 3
13 2
x1
A A AA1 1 AA3 3
Similarly
Similarly
Similarly
Similarly F31  F1F3131 3xxB2xx BB2 2
x x 3 3 11
3 1
  
InInthis
In this
this waywe
way
weway wecan
we can
can write
write
write fieldequations
field
field equations
equations for
for anyforfor any
any
any components
components
components ofBEand
ofofBp and
Ep. EE. .
B.and
18.3
18.3
18.3 Lorentz
In this wayLorentz
Lorentz
18.3 Transformation
can
Lorentz
write field
Transformation
Transformation of
equations
Transformation ofofElectric
of Electric
Electric
Electric Field and
components
Field
Field and
Field Magnetic
of B and
and Magnetic
Magnetic
and Magnetic
18.3
18.3
18.3
18.3 Lorentz
Lorentz
18.3
18.3 Lorentz
Field
Lorentz
Lorentz Transformation
LorentzTransformation
Transformation
Transformation
Transformation
Transformation of Electric
of of Electric
ofof
Electric Field
Electric and
Field
Field
FieldField
Electric
of Electric and Magnetic
and Magnetic
and
Magnetic
and
Field Magnetic
Magnetic
and Magnetic
1.4 Field
Field
LORENTZ
Field TRANSFORMATION OF ELECTRIC FIELD
AND
Field
Field
Field
Field
MAGNETIC    FIELD 387
387
Field
Since the Field  387

EEp and BBp arethe

fields E and
Since the fields
 B are the elements of a second rank tensor F and for the
E  and B are the elements of a second rank tensor F and for the
Since
Sincethe
thefields
fields and the elements
elements ofofaasecond rank tensor FFandand forforthethe Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s
Since the
Since fields
the
Maxwell’s field
fields E equations
field and B are
and
E equations B to the
are be
totheinvariant
elements
be elements ofsecond
invariant undera
rank
aofsecondLorentz
second
under
tensor
rank rank
Lorentz Transformation,
tensor
tensor FFand thenthen
for the
 and for the
Transformation,
Maxwell’s
field field equations
equations to be to be invariant
invariant under under Lorentz
Lorentz Transformation,
Transformation, then then
necessary condition
necessary
Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s
necessary condition
field equations
field
condition for for
equationsthistothis
isbe
tothat
isbe the
invariant
that electromagnetic
invariant
the under
underLorentz
electromagnetic fieldfield
Lorentz tensor
Transformation,F F must
Transformation,
tensor have
thenthen
 must have
necessary condition for this is that the electromagnetic
for this is that the electromagnetic field tensor F must have the field tensor F must have
 same form in all inertial
the
the same
necessary
necessary
the same
same form
condition
form condition
form in
in allfor all
infor inertial
this isinertial
allthis that frames.
theframes.
is that The values
electromagnetic
the of
Ffield
electromagnetic
Theofvalues field
ininof in
Ftensor frame
SinFthe
F tensor Fmust
frame 
S mustcan
be S have be be
have
can
frames. The values ofinertial
F inframes.
frame SThe  canvalues
beexpressed frame
terms of can

values in another
expressed
the same
the same
expressed
expressed interms
inform terms
form
in intermsof the
all
of in
the all
of values
inertial
inertial
the
values valuesinframes.
frames.another
in another inertial
TheThe values frame
S of
values
inertial ofFSaccording
frame Fin
Stoframe
in frame
according toS toScan
 canbe be
inertial frame S according to in another inertial frame according
expressed
expressed in terms inxterms xxof
xtheof values
 xthe
 values in another
in another inertial frame
inertial S according
frame S according to to
F  F x  F (18.13)
  F      F aFaaFaa F F
a (18.13) ...(1.13)
(18.13)
xxxx xxxx   
  F F   FF aaa  a FF (18.13)
(18.13)
Equation
Equation (18.13)
(18.13)
Equation x(1.13) 
can xbe
can
x can x
be derived
derived
be in
derived in
this this manner.
manner.
in this We We
know
manner. We know
that
knowthethat the transformation
transformation
that the of x
Equation (18.13) can be derived in this manner. We know that the transformation
 
of
of x and A A are written as
 and
xofA  are written as derived
and
Equation xare written
(18.13) A are can ascan be be derived
as in this manner. WeWe know thatthat
thethe
transformation
Equation  and (18.13) written in this manner. know transformation
of ofx and x 
x and 
xAare a A
 are x written as  (18.14) ...(1.14)
 xa  x written as (18.14)
(18.14)
  a x
And
AndAnd xAxaAa
A x
a ax
(18.15)(18.14)
(18.14)
(18.15)
xx (18.15)
Also   a  x  ...(1.15)
The inverse transformation of x is written as
And And
The inverse
The A
Ainverseatransformation
 axtransformation
 x of xof isx written as as
is written (18.15)
(18.15)
x inverse
The a x transformation of x is written as (18.16)
TheThe inverse x xtransformation
inverse a transformation
 a x x x isxwritten
of of iswritten as as (18.16)
(18.16)
x   
i.e. x xx aaax x...(1.16)  (18.17) (18.16)
(18.16)
i.e. i.e. x xa a (18.17)
(18.17)
Therefore xxxx
i.e.i.e. i.e.  a a  (18.17)
(18.17)...(1.17)
Therefore xx  A
Therefore
F 
A
 

Therefore
Therefore x AAxAA
4 F
Self-Instructional Material  
 F  A  
aF  AxA xAxAxA

 
F
 a  x  a x

xxAxx  A
a Aa A
  a a a

Using(18.15)
 A xAx aAxAx
a a a a
Ax  x a

a A x


 Using(18.15)
a a   x  a x  x  
Using(18.15) x x x x
Using(18.15)A x
 The inverse transformation of x is written as
The
Theinverse transformationofofxxis iswritten
inversetransformation writtenasas
x  a x (18.16)
xxa axx (18.16)
(18.16)
x
i.e. xx  a (18.17)
i.e.
i.e. xa a (18.17)
(18.17)
xx
Therefore
Therefore
Therefore
Therefore Electromagnetic
A A Field Tensor
F  A  A A
F
F  A


x x
xx xx
A A
a aA A  aA
A NOTES
a xaa x

a

a a

xx xx
Using(18.15)
Using(18.15)
Using(18.15)
Using (1.15)
A x A x
 a a A A xx  a AA xx
a aa  x xaa x x


a
xxxx xxxx
Using(18.17)
Using (1.17)
Using(18.17)
Using(18.17)
A A
 a  aA A  a a AA
a xa aaa  x

 aaa 

xx xx
 A A 
or
 F a a   A  A 
or
 F  a a  x  x 
   

 x x 388 388
388
i.e. F  a a  F
i.e. F  a a F 
(18.18)
(18.18)
    ...(1.18)
  0 0 i 
0 0 i 
 0 1 0 0 
 0 1 0 0
Where
Where aa   0 0 1 0  and and
 0 0 1 0 
 i 0 0  
 i 0 0  
 iE 
 00 Bz  By  iExxx 
B  B  c 

zz yy
c 
 iE y 
B 0 Bx  yy iE
  Bzzz 0 Bxx  c 
F    c 
F 
  B B 0
iEz 
 iEzz 
 Byyy  Bxxx 0  c 
 c 
 iEx iE iE 
 iE
iEyyy iEzz 0 
c
xx
c c z 0 
 c c c 
So
So
So
Transformation
Transformation equations
equations for
for magnetic
magnetic field
field components
components :-:-
Transformation equations for magnetic field components:
(1) X Component of Magnetic Field
(1) X Component
(1) X Component of Magnetic
of Magnetic Field
Field
BxF F23
Bx 23 F23
Bx -
x 23
So
So in
in equation
So in equation (18.18)
(18.18) taking
(1.18) taking
equation 2 and
taking  2 and
  23 and
  3 we get
we get
  3 we get
F23  a2 a3  F
F23  a22 a33 F
 a2  a31F 1  a32 F 2  a33 F 3  a34 F 4 
23 

 a22  a31 F11  a32

31 
F 22  a33
32 
F 33  a34
33  34 
F 44 
 a21  a31 F11  a32 F12  a33 F13  a34 F14 
 a21  a3131F1111  a3232F1212  a3333F1313  a3434F1414 
 a22  a31F21  a32 F22  a33 F23  a34 F24 
21

 a22 a3131F2121  a3232F2222  a3333F2323  a3434F2424 

 a23  a31F31  a32 F32  a33 F33  a34 F34 
22

 a23  a3131F3131  a3232F3232  a3333F3333  a3434F3434  Self-Instructional Material 5

 a24  a31F41  a32 F42  a33 F43  a34 F44 
23
 a24 24
a3131F4141  a3232F4242  a3333F4343  a3434F4444 
F23  a22 a33 F23 Since a
F23
23
 a22 a33F23
22 33 23
Since a
22
22
22
a
a
33
33
33
1
1 So FF232323  FF232323
So
And
And all
all other
other coefficients
coefficients are
are zero.
zero.
Or 
Bx  Bx (18.19)
Or Bxx  Bxx (18.19)
(2) y Component of Magnetic Field
 So in equation (18.18) taking   2 and   3 we get
F23  a2 a3  F
 a2  a31F 1  a32 F 2  a33 F 3  a34 F 4 
 a21  a31 F11  a32 F12  a33 F13  a34 F14 
 a22  a31F21  a32 F22  a33 F23  a34 F24 
Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics
 a23  a31F31  a32 F32  a33 F33  a34 F34 
 a24  a31F41  a32 F42  a33 F43  a34 F44 
F23  a22 a33 F23 Since a 22 a
33 1 So F23  F23
NOTES And
And all other coefficients
all other coefficients are
arezero.
zero.
Or B  Bx
Or Bxx  Bx...(1.19)
(18.19)
(2) y Component of Magnetic Field
B F
(2)y y Component
31 of Magnetic Field
So
B inFequation B yy  F(18.18) taking   3 and   1 we shall get
B y By yF F
31 B y  F31 31
31
31 31 389
So
FB  in equation So in equation
(1.18) taking (18.18)  taking
3 and   
  133 we 
andshall
  11get
we shall get
31 yaF a
So (18.18) F
in equation (18.18)
Soequationin equation (18.18) taking  3taking
 3 and 1we3 1and
weshall 1 we
getshall get
331 1  
So in  Fa33coefficient
taking and shall get
TheFSo 31  asurviving
only 3FFFa31 aa11 F
F  F
  in

31a3 a13F
equation
a 311a
a 31 F a(18.18)
3 a1FF takingare those

for which   3 and   1 and   4
 3 and   1 we shall get
 F31 The31 a33aonly The F31 surviving
 a33surviving
only 1 
a14 F34coefficient coefficient
are thoseare those
for which for which
  3 and  3and   1 and   4
1 and
The The
only Fonly  11The
31surviving 3 aonly
asurviving surviving
1 Fcoefficient coefficient coefficient
are are
those those
for are
for those
whichwhich for
 which
3 
and 3 and
 3and
1 and 1 and
 4 1and
4  4
Putting the   a33
Fvalues 33of a11 F31
11different31  a33 33a 14 F34
coefficients
F  F Thea 
onlyF31
a3111
31
F aa3333aavalues
surviving a33 FaF341431 F34a33a14 Fare
coefficient 14 34
34 those for which   3 and   1 and   4
 31 31a33a F 31 11
F311the
Putting
1133
Putting
a233avalues Fof
the
31
the   iE
14
values  of of different
different coefficients
coefficients
F
 
Putting
Putting 31 the
Putting
values 111i 31the ofavalues
different a14F34coefficients
z
33different of different
coefficients
iE zz 
iE
coefficients
Putting  the  c  
 
F
F  values
31 1
1 22 
of
11iE different
ii  iEcoefficients
F 31 
1 viE
 z1i z  c z
 F 
F31311B
 1 
 1  i 

31 1 i  2
 
iE    c

y 1
F31 
2   By1i c2 Ezcz   c 
2
(18.20)
2 c   v 
B
 B yyv  vB
 B  c   v2 E E  (18.20)
2 Ezz 
 B y(3)B
 y zB Component
 B 
yy E v2 EByyzyof
z  cMagnetic 2 z   Field (18.20)
(18.20) ...(1.20)
(18.20)
 B    Bcy  c 2 E z 
y 2 c  (18.20)
(3) Bzy (3) z F(3) 
(3)
z
Component
zzcComponent
Component Component of of
Magnetic
ofofMagnetic
Magnetic Magnetic
FieldField
Field
Field
(3) z Component of Magnetic Field
12

So (3)
in equation z Component
Bz  F12 of Magnetic Field
Bz BzF12 B F12 Bz z (18.18)  Fz1212 F12taking   1 and   2 we shall get
Bz So F 12in equation (18.18) taking   1 and   2 we shall get
FSo
So 12 in a1equation
inequation  a2  F (1.18)
(18.18) taking   1  and   2  we2 shall get get
So
So in in
equation equation (18.18) (18.18) taking taking   1taking
 1 and
and   1 and
2 we we
2 shall shall
get we
get shall
TheSo inonly equation
F surviving (18.18)
F12 aa11taking
12 coefficients a a F F  1 and
are those for we shallget
 2 which  1 ,   4 and   2 .
 1 aa21F
12
F 12 F  12a aF 12 F a11a2222F 
 The
F  only
a a surviving
F1212 a111a222 F12 a14 a22 F42
 2 
 F coefficients are those for which 
  1,    44 and   222..
The only TheThe only
surviving only survivingsurviving
coefficients coefficients
coefficients
are thosearearethose
for thoseforfor
which which
 which
 1 
,  1,411and
4
, and
 4  and
2 .
ThePutting
onlyonly
The surviving 
thesurvivingvalue Fcoefficients
F ofcoefficients
aaa11
different a22 F Fare those
area14 a22for
those
coefficients Ffor which  1 ,1, 44and
which and22..
 F12
12 11aa22 F12 aa
12 14 aa22 FF42
   F 
F12 F1212a 11aa2211 a a
F
a12 22 12F  a
a aa142214iE a F
F224222F4242
42
 22 F ofofadifferent
12 11 22 12 14 22 42

 F
Putting
Putting
  1
11the
B the 
value
12 14
value
(i  ). z
different coefficients
coefficients
Putting
PuttingPutting the
thePutting12 value
value
the valueof
the3differentof
value
of different
different of coefficients coefficients
different
coefficients coefficients
iEzz
c
 F12   1iE B33  iE(i  ). iE
 F12   F
F 
 1 B 
 1
1 
B
BF12(i   (i
(i ).
1B v).).3ziE
 z(iz ). c z
Or 12Bz 3  3 Bz  Ey  (18.21)
12
12 3
2 c c
  cc c  v 
Or  BB  vBzz  v22 E yy 
zz v v (18.21)
Transformation
Or Or
BOrz BBzz  B Or
 z Bequations
z  E 2EEByz  for
2y  y 
c  2
EElectric
y
 field components : (18.21)
(18.21)
(18.21) (18.21)
...(1.21)
 
z
z 2
c c
c    c 
(1) X Transformation
Component equations
of Electric
Transformation Field for
equations for Electric
Electric field
field components
components ::
Transformation
Transformation
Transformation equations
equations
equations for for
for Electric
Electric
Electric field
field
field components
components
components
Transformation equations for Electric field components :: : :
(1) X Component of Electric Field
iEXx Component
(1)Component ofequation
Electric Field taking   4 and   1 we shall get
X(1)Component
(1) (1) XX(1)
Component
Component
X of
of Electric
ofFElectric
41
Electric
So
of in Field
FieldFieldField
Electric (18.18)
c iExx
iExx   iEx  F F41 So incoefficients
equation (18.18) taking   4 and  , 1 we shall get
F41  a4iE
ax1 FF 
 the
F
F only
c
So So
So
insurviving
Fin
41
in So
41equationin
equation
equation equation
(18.18)
(18.18)
(18.18) arethose
(18.18)
taking
taking
taking 4for
4taking
and
and4 which
and1we
 1and
4we shall
we
shall  1
 4shall
get
get we1 shall get
get
So 41
in equation (1.18) taking   4 and
c 41 c the only surviving coefficients are those for which
41   1we 1
shall get
Fc41
F  c aa44 aa11 F
F ,1, 
andfor which  444 , 
  111
 
 FF    aa F a
41
a
F41 41a4F 14 F
41 4   F

F
1 the
1
41  a the
thea only
 surviving
F
only the only
surviving coefficients
surviving
coefficients are
arethose
coefficients
those for
are
 only surviving coefficients are those for which   4 ,   1
 4  1  
which
for those
which  4 4 , 
1 1 4 ,
F41 aa444a11 a1F F athe only surviving coefficients are those for whichand  4,1 ,  1 4
 41a14 F14 andand   1 , and
41 41
and  1 , 1,4
441 ,   4
iE x a Fa41  iE a4444 a 11F  a41 41a14 F14
14 E 
FF   F 44aa(a11 aiaF
 41F
 F41  41a44 aa
41
FF
44
41
a 11
41 F
 41xa
a 41
41
F
11 41F
41
14 14ia
)(
14 41a)14F 1414i x 
c  11 41iE
iE
44 11
iE iEcxx 41 14 iE
41
iE14x
14
 )(iE c    E Ex 
iE
  iE x 

iE iE
iE x  iEx  ( i 
 (  i  )( i  ) 

E i Ex ) i Ex 
  x
 x 
2  c  x
cc (i 
x (2i)( c
c
x
 ( 
 i 
 )( 
)(i))i  ic 2  1 cc 
i 
x )   i
  E
x
c  ( E
x
)(1   ) i  x
 1c c 
cx c c x cc c  2 c 
 2 E  22
( E 2 )(1   2 2) 2 1 1  22  111
Self-Instructional Material Ex   2E(EExxx )(122( (EExx2))(1)(1  2) ) 1 2 2  1 1 1  2
6
 Ex Ex (Ex ()(1
2
Exx)(1 ) x) 1  1     1  
2  222

2 
2 
390
390 390
390
390 390 390
 1
 E x 
 2 ( Ex )  Ex  Ex (18.22)
 12 1
111) E Electromagnetic
ExxxxE   E xE E xE x (18.22)
2 2
(2) Y 
Component E
  222( E( E
)) xElectric    ...(1.22) (18.22)
 E E  x
 2 (((EExxxxof x ) 2222
2 2 Field  EE E
Ex xxx
E
xE
xExxx
(18.22)
(18.22)
(18.22) Field Tensor

(2)
(2)
(2)
(2) (2)
YY
YiE
(2) YComponent
Component
Component Component
y Y Component
Component of
of of
Electric
ofequation ofElectric
Electric
Electric
Electric Electric Field Field
Field
FieldField Field
 F42 So inof (18.18) taking   4 ,   2 we shall get
ciEiE
iE
iE
iEiEyyyyy  So
F inin equation (18.18) taking ,,,4 we shall get NOTES
y


F
  42c c aF F 42
4F
42
42 aFSo 2So
42 F
 in
So
Soin in theequation
equation
equation
 equation only(18.18) (18.18) (18.18)
(1.18)
(18.18)
serving taking
taking taking
taking
taking
coefficients 44,44


 are
44, 
,those
 2

2we
2we
222wewe we
2shall
forshall
shallshall
shall
which getget
getget
get
ccc
4242

 FF F1,  a2 FFand   the

the only 4, serving
only 2 coefficients
serving
serving coefficients
coefficients are
arethose those those for for
whichwhich
FFF4242  42
42
42 
42  aaaa44444aaaaa422222aFFF
2 F the
the only
only serving
 the only serving coefficients are those for which


coefficients areare those forfor
whichwhich
 F

   1, 1,a 1,
 a22222F 2and and
and a a
 
224, F4,
 
 4, 22 2

42 1,
 1,
 41 2212and and
and 

44 4,
4,
4,
41
 222
  iE F yF  a aaa aFF Faa aa F aFF iE F41y
 FFF4242  
42 aa41
42
42 42 (a
41aa22
41
41
41 iB a4122 22F
22
22 F)(1)
F22
12
1212 a
12  12 a
B za44
4444a
44 a22442222
44 a22
(1)
22F F4122414141
41
c yy y
iE
12
iEiE cy y
iEiEyyiE
iE y   ((  iB iB)(1) BBz z z (1) iEyyyiE
iE
iE
 
cccc yc
E
c 
 
(((iB (iB
iBiB 
Ey )(1) )(1)
)(1)
)(1)
 vB BBzzzz(1)
)(1)
B
B (1)
(1)
(1) cc y c (1)
ccc
(18.23)
EyE   E   Field
EyyyyE z z 
(3) Z   
Component y of vB Electric
 zvB (18.23)
(18.23)(18.23) ...(1.23)



 E
E
E

E yyyy y E E E yvB vB
vB
vB zz  (18.23)
(18.23)
(3) ZZ Component
Component of Electric
z
Field
(3)(3)
(3)
(3) ZZ(3)
ZComponent
ComponentiE Component
Zz Component  F43 , of of of
of
so
Electric
Electric
Electric
Electric
in of Electric
equation
Field
Field
FieldField Field taking   4 and   3 we shall get
(18.18)
iE
c
iE iEczziE
iE z z F43 , so in equation (18.18) taking   4 and   3 we shall get
z
iE 43F,43

F

 
43 
 z F
c ac4 F
F
aF343 43  ,Fso
,, soso,inso
so
 the
in
in in
equation
equation
inequation
equation
only equation surviving (18.18)
(18.18)
(18.18)
(18.18)
(1.18) takingtaking
taking
taking
coefficients
taking
 are
 4and
4and
444and
and
4those
 3for
and we
we
  333we
3 we
3 we shall
shall
shall
get get
shall
which
shall getget
get
 1,
c 43
cc a a F the only surviving coefficients are those for which
 FF43  aa44aaa3433and  thethe 4,  only 3surviving coefficients
F
  aF F F only surviving coefficients areare
are those
those forfor
for which
which
43  

 F
FF4343 43 
43
1, aa444aa3333and F F 3 

 theonly
the
 only
4,   surviving surviving
3 coefficients
coefficients are those
those for which
which
 F
  1, 1, a1, a 3Fand 3 and
and  a 44 a4, 4, F4, 3 3
 



F43  1,1,

 
a41 a33333and F
and
13



a a 4,
334,



F43 333

 iEFz43F  a41aa33aF13F a44 aa33 aF43 F iEz
 FF
iEF43 43z  43(a a iBa41
a414141
41aa33
3333
33F
FF331313
)(1)( 13 
aaB
13 a4444
ya
a)a4433
 F3343
33 F43
33F (1)43
43 iE z
c4343iE
iE   ( iB )(1)( 13 44
 B44y )33 43(1) iE c
iEiEczzzz 
iE (  iB
(  )(1)(
 )(1)(  B )  )  (1)
 iEzziE
iE
iE
c
(1)

  iB
  B 
z z z
  E
c c    (((
  iB
iB
iB E   )(1)(
)(1)(

)(1)( vB  BBB y ))) 


y   (1)
(1)
(1) z
c c (18.24)
cccEz   Ez  vBy 
y
ccc
z z y yy
  (18.24)
Equations
Equations 



 E
E

EE zEz  E
(18.19)(18.20),
  E
zzz  Ezzz  vByyy(18.21),
(18.19)(18.20), EzE z vB  vB
vB
vB yy 
(18.21),
 ...(1.24) (18.22) , (18.23) and (18.24) represents(18.24)
(18.22) , (18.23) and (18.24) represents required
required
(18.24)(18.24)
(18.24) 
transformation
Equations
Equations (18.19)(18.20), (Lorentz)
(18.19)(18.20), equations (18.21),
(18.21), for
(18.22)(18.22) magnetic
, , (18.23)
(18.23) and and and electric
(18.24)
(18.24) fields  B and
represents
represents  E.
required
required
Equations
Equations (18.19)(18.20),
(18.19)(18.20), (18.21),
(18.21),(1.21), (18.22)
(18.22) ,, (18.23)
(18.23) and
andelectric(18.24)
(18.24) represents
represents required
required
p
transformation (Lorentz) equations for magnetic and fields
p
Equations (1.19)(1.20), (1.22), (1.23) and (1.24) and
Brepresents E . required
These equations
transformation can
(Lorentz) be inverted
equations tofor givemagnetic inverse and Lorentz
electric  and of
transformation
fields 
B  .
E
transformation (Lorentz) equations for magnetic and electric fields B and ..E .
of ofBp and
These equations
transformation
transformation (Lorentz)
transformation can
(Lorentz)
(Lorentz) equations be inverted
equations
equations
 to
for give
magnetic
 for magnetic inverse
magnetic and and Lorentz
electric
and electric transformation
fields
electric fields fields BBB and
B and E . of
and EEEequations
These
magnetic and electric fields B  and E  for i.e.
These
These equations equations can can be beinverted
invertedinverted to to
to givegiveinverse inverseof
inverse Lorentztransformation
Lorentz transformation
transformation ofof
p i.e. and
can
magnetic
These
These beequations
inverted
equations and electric tocan can give fields
bebeinverse B and
inverted Lorentz E to i.e. transformation
give
give inverse magnetic
Lorentz
Lorentz and electric fields
transformation
magnetic and electric fields 
B B and 
E Ei.e.i.e.
Emagnetic
magnetic
magnetic andand electric
electric electric fields
fields fields B B and andand E E i.e. i.e.
B E
BBx B B 
x ,,EEx EEx
x x x x

BxB  B  vv  ,EEyx,xxx

E  
B
B
B
BB
Byxxxxy
B
BB

xxxxBByxy  22 EEzz 

E
,,,,E,EE xE
E
E
 xxxEEy yxvB
ExE vBz z  (18.25)
(18.25)
  ccv v   y ...(1.25)
EEEyyyy yvB zzz z 
BB v vv E E   E E vB
ByyyyB
B
B
B 
y 
BBByyyy yvvc2222 cEEE2zzzzz 
,E
,,,E Ey,yyyE
E 
y   vB
vB
vB (18.25)
(18.25)
(18.25)
(18.25)
BBz z   B 
Bzz  c22 Eyy  c
c E   , E
, Ezz   E z z vBy y 
 E    vB  z

  ccv v  
 EEEzzzz zvB y  y 
BzB z 
 B B v vv EE  ,EE,z E   EEvB vB
yy
 vB
B
Bzzz 
B   BBBzzzz z c2222 cEEE2yyyyy  ,,,E Ezzz  z  vB
 ccc 
y
1.5 THE INVARIANTS OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
As we know these are two invariants of the electromagnetic field which are:
(i) Ep.Bp
391
391

391391
391
391
391
(ii) c2 B2  E2
(1) Invariance of Ep.Bp :
According to transformations of magnetic and electric field components.

Self-Instructional Material 7
 As we know these are two invariants of the electromagnetic field which are
 
As
(i) we
E.Bknow these are two invariants of the electromagnetic field which are
 
(ii) c.2BB 2  E 2
(i) E

(1) (ii) c 2 B 2  Eof2 E .B :

Invariance  
(1) Invariance of E .B :
According to transformations of magnetic and electric field components.
Electrodynamics and According
B  B to transformations of magnetic and electric field components.
Plasma Physics x x
Bx  Bx v 
 By   By  2 Ez 
 v 
 By   By  c2 Ez 
 cv 
NOTES  Bz   Bz  2 E y 
 v 
 Bz   Bz  c2 E y 
Ex  Ex c 
E 
 Exy  E 
 x E y  vBz 
 Ey   E y  vBz 
 
Ez  Ez  vBy 
 Ez    Ez  vBy  ˆ  ).(iB ˆ )
Therefore E .B   (iE ˆ x  ˆjE y  kE z
ˆ x  ˆjB y  kB z
Therefore E  .B   ( iE ˆ  ).(iB
ˆ x  ˆjE y  kE ˆ   ˆ
jB   ˆ )
kB
 E x Bx  E y By  E z Bz z x y z

 E x Bx  E y By  E z Bz

  v    v 
   
Ex .B x   E y  v Bz  By  v 2 E z  E z  v By   Bz v 2 Ey  
Ex .B x    E y  v Bz   By  c2 E z    E z  v By    Bz  2c E y   
  c   2  c 
 v v2 
 E y By  v 2 E y E z  vBz B y v 2 Bz E z

E.B Ex Bx   E y By  c2 E y E z  vB2 z By  c2 Bz Ez 
E .B Ex Bx   c 1  2 c


 1  
 
 v v 2

 Ez Bz  v 2 E y E z  vBy Bz v 2 2 B y E y
 
 Ez Bz  cc2 E y Ez  vB2 y Bz  cc2 By E y 
  1  
 1  2 
 
 
E y By  Ez Bz  v2  2
 E B  E B  E B  1 v 
ExxBxx  y 1y  22z z 1  c22
 

1    c 
 Ex Bx  E y By  Ez Bz  E.B (18.26)
 ExBx  E y By  Ez Bz E.B ...(1.26) (18.26)
i.e. Ep.Bi.e.
p is invariant
resulti.e.
lies in.B theis invariant if E.BLorentz
facts that under  0 (astransformation.
in the case of aThe plane electromagnetic
importance
E
E.B is invariant under Lorentz transformation.
under Lorentz transformation. The importance ofthisofofthis
The importance  this
result lies in the facts that if Ep.Bp  0 (as in the case of a plane electromagnetic wave)
wave) in one frame, it will be zero in all inertial frames i.e. if vectors E and B and
392 i.e. if vectors Ep and Bp and are mutually
are mutually perpendicular in any frame 392S then they are mutually perpendicular in
perpendicular in any frame S then they are mutually perpendicular in another inertial frame Sp.
in one frame, it will be zero in all inertial frames
another inertial frame S  .
(2)Invariance
(2) Invariance
of ( cof2 B
( c2 BE2) E: 2 2 2
):
Therefore c B  E c  Bx  By2  Bz2    Ex2  Ey2  Ez2 
2 2 2 2 2

2 2
  v   v  
 c 2  Bx2   2  By  2 E z    2  Bz  2 E y  
  c   c  

  Ex2   2  E y  vBz    2  Ez  vB y  
2 2

 
 v 2
v  v2 2v 
 c 2 Bx2   2c 2  By2  4 Ez2  2 2 By E z   Bz2  4 E y2  2 E y Bz 
 c c  c c 
 E 2
x   2  E y2  v 2 Bz2  2vE y Bz  E z2  v 2 B y2  2vE z By  
v 2
 c 2 Bx2   2  c 2 By2  c 2 Bz2  E y2  E z2   2 
 Ez2  E y2  c 2 Bz2  c 2 By2   E x2
8 Self-Instructional Material c

 v2 
 c 2 Bx2   2  c 2 B y2  c 2 Bz2  E y2  E z2  1  2   E x2
 c 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 c Bx  c By  c Bz  E y  Ez  Ex
 c2 ( Bx2  By2  Bz2 )  ( Ex2  E y2  Ez2 )
  
 Ex2 2  2 2 E y  vBz  2  2 2Ez  vB y   2  
2 22 2 
 
 Ex 2
 2 2 2 2 2y 2v v 2z 2
2
   
  E 2 vB  v vEz vBy 2  2 v 2 v 22 2 2v 2v    
c xBx  c cB2y Byv 4 E
 c 2 B E 2 2 B EB E  B B2 2 E4y2E
24 z z v 2 2y  yz  z 2 z v z 4 vy  E B E yBz 
 c Bx2   2c 2  

B

 y  c E
2
4v z
c  2 cB cE Bz  4 E
2 v y z   v c 2 E2cvy2Bcz 2y z 
c2y 
 c2 B 2 2 2
 2 c 4 Ez2  c2 2 By E z   Bz2c 4 E y2c 2 Ey Bz 
x   c 2 B2y 
   
 Ex22Ex2 22 2E2y2E
 v B v 22Bc2 2vE
 E   E yv 2 B 2 z 2z vE By zy Ez2 z v 2zB2 y2vE   
B cB E2E2v2 Bv 2 By22vE
2vE c2vE B Bc
B z yz y 
 E    E c BvBc Bc 2BvEEBE EEEvvvBv E2vEE EB EcBc B cBc B  E E
x y z y z z y z y
2 2 2 2 2 2 22 22
 c cB B   c B
2 x22 2 2 2 y2 22 2 z2 22 2 y2 z 2 2 z 22 y 2 2z 2y 2 2 2 2 2 22 2 2 2
2 2x
 c Bx   x 2  c 2 B 2 y cy 2 B 2 z Ez 2 y Ey2 z z
y z y z  2 2  E2
2
c vc c
2
z  E y  c Bz  cz2 Bzy2   E
z 2z y 2 y 2 y 2 y
x
x x
Electromagnetic
 c 2 Bx2   2  c 2 By2  c 2 Bz2  E y2  E z2   2  E 2
z  E y2  c 2 Bz2  c 2 By2   E x2 Field Tensor
c
2
2 v2 v v 2 2 2 2
cB B cc BB
 cc B 22
xx x 
222 2 22 222
c BccBB  E E
222
c BE EEE
yy
2 2 2 2 22
y 1
z zz 21
22 2
1  2 E2xEx E x
zy y
22 2
yz z  
  c vc c  2
2
2

 c Bc BccBBcB
2

2
22x2 2 22 222
ccBB
2 2
 c2 B   c B  c B  E  E 212 2   E x 2 2
2 y2 2 2 22 2 z2
c BEEEE EEE ExEx c 
2
2 2 y2 2 22z
2
 NOTES
xx x yy y z z z y y yz z zx
2 2 22 2 222 22 22 2 2 2 2 2 2 22 2 2 2 22 2
 cc2 c( B( B B cB
BB c)B)B()E(E(EEEEEE
BB xx x yy yy )EE
EE
zz z z x x )x z2 ) yx y y z yz z

cB( BB E
 ccc222B B )  (E  E  E )
22 2 2 2 2 2 2 2


 EBE  ..(1.27)
2 2 2 2
x y z x (18.27)
(18.27)
y (18.27) z

i.e.i.e. B  E2cc 2BB

thethequantity
quantity 2 2 2 is2 invariant under Lorentz transformation. The
E E is isinvariant
2 2 2
c 2BE
2 2
i.e. the cquantity invariantunder underLorentzLorentztransformation.(18.27) TheThe
transformation.
   
significance
i.e. the quantity
significance
significance of this
of of result
result
thisthisc B lies
2 2
lies
result liesthe
Einin
2
isin fact
factthat
theinvariant
the thatifthat
fact the
underifmagnitude
if the theLorentz
magnitude
magnitude of ofE E

E and B vectors
of transformation.
and
 The
B vectors
and B vectors
E  
significance of this resultarelies in theby fact E
inin any reference
inanyanyreference
system
referencesystem
given
systemarearegiven given byEbyE that
cB i.e.
E cB
ifi.e.
 cB
the
H magnitude
i.e.H H
0 cE
0c E 
E and
of (as
0 cE
vectors
in theBcase
(as in the case
0 cE (as in the case
E0c 0c
in aany
of reference
plane system are
electromagnetic wavegiven by Espace)
in free  cBthen i.e. they
H  are related
0 cE to (as
eachinother
the case
ofbyofathe plane
a plane electromagnetic
electromagnetic wavewave in free
in space)
free space) thenthen they
they 0care related
are relatedto each
to other
each other
same relation in any other system.
byof thea the
plane
same electromagnetic
relation in in wave
anyother insystem.
free space)
system.   then they are related to each other
Sobythe same relation
orthogonality of any other
E  and
 B i.e.  E.B 0 and the relation E  c B i.e.
SobySothethethesameorthogonality
relation in of anyofEother system.
1 orthogonality  Eandand B Bi.e.i.e.E .B E .B0and
 plane 0 andthetherelation
relationE EcBci.e. B i.e.
H
So the
1 E  cE
orthogonality are the
of invariant
E and properties
B i.e. of
E . a
B  0 andwave.the relation E  cB i.e.
H H  0c1E E
0
0 cE are the invariant properties of a plane wave.
0 cE are the invariant properties of a plane wave.
1
H   0 c cE  cE are the invariant properties of a plane wave.
0 0
 0c the frequency and direction of the waves will vary with frame of reference
Nevertheless
Nevertheless the frequency
Nevertheless the frequency andand direction
direction
393ofof the
thewaves
waveswill
willvary
varywith
withframe
frameofof
and this reference
leads to the
andphenomenon
this leads to theofphenomenon
the Dopplerofeffect and aberration.
the Doppler effect and aberration.
reference and this leads to the phenomenon393
of393
the Doppler effect and aberration.
18.5Maxwell’s
18.518.5 Maxwell’s Equations in Tensor
18.5 Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s Equations
393
EquationsinininTensor
Equations Tensor
Tensor Form
Form FORM
Form
Form
1.6 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS IN TENSOR
Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s equation equationare
are :equation are::

..D
 D   ((aa) )

 
..B
 B  00 (b(b) )
  
 D
H 
  H
D 
JJ
 (c)
(c)
(18.28) ...(1.28)
(18.28)
tt 
 
 BB
E
  E 00 (d(d) )
tt 
simplicitywe
If forsimplicity
If for simplicity wetake
we take 

r r 1and
takereduces 1and

to 11i.e.
mr r  1i.e.and
ininfree
freespace
 space Maxwell’s
1 i.e.Maxwell’s equations
equations
in free space Maxwell’s
r r
reduces
equations to to
reduces
  
.E 
.E  ((aa) )


 
.BB  00 (b(b) )
 ...(1.29)
 11 EE   (18.29)
(18.29)
  BB  22 00JJ (c(c) )
cc tt 

 BB 
  EE 00 ((dd) ) 
tt 
Nownon-homogeneous
Now non-homogeneous
non-homogeneous pair pair ofof equations
of equationsi.e.
equations i.e.equations
i.e. equations
equations (18.29 (a))
(1.29
(18.29 and
(a))
(a)) and
and (18.29(c))
(1.29(c)) may
(18.29(c))
may
be written be
maymore written
compactly
be written more compactly
moreincompactly in a
a single equationsingle equation
in equation
in a single in
terms of in terms of electromagnetic
electromagnetic field tensor F
terms of electromagnetic
field
field
as follows : tensor
tensor FF

as
as follows
follows ::
4
4 F
F   J Self-Instructional Material

 xx   J 
 1
0 
0
(18.30)
(18.30) 9
 1 

Now
Now homogeneous
homogeneous pair pair ofof equations
equationsi.e.
i.e.equation
equation(18.29(b))
(18.29(b))and
and(18.29(d))
(18.29(d))may
may
be written more compactly in a single equation in terms of electromagnetic
be written more compactly in a single equation in terms of electromagnetic field field
tensor FF as
tensor as follows
follows ::
F
F F F
  F  F 
0 (18.30)
  cB t 
E 
  Bt  0 ( d ) 

  E 0 (d )
Now t
non-homogeneous pair of equations 
i.e. equations
(18.29 (a)) and (18.29(c))
Now
may be non-homogeneous
written more compactly pair of equations
in a single i.e.equation
equationsin (18.29 (a))electromagnetic
terms of and (18.29(c))
field
may tensor F asmore
be written follows :
compactly in a single equation in terms of electromagnetic
field tensor
4 FF as follows :
Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics
 4 F


 1 x
 0 J  (18.30)
 1 x
   J
0 
...(1.30) (18.30)
Now homogeneous pair of equations i.e. equation (18.29(b)) and (18.29(d)) may


Now homogeneous
be written
Nowmore pair ofpair
compactly
homogeneous equations
singlei.e.
inofa equations equation
equation
i.e. in (18.29(b))
equationterms and (18.29(d))may
of electromagnetic
(1.29(b)) and (1.29(d)) may
field
be written
NOTES tensor
be written
F as follows
more :
compactly in a single equation in terms of electromagnetic field
more compactly
 in a single equation in terms of electromagnetic field tensor F as follows :
tensor FFas follows
F : F
Where F, &Fcan  take the  0 values
...(1.30)of any combination of (1,2,3).(18.30) These equations
x
  x
 F
  x
we haveWherealreadyderived in 0unit (17). Thus equations (18.29) and(18.30) (18.30) represent
x ,,x 
&&canx take the values of any combination of (1,2,3). These equations
Maxwell’sWhere equations
we have ,already
 & can inderived
Tensor
take thein form
unit andofThus
(17).
values these equations(18.29)
equations
any combination are(1,2,3).
of the
andcovariant
(18.30) form of
represent
These equations
Maxwell’s
we have field equations.
Maxwell’s
already equations
derived in Tensor
in unit formequations
(17). Thus and these(1.29)
equations are the
and (1.30) covariant
represent form of
Maxwell’s
394
18.6 Maxwell’s
equations in Tensor
Illustrative fieldform
equations.
and these equations are the covariant form of Maxwell’s field
Examples
18.6 Illustrative Examples
equations.
394
18.6
18.6Illustrative
IllustrativeExamples
Examples
Example.1 Show
Illustrative that the self product of electromagnetic field tensor is given
Examples
Example.1 Show that the self product of electromagnetic field tensor is given
by Example 1. Show that the self product of electromagnetic field tensor is given by
by
 E2  2
2F222 B 2 2 B222  EE22 
F2 

  2  Bc  c 222 
F

 
WhereB,Where
Where B,E Eandand are
cand
B,c Eare cmagnetic
field,field,
are magnetic
magnetic electric
field,
electric field
electric
field and and
field andvelocity
velocity light. of
velocity
of of light.
light.
Sol. Sol.
TheTheself
Sol. The product of electromagnetic
self product
self product of electromagnetic
of electromagnetic field
field tensor F istensor
field tensorbyFF
given is given by
 is given by

2222
F .FF
.F


2
F


F
  F 1
   F11122222FF22222232F33F
F 222 2
3
222
 F444
4 

22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22
 F112 FFF1211
22  F 2  F 22  F 2 2 F 2 
11  F12
11 
13  F
12 13 FF
12  F13
13
14
14 
14
1421
F21
21
21
F22
F222 F
 F232 FF23
2 
22
22
2 2F 2  2F 2  F
23F
23 24 F
24F
24
24  F32
31F31
31
31
2  F22  F22
F232
32
32 FF3333
33
33 F
F34
34
34
34
222 222 222 222
 F412 FFF4241
41
F42
 F
241  F 2  F43
F
43  F
42
42
F
432 
43
44
F44
44
44

Since electromagnetic
electromagnetic
Since electromagnetic field
fieldfield
tensortensor FF
FFis isan
ananti
anti symmetrictensor,
tensor,hence
hence
Since tensor  an anti symmetric hence
is
 symmetric tensor,
FF

11 FF

22 FF

33 FF

44 00
F
11 F11
11
22 F
22
22
33 F33

33
44 044
44

FF
  F

F


F  F
222 222
For F
   2or F   F
F
 2 
For   or F  F
222  
222 222 222 222 222 222
 2[ F12
 F
 12  F13
12 13  F14
13 14  F23
14 23  F24
23 34 ]
24  F34
24 34
 F2  2[ F122  F132  F142  F23iE
2
 F242  F342 ]
B333 ,, F B222,, F iE1
But FF121212 

B F13 
B
13  F14  11 ,,

14 
13
c
14
iE c c
B3 , F13 
But F12   B2 , F14  1,
iE iE
F23
23  B111, F24
24   iE222 ,cF34
34   333
23 24
c 34
c
iE2 c iE3 c
B1 , F24 
F23   , F34  222 222 2
E 22 
or F222  2 Bc3222  B 2222  E1112 cB1222  E2222  3323 




33 22
2
c22 
cc2
2 11
2 c
c22 2c
 E E E 
or F2  2 B322  B222  1B12 2  1

2 3

 22  B E22 c E cE2 
 111  B222  B333   c 222  E111  E222  E333 
22 2 2 22 2 22
 B22  B22  Bc2  2

 
 1 
 2  B12  B22222 EEB22232  2  E12  E22  E32  
10 Self-Instructional Material  2 B  Hence proved
  c222  c
 c 

2
 E 
 2  B2  2  Hence proved 395
395
 c 

395
 electric Fand
23  B1 , F24 
magnetic  to, an
field F34observer


c c moving with respect to first.
Sol. Suppose in frame  2
S, E  0Ebut
2 B  0 . 2Then in
E2 E32 
the S ' frame, we have from
or F equations
transformation
2 2 1 2
2  B3  B2  2  B1  2  2 
 c c c 
E  E
 2 1 2 
 2 2
  2 2
and  E2 BE1  B2  B3  c 2 E1  E2  E3  
B 0 Electromagnetic
E2  Field Tensor
 2  B  2  Hence proved
2

But B   B  Ec 
Example 2 Show  that
 a purely electric
  field in one frame appears both as an
Thus B 
Example 2.BShow
 B that
   E 
a purely   Efield
electric 395 in one frame appears both as an electric
electric and  magnetic
  field to an observer moving with respect to first. NOTES
and magnetic field
E toEan observer moving with respect to first.
  E
Sol.
Sol.
Suppose
  in frame S, E  0 but B  0 . Then in the S ' frame, we have from
in0 frame S, E  0 but B = 0. Then in the S' frame, we have from
SinceSuppose
v  E|| 
transformation
transformation equations
equations
So electric field in frame S, appears as electromagnetic field in frame S 
E  E
18.7
18.7Self
and ESelf
Learning Exercise
   Learning
E Exercise
 

Section
B  0 A : Very Short Answer Type Questions
Q.1 B What
 Bis theE electromagnetic field tensor?
But  
Q.2 Write  down  the transformation
   formula
 for F .
Thus B  B  B    E     E
 B
Section  : Short
 type Answer Type Questions
E  E  E

Q.3 Show that E .B is Lorentz invariant ?
0
Since v  E||   
Q.4 Give physical significance of E .B and c 2 B 2  E 2 .
So electric
So electricfield
fieldininframe
frameS,S,appears
appearsasaselectromagnetic
electromagnetic field
field S. S 
in frame
in frame
Example 3 Prove that a field that is purely magnetic in one frame cannot he
Example 3. Prove that a field that is purely magnetic in one frame cannot he transformed
18.7
18.7Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise
Exercise
transformed into one that is purely electric in a different reference frame.
into one that is purely electric in a different reference frame.
Sol. Suppose in A
frame S, E0,0 but
, but B  0 , then in frame S  ,
Section
Sol. Suppose : Very
in frame S, EShort Answer TypeinQuestions
B  0, then frame S,
We have E  0
Q.1haveWhat
We E is0the electromagnetic field tensor?
  
Q.2  
E
Write down andtransformation
 B the B  B formula for F .
B   BB : Short type Answer Type Questions
Section
B
 B  B 
Q.3 Show  that E.B is Lorentz   invariant ?
So that E   E    B    B  
Q.4 magnetic
Thus a Thus
purely Give physical
field tosignificance
an observer of
in and cappears
E .Bframe
one
2 2
B  Eboth2
. as an
a purely magnetic field to an observer in one frame appears both as an electric
electricExample 3 Prove
and a magnetic
and a magnetic field tofield tothat a field
a relatively
a relatively
that
moving
is396
moving purely magnetic in one frame cannot he
observer.
observer.
Example transformed
4 Show into onefour-tensor
that the that is purely
Example 4. Show that the four-tensor
F electric
for in a different reference
the electromagnetic field mustframe.
be
F for the electromagnetic field must be totally
totally anti
Sol.symmetric.
Suppose in frame S, E  0 , but B  0 , then in frame S  ,
anti symmetric.
Sol. In Sol.
the instantaneous
We have  rest frame
restof a particle of charge q, the force
q, theacting on it on it must
In the E   0
instantaneous frame of a particle of charge force acting
must be . qE
be qEp . Since
Since E  
Ep  , , werewrite
can
we can rewrite
it as :it as :
E   B and B  B
 A4 
 Ex B   B
 x1  
B  B  B
A  
 E y 4       (18.31) ...(1.31)
So that Ex2  E    B    B
A 
 Ez  4 
 x3  396

Equating this force to the time rate of change of the momentum P of the particle in Self-Instructional Material 11
this frame of reference
dPk
 qF
k4 k 1, 2,3 (18.32)
dt
Generalizing this result for the suffixes    1,2,3, 4 , we get
  Ex  Exxx1   x 
EEy  xA1A 14 
4 1  (18.31)
y  A
A
x    (18.31)

 E
E 
yy  A 4
 4x2 4
4
2  A (18.31)
(18.31)
Ey  Exxy2   (18.31)(18.31)
xA2A24 x2 
EEz   A44 
z 
 E zz  AA
x4  A4
 E
 Ez  Exxz4x333  
 x 3   x 
Equating 3  to 3the
Equating this force to thetime
Equating
this force
this force timerate
rateofofchange
to the changeofofthe
time rate themomentum
momentumPPofofthe
theparticle
of change particleinin
of the momentum P of the particle in
Equating
this Equating
frame
Equating this
this force
this
ofofforce
reference totoforce
force thetime
the totimethe rate
rate time ofofrate
change ofof
ofofchange
change theof
the momentum
thethe
momentum momentum PPofofthe
the
P ofparticle
the
particle ininparticle
particle in in
Electrodynamics and this
this
this frame
Equating
frame
frame of
of reference
this
reference
reference
to the time rate change of momentum P of the
Plasma Physics this this frame of reference
thisframe
framedP of reference
dPkkk of qF reference
k 4 kk 1,
1,2,3
 dP
dP 
qF
 2,3
1,2,3
2,3 (18.32)
(18.32)
k kk k44 4 

 dP dtdt k dPqF

qF
  kk 1, 1, 2,3 (18.32)
(18.32)
k4  k4   
 dt
dt
k
qF qF
k 1, k
2,3 ...(1.32) (18.32) (18.32)
dt dt
NOTES Generalizing
Generalizing
Generalizing
Generalizing
this
this
this
result
thisresult resultfor
result
for
forthe
for
the
thesuffixes
the suffixes 1,2,3,
suffixes
suffixes 1,2,3,
1,2,3,
1,2,3, 4444,,we
, ,4we
we wegetget
get
Generalizing
Generalizing
Generalizing this result this result
thisfor the
result forsuffixes
for 
thethesuffixes
suffixes   41,2,3,
  1,2,3, 
1,, we 2,3, get
get, wewegetget
4,
dP
dPdP  qF
dP  dP (18.33)
dP
ddd qF qF
qF
qF 444
4 qF ...(1.33)
(18.33)
(18.33)
(18.33) (18.33)
d  4

4 (18.33)
d d
Now PPNow
Now
Now P   0,0,0,
0,0,0, mm0ccc,,, ,the
iiiim the above
above equation
equation (18.33)
(18.33) is isrewritten
isrewritten as as
0,0,0, mm00c0,c00,
PNow 0,0,0, i the above equation (18.33) rewritten
Now P

0,0,0,
PP
 0,0,0,
i0, 0
i, m
0
the
the 0above
cmabove
,c, equation
thetheabove above
equation (18.33)
equation
equation
(18.33) isis(1.33)
(18.33) rewritten
rewritten asas as asas
isisrewritten
rewritten
dPdP dPqqq 444 4 PP FF4 ...(1.34)
dP
dP
4
dP q   qPP
FF (18.34)
(18.34)
(18.34)
dddd m   (18.34)

mm cc
c 
 
11P  F  

 P  F  (18.34) (18.34)
d dm0 c  1m0 c  1
0
0 0  
1 1
Multiplying
Multiplying
Multiplying both
both sides
sides
sides of
ofofthe the equation
equation (18.34)
(18.34) by
byby 2P
2P2P , we, ,we get
getget
Multiplying
Multiplying
Multiplying
Multiplying bothsides
both sides
both
both ofof
sides the
the
sides theof equation
equation
equation
of thetheequation (18.34)
(18.34)
(18.34)
equation (18.34)
by by
2P
(1.34) , ,
2P
by

 by
we
we2Pwe
2P , we
get we getget get
444 dP
dP
4 dP 22 qq
444
22qq 4 2q 4 4P F4 P
444

   
4 4 4
 dP
 

4
222PPP dP   2q PP FF PP (18.35)
(18.35)
 
 1 2  dd2Pm
d  m
m m000c
dm0 c c
c
c  111    11P
P

 F  FP


 
P ...(1.35)
 F P
(18.35)
(18.35)(18.35)
(18.35)
d 1 1m 01c
 11       1
 1 1 
 0  
 1 11  1
44 dP
dP
4 dP ddd 444 44 22 42 dd d 22 222 2
2 d 2 d mmd0200cmccm2002cm
4
The
The
The
L.H.S.
TheL.H.S.
The L.H.S.
L.H.S.
L.H.S.
The
TheL.H.S.
of Eq.
ofofEq.
of
L.H.S. Eq.
Eq.of
(18.35)
(18.35)
(18.35)
(18.35)
Eq.
(18.35)
of Eq.(18.35)
is
isisisis
(1.35)
4 4
  112
2 P
is2P2P2P
P

dP dP

 
 
 d2P
 dP
d  d
ddd
 
 
11
dP 
PP2P
P 
 
  d
P
 d
m 220

c
00
2 giving
c0giving
00
giving
giving0giving
giving







1 
dd
d  d  d  
d


  d 
1 d d


d  d 
  
 1 1  1  1  1  1
44 44




444 444 4
P
PFF

PPF
F PP P
PPF  00 ...(1.36)
4
equation
00P0this
(18.36)
(18.36)
(18.36)
  0equation (18.36)

  
P (18.36)
Since the L.H.S. of this equation (18.35) is a scalar. Thus the equation holds(18.36)
Since
Since the
the L.H.S.
L.H.S.
Since the of
F
of this
this
L.H.S. equation
of this (18.35)
(18.35)
equation is
is a
a scalar.
scalar.
(18.35) is a Thus
Thus
scalar. the
the equation
equation
Thus the holds
holds
equationininholds
any
any
holds
anyinin any
any

  
Since






the
 111
L.H.S.
of
 111    
  1 
 1
(18.35) is a scalar. Thus the equation in
1  11 1
reference
reference frame
frame
reference
reference
Since
reference which
which
frame
the frame
frame can
can
which
L.H.S.which
which related
related
of this
can can
related to
to
canequationour
our
related
related rest
rest
to ourtoto frame
frame
ourframe
our
(1.35)
rest rest
rest through
through
frame
is aframe
scalar.
through aa Lorentz
Lorentz
through
through
Thus
a Lorentzaa Lorentz
theLorentz
equation holds in any
transformation.
transformation. However,
However,
transformation.
transformation.
reference frameHowever,
transformation. which it
it
However,
However,
can is
is possible
possible
it
it isrelated is
possible only
only
possible
it is possible
toonly if
if F
only
F
only
our ifrest is
isif
 frame antisymmetric.
antisymmetric.
F is antisymmetric.
is antisymmetric.
if Fthrough Hence
Hence Hence
a LorentzHencetransformation.
F  is antisymmetric. Hence


Proved.
Proved. Proved.
Proved.
However,
Proved. it is possible only if F is antisymmetric.
397
397
397397 397 Hence Proved.
397
Example
Example
Example 555 Starting
Example
Example
Example Starting from
from
fromthe
555. Starting
Starting
Starting
Starting the
from
the four
four
fromfourthedimensional
dimensional
the four
four form
dimensional
fourdimensional formofofof
form
dimensional
dimensional homogeneous
homogeneous
form
form
form Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s
ofofofhomogeneous
homogeneous
homogeneous homogeneous
Maxwell’s Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s
equations,
equations, viz
viz
equations,
equations,
equations,
equations, viz viz
viz viz
4444
FF4 444
  FF

 11
44

 11 


x
F   0
0
x11 11 0xx
 00
1,2,3,
1,2,3,
 obtain
4  obtain
 441,2,3,
1,2,3, 1,2,3, 44 the
obtain the wave
wave
obtain
obtain
the equation
theequation
the
wave wave
equation for
for
wave equation
for the
the
equation field
field
for
for
the inininfield
the
the
field aaa vacuum
field inin aa in
 1  x

 

 1
 
vacuum
vacuum
vacuum inindimensional
vacuum
vacuum
the tour the
inthe tour
thetour
intour dimensional
dimensional
in the
the tour
tour
form. form.
form.
dimensional
dimensional
dimensionalFurther Further
Further
show
form. form.
form. show
show
Further
thatFurther
Further this
show that
that
show
equation
that this
this
show equation
equation
that
that
reduces
this thisto
this
equation reduces
reduces
equation
equation
the tototo equations
reduces
reduces
following
reduces toto
the
the
the following
forfollowing
the
the
following equations
equations
thepotentials
following
following for
thefor
equations
inequations
equations the
the potentials
potentials
for
thefor
absence
for inin the
thecharges
the
of potentials
potentials
potentials the
and absence
absence
inincurrents ofof charges
the absence
the absencecharges and currents
and
ofof charges
chargescurrents
and currents
and currents
 in the absence of charges and currents

22  1 22
 1 22 A
 A 1  AA 22 1 22 2 11   1 22 22
(i.e.
(i.e.  (i.e.
(i.e. and
00 and
 00),),JJi.e.
J0J0 and
and i.e. ), 2A
A 
i.e. 12 AA222A1
 and
00 and 

0
22
2  
and 1 22 00..  00..
 
  00), i.e.
(i.e.   0 and J  0 ), i.e.  A cc 2tt 2cc2 
2 2

0tt2and   cc
2  0 and 22 
2
2 0 2.2 
tt 2cc2 tt
c t c t
Sol.
Sol. We
We know
know
Sol.
Sol. We
We that
thatknow
know Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s
that
that equations
equations
Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s in
in
equations
equations the
the absence
absence
in
in the
the of
of charges
charges
absence
absence of and
and currents
andcurrents
of charges
charges are
are
and currents
currents are
Sol. We Sol.know
We knowthat Maxwell’s
that Maxwell’s equations
equations in the inabsence of charges
of charges
the absence and
and currents
currents are areare
44 FF44  F
  F 00F and 00 
  0xxand and 4  44
 441,2,3,
4
1,2,3,
1,2,3, (18.37)
xxx
11
 1
and
11
and 1,2,3,

1,2,3, (18.37)
...(1.37)
(18.37)
(18.37)(18.37)

Now
Now putting
Nowputting
Now
putting the
the values
thevalues
Now putting
putting
putting the
the
values of
the of
values
values
values ininterms
in
ofFFFof
of
of Fterms
Fterms
F inofof
 in

electromagnetic
electromagnetic
terms
terms
terms
of of
of potential
potential
of electromagnetic
electromagnetic
electromagnetic
electromagnetic Since
Since
potential
potential
potential
potential Since
Since Since
Since

 AA AA A AA
F 
F
 A A
F A (18.38)
(18.38) (18.38)
F xx xxx xx
 
 F  (18.38)(18.38)
 x  x  ...(1.38) 

44
4   4 AA A AA  AA 
 A AA
4
We
We get
get We
We get
get  
   00 


xx11xxxx xxx  00
0x  

We get 11 
 
 1  x   x   x 
  x 


22 4
A 2 AA4 A 2A
22 44 2
44
4  A 2 4 4
4   AA
2

12 Or
OrOr 
Self-Instructional Material 
Or
Or
11 
 2
xx

A 
xx 


x 

x  xx  

A




xx
 


x
00 
0xx 

00 (18.39)
(18.39) (18.39)
(18.39)(18.39)
 1  1
  1
  x  x1
 x 1x   x  1x  
 1    1
 x   
   
22 44
 AA  AA
22 44 44 44 AA AA

Now A     A

xx xx xxxxxx xxx xx

4
Now
2 
Now Now
Now 
4 
 (18.40)
(18.40) (18.40)
(18.40)(18.40)
 11


 11




  1
 11


   x x
   1   11
 x x 

IfIfIfthe
the four
thefour
Iffour potential
potential
If the
the isisissubject
four potential
four potential
potential subject tototothe
isis subject
subject subjectthe Lorentz
theLorentz
to the condition
condition
the Lorentz
toLorentzLorentz then
then
condition
condition
condition then
then then
2
2A
2 A
44
4   A AA11 A
44 22 A  AAA
22 AA
AA33 AA
AA
44 AA
 Now putting
Now putting
Now putting
the theofvalues
values
the valuesofofterms
F in FF in electromagnetic
termsofofelectromagnetic
inofterms
electromagnetic potential
potentialpotential
Since Since
Since


A AAA AA


(18.38)
F
 FF
     (18.38) (18.38)
 x xxx xx


444 A  AAA  AA 

get  
4
We get We get      0   0
 0
 1
 
 x 111xxx  xx  xx 
2 2 Electromagnetic
4
 2 A444 2242AA A44 4 2 A2 A Field Tensor
Or 
Or
Or 
 1  x 

x
 
111 xx  x
 x
 
 x 

x
0
x

 (18.39) (18.39)
0 0...(1.39) (18.39)
  
1 x

  


1

1 
 1 x 
x  
2 22
 A  AA
4 444
A A
A 2 4 44 4

Now 
Now Now
      (18.40) (18.40)

 x x xxxxx xx x 
(18.40)
...(1.40) NOTES
  1 x


 1  11
    1
 
   11
 
  1  
If the four
If potential
the
If the
If the four is subject
potential
fourpotential
four potential to the Lorentz
isisissubject
subject
subject tototothe
the condition
theLorentz then then
Lorentzcondition
Lorentz condition
condition then
then
 2 A 444  222A A1 A
4
A AA3 22 AA A

 1  x 


 0A  0   2 11A1  A2 433A 30 44 A
 0 x2x1 xx3 2 x4x3 x4 4 0 0
11  x  x1
 1  x 1x1 2x2 3 x3 4 x4


4  2 A44 4  22 A2
So equation (18.39) becomes    0 A 1,0 2,3,4
So equation (18.39) becomes   1,2,3,4  (18.41) (18.41)
...(1.41)
So equation (18.39) becomes  
 1  x x1

1  x
  x 

 0  1, 2,3,4  (18.41)
 1  x x
2
Making use of  Alembertian operator 2
222  12  1 (or
 2 Four dimensional
Making use of D Alembertian operator  c 2 t 2 2 2 (or
Making use of DD  Alembertian
 operator
 W (or Four
Four dimensional
dimensional
398 398 c t
Laplacian
Laplacian operator),
Laplacian
operator), thethe
operator),
the above above equation
above (18.41)
equation
equation (1.41)398 can
(18.41)
can becan
expressed
in in
thethe
be expressed
be expressed four
in the
four four
dimensional
dimensional form, as
form, asdimensional form, as
22A2  0
W
 A  0   1,2,3, 4
 1,2,3, 4
1  2 A1
for   4 , it reduces to W 2  2 0 and by putting   1 , we get  2 A1  22 02
2 1  A1

for   4 , it reduces to    0 and by putting   1 , we get c A1t 2 2  0
c t
Similarly for   2 and   3 . We get
Similarly for 1 2 A2 and   3 . We get
2 A2  2 1 
2
2 A
0 2
c2 
 A2  2 22  t 0
1 c 2 At
2 A3  2 232  0
2 c 1t  A3
 A3  0

c2 equations.
Combining these three t2 We shall get 2 A  0
Combining these three equations. We shall get 2 A  0
Combining
18.8
18.8 these three equations. We shall get 
Summary
Summary
2
A0
18.8
18.8InSummary
1.7 LIENARD Summary
this – WIECHERT
unit we have definedPOTENTIALS
electromagnetic field Tensor and derived
expressionIn for
this this
unitinweterms
haveofdefined
electromagnetic potential.field
electromagnetic Then we derive
 Tensor and derived
expression
expressionfor for
components
this in ofterms
electromagnetic field vectors potential.
of electromagnetic E and B Thenin termsweof derive
electromagnetic  
expression for field tensor Fof
components  . Hence we obtain Lorentz Transformation of
electromagnetic field vectors E and B in terms of
electric and magnetic
electromagnetic fieldfield vectors.
tensor Then we discuss the invariants of the
F . Hence we obtain Lorentz Transformation of
electromagnetic fields. In the last we obtain Maxwell’s equations in Tensor form.
electric and magnetic field vectors. Then we discuss the invariants of the
18.9
18.9 Glossary
Glossaryfields. In the last we obtain Maxwell’s equations in Tensor form.
electromagnetic
18.9
18.9Glossary
Invariant Glossary
: A function quantity, or property which remains unchanged when a
specified transformation is applied
Invariant : A: Unaltered
Antisymmetric function inquantity, or 1.1
Fig.
magnitude property
but changedwhich
in signremains unchanged
by exchange of twowhen a
specifiedor transformation is appliedoperation.
Due tovariables
the motion by
of apoint
particular symmetry
charge(source point rp  ), potential at a position rp (field point)at
Antisymmetric
presentInertial Frame
time t are : Unaltered
: a frame
actually in magnitude
of reference)
associated whichbut
in fields
with the changed
bodies
that inatsign
continue
generated byorexchange
atanrest
earlier positionof
rp attwo
invariables or by amotion
uniform straight particular symmetry
unless acted onoperation.
by a force
Self-Instructional Material 13
Inertial
18.10 Frame : To
Answers a frame ofLearning
reference) Exercise
in which bodies continue at rest or
18.10 Answers ToSelf
Self Learning Exercise
in uniform straight motion unless acted on by a force
Ans.1: It is an anti symmetric tensor of rank two.
18.10
18.10Answers
AnswersTo
ToSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercise
Exercise
399
Ans.1: It is an anti symmetric tensor of rank two.
 Fig.-1 Fig.-1
Fig.-1 Fig.-1
Fig.-1
Due to the motion of point charge(source point r ) , potential 
 at a position r (field
Due to the motion ofDue pointtocharge(source
the
Duemotion to theofmotion pointr charge(source
point )of, potential
point charge(source
at apoint
position point
r ) , rpotential  r ) at
(field position r (field
a positionat ra (field
, potential
Due to time
point)at present the motion of pointassociated
t are actually charge(source withpoint the fields r ) , potential
that generated at an r (field
at a position
point)at present timepoint)at presentassociated
point)at
t are actually time
present
point)at present time
t arewith
timeactually
t
the are associated
actually
fields that
t are actually associated generated
 with
associated  theat fields
with
an
with
that
the generated
fields that atgenerated
an
the fields that generated at an
at an
 r  r '  
Electrodynamics and earlier position r
  at anrearlier r ' are time t t  r  r ' are rcalled ' retarded
r 'rgiven potential,
earlier
Plasma Physics r atearlier
position an position
an earlier
earlier
earlier t   att an earlier
timeposition
r  at are
r time
an called
calledt  retarded
earlier ttime
 ct  potential,
retarded t are
potential
r called retarded
are potential,
ascalled retarded potential,
earlier position rc at an earlier time tc  t  c are called retarded potential,
given as c
given as given asgiven as   
given
  as3 1    r, t  d 33r dt    r  r    
 
r r, ,tt  d r  dt1     r ,t   d r  dt
  
1 r  r  3  t  r r   

  t   1t1r  r rr,,t t dd3ttr rdt (1) c    r r r r   (1)
 ...(1.42)
NOTES
r ,t   r, t  4 dtt 
4 0 
 r , t 0    
r  r 4  t    t 
r ,t 0  4 r cr  r r   t c  t c     (1)
(1) (1)
  4 00 3 r  r   
   c    
0 J  r A,t  rd, r  dt  0  
J r, tr d r3r dt  r r   
 
 
3
A  r ,
t t    Jtr,t   d r dt   3t3  t  r(2)
 r        (2)
 Ar r ,r t 4    0r0 crJJ rr,,ttddtrrdt
  0  t    r r r
dtt  c    r...(1.43)  (2)
4   t  r r       ttc  tt
AA4rr ,
4    
rrrr 
  
 
(2)(2)
cc
The charge and current The densities
charge and of acurrentmovingdensities point charge of a moving  qcharge
point at a of   
magnitude q at a
The chargeThe and
charge current
and densities
current densitiesof a of moving
of a
magnitude
movingpoint charge
point of magnitude
charge of magnitude q at a a position
q at
position r0 at time t ' position
is given The
The
r
as 0 at time
charge
charge t ' isand given current
current
as densities
densities ofofaamoving
moving point charge
point charge of ofmagnitude
magnitude q atqaat a
 position
r0 at
 time r 0 att‘time is t ' is given
given as  as
 rposition
 r , t  q   r  position
0rr,,tt rr00 atq time  r t ' ris
 given
givenasas (3) (3)
      q   r  r00  
 (3)
J  r , t   q v   rJ  r0,t     rq, tv  r q r0  r   r00
 r  , t  q  r   r  (4) (4) (3) (3)
...(1.44)
 J  r  , t    q
 , tofv   r   r   
vv0  velocity
 (4)
Where v  r0, t  is theWhere  
is rr,instantaneous
Jthe t  pointqqcharge rralong
rr0 the
0
(4)(4)
Where v r00, t  
instantaneous
v r , t  velocity path. charge along the path.
of point
isJthe instantaneous velocity of point charge along the
r0, t   is the instantaneous velocity of point charge along the path. ...(1.45)
 path.
Using equations (3) & (4) into Where
Where(1) & (2)
vvrespectively,
r  isinto
, t (4) the (1)instantaneous
then& (2) respectively, velocitythenof point charge along the path.
Using equations (3) 0&
Where vp rp(3) t(4)
is the
Using equations 0, & intoinstantaneous velocity of
(1) & (2) respectively, point charge along the path.
then
Using equations (3) & (4) into (1) & (2) respectively,then
Using equations (3) & (4) into (1) & (2) respectively,
Using equations (44) & (45) into (42) & (43) respectively, then
     then
       rr    || rr
r r3r r||  3 3
qq   rr   rrq0 rrtt rr0tt
 t  rt t   dd r3rr | dt   dt
dd3drrrdt 
  11 1
q
q 0  r  r0  t  cct   c c dt
  
0 
 t


dt 
 1    

  rr ,, tt 
 
  ,rtt,t    1   310 rr    c 
r310
r
44,
 00 444  0 0 310 r  r  r rrr
r r
0
     310

    rr  
 rrt|| rr  rrr|| 3   3 3
310
qv
qv  tt  qv



qv
qv


 tt 

tt
t tt 
   rrr|
rr00 ddrr3rrr
rdt
r dt
rd3drrrdt
00d
 dt
dt 

     0  
   
 c
c   
 c c   

     0
And AA And tt  AAr ,r
  t   0         c   
tt  404
And rr ,,And
And 
 0 , 0
A  r44,  rr  
4  rr00 rr  rr0r0
r0

Using Using
Using the
the the
property
Using
Using property
of
thetheproperty
property property
property
of ofofDirac-delta
of Dirac-delta
Dirac-delta function
Dirac-delta
Dirac-delta function
solutionssolutions
of
of above
functionsolutions
function
functionfunction solutions
solutions
solutions ofof
aboveofof above
relation isrelation
isrelationisisisis
aboverelation
above
relation relation
Using the of Dirac-delta above      
   qq dt
q q dtdt   rr   rr00trr 
rr0r0 
  r , t)     dt
q  
dtt  t   r0    (5)
  r , t )   
  r ,4t
r r
, t,
)t 
)    r r  r t   ct   ...(1.46)
     
t     t 
 t
 t t    (5)(5)
(5) (5)
)  
   
4 00 44rr4  0 r  r 
r0 r r 0       c  
0  0  c    c c   
0   
   r  r  r  r  
0
    
 q v dt 
q0 q v vdt 
 dt   rt  r00t rr rr00 0 
 
 
and AA  rrand
and , tt 
 , and
and    0q, t  vdt
tt   00qvttdt
AAArr4,,r0  
 tt 
 t   t    (6)
(6) (6)
(6)
4 rr 4 44rr00 rr rr0r0 t  cct   c c  
 (6)...(1.47)
 0  r   
    
 c 
  
 
For
For determination
Fordetermination
For determination
determination
determination of
of integral
integral of of over
integral
integral
over tt '' ,, overover t 't,' ,
For determination of integral over
of integral over t '‘,,
Let
Let Let Let
LetLet
           
 rr   rr '0' r rr r' '0   rr   rr t00'' rr 
rr r0' 0'  ...(1.48)
  tt  
 ttt ctt
 tt t0 r  rtt '00
 tt
 tttctt  r 0' (7)
(7) (7)(7)
 c   c c  c c c (7)
  c  c
dd 
 So, d d 11 dd 1 1 d d    
So, So,  11dc   1 r1  rd' r rr r0' 0'
So, dtSo,  
dt 

 dt11rcc rdt00'dt r  r 0'
dt  dt
dt  c dt c dt 
11 dd 1 12 d d 2 2 2  2 2   
11 
  d rr02 
1 1r 2  r2r22rr ..rr2r0'' 02r2.rr.r' 0'
 c 11 crc dt
dt 
 0 r  r000 2r .r 0'0
c dt c dtdt

11   1111 1. . 
dd11 2  dd 2 2           11 1
11  .. 111  ...  1 rr.2.. drr 0'' r..2rrr0'' r r0' 220' rr. ..rrrr0'''00'2..r2.rr.r'02 '0. .2 11
14 Self-Instructional Material
  c 
c  22 cc cdt  dt22 2 dt
 
 dt
dt 
 0 0  rr02 rr02 r22r22rrr..0rr2r20''0 2r2.rr.r'0 '0
0 r  0 r ' . r ' 0 2 r .r ' .  2 

 2
0 r  r0 0 2r .r '0
  dr   '
  dr  ' 
 0'2r' 2dr  dr dr ' ' '   dr dr ' 
2r ' . dr 0
.r.0'0dr0 0' 2r2.rdr
0
. 0'0 0 
11    11 1 12r100' 1 .dt22rr 0'0'0..2rdt.dt
dt  dt
dt 2r . dtdt   
 c ..11211 .....  1 2...  2 2dt   dt 
 11 
  c
c  2 cc  22 rr  2 2
 rr 0'' r 2r 2
2rrr..rr' 0''02r2.rr.r' 0'
  0 r  r 0'0 0 2r .r 0'0
1  r ' .v r r.v' .v  r.v 
1111.. . .r10'01..v. rr '0'0.v0..vv rr..vv 
1

11 1  
.. 
 
1

c  1 c.  221 . 22 2 2  2 2  
 d 1 d  
So, 1
 r  r 0'
dt  c dt 

1 d 
1  r 2  r02  2r .r 0'
c dt

Electromagnetic
1  1   d     1
 1  .   .   r 2  r 0' . r 0'  2r .r '0   .  
Field Tensor
c  2   dt   r 2  r02  2r .r '0
 
  dr 0'  dr 0' 
2 r ' .  2 r .
1  1   0 dt  dt  
 NOTES
 1 .   .   
c  2  r 2  r 0'  2r .r 0'
  
 1
1
.  1 .
 r 0' .v  r .v 
c 
r 2  r02  2r .r 0'
 1  r r '   
1  r1  r1' r  r0 '  
 1  1 r11rc100' r1r.vr1r' 00' r.v..vvr0'  .v
 1  c r  rc0' r.v r0'
c r 1 rcr0' rrr r  cr00' r  r 0'    
0' 0'    r r0'  311  v 
d  1 1ddd1ˆ 
1
.  dWhere
 ˆ .
r ˆ. v 
.vWhere r
 
ˆ  r
rr ˆ r 0'' r,r v
 rr,0'0'vr, r 0' vv 

v
 d   1dtccrˆr r  1 r  r' r
' ˆ .   rˆWhere
ˆ .  r 
Where ˆ
 dt    1  r .   1 
Where
0 r . 1  r ˆWhere
r  r  r0' r,r0' rr0''c
 rˆ r
0  rr , c c, 
dt  d ddt
0
dt  dt    r  r r0 r r0' 0' 0 vv r 0' c
r '  c r  c
 d ˆ .
ˆ Where ˆ
 dt
 d 1 1dr r.   Wherer r  ˆ    ,  , (8)
 dt   dtddt  dˆ.  d  r rr 0r' 0' cc (8)
 dt   
 dt  1  dtr 
1  rˆˆ. d11rrˆˆ..1  rˆ.     (8) (8) (8) (8)
(1.49)
1  r
Using equations
dt
.  (7) d and
 (8)(5)
 into into (5) and (6), (8)(8)
Using equations
Using dt and
(7)
equations  (8)
(7) and (8) and
into (6),
(5) and (6),
Using equations ˆ (7) and (8) into (5)(6),and
and (6),
Gives (7) and (8) into (5)and
Using
Using equations Using
equations equations
1 
1 r (7)
.r ˆ
 .  and (50) (8) into
and (49) (5)into
(6), and(47) (48),
Gives Gives
Gives Using
Usingequations
Gives
equations (7)(7)and andq(8)(8)into into (5) and (6),
Gives Gives    (5)  dand   (6),
Gives
Gives    r,t ) q    qq  d qdd d   
4 0  dr 1 rˆ. 
  r, t ) 
  r , t ) rr,4,tt)
 )qr ,q4t q)r1
 r,rt,)t4)   0
0 q r v1
4  
rˆ.r
0 4
0 r.d
 ˆ r


d 1d rˆ. ˆ 
ˆ.r0ˆ.rˆr.1 r . 
1
  A r
and 
 4  0 
4
, t q  v q  vd   d 
0 0  r 
r 1 
1  r
and A  r
and , t  A  r  ,00tq  v4 00v qrdv 0qrˆ.v d   d 
1

and
 A A r   A  r , t      d d  
r441r rrˆ1.r1r4r
and A r  , t  q v  
and and A
and
Using
r , t  
,r
property t44 ,t  
 of4rDirac-delta
0 041q
 rˆ. 11  rrˆˆr..
ˆ.rˆ. 
function  1  rˆ. 
Using property
Using
Using
Using property of
property
Using
propertyDirac-delta
 property of
property Dirac-delta
q ofof
ofDirac-delta
Dirac-deltafunctionDirac-delta 1function
function function
Using
Usingpropertyof rDirac-delta
Using
property , tof  of
 Dirac-delta function function
Dirac-delta function  function (9)

  r, t    t 
q 4  q 0 11 r 11q rˆ11.  1
  r , t   r,r4rtr,,t,q


 t  qr q, t q 
1 r0 rr1ˆ4. ˆ   
ˆ
1
        
  (9) (9) (9)
(9)
(9)
(9) (9)
4  44r
r 
01
04 4
00 0 .1 r r1
r
  ˆ
ˆ1.r
 .rrˆr..1  rˆ.
0
  0 qv ...(1.50)
  Ar ,t  
  4
   qv
   
r qv
1  qv
qv ˆ.  qv
rqv

A  r, tAAA    (10)
A  r , t  Arr4r,
,t,ttA r , t      
 r , t  0 00 0 qv  0

4  r1  rˆr.rq41
4r4414 
0

1 rˆ. 
1rrrˆ..
0
r rr1ˆ.

1 r ˆ.
rˆ
 .ˆ (10)
(10)
(10) (10)
 0 0
 v ...(1.51) (10) (10) (10)
  4  qr 1qq rqˆ.v q
  4 0 0 0 0 00 00 0
q  v  q v 
ˆ.ˆ  vv  v

 4  4r4v rrrˆ1.1rˆ.vr
r 1 rrˆr..1 rˆ. 
0 0 0 0

 vr41rˆ.4rr,t1
0 0 1
0 0
4 t 0
Ar, 
0
0
2
0 0 (11)
cv 
  AAr,r vt,t  vv  r,rt,vt
t c 2 r2 (11)
(11)
A  r,
t  AArvr2,  
 cr 2,2t
 , t 

  r , t  

 (11) (11)
2 
A  r ,t c2  , t A c r ,t  1 r ,t r , t (11) (11) (11)
 
c  0c 0 1 c1c2  
...(1.52)
  001 0 
0 2 21
 00 1200 cc 1 1
   
 c    2 0 
Equation (9) & 0 0
the cLienard
0
(10)
 care 20 0
c 2
c 2Wiechart potential for moving point charge.
Equation
Equation(9)(9)&&(10)
(10)arearethe
theLienard
LienardWiechart
Wiechartpotential
potentialforformoving
movingpoint
pointcharge.
charge.
Equation14.3
(9) &
Equation
Equation
14.3
Equation (9) & Self
(10)
Equation
Equation
Self
(10) &&Learning
(9)are
(9)
Learning
are the
(10)
(51)
(9)
(10)
the &
&Lienard
are
are the
(52)
(10)
LienardtheExercise
areWiechart
Lienard
are the
Lienard
Exercise
Wiechart –Ipotential
Wiechart
theLienard
Lienard
Wiechart
–I
for
Wiechart
potential for moving
potential
Wiechart for
potential
potential
moving point
for charge.
forformoving
potential moving
moving
point point
pointcharge.
moving
point
charge. charge.
point charge.
charge.
14.3
14.3
14.3 Self
14.3 Self Self
Self Learning
Learning
Learning Exercise
Exercise
Exercise
Exercise–I–I –I –I
14.3 Self
14.3
Q.1 Learning
Self
What
14.3 is Learning
charge
Self Exercise
density?
Learning –I
Exercise Exercise–I
14.3Q.1
14.3
14.3
14.3Learning
Self
Self
14.3
Q.1
14.3
Self
Q.2 Self
What Self
Learning
What
14.3
Self
Learning
What isSelf
Learning
isisLearning
charge
charge
Learning Exercise
Exercise
density?
density?
Learning
Exercise
current
Exercise
–I
Exercise
Exercise
density? –I –I
Exercise –I–I –I–I
–I Self-Instructional Material 15
Q.2 What
Q.2 isWhat is current
isiscurrent density?
Q.1
Q.1 Q.3What
Q.1
Q.1 Write
Q.3
What Q.1
is charge
What
What
Write the
charge charge
isWhat
chargeisdensity?
density?
properties
density? density?
charge
density? density?
ofDirac
Dirac delta function?
Q.2 Q.3
What isWrite thethe
current properties
properties
density? ofof Dirac delta
deltafunction?
function?
Q.2 Q.4Q.2
Q.4
Q.2
What isWhat
Q.2
What
What do
current is
is current
What
you is
mean
current
density? density?
current
by density?
retarded
density? time?
What
Q.4 What do you mean
do you mean by retarded
by retarded time?
time?
Q.3
Q.3 Write
Q.3 the
Q.3
Write Q.3
the properties
Write
Write the
Write
the
properties of
theDirac
properties
properties
of ofdelta
of Dirac
properties
Dirac Dirac
delta function?
ofdelta
Diracfunction?
delta
function? delta function?
function?
312
Q.4
Q.4 Q.4What
Q.4 do
What doQ.4you
Whatyou mean
What doWhat
do
mean youby
you do
by retarded
meanyouby
mean mean
by
retarded time?
retarded
by312
retarded
time? 312time?
retarded
time? time?
 Q.5 How you get electric and magnetic fields from scalar and vector potentials?
Q.5
Q.5 How 14.4 14.4 you Total
get Power
electric and Radiated
and magnetic byfrom
fields an Accelerated
anscalar andPoint
and vector PointCharge
potentials?
you Total Power Radiated fieldsby Accelerated Charge
How
Q.5 youHow get you
electricget electric magnetic
and magneticfields from
fields scalar
fromand vector
scalar potentials?
vector potentials?
Q.5 How get electric and magnetic from scalar and vector potentials?
14.4
14.4 Total Total Power
Power Radiated
Radiated by an Accelerated Point Charge
Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics
14.4
14.4
14.4 Total
1.8 Total
14.4 14.4Total
14.4the
TOTAL
Since
Total
Power
Power
Total
Total
Power POWER
electric
Power
Radiated
Power Radiated
Power
Radiated Radiated
and magnetic
Radiated byby
by
Radiated
RADIATED by anan
an
byfield an
anby
Accelerated
Accelerated
Accelerated
by
Accelerated
generated anan
Accelerated BYAccelerated
Accelerated
AN
by
Point
Point
Point
anPoint
Charge
Charge
Charge
PointPoint
Point
Charge
ACCELERATED
accelerated Charge
point
Charge Charge
charge of
POINT
Since
Since the
theSince CHARGE
electric
electric and
and magnetic
magnetic field
field generated
generated by
by an an accelerated
accelerated point
point charge
charge of
Since themagnitudeelectric q are
the electric
and and magnetic
magnetic field generated
field generated by an acceleratedby an accelerated pointof
point charge ofcharge of
Since the electric and magnetic field generated by an 
accelerated point charge of magnitude
magnitude
magnitude magnitude are q are q c 1    rˆ  r  rˆ  a 
qq are 2 2

  E qqr , t cc 22 11 

NOTES magnitude
q are q are 2  rˆ  r  rˆ  a
   (12)
2 rˆ  r
2 2
 rˆ. rˆ2 a 
E  r , t  E
E 
r , t 
q  
 q  4
c2  ˆ r
c 1   r0  r  r  a  2 2

  r 22c 22 1  rˆ. 22
1 c 
2 rˆˆ  a
r1
ˆ 
  (12)
(12) (12)
E  r , t    r , t 44  0 r c    ...(1.53)
 dv4 0 r42c 210 r rˆc. 1  rˆ. 
  1  r
2ˆ .
2 2 2 (12)
where a   acceleration
 dv
0 of charge,
where dv  dt 
where aawhere  dvaacceleration


dv
acceleration of
of charge,
acceleration charge,
where a  dt
 dt 
dt  acceleration
r =vector
dt  along the ofdirection
of charge, charge, of emitted fields.
rr =vector
=vector  along
along  the
thealongdirection
direction of
of emitted
emitted fields.
fields. fields.
r =vector r =vector
along v the the
direction direction
of emitted of emitted
fields.
 v 
   ,  Permittivity of free space
v
  v c
0

   v ,,  0 Permittivity
Permittivity of
of free
,  00 Permittivityfree space
space
of free space
  cc , 00 Permittivity
c  of free space
c  1
 and  B 11r , t   rˆ  E (13)
and B 
and B and
 r
r ,,t  
t  B 1cr ,rrˆ
ˆ 
E E 1c  (13)
(13) (13)
and B  r, t  c rˆt  E c rˆ  E ...(1.54) (13)
Since power
c radiated per unit area is given by Poynting vector
Since
Since power
Since radiated
power per unit
 radiated
area
per
areaunit is
is given
area bygiven
Poynting vector
power
Since powerSinceradiated power
radiated Eper Bunit
radiated
per unit per
area unit
is areaisisby
given
given by
Poynting
given
Poynting
bybyPoynting
vector vector
Poynting
vector vector

E S   
E   B B
SS  ESB  E  0B
S   00 0
Using equation 0 (13), gives
Using equation
Using
Using equation equation (13),
(13), gives
(55),
gives  gives 
Using equation
Using equation 
(13), (13),
gives gives 1  2  
P
 E11 
1E 

Sr2 


 r  ErE
2
22E
E





E rrEE
r


1
E
 
22 2
E2 sinθ
c11rad
2
rrrˆˆˆsinθ  
dE rˆ E
dˆdrr  
 E rˆ . E
(15)
P
r  E 2
ˆˆd
 
 
SSP  E Esinθ
E 1 Ed 
.. 
E (15)
c00Sc00000cc0000r  
  2
2d0c EE rˆ . E (15)
S c 00
Since0radiation 0 c
radiation
 

rad
 0
rad
0rad
c c
fields
0
0
c
c E 
0 c  E r E r ˆ . 
E
0 are perpendicular to direction of propagation,
Since Since
radiation fields fields
are are perpendicular
perpendicular to to direction of propagation,
where
where  is
Sinceradiation is
Sincethe
the angle fields
angle
radiation between
are perpendicular
between
fields are direction
direction
perpendicular to direction
ofof motion
direction motion
to
of
of propagation,
direction ofofcharge
propagation,
charge
of and
and direction
direction
propagation, ofof emitted
emitted
where  is
Since
ˆ
the
radiation
So,
So, r
ˆ.Epangle
E  = fields
 0 0 between
are perpendicular direction toof motion
direction ofof charge
propagation, and direction of emitted
So, r .E
So, rˆˆ.E So,
radiation.
radiation. 
0 0
So, r .E  0rˆ.E  0
radiation. 1
and and
S

 S11rad rˆ E122 rˆ Erad 2
 (14) (14)
...(1.55)
and Sand  rad  1 rˆ 
E c ˆ (14)
(14) (14)
2
S rad c  0 r E
rad
and Srad rad  00 c r E
ˆ rad 2
rad
0 c rad
0c    
Since Since totalradiated power radiated isasgiven   as
 SSradP .. dA rad . dA
 Swhere where integration
integration is taken
Since total
total
Since
power
power total radiated
power
is
is
radiated
given
given is as P
P
given as P   dA
 S  where
. dA integration
where
is
is taken
takenis taken
integration
Since
over areatotal
over power
area surrounding
surrounding radiated
to point is givento point
charge, assocharge,
P    Sso rad . dA where
rad
rad dAdA integration is taken

dA 
over areaover
surrounding to point tocharge,
area surrounding so
point charge, so dA
over area surrounding 2to point charge, so
1
 2 1
 2
P1 2 ˆˆ1 E 22 rˆr.r22sinθ ˆ  E 2rad r2d2sinθ
 0 20 P1c 0rrˆˆ0.r
P 2d  d d  dθdθ
P .r0Ec2rad
rˆ r
.rˆ sinθ
 E d 
r

dsinθ
 d d  dθdθ
P  0 0 00c 0 r0.r  E rad r sinθradd d  θ
rrr
ˆ ˆ rad 2

0 0  c
0
 0c θ θ

313 313
313
313 313

Fig. 1.2

16 Self-Instructional Material

Figure
Figure
Figure 22 2
   
Since
Sincetotal power
total powerradiated
radiated is given
is givenasas PP  
Since total power radiated is given as P    Sradrad  S
 S
rad . .dA
. dAdA
rad where
where integration
integrationisisistaken
whereintegration taken
taken
over
over
over area
area
area surrounding tototo
surrounding
surrounding point
point
point charge,sososo
charge,
charge,
 
222
 0 0
dθ dθ
Since radiation fields are perpendicular to θdirection of propagation,
r
 dθ 

ˆ
 θ
θ rr


So, r .E  0
 1
and S rad  rˆ Erad
2
(14)
0 c
 
Since total
Sincepower radiatedradiated
total power is given
is given Sp,adwhere
as P as P Srad .. dA integration
. dAp where is taken
integration is taken over Electromagnetic
Field Tensor
over area surrounding to point charge,
area surrounding to point charge, so so
 2
1 ˆ ˆ 2 2
P  
0 0 0 c
 r .r  Erad r sinθd d  (1.56)
NOTES
where  is the angle between direction of motion of charge and direction of emitted
radiation.
FigureFigure
2 22
Figure
   
Since Since
total
Sincepower
total radiated
total power is given
radiated as313P as PPSrad
is given   .SSdA where integration
where
dAwhere
rad .. dA
rad
is taken
integration
integration isistaken
taken
over area
oversurrounding
over to pointtocharge,
area surrounding
area surrounding so so
point charge,
1 22 1 2 2 2 2
 2
  rˆ .rˆ  Erˆrad.rrˆ  sinθ
P   PP  E rad rdsinθ
d d dd

0 0  c
0 00 00 00c

1  2 11  22 2
P    r Erad  2
P
 P
 
0c 0 000c 00 00
 r E rad  sinθd d  ...(1.57)
sinθ
rad
d2 d  (15) (15)
(15)
is theangle
where where
where
where thebetween
isisisthe
the angle direction
angle between
between of motion
direction
direction of of charge
of motion
motion
motion of and direction
of charge
of charge
charge and of emitted
anddirection
and direction
direction ofof
ofemitted
emitted
emitted
radiation.
radiation.
radiation.
radiation.
Now
Now multiply
Now multiply
equation
Now multiply
multiply equation (12)
(12) by(12)
equation by
r , by rrr,,,gives
gives
by gives
gives
cc2 211
rˆ  2rrrˆˆ rˆrrarˆrˆaa

11  c 1 
2 2 2 
    q q 1
q
r E  r , rt E r , t 
r E r , t  2   22      
4  44c2 


1 ccrˆ . 11

2
2 ˆ  
 rrˆ..    r r
r r rr 

q 1
 2

 c 1   rˆ
2 2
 r2ˆ  rˆ  a 
 
q 
2 
 
4 1 c 2 q1  rˆc. 1 21 rˆ rcˆ 1 ˆ  rˆ ˆ ˆ  
  2 314
2

r  r  a   r  r  a 
 
  
4  c 2 1  rˆ 4.  2 c2 1  rrˆ 314  .   

314 r
I term

II Term


I term I term
II Term II Term
Since I term varies as 1 , so at large distances this term contributes nothing to
1
Since asI term r as 1 , so at large distances this term contributes nothing to
varies
Since I power
term varies
,but II term , so at large distances this term contributes nothing to
r is independent r of distance, so it gives fields which responsible
for power
power ,but power
II term ,but IIatterm
radiating largeisofdistances,
is independent independent soofit distance,
distance,hence so are
these fields
gives itwhich
gives
calledfields whichfields,
radiation
responsible responsible
for power for power radiating at large distances, hence these fields are called radiation fields,
So,radiating at large distances, hence these fields are called radiation fields,
So, So, q 
 r Erad   2  rˆ  rˆ  a 

4 q  c 2 1  rˆˆ. q ˆ 
   rˆ  rˆ  a 


r Erad r E
 2 2  r  r  a 

 
rad  2


4  c 2 1  rˆ 4.   c 1  rˆ . 
If point change is at rest

then   0 , so
isisatatrest
If point change isat rest then   0 rest
If
If point
point change
change
,
thenp =00, ,soso
sothen
q 
2  q
r Erad  rˆ  rˆ  a  

2 
q  r 4Erˆ c  rˆ  rˆ  a 
 r Erad
4 0c 2
 
rad 0ˆ
r  a 
4 c
q 0  
 r Erad
  
rˆq rˆ . a    rˆ.rˆ  a  
radr0ˆ . a  rˆ2.r rˆa rˆ . a    rˆ .rˆ  a
 q 4 c2
 r Erad
  rE
4 0 c 2
rˆ    
4 0 c ˆ  
q  

 r Ered

 r4
q

E

rˆq rˆ.a   a  
c  2 rˆ  rˆ.a   a
2 
 r Ered
 2
4 0equation
c

rˆred r0ˆ.a 4
 a0 c 
Using this into (15), gives Self-Instructional Material 17
Using this(15),
Using this into equation into equation (15), gives
1 2 gives q2  

qrˆ2 rˆ.a   a  sin d2  d  
2
P
   1  2
1  2  0  cPq02 0 162 0c4 2  24 rˆ  rˆ.a   a sin  d d 
P    c r0ˆ 0rˆ16
0c 0 0 16q2 2 0c402

.a a0c sin  d d  
2  2  rˆ.rˆ2
5 q
 ˆ

  2
r .a   a 2 2  rˆ2.a  sin 2d d 

16  0cˆ ˆ0 20 ˆ 5   2 rˆ.rˆ  ˆrˆ.a 2 a  2  rˆ.a  sin  d d 
 
 
 2 2
q
 2 5
  16 r .r r0c.a 0 0 a  2  r .a  sin  d d 
 0

 q  
 r Erad

4 0 c 2 
rˆ  rˆ . a    rˆ .rˆ  a 
 q  
 r Ered

4 0 c 2 
rˆ  rˆ.a   a 
Electrodynamics and Using this into equation (15), gives
Using this into equation (15), gives
Plasma Physics
1  2 q2   2
P
   2
0c 0 0 16  0c 4  
rˆ  rˆ.a   a sin  d d 

q2
 
 2
  2
NOTES  2 5
   rˆ.rˆ  rˆ.a   a 2  2  rˆ.a  sin  d d 
16  0c 0 0
q2
 
 2
 2
 2 3
  a 2   rˆ.a  sin  d d 
16  0c 0 0
q2  2
   a 2  a 2 cos 2   sin  d d 
16  0 c 0 0
2 3

q2  2
q 22a 2 3    a 3 sin   2sin  d d 
2 2
 
 16 2 0 c 3 0 0 sin  d    d  
16  0 c  02 2  0 
2 2 q a   32   2 
 q 2a 2
 q a
 2 2 3 3 
4   
 sin  d    d  
 2 2
q a   2 3 16   sin  d
  c      d 
sin2 0cd330  0d2  
0 0
 3 16
     0

2
16  0 c 16   c  3 
q2a 2  4 
0 0
0 315
q 2 a 2  42 32  2   2 
2 2
q a   4 22  16 31
 0qc2a3 
 2   20c   3  3
3P16
16  0 c  3 3 4 c  q 2a 2
 02  1
2 2 P21  q 2 a 2  3
2  1P   q aformula, 3  4this c
PThis
 is Larmor 3  43 0  c 3
0  gives total power radiated by an accelerated point
3  4 0  c
charge which
This isinstantaneously
Larmor formula, at rest.
this gives total power radiated by an accelerated point
This is formula,
This is Larmor Larmor formula,
this gives this gives
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rest.power
atradiated byradiated by an accelerated
an accelerated point
pointby apoint
14.5
14.5
charge
Relativistic
charge
This which
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which
Generalization
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Generalization
formula,
instantaneously at
gives
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radiated Radiated
by an accelerated Point
by acharge
charge which instantaneously at
which instantaneously rest.
14.5 Relativistic at rest. Generalization of Power Radiated by a Point
14.5 Relativistic
Charge-Lienard’s
Point Generalization
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Charge-Lienard’s the ofLarmor
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14.5 14.5
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14.5 Relativistic Generalization
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Charge-Lienard’s of Power of of Power
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1.9 Formula Point Charge-Lienard’s
RELATIVISTIC GENERALIZATION OF POWER the Larmor
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Charge-Lienard’s
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Charge-Lienard’s
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Charge-Lienard’s of the of
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GeneralizationLarmor
Formula
Generalization of the Larmor of Formula
the Larmor
RADIATED
The Formula
BY AisPOINT
Larmor’s formula based onCHARGE-LIENARD’S
the assumption that the point charge is
Formula Formula
GENERALIZATION
The Larmor’s
instantaneously so thisOF
at rest,formula THE
is based
result LARMOR
holdson the as
good long FORMULA
assumption
as v that
 c .the point charge is
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instantaneouslyisformula
basedisaton isrest,
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the assumption
assumption
this that that
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 0 , then based
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passes through point charge
surface, is not instantaneously
same as the
instantaneously
instantaneously at rest, soresult
at rest, so this When
atthisrest, so this
result holds
v  0 ,good
holds
result
then as good
rate
holds good
ofasenergy
long
long as as
v long c . as v  c .
as v  c.passes through surface, is not same as the
dW
rate of
When v When energy
When
0 , then at which
 00 ,,of
v rate then it is
rate of
energy lost from
energy
passes the particle.
passessurface,
through through Ifsurface,
issurface,
not is the
isasnot rate of energy
thesameasasthetherate of
rate ofv energy then at rate
which of energy
it is lostpasses
from through
the particle. dtsame dW
If is notissame the rate of energy
passes through the surface at a distance r dWfrom point dWcharge, dt then theenergy
rate of the
rate
rate of energy ofat energy
energy which
at which itat isitwhich
islost itfrom
lostfrom is the
lost from theIf particle.is the
theparticle.
particle. Ifthe rate isenergy
rateofof the
energy rate of
passes through
passes through
energy left from the particle was the surface at a distance
dt r fromdtpoint charge, then the rate of
passes through
passes the
surface atsurface
through
energya distance theatfrom
left ar from
distance
surface point
the particle from
was point
at a rdistance
charge, then charge,
r from
the point
rate ofthen theleft
charge,
energy rate
then
fromof thethe rate of was
particle
energy leftenergy
from the dW
leftparticle
from dW thewas dt 
  was
 dW .particle
dW  dt   (18)
dt  dt dt  .  ...(1.58) (18)
dW dWdW  dt  dWdt  dt dt  dt 
 t.is   . time, (18) (18)
dtWhere
 dtWhere dt dtretarded
Where tdttis is  given as
dt  time,
 retarded
retarded time, given
given as as
Where t  Where
is retarded
ttistime, r giventime, as
tretarded
 r given as
r ct  t  c
t  t  t  t  r
Aftercdifferentiation
Afterdifferentiation
After differentiation
c
After differentiation
dt  1 dr
18 Self-Instructional Material
 1 dt   1  1 dr
After differentiation
dt  1 dt
dr dtc dt c dt
 1  dt   1  1 dr
dt c dt
dt  1  dr  dt  
Or Or  1 cdtdt 1 1  dr  dt
dt
dt  1 dt
 dr  dtdt c dt  cdtdt  dt
Or  1  dt   1 dr dt 
Or
dt c  dt 11 
dt dt dt 1 dr
 dt 
Or dt  dr
Or
dt c  dt 1 dt 1
dt  1 dr dt dt  c dt dt dtc dt  dt
  .  (18)
dt  dt  dt 
Where t  is retarded time, given as
r
t  t 
c
After differentiation
Electromagnetic
dt  1 dr
 1 Field Tensor
dt c dt
dt  1  dr  dt 
Or  1  
dt c  dt   dt NOTES
dt  1 dr dt 
Or   1
dt c dt  dt

dt   1 dr 

 1dtdr
dt
 1  dt
dt 1 11 dr
11
dr  1
dr 
11dt 11


316
   dt 1  c  1

dt dt
dt
c dt
  cc dt
dt 
dt   c dt  
dt
  dt1 
dt
dt 111
(19)
   dt dt   1111 dr (19) (19)
(19)
...(1.59)
 dt
dt 
dt 1 dt1 dr111 1 dr dr
dr (19)
c dt1 ccc dt
c dt dt
dt

 rrr rrrrrr0
Since
Since
Since
Since r  rr0 r  r00
rSince
0
Hence
Hence
Hence
Hence Hence
dr
dr 2 ddd 2 r 222r0222 2r.r0
dr
dr d r2 2rr.rr002 22rr..rr00
 dt 


dr
dt r dt dtdr0 rr  r00  2r .r0
dt  dtdt dt
  dt  dt
 1    d   111
 1  ===d 1112 ddd 2rrr222rrr0222222rrr..r.rr0...1
=   =222rdt r0 r2 2rr.r0002  .2r .r00 . r 222r 1222 2r.r
    2    dt   r 20 r02 rr
2  dt        dt
dt 0  r2 2rr.r0r002 22rr..rr000
   r00  2r .r0
111  dr dr
dr 
0
dr   drdr
dr  
0 1
11
 1 = dr  2r . dr 00 
222.rrr...dt
dr000...1 22 122
=   ===2r21022.0222rrr0200..r.dt
.dt0 0
dt  2r . dt 2 
dt 

. 2 rrr 2rrr02222rrr..r.rr0
2 
    2       
dt    dt  
dt   rdt  r0 r2 2rr.r00002  2r .r000
0

 1       111

 1  ===111222rrr0.v .v
 .v rrr.v .v
.v ...1
=   =2r2022.v2r.vr00.v .  r2.v . 2 rrr222rrr01222222rrr..r.rr0
 

 2    2         0
r  r0 r2 2r r.r0002  2r .r00
  
  rrr rrr0..v.vv
0 0

 r =r  .v 00
=   ===0  rrrrr0rrr0.v
r  r0 r  r00

rrr 
0

r  =  .v
=  .v ===rrrr ...vvv
r r
dr
dr
dr 
dr =
drv ==rˆ.rˆ.vvv
  r ˆ.
=  dtˆ.
rdt
dt  dt =  rˆ.v
dt 
Hence
Hence
Hence from
from
from eq
eq(19)
eq (19)
(19)
Hence from eqfrom
Hence
Hence (19)eq.eq
from (19)
ttt 111 111
t  1  1 == 
 ttt  = 1 vvv == 1  1rˆˆ.
  
rrˆ..
t 1 rˆtt. v 111rrˆ1ˆrˆ...v rˆ. 111
1  rˆ . ccc rˆ.
c c
 
 v  vvv
where
where where
where
where
    cv
c  cc
Using this into c
eq. (18),
Using
Using
Using this this
this
intothis
Using
into
into
eq. into eq.
eq.
(18),eq. (18),gives
(18),
gives
(18),
gives
gives
gives Self-Instructional Material 19

dW dW dW1  dW

dW
dW 111  dW dW
dW
...dW
  dt    . 1 

1  ˆ
r . 
dtrˆ.11dtrˆrˆ..
dt   . dtdt
dt
dt   1dt   1  rˆ.  dt 

317
317
317
317 317
 t  1 1
  = 
t 1  rˆ. v 1  rˆ.
c
 v 
where 
c
Electrodynamics and Usingthis
Using thisinto
intoeq.eq.gives
(18), gives
Plasma Physics
dW  1  dW
  .
Hence power dt  radiated  1  rˆ. by
 dt the point particle into an element of area r 2 sin  d d 
NOTES Hence power
HenceHence
power radiated
power
radiated by
radiated
by
radiated 1
the
the point
by the
point1
particle
point
particle into an
particle
into an element
into of area
ananelement
element of area
2
2 sin  2d d 
ofofrr area  d dddd
sin2 rrd2sin
Hence
Hence power power
dP  radiated by by the point
2 particle
2 into
.r sin into delement of areaarea
element r sin sin dd
  . the point Eradparticle dan
 11   1111 rˆ. 21 0 c2 2 2 317
2 1.r 2 sin  d d
dP
dP   1dP   .. 1  .E rad .r E
E. rad Esin 2.rd2sin
d d d
 1dP rˆ. 10rˆc.1 0cc 1 rad .r sin 2 d d
ˆ  c  rad

dPr .  1  rˆ0.   
  0
11  1111rˆ. 1 c22  rad
  . rE 
dP
dP dPd 

    dP    . 1 r. Erad
  . r E 1 r Erad 2 2
0
dd 
 dd11d  
rrˆˆ
.. 11
sin rˆr.ˆ00d.ccd .0 cc  r Erad 
rad
Where    0
Where dd 
WhereWhere
 
 d 
sin
sin  dd
sin
 dd d d 
Where
Since d
Where d sin
from sin(16)
eq. ddd d 
Since
Since from
Sinceeq.
from(16)
eq.
from
Sinceeq.
Since
(16)
from
from eq.(16)
eq. (16) q 
  r Erad q q   ˆ  rˆ  a 
r
4q 02 cq2 21 rrˆˆ  rˆaa rˆ  a
2


rr E
Erad r Erad rˆ.rrˆˆ
2
2 
 rad r E
0 4cc  ˆ  ˆ rˆ  rˆ  a 
c 211rr.ˆ.
2
rad
44 1 0
crrˆ..
2 2
0 4 1
Then 0
Then
Then Then
Then
Then 2
dP 1  2 q 2 2 1 2
 dP
dP dP11  1 qq .  q2 112  1ˆ ˆ  522 rˆ  rˆ  2 a
. 
   

 dP 1
dc.  4 . . 224q02 c  55 1rˆrˆrˆ.5 r 1 r  a
rˆ  rˆ  a 2
 0c cc 0 1c 2rˆ.1  rˆ.  5 arˆ  rˆ  a
 dd  d d0c  4  
0 c
0
 04
0   c 0 4  1c rˆ.
 0  1  rˆ. 
dPq 22  2   22rˆ rˆ2 a 2 
2qr

or dP
or  dP
dP dP q  q.q22 rˆˆ   rrˆˆ3
.raaˆrˆrˆrˆaa 25 
or or  .
ddor 
 d16
d
d
16

 2 
 2 16
0 
16
32
c3 2
0 c 
.  1c03rˆ.. 55 1rˆ.55 
 3 c
001 c rˆ.11rˆr.ˆ.  
 
 
16   
and
and the and
total
theand thethe
powertotalpower
total power
total
and
and the totalpower
thepower
total power
2  dP 2 2 dP  dP
2  dP
P  0 P
P  P0 d0
P

0 0d
 0sin
2 sin 
0d
dPdd
sin d
ddsin
 dddd
0 0 d 
0 d   sin d
  2   2  2 
qq 22 q 2 22   r
q2 2   2rˆˆ2 ˆˆ
2r
r raaˆ2rˆrˆ raˆ 2a 
32 .q20 
. 
. .  rˆ55rˆsin  a
P
P 16PPP
2 
3 0 

sin 5 dd dd
sin sin  d d 
dddd
3c       
2 3 0 .3 0 0 0 0   5sin
16 16  016c

c  20 c 1  rˆ.  ˆ 
ˆ 5 

 1  rˆ. 1 1 r
1  r .ˆ.r. 

0
0   c 
16 0 0 0
0
 
After
After solving
After
Aftersolving
solving
After solving
solving
After solving
  22   2  2
qq 22 q222q2 2 66  222 26 vv a 2 vvvaa 2a 
P . .  aa.2. 62 2a

P P P 3 . q . 3 .  .6 a
   

  P
44 00 4cc434330c 3c.33 3.  acc a   cc c  

c 
 3  
00    
1 1
1 
 vv 22  22 v 2 22 2 12 12
where 
where where
where
where c 22111v2v 
  11

  c  ccc22 
 
This
This is Lienard
isThis formula for
for power radiated by the relativistic point
point particle.
ThisisisisLienard
Lienard
This Lienard
Lienardformula
formulaformula
formulafor
power power
forfor
power radiated
radiated
power by the by
radiated
radiatedbythe relativistic
relativistic
thethe
by relativisticpoint
point
relativistic particle.
particle.
particle.
point
This is Lienard formula for power radiated by the relativistic point particle. particle.

20 Self-Instructional Material 318

318 318
318318
 14.6 Illustrative Example
14.6 Illustrative
Illustrative Example Example Electromagnetic
Field Tensor
Example1:
Example Calculate total
1: Calculate totalpower
powerradiated
radiatedbybya proton
a proton initially
initially at rest
at rest andand having
having
6
acceleration 10 m
sec2 NOTES
Sol. Larmor formula
P = (1/4π 0)(2/3)(q22a22/c­)3 where π = 3.14
P= (1/4π  0 )(2/3)(q a /c ) where π= 3.14
–12 (M.K.S.)
0 = 8.85 × 10-12
 0 = 8.85x10 (M.K.S.)
q = electronic charge = 1.6 × 10–19 C
-19
aq= electronic charge=1.6x10
= acceleration C = 106 m/s2
of the charge particle
6
Ca==acceleration of the= 3charge
velocity of light × 108 particle=
m/s 10 m/s2
8
C= velocity of light= 3x10
Hence m/s
PHence
= (1/4 × 3.14 × 8.85 × 10–12) × (2/3) × (1.6 × 10–19)2 × (106)2 × (3 × 108)–3
=P=
9× 109 × 2 × 1.6 × 1.6/
-12 (3 × 3 × 3 × 3) ×-19 –38 + 12-24
(1/4x3.14x8.85x10 ) x (2/3) x (1.6x10 10)2 x (106)2 x (3x108)-3
= 5.69 × 10–42 9W
=9x10
–42
x2x1.6x1.6/
–19
(3x3x3x3) x10-38+12-24
= 5.69 × 10 /1.6-42× 10 eV/s
=5.69x10 W
= (56900/1600) × 10–24
-42 -19
= 35.56 =5.69x10
×10–24 eV/s/1.6x10 eV/s
= (56900/1600) x10-24
1.10 SUMMARY=35.56x10-24 eV/s
In this unit we have defined electromagnetic field Tensor and derived expression for
14.7 Self
14.7 Selflearning
learningExercise
Exercise-II-II
this in terms of electromagnetic potential. Then we derive expression for components of
electromagnetic
Q.1 Is afield chargeEpwith
pointvectors and aBpconstant
in terms velocity,
of electromagnetic field tensor
radiate energy? F . Hence
Give reason.
we obtain Lorentz Transformation of electric and magnetic field vectors. Then we discuss
Q.2 Give unit of Poynting vector?
the invariants of the electromagnetic fields. In the last we obtain Maxwell’s equations in
Q.3 Write unit of power?
Tensor form.
Q.4 What is meant by unit vector?
Lienard Wiechert Potential related with moving charge are derived which shows
Q.5dependence.
velocity Define Poynting vector?
14.8 Summary
Summary
Second part of unit is dedicated to determination of Larmor formula, i.e. total power
14.8
radiated by an accelerated point change that initially at rest. Larmor formula shows that
Lienard
radiated power Wiechert
depends onPotential
square ofrelated with of
acceleration moving
charge,charge are derivedorwhich
so an accelerating shows
decelerating
chargevelocity
particledependence.
radiates energy.
Second part of unit is dedicated to determination of Larmor formula, i.e. total
1.11 GLOSSARY
power radiated by an accelerated point change that initially at rest. Larmor formula
zzInvariant: A function quantity, or property which remains unchanged when a
specified transformation is applied
319
zzAntisymmetric: Unaltered in magnitude but changed in sign by exchange of two
variables or by a particular symmetry operation.
zzInertial Frame: a frame of reference) in which bodies continue at rest or in
uniform straight motion unless acted on by a force.

Self-Instructional Material 21
 Electrodynamics and zzCharge density: Charge density is defined as charge per unit volume
Plasma Physics
zzCurrent density: Current density is defined as current per unit area
zzScalar potential: Potential defined in scalar field
NOTES zzVector potential: Potential defined in vector field
zzRadiated Power: Energy radiated per unit time
zzPoynting vector: Power radiated per unit area taken along perpendicular to the
propagation of radiation

1.12 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is anti symmetric tensor?
2. What are invariants of electromagnetic fields?
3. Define electromagnetic field tensor ?
4. Write down Maxwell’s equation in Tensor form.
5. Derive the transformation formula for F .
6. What are the invariants of the electromagnetic field ? Prove their invariance and
give their physical significance.
7. Define electromagnetic field tensor and derive Maxwell’s equations in tensor form.
9. What is the electromagnetic field tensor?

9. Show that E.p Bp is Lorentz invariant ?

8. Write down the transformation formula for F

10. What is charge density?

11. How you get electric and magnetic fields from scalar and vector potentials?
12. Write unit of power?
13. What is meant by unit vector?
14. What is scalar potential?
25. What is vector potential?
15. What is the value of 0 in MKS system?

1.13 FURTHER READINGS

zzClassical Electrodynamics by J.D. Jackson (John Wiley & Sons).
zzClassical Electricity and magnetism by Panofsky & Philips. (Indian Book, New
Delhi).
zzIntroduction to electrodynamics by Griffiths.
zzElements of Electromagnetic by Mathew N.O. Sadiku (oxford Univ. Press).
zzClassical theory of Electrodynamics by Landau & Lifshitz. (Pergaman press,
New York).
zzElectrodynamics of continuous Media by Landau & Lifshitz. (Pergaman press,
New York).
zzRelativistic mechanics by Prakash. (Pragati Prakashan Meerut (India))
zzElectromagnetics by B.B. Laud (Wiley Eastern Limited,New Delhi)
22 Self-Instructional Material
 CHAPTER – 2 Special Theory
of Relativity

SPECIAL THEORY OF NOTES

RELATIVITY
STRUCTURE
2.1 Learning Objectives
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Preliminary
2.4 Postulates of Special theory of Relativity
2.5 Lorentz Transformation
2.6 The Quasi-Euclidean Geometry of the four Dimensional World
2.7 Illustrative Examples
2.8 Relativistic Equation of Motion Minkowski Force
2.9 Applications of Energy-Momentum Conservation
2.10 Summary
2.11 Glossary
2.12 Review Questions
2.13 Further Readings

2.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying the chapter, students will be able to:
zzTo study postulates of special theory of relativity
zzTo derive Lorentz Transformation
zzTo study Relativistic equation of motion
zzTo study application of energy momentum conservation

2.2 INTRODUCTION
Galileo and Newton through experiments arrived at certain laws covering motion of bodies,
known as classical mechanics. They proposed that length, time and mass are fundamental
and absolute quantities. These remain the same for all moving and stationary observers.
Also they found that physical laws of mechanics remains invariant in all inertial frames of
reference. However this did not hold true for the laws of electrodynamics.

Self-Instructional Material 23
 Electrodynamics and In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed a revolutionary theory of relativity in which he
Plasma Physics
postulated that physical Laws are universal and a single theory should govern mechanics and
electrodynamics. He also postulated that the velocity of light in vacuum is universal and is
the highest achievable velocity for moving objects. This theory revolutionized the world of
NOTES
science. Infact, all major researches in the 20th century are based on this theory of relativity.
No doubt, this theory reveals much more newer ideas and questions of the absolute character
of length, mass and time. But its results are not much different from classical results. When
velocity of object v is far less than the speed of light c. This is called classical limit. When
v = c, we call it relativistic limit and Mechanics is known as relativistic mechanics.

2.3 PRELIMINARY

(a) Galilean Transformations

The classical theory mainly involves Galilean transformations. Consider two frames of
references S and S  such that their origins O and O coincides at t  t ‘  0 i.e. initially. The
frame S  moves with constant velocity v relative to S along x-axis as shown in figures (2.1).
After time t, S  travels a distance vt along x, From figure (2.1) it is seen that for given point P

Figure16.1
Figure16.1
Fig. 2.1
xx'' xx  vt
vt
yy ''  yy
(16.1)
...(2.1)
zz ''  zz
&tt ''  tt
&
WhereWhere
xx',', yy',', zz'' are the coordinates observed from frame S at time t whereas x,
y, z arex the
‘, y coordinates
‘, z ‘ are theobserved
coordinatesfor observed
the same from
point frame
P fromS frame S att time
 at time t. x, y, z are
whereas
the coordinates
Equations (16.1)observed
establishforinterrelation
the same point P fromcoordinates
between frame S at time t.
observed in the two
frames.Equations
These are(2.1) known as coordinate
establish transformations.
interrelation Differentiating
between coordinates observed ineq. the(16.1)
two frames.
These
w.r. are known
to time, we find as coordinate transformations. Differentiating eq. (2.1) w.r. to time, we find
dx''
dx dy''
dy dz''
dz



 xx,,
vv
 yy,,
vv
 vvz
dtdt '' dt ''
dt dt '' z
dt
24 Self-Instructional Material vv x vvx  vv
x x
v  
vy  v y v (16.2)
y y

vvzz  vvzz
Equations (16.2) are known as Galilean transformation for velocity or the law of
Galilean addition of velocities.
 EquationsEquations (16.1) establish
(16.1) establish interrelation
interrelation between between coordinates
coordinates observed observed
in the twoin the two
frames.
frames. These areThese
knownareasknown as coordinate
coordinate transformations.
transformations. Differentiating
Differentiating eq. (16.1)eq. (16.1)
w.r.we
w.r. to time, to find
time, we find
dx '  dy '' v
dx dy '
x , dz ' v
y ,
dz '

 v
 
x , dt ' v y , dt ' vz dt ' vz
dt ' dt ' dt '
x vx  vx v 
 v  v Special Theory
v x
of Relativity

vy  v y v y  v y (16.2) (16.2)
 ...(2.2)
v  v vz  vz
z z
Equations
Equations
Equations are(16.2)
(16.2) (2.2) areasknown
are known
known as Galilean
as Galilean
Galilean transformation
transformation
transformation for for fororvelocity
velocity
velocity lawor
or the
the oftheof law of
law NOTES
Galilean
GalileanGalilean
addition addition
of of of
velocities.
addition velocities.
velocities.
Differentiating
Differentiating
Differentiating eq.eq.
eq. (16.2) (16.2)
(2.2)
with withwithtorespect
respect
respect to time,
to time,
time, we we find
we find
find

ax  ax ax  ax
ay  a y ay  a y ...(2.3) (16.3) (16.3)
as Galilean transformation  for acceleration. It is clear
az  az az  az
ame or force remains same in both frames. So all
Equations (2.3) are known as Galilean transformation for acceleration. It is clear that
variant under Galilean Transformation.
Equations (16.3) are known as Galilean transformation for acceleration. It is clear
acceleration remains same or force remains same343 in both frames. So all physical laws also
343
that acceleration remains same or force remains same in both frames. So all
xperiment
remain invariant under Galilean Transformation.
physical laws also remain invariant under Galilean Transformation.
postulates absolute length
(b) Michelson-Morley
(b) , mass and Experiment
Michelson-Morley timeExperiment
and so there
frame of Classical
reference.mechanics
Michelson
Classical Morley
mechanics
postulates attempted
postulates
absolute length, tomasslength
absolute , mass
and time andand
sotime andwas
there so there
a search
her proposed by Fizeau
was a to
searchbe an
for absolute
absolute frameframe
of of
reference. Michelson Morley attempted
for absolute frame of reference. Michelson Morley attempted to identify the hypothetical to
chelson’s ether identifybytothe
interferometer
proposed hypothetical
Fizeau to be an ether proposed
absolute frame by Fizeau to They
of reference. be an modified
absolute Michelson’s
frame of
reference.
interferometer to They modified Michelson’s interferometer to
bsolute frame of reference
(i)
and ether as an absolute frame of reference and
Identify
(i) Identify ether as an absolute frame of reference and
y of the earth with (ii) respect to stationary
determine the velocityether
of theusing
earth with respect to stationary ether using
(ii) determine the velocity of the earth with respect to stationary ether using
Galilean transformations.
Galilean transformations.
They oriented the instrument so that one arm of the interferometer becomes
trument so that one arm of the interferometer becomes
Theyparallel to the
the tangential velocity
so thatofonethearm
earth
ocity of the earth whileoriented
other instrument
remains perpendicular toofwhile other remains becomes
the interferometer perpendicular to to
parallel
it butvelocity
the tangential in the plane of the
of the earth’s
earth while velocity. While going
other remains in the direction
perpendicular to it of
buttheinearth’s
the plane
h’s velocity. While going
motion,
of the earth’s
in
velocity.
the direction
the velocity
Whileofgoing
of
light will the earth’s
be (c+v)
in the and in
direction of opposite direction
the earth’s motion,it will
thebe (c−v) of
velocity
will be (c+v) and in
light will Alsoopposite
be (c+v) direction
and in opposite
the velocity it will
of light direction be (c−v)
it will be (c−v)
is the perpendicular Alsowill
direction the be
velocity
c of
2
v light
2
. Thusis the
the perpendicular
perpendicular direction
there directionwill
will be a will be c  v . Thus
phase difference
2
Thusthere will be a phase difference  and a
2  and a definite interference pattern due to

ence  definite earth’s revolution.

and a interference
definite patternOn
interferenceduerotating
topattern
earth’s due to byOn90rotating
the instrument
revolution. in its plane,
0
because arms
the instrument by are
900 in
its plane, interchanged
because armsa are
phase difference ofa phase
interchanged 2  isdifference
introduced,
of 2this will shift
pattern  istheintroduced,
fringe
ng the instrument by 900 in its plane, because arms are
pattern
this will shift the fringe
ence of 2  is introduced,
(c) Conclusions this from
will shift the fringe Experiment
Michelson-Morley
(c) Conclusions from Michelson-Morley Experiment
th
The The
instrument
instrumentwaswassensitive measure  1  ofofaafringe
sensitivetotomeasure fringeshift
shift
andand
thethe expected
expected
chelson-Morley Experiment  100 
fringe
fringe shiftthwas shift
0.37.was
All 0.37. All attempts
attempts made to made to identify
identify expectedexpected fringefailed;
fringe shift shift failed;
there was
 1 
there
to measure
no measurable
 awas
 of fringe
no
fringe measurable
shift
shift .Theand fringe
theof
result shift .The result
expected
Michelson-Morley of Michelson-Morley
experiment was negative. The
 100 
experiment was negative. The outcome
outcome of the experiment was formulated as follows : of the experiment was formulated as
tempts made to(i)identify
follows :expected
Absolute
fringe shift failed;
frame does not exist. Motion relative to some material object only is
e fringe meaningful.
shift .The resultframe
(i) Absolute of does
Michelson-Morley
not exist. Motion relative to some material object only
The outcome of the experiment
is meaningful. was formulated as
(ii) Velocity of light in free space is absolute, it is not subjected to relative motion. Self-Instructional Material 25

t exist. Motion relative toAs some

we know that Michelson
material object and Morley performed experiment in relation
only
with velocity of light. In the similar manner many experiments were performed
344
pace is absolute, it is not subjected to relative motion.
chelson and Morley performed experiment in relation
 Electrodynamics and (ii) Velocity of light in free space is absolute, it is not subjected to relative motion.
Plasma Physics
As we know that Michelson and Morley performed experiment in relation with
velocity of light. In the similar manner many experiments were performed such as Fizeau’s
experiment, Aberration of star and Noble and Trouton experiment etc. But nobody was able
NOTES
to find a principle which can explain all these experiments. So in 1905 Einstein had given the
following new idea “The motion through ether is a meaningless concept, only the motion
relative to material bodies has physical significance”.
Due To this reason we cannot find the velocity of earth in ether experimentally. On the
basis of this concept, The special theory of relativity was brought by Einstein in 1905. Einstein
modified the Newton’s space-Time concept and put forward the new principle, known as
special theory of relativity. In classical mechanics, equations of motion are applicable only
on those particles whose velocity is less than velocity of light. While equations of motion in
Newton’s mechanics modified by Einstein is also applicable on those particles which travel
with velocity of light. In classical Physics the space and time are same for all observers, but
it varies for moving observers in relativity theory.

2.4 POSTULATES OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Einstein introduced his special theory of relativity proposing drastic revision in Newtonian
concepts of space and time. The special theory of relativity has made wide ranging change
in our understanding of nature, but Einstein based it on just two simple postulates.
(a) Principle of physical Equivalence : According to this all laws of physics are the
same in all inertial frame of reference. The consequence of this postulate is that all inertial
frames are completely equivalent.
(b) Constancy of speed of Light : According to this the speed of light in vacuum
(free space) is same in all inertial frames and is independent of the motion of the observer
or its source.
The universality of Laws of physics and the absolute character of the speed of light in
free space immediately questions the absoluteness of length, mass and time. This could be
understood using mathematics of Lorentz transformation.

2.5 LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION

We know that Galilean transformation is used to transform the coordinates of an event from
one inertial frame to another inertial frame in classical principle.
But these transformations are not applicable in Michelson’s Morley experiment
with regard to velocity of light. So Galilean transformation was replaced by a new set of
transformation to preserve the invariance of Maxwell’s equations (Electrodynamics) under
relative motion as well as invariance of Mechanical laws should also be established as
earlier. Such type of transformation equations are known as Lorentz transformation. These
transformation express the fundamental properties of space & time.

26 Self-Instructional Material
 Derivation of Lorentz Transformation Special Theory
of Relativity
Suppose S and S are two inertial frames. S is moving along x-axis with uniform velocity v
with respect to S. Initially at t  t ‘  0 the origins of both frames coincide with each other.
The coordinates of a given point P observed from S are (x, y, z, t) where as in S, these are
NOTES
(x, y, z, t) where as in S, these are x ‘, y ‘, z ‘, t ‘

Fig. 2.2
Now the basic requirements for transformations between S and S are
(i) Principle of Homogeneity of space and time requires that transformation should
be linear.
(ii) Transformation should obey both the postulates of special theory of relativity.
(iii) All the coordinates perpendicular to the direction of motion of frame should remain
constant.
(iv) Under non-relativistic limit the Galilean transformation. v  c, these
transformations must coincide with the Galilean transformation.
Let a flash of light is generated at time t  t ‘  0 at the origin O which grows in form
of spherical wave frontpoint
in the
PPisspace. Ift tthe fortime
for taken by this light flash to reachandat point
flash
reachtotoatreach
flash toflash reach
pointatatPpoint
is t and istt tand
andthe
for theobserver
the
observer observer atsitting
sitting sitting the origin atatthe theO origin in OO inin
and OOOand
origin
P is tframes
and
framest for the
andobserver
SSSand sitting atLet
 respectively. the (origin ,yy, z, O
,zt,()tand O in frames t ')tS')are
and S respectively.
frames S and SS respectively.
respectively. Let y, z , xt()x, and
( x, Let x)and y ', (zx(',x',t',')yyare
',and ', ',z z', ',the are the
the
position position
position
and and
and
x,
Let (time y, z, t )
timecoordinate and
coordinate (x‘,y‘,z‘,t
ofofthe ‘)
the(flash)are the
event(flash) position and time coordinate  respectively. of the event (flash) in
time coordinate of the event event in(flash)
frame ininSframe
frame
and SSSand
frame S and S  respectively. When the flash is observed from origin O of the frame S, then
andSS respectively.
respectively. When When When
the theflash
the
flash flash
is we isisobserved
observed observed
from fromO
from
origin origin
of theOOframe
origin ofofthe theS, frame
frame thenS,we S,thenthen
havewe wehave have
have dis tance.
dis tan ce dis tan ce
Velocity
of lightofof
Velocity
Velocity
Velocity lighttan
dis
light ce
time
time time
 x2 2z2yy2122z z2 2 2 2
11


OP
OPc xOP2
 y2x
   x 2  22
2xx 
22
2yy 
22
2 z z  t2
cc2 t 00 ...(2.4) (16.4)
 c c t t t t y  z  c t
 0 (16.4) (16.4)
t t
When
When
When the thethe same
same
sameisflash
sametheflash
When flashisisisobserved
observed
flash observed
observed fromorigin
from
from origin
from Oorigin
origin OO
 ofOframe offrame
of offrame
Sframe  then
Swe
S  Sthen
 then then
wewe
havewehave
havehave

' ' ' y x' x''zyy' 'zz 

11


22 212 22 22
OP OP
'c OPx 2 2 2 2

c 
c   (16.5)
(16.5) (16.5)
...(2.5)
t' t t t 
t 't '
Moreover
Moreover
Moreover
 y y
 ',yzy yz
 ',z z z z' '
y',' (16.6)
(16.6) (16.6)
Fromequations
From
From equations equations
(16.4) and (16.4)
(16.4) andusing
and
(16.5) (16.5)equations
(16.5) usingequations
using equations (16.6)
(16.6)
(16.6) we wehave
havewe have Self-Instructional Material 27

22
x 2  y 2xt x2  yxy2't222
t 2
c2xx
22 2222
t ''2'cct 't ' (16.7)
(16.7) (16.7)
The transformation
The transformation
The transformation between between
x andxxxand
between  and  can
canxxbe can bebe represented
represented
represented by thebybysimple
the simple
the simple
relationship
relationship
relationship
 x x' '  ( x( xvtvt) ) (16.8)
(16.8)
 When
c thethe sameflash flashis isobserved
observed from origin  0frameS Sthen thenwewehave
O
oft offrame have
2 2

When same  xfrom  z2 O
 yorigin 2
c of (16.4)
When the
t same flash t is observed from origin O frame S  then we have
''  x '  y '  z  2 origin O of frame S  then we have(16.5)
 1 1
x2 '2  y 2 '2  2z21 2 2
When the same OP flash' x is
' observed
y '  z  from
c OP
2 2 2
c OP
  (16.5)
 c  tt '' t ' tt2 t  2 12 (16.5)
Moreover OP '  x ' 2
 y '  z  (16.6)
 c
Moreover
Moreover yyy y ',',yzz', z zz ''z ' (16.5)
(16.6)
(16.6)
 t ' y t
Fromequations
From equations(16.4) (16.4)and and(16.5) (16.5)using usingequations
equations(16.6) (16.6)we wewehave have
Electrodynamics and From equations
Moreover
Moreover  y y ',z y ‘,zand
y(16.4) (16.5)
z' = z'...(2.6) using equations (16.6) have (16.6)
Plasma Physics 2x 2  2y 22t 2  2 2 22 2
x ' c 2ct '2t ' (16.7)
From From xx 2 
equations equations  2
xx ''2(2.4)
yy 2 tt 2(16.4) and c tand (16.5)
' (2.5) using
using equations
equations(16.6) (2.6) we we have (16.7)
(16.7)
Thetransformation
The transformation between x and and xxx can canbe beberepresented
representedby bybythe thesimple
simple
The x 2  y 2 t 2 x '2between
transformation  c 2 t '2  xx and
between can represented the
(16.7) simple ...(2.7)
NOTES
relationship
relationship
relationship
The The transformation
transformation between betweenxx and andx' xcan be represented
 can be represented by the simple
by therelationship
simple

relationship

x '
xx ''  (( xx   ( x  vt )
vt )) ...(2.8)
 vt
(16.8)
(16.8)
(16.8)
Where
Where
Where x'being

Where
being
being  (being independent
xindependent )
vtindependent
independent ofofxxofxand
of andandt.t. t. t.
x and (16.8)
TheLaw
Lawof ofequivalence
equivalence tellsus usthat that themotion
motion  w.r.t.
The
The
Where The
Law  of Law
being ofindependent
equivalence equivalence tells
tells ofustells
xthatandusthe
t.thatmotion
the ofofSS Sofw.r.t.
of
the motion w.r.t. SS Swith
S  w.r.t. with
with velocity
velocity
S with vv vis
velocity
velocity isisthe
v the
the is the
same as the motion of S w.r.t. S  with velocity –v, then
same
same as
same
The
as the
as
Law the motion of
of motion
equivalence
of
of SSS w.r.t.
w.r.t.
w.r.t.
tells
SS
us S that
with
with
withthe velocity
velocity
velocity
motion
–v,–v,then
–v,
of
then
then
S  w.r.t. S with velocity v is the
 x  (x('x'vtvt') ') ...(2.9) (16.9)
same as
 x
xthemotion ( x ' vtof ') S w.r.t. S  with velocity –v, then (16.9)
(16.9)
Putting  from
Putting
PuttingPutting
 thethevalue
xthe value value
(thex 'value
of of xfrom
vt ')xx of
of from x from equation
equation
equation equation (16.8)
(16.8)
(16.8) ininin
in
(2.8) equation
equation
equation
equation (16.9)
(16.9)
(2.9) we
(16.9) wehave
we
we have
have
have (16.9)
Putting  
x

xxthe value   
  (( xxof( x 
 vt
vt
vt )
x)) from
 vt
  vt ' 
vt ''equationsolving
solving solving
(16.8)this
this
solving for tthis
this, for
we for
in equation get t 
for tt  ,, we ,
we we
(16.9) getget
get we have
  (txxxxvt)11 1 
1vt '2  solving this for t  , we get
ttx'' t
 '  t  1 
  t v v1  22    ...(2.10)
  (16.10)
(16.10)
(16.10)
 vx  1  
t
Putting
Puttingthe '  
thevalue thet value
value 1ofofxxxx2from
equation
from (2.7) we(16.8)
equation get from andequation
tt  t fromfrom(2.8) and t (16.10)
equation  from
(16.10)equation
inin
Putting  equation
Putting the value
 vof
of
 from
  equation (16.8)
(16.8) and
and from equation
equation (16.10)
(16.10) in
(2.10) in
equation(16.7) (16.7)we weget get
equation
equation (16.7)
2
2 2 we get (16.8)x  2 1  2
Putting the value 2 of
2 x  2
x  c t2 2    (2 x(2 xvtvt from equation
2 2 2  x and 1
cc2x 2t t 111 2  t   
from equation (16.10) (16.11) in
2) 22
2
xx2 2cc2t2x2t 2  c2 (t2 x( x vt ) 2 c 2)  2t  x1 v 2 1   2   (16.11) (16.11)
equation (16.7) we get  vt )  c  t   1 v  ...(2.11)
  v v   2   
 (16.11)
This This
is This
an
This
isisisanan
identityanidentity
identity
and and
andhence
hence
identity and hencecomparing
comparing
comparing
hence the
comparing
the coefficient
thecoefficient
coefficient
coefficient
the of t 2 of
and
t of t 2and
2
2 t2xtand
onon2xt
bothonside
2xtboth both side
2 and 2xt on side of of
This ofis equation
an identity and hence comparing the
347 coefficient of t and 2xt both side
of equation
ofequation
equation (2.11)
(16.11) (16.11)
we(16.11)
shall
we we
get
shall shall get 347
shallget
weget 347
of equation (16.11)
2 22 2
we shall get
22 222 2 2 2 2 2
c 2 cc2vvv2c cv v
c 22 cv2 vc2 2 347
c   v 2  c 2 v 2
212 11 11
So
  2So
 So
So 1 
or   2
oror 11  (16.12)(16.12)
...(2.12)
v 2 12 1orv v
2 22
So  2  2 vv (16.12)
1  v2 c 2c 2 1  v v12 1 2 2
1 c 2 1 c 2 2 cc
c c
Now NowNowsubstituting
substituting
substituting
Now the
the value
substituting the value
thevalue
ofvalue ofof
 offrom equation
from
 fromfrom equation
equation
(16.12)
equation (16.12)
(2.12)(16.12) inin equation
inin equation (16.8)and(16.8)
equation
(2.8) (2.10),and
and we
Now(16.10),
substituting
(16.10), we we the
have
have value
Lorentz
Lorentz of  from
transformation
transformationequation
of
of (16.12)
space
space i.e.
i.e. in equation (16.8) and
(16.10), we havetransformation
have Lorentz Lorentz transformation
of space i.e. of space i.e.
(16.10), we have Lorentz transformation of space i.e.
x  vt x xvtvt
x '  x 'xx'vt  2 2 (16.13)(16.13)
...(2.13)
x'  v 12 1v
2 v (16.13)
1  v2 22
1 c 2 c c
c
 v tv v x 

t  2vtx c 2c 2x  
and
and t'andand c 2 x   ...(2.14)
t't t' (16.14)(16.14)
 c 2  2v 2
and t'  v 2 1 v (16.14)
1  v2 1  2c 2
1 c 2 c
c
Ifwewe
If weassume
If we Ifassume assume
assume that
that thethat thesystem
the
system system SSisisismoving
S is moving moving
moving with velocity
withvelocity
with
with velocity velocity–v
–v relative relative
–v–vrelative
relative
to tototoSSSthe
S  along along the
alongthe
along the
If we assume
x-direction.
x-direction.
x-direction. that
Thenthe
Then
x-direction. the
Then system
theLorentz
Then Lorentz
the S
theLorentzis
Lorentz moving
transformation
transformation with
transformationvelocity
equations
equations
transformation –v
equations relative
canbebe
can
equations can to S 
be expressed
expressed
expressed
can be expressed along
asas as as the
x-direction. Then the Lorentz transformation equations canv be expressed as
v v
28 Self-Instructional Material
x '  vt ' t ' 2 vtxt''' 22 xx' '
x '  vt '
x ' vt '  c
 xxx' vt2 ',y,yz y z,'' ,and
y' zz ' and
zzt' and t t'tc 2 x 'c 2 (16.15)
(16.15)(16.15)
x  ' , y 2v 2y, 
c 2 v
 x v 1,vy y ' , z z ' and t 1  v 1 v 2
(16.15)
1  2 12  2c 2

2v1
2 
c 2
v
1 c 2 c 1 c 2 c
2

c
So equations (16.15) are known as inverse Lorentz c transformation equations. It can
So equations (16.15)(16.15)
So equations are known as inverse
are known LorentzLorentz
as inverse transformation equations.
transformation It can It can
equations.
So equations
be easily(16.15) are ifknown
seen that v <<cvasthen
v
inverse
v Lorentz transformation
0 then x '  x  vt , y' 
equations.
y, z' 
It cant
zand t' 
 and t'    t  c 22 x  (16.14)
and t'  1  v 2 (16.14)
2v
1 c 2
c
If we assume that the system S is moving with velocity –v relative to S  along the
If we assume
x-direction. thatthetheLorentz
Then systemtransformation
S is moving with velocitycan
equations relative
–v be to S  asalong the
expressed
x-direction. Then the Lorentz transformation equations can be expressed as
v Special Theory
t ' v2 x '
x ' vt ' of Relativity
x ' , y y
x ' vt2 ' , z z ' and t t ' cc 2 x ' (16.15)
 x v 2  , y y ' , z z ' and
 t (16.15)
v 22 ...(2.15)
1  v2 1  v2
1 c 2 1 c 2
c c NOTES
So equations (16.15) are known as inverse Lorentz transformation equations. It can
So equations (16.15)(2.15)
So equations are known as inverse
are known Lorentz
as inverse transformation
Lorentz equations.
transformation It canIt can be
equations.
v  0 then x '  x  vt, y'  y, z'  z and t'  t
bebeeasily then xx''  x  vt , y'  y, z' zand t'  t
easily seen
easily seen that if v <<c then 00 then
that if
seen that if vv <<
<<cc then
then v
 x  vt , y' 
c y, z' zand t'  t
c
These are
These are the
the Galilean
Galilean transformation.
transformation. Thus Thus Lorentz
Lorentztransformation
transformation reduce to
These are
Galilean transformation
the Galilean transformation.
if v <<c (Non-relativistic).
Thus Lorentz transformation
reduce
reducetotoGalilean
Galileantransformation
transformationififvv<<c <<c (Non-relativistic).
(Non-relativistic).
From equations (2.13) (2.14) and (2.15) it is seen that in the domain of the theory of
From
four
From equations
dimensional
equations (16.13)
in time
which(16.14) threeand space(16.15) itit isis seen
coordinate that
andwords, in isthe
fourth thetime domain ofof the
coordinate. the
relativity,
four space(16.13)
dimensional and
in which (16.14)
cannot
three and
be (16.15)
separated.
space coordinateIn other seen
and that in
fourthspace
is isdomain
time four dimensional
coordinate. in
four
three theory
space
theory dimensional
of relativity,
coordinate
of relativity,
four in
and
dimensional which
space and
fourth
space andthree
in which time
is
time space
timecannot
cannot
three coordinate
be
coordinate.
be separated.
separated. and fourth
In
In is
other
other time
words,
words, coordinate.
space
space is
is
The
Thewhichfourth coordinate
threecoordinate
fourth space coordinate time
time
is and
is fourthspace
imaginary
imaginary
and
isand
time coordinate
it is equal and
itit coordinate.
is equal to
fourth
to The
ict,
ict,
where
fourth
where
is time
i coordinate.
coordinate
ii 
1 . time
1 ..
The
e is imaginary
This fourthand
follows
The
is imaginary
coordinate
it
fromis
fourth
and itequal
the timeto
isequation.
coordinate
equal
is
ict,
to
imaginary
ict,where
time is
where
and
i 1 and
imaginary is
. equal to ict, where
. it is equal to ict, where1i 1 .
This
This follows
follows from
from the
the equation.
equation. 348
tion. 2This2 follows
x 22  y This 2 2 from
follows from2 the theequation.
2equation.2
2  z 2  c 2 t 2  x '2  y '2  z '2  c 2 t '2  0
2 348 2
(16.16)
xx 2 
 y
y 2  z 2  c 2 t 2  x '2  y '2  z '2  c 2 t '2  0
 z  c t  x '  y '  z '  c t '  0 (16.16)
(16.16)(16.16)
2 2 x  y  z  c t  x '  y '  z '  c t '  0 ...(2.16)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
y '  z ' 16.5
2 2
16.5 Thec t' 
The The0 Quasi-Euclidean Geometry
Quasi-Euclidean Geometryof of the
the four
four dimensional (16.16) of the four dimensional
16.5
16.5
16.5 The
The Quasi-Euclidean
Quasi-Euclidean
Quasi-Euclidean Geometry
Geometry
Geometry of
of the
the dimensional
clidean 16.5 The
16.5
World
Geometry
16.5 Quasi-Euclidean
The
of
The
dimensionalQuasi-Euclidean
the four Geometry
dimensional
Quasi-Euclidean
World of
Geometry
Geometry theoffour
of the
the four
four dimensional
uclidean2.6
Geometry
THE
World of
dimensional
World
dimensional
the four
QUASI-EUCLIDEAN
World
WorldWorld
GEOMETRY OF THE FOUR
DIMENSIONALWorld
dimensional
WORLD
World We have already seen that the fundamental invariant of the homogeneous
We have already seen that the fundamental invariant of
We have
Lorentz We have
already
transformationWe already
haveseenisalready seen
that that
the
the quantity seen thethat
fundamentalfundamental
the invariant
invariant
fundamental of the
ofinvariant
the the homogeneous
homogeneous
homogeneous Lorentz
of the homogeneous
en that the Lorentz
Lorentz fundamental
transformation
transformation
transformation is invariant
the
is
is
quantity
the
the quantity
of the
quantity homogeneous
Lorentz
S 22  x 22 transformation
 y 22  z 22  c 22 tis22 the x '22quantity
 y '22  z '22  c 22 t '22 (16.17)
he quantity SS 2  xx 2  y 2  z 2  c 2 t 2  x '2  y '2  z '2  c 2 t '2
2 y 2 z 2c t 2  x '2 2 y ' 2 z ' 2c t ' 2 ...(2.17) (16.17)
(16.17)
If2 we employ S  x
the 2new2 coordinates  y  z  c t  x '  y '  z '  c 2 2
t ' (16.17)
If' we
c 2 t 2  xIf weyemploy
employ
2
'If we thec new
z '2employ
the new coordinates
new coordinates (16.17)
t ' thecoordinates
 Ifx1we xemploy , x2 y the
, x3 new z andcoordinates
 x4 ict (16.18)
dinates 
 x
x 1 x
x 
,
, x
x 2 y
y
 ,
, x
x 3 z
z and
and 
 xx4 ict ict  (16.18)
(16.18)(16.18)...(2.18)
in S andin the
1  x2
corresponding
1 x , x 3
2 y , x
ones ones
3
4z and  x 4 ict
in S and S and
the the corresponding
corresponding ones
z and in
x4 ict  S and the
inx1 S x, corresponding
and
x,xxthe  corresponding
y, xx3  z
ones
z and xxones
 ict (16.18)
 (16.19) ...(2.19)
x 2  y, and  44  ict

 xx1 xx
1

, x2 y
, x
2
y
, x3 z and
, x
3
z and 
 xx4 ict ict
 (16.19)
(16.19)(16.19)
ones In S  ,then 1
In S (16.17) 
,then x12 (16.17) x, x23 assumes
assumes y, x3form
the the
4z  and
form x4 ict 
In SS  ,then
In ,then (16.17)
(16.17) assumes
assumes the
the form
form form

z and    S 
x4 ict S 2  x12  x2  x32  x42  x122 the
In ,then (16.17) assumes  x2(16.19)
2  x32  x42  (16.20) ...(2.20)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
SS 2  x  x  x  x  x   x   x   x  (16.20)
 x11 2 x22 2 x33 2 x44 2 x11 2 x22 2 x33 2 x442 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 2 (16.20) (16.20)
s the form Written inS
Written in this 1manner, 
this x manner, x 2  x
thethe
3  x
formal
formal
4  x 
analogy
1 analogyx 2 
withx
with
3 
the x three dimensional
the4 three dimensional case becomes
case
Written
Written in this
incomplete,
this manner,manner, the
theforthatformal
formal analogy
analogy with
with the
inthe three
thethree dimensional case
rather
becomes
x42  x12 becomes
 x  2

complete,
x
rather
 2
rather  Written
x  2
except
complete, inforthis the fact
except
except manner, for the
thefact
thethe fourth
formal
(16.20)
fact
thatsquare
that
the
analogy
the
fourth
fourth withsquare
square thedimensional
sum here
in
is actually
in the
threethe sum
case
sum here
dimensionalnegative.
here case
isNevertheless,
becomes 2
actually becomesrather
3
negative.the
complete,
4 form (2.20) except
Nevertheless,
ratherNevertheless,
complete, except
enables
for the
the one
fact
form to
that apply
(16.20)
for the(16.20) the rather square
fourth
enables
fact thatenables the fourth
freely in
one thethe
to
square
rules
sum
apply ofhere
the usual
rather
in the sum here
is
is actually
Euclidean
actually negative.
geometry
negative. toNevertheless,
that of the four-dimensionalthe
the form
form (16.20) continuum
enables one
of
one to
x, y,
to zapply
and ictrather
. However,
ner, the formal
freely the
freely
analogy
the
rules of the
is actually
rules
with
of
the
negative.
the usual
three
usual Nevertheless, dimensional
Euclidean geometry
Euclidean the form
geometry
case to (16.20)
to
that of the
that of enables
the one to rather
apply
four-dimensional
four-dimensional apply rather
because ofrules
xcept forfreely
continuum
the the
fact
freely ofthethe
that
imaginary
xthe,of ztheandusual
, fourth
yrules of
character
. Euclidean
square
ict
the However,
usual in
of thegeometry
the
Euclidean
fourth coordinate
because
sum here
geometry
employed
oftothethatimaginary
of
to that of
in this continuum, its
the four-dimensional
character of the
the four-dimensional
continuum
geometry is
continuum of
of not yy ,, zz and
xx,, realty,but and ict
only
ict .. However,
formally, identical
However, because
because of
with
of the
the theimaginary
Euclideancharacter
imaginary geometry:of
character the
that
ofonlytheisofwhy
ertheless,fourth the
fourth
coordinate
form
continuum
coordinate
it is usually (16.20)
referred
employed
of
employedenables
x , y , z inone
and
in
to as quasi-Euclidean.
this
thisict continuum,
to. apply
However,
continuum, ratherits
its
geometry
because
geometry of the is not
is
realty ,but
imaginary
not realty character
,but only the
fourth
formally, coordinate
identical employed in this continuum, its geometry is not realty ,but only
al Euclidean formally, fourth
geometry
Theidenticalimmediate
towith
coordinate withthat the
the
advantage
Euclidean
employed
of Euclidean in geometry:
the offour-dimensional this continuum,
thegeometry:
transition from
that is its
that is
the
whygeometry
why form
it is usually
itit is is notreferred
usually
(2.17)
realty to
referred
to the form to
,but only
(2.20) is
formally,
as quasi-Euclidean. identical
formally,ofidentical with the Euclidean
with the Euclidean of geometry: that
geometry: is why is usually referred
that is why it is usually referred to to
ct . However, as
asthat because
quasi-Euclidean.
now the rotation
quasi-Euclidean. the ofimaginary the axes ofcharacter one observer with the respect to the other would not lead to
d in this continuum, as
The quasi-Euclidean.
immediate
its geometry advantage
is not of the transition from the form (16.17) to concerned
the
an oblique The coordinate
immediate system.
advantage On realtythethe
of other ,but
transitiononly from
hand,these rotations
the would
form now be
(16.17) to the
form The immediate
(16.20) is The that now
immediate advantage
the rotation
advantageofofthethetransition
ofaxesthe of from
one
transition thefrom
observer form
with
the (16.17)
respect
form toto the
(16.17)the to the
Euclidean form
form geometry:
(16.20) is thatthat is now why the it is
rotationusually of referred
the axes of to one observer with respect to the
other (16.20)would
form is that
not
(16.20) lead now
is tothat the
annowrotation
obliquethe of the axes
coordinate
rotation of theof one observer
system.
axes of On one the with
otherrespect
observer hand
with to the to the
,these
respect
Self-Instructional Material 29
other
other would
would not
not lead
leadnot to
to lead an
an oblique
oblique coordinate
coordinate system.
system.system. On the
Oncoordinate
the Onother
other hand
hand ,these
,these
rotations other would would now be concernedto an with
oblique onlycoordinate
rectangular the system.
other The ,these
hand
rotations
antage ofrotations the would
transition
would now
now from be
be concerned
the form
concerned with
(16.17)
with only
only to rectangular
the
rectangular coordinate
coordinate system.
system. The
The The
Lorentzrotations transformation would would
now betherefore,
concerned become with linear
only orthogonal.coordinate system.
rectangular
Lorentz transformation would therefore, become linear orthogonal.
e rotationLorentzof theLorentz transformation
axes oftransformation
one observer would therefore, with respect
would become
therefore, linear orthogonal.
tobecome
the linear orthogonal.
n oblique coordinate system. On the other hand ,these
349
 Confining ourselves to the case of homogeneous transformation i.e. those not
Confining ourselves to the case of homogeneous transformation i.e. those not
involving
with onlyany any
rectangular displacement of the origin, weLorentz
cantransformation
write
tocoordinate system. weThe transformation
i.e.wouldthose therefore,
Electrodynamics and involving displacement
Plasma Physics
Confining
Confining ourselves
ourselves to theofcase
the the
case origin,
of
of homogeneous
homogeneous can write transformation i.e. those not
not
become linear
involving any 4orthogonal. of the origin, we can write
displacement
involvingxany 
4 displacement of the origin,where we cani =write 1,transformation
Confining xi iourselves
Confining aikaxikk xkto the
44 ourselves to the casecaseof where i = 1, 2, 3,
homogeneous
of homogeneous 42,transformation
3, 4 i.e. those
i.e. those not involving not
i  1
 
i 1 4
x   a x where i = 1, 2, 3, 4
the 
NOTES involving
any displacement xiiiany displacement
aikikik of
xkkk the origin, of the we origin,
canwhere write wei = can1, 2,write3, 4
Where the
Where ai11ik1aare
ii 
ik are the the coefficientcoefficient of of
our our transformation,
transformation, geometrically
geometrically the the
4
Where
Where xthe
coefficient
coefficient  aikaaaikikikmay
i 
the are
may
ikaare
bethe be where
ik xk the coefficientwhere
coefficient
understood
understood i = 1, as 2, 3, of
the
of our
as4 cosine
the transformation,
ouri =cosine1,of2,the3,ofangle
transformation, 4 the angle geometrically
between the xi -axis
between
geometrically the
the
the xi -axis
coefficient
and
and thethe xkx-axis. a-axis.
i 1 may InInview beview understood
of the of the veryasvery the nature
nature cosineof theof the
theangle
ofcoordinate coordinate between
(16.18) the
and -axis(16.19),
xxiiand
the(16.19),
(16.18)
coefficient ka ik may be understood as the cosine the angle between i -axis
ik
ik
the
andcoefficients
and
Where the
theWhere xxkk -axis.
the athe In
aaik a(p,q=1
view
are theof ,2,coefficient
the 3, 4) 3,and
very 4)natureofa44our must
aof be
the real,bewhile
coordinate
transformation, the coefficients
(16.18)
real,geometrically and (16.19),
the a p 4 the a
coefficient
the coefficients k -axis. ik are In pqview
the
(p,q=1 coefficient
of ,2,
the very of
and
nature our 44 must
of transformation,
the coordinate while
(16.18)geometrically
the
andcoefficients
(16.19),
pq
p4
and
the amay
coefficient
the 4q must
aikcoefficients
coefficients be
beaunderstood maypurely
aapq (p,q=1
be
(p,q=1 imaginary.
as the
understood,2,
,2, 3,
3, 4)
cosine4) and
as
and ofthe athe
a must
anglebe
cosine
must be ofreal,
between the
real, while
the xthe
angle
while the coefficients
-axis
 between and the
coefficients the xxakapp-axis.
-axis In
and a4q mustik be purely pq
pq imaginary. 44 44
44 i
i p4
44

and
view
and
Our 4q
4q
ofmust
aaproblem the very
must bebe now purely
nature
purely consists imaginary.
and the4q xk -axis. In view of the very nature of the coordinate (16.18) and (16.19), 3,
of theincoordinate
imaginary. studying (2.18)
the and (2.19),
question of the the coefficients
invariance apqof(p,q=1,2,
the
Our
4) and problem a44 must now
be real, consists whileinthein studying ap4question theandquestion
a4q of ofinvariance
the invariance of the
quantity.
Our
the
Our problem
coefficients
problem now
now a pq (p,q=1 consists
consists ,2,in3, studying4)coefficients
and a44the
studying the must be real,
question
must
of the
whilethe
be purely
the imaginary.
coefficients
invariance of
of the
the ap4
quantity.
and a4qOur
quantity.
quantity.  Smust 2 problem now consists in studying the question of the invariance of the quantity.
xbe i xi
purely xixi imaginary. (16.21)
Underproblemthe S 22
2
SS 2transformations
xx x  x
xii i xxiconsists x  x  ...(2.21)
xi i x ina studying (16.21) (16.21)
Our ik xk , i = 1, 2the , 3, question
4 (16.22)
ii now iixiii of the invariance (16.21)of the
  i xii i
Under
Under
Under the
quantity.
SubstitutingUnder
thethetransformations
transformations
the transformations
(16.22)
transformations in (16.21) xxii xwe xikixak ik,axiikk=x,1,
ia i, =i =1,1,3,22,44, 3,3, 4 
xkk , i = k1, 22 ,, 3,
aikikget
4 (16.22)(16.22)
(16.22) ...(2.22)
i

SubstitutingSubstituting (2.22) in (2.21) we get

Substituting
Substituting Sxi2xi (16.22) i(16.22)
x(16.22)
 xaiik xk xin xaiin
iin xl(16.21)
(16.21)
il(16.21)  we wewe get get
get (16.21)
Under the xi aikika xikxakkkikx
xxxii xxtransformations
i i ii i   aik ak il
aailil a xxl xxx a x , i = 1, 2 , 3, 4
il xlkil
l lli ik k (16.22)
When a comparison
Substituting (16.22)   aikikikof
a a ailxkkk xxlllk xlwe on
x
ainaikilililcoefficients
(16.21) x
getthe two sides gives
When aaxaacomparison
ail akl x 
acomparison of coefficients on
on the onontwo thesides gives (16.23)
l
When When comparison
ix
ik comparison
i ik k
ofaof coefficients
il xcoefficients
of coefficients the two
the sides
twotwo sidesgivesgives
sides gives
Here,  klaaaikikisikaaathe  well klkl ...(2.23) (16.23)
ilil 
ik il   kl ik il
il
 aknown
kl a  xkKronecker xl delta symbol (16.23)(16.23)
Here, aHere,
Here,
When
Here,
isthe
klklcomparison
klklklisisthe
1 klwell
thewell wellknown
is the known
ofifknown
well k = known
coefficients lKronecker
Kronecker
Kronecker ondelta
Kronecker delta symbol
thedelta symbol
two deltasidessymbol
symbol gives
klkl =0 11 if k = l
aikklail 1 kl ififkif k=ll
k = l (16.24)
(16.23)
kl
=0
=0 well(16.23) if
if k arek  l
l ...(2.24) (16.24)
Here, Condition
kl is the =0 known if k Kronecker
l
the so called delta symbol orthogonality conditions which (16.24)our
coefficients Condition
Condition of (16.23)
transformation
(2.23) are are the the
must
so calledso
satisfy called in
orthogonalityorthogonality
order that S 2 be
conditions conditions
invariant,
which our which
they our
also
coefficients
(16.24) of
Condition
 kl  1 (16.23) if k = l are the so called orthogonality conditions which our
imply
coefficientsthat
transformation
coefficients Condition theof must (16.23)
transformation
of transformation
transformationsatisfy in order are under
must
must the
that Sso
satisfy
satisfy 2 becalled
considerationin orderorthogonality
in order
invariant, are
theyorthogonal,
that
that S 2 be
22
Salso conditions
invariant,
beimply i.e.thethey
that
invariant, the which our
ones
also
transformation
they also
=0 if k  l
among
imply
under that
coefficients
imply rectangular
consideration
that the
theoftransformation coordinates.
transformation
transformation are orthogonal, These
under
under musti.e. conditions
consideration
the ones
satisfy
consideration inare,
among
order arein orthogonal,
are all ,tenS 2inbe number,
rectangular
that
orthogonal, i.e. the(16.24)
the
coordinates.
invariant,
i.e. four
ones
ones they These
also
conditions
for
amongk = and
rectangular
l are, six in all,ten
for coordinates.
k  in
l number,
,consequently, These four fortheyk
conditions = l and
leave six
are,for for the
in k
all l,consequently,
sixteen
,ten in coefficients
number, they a leave
four for
amongCondition
imply that
rectangular the transformation (16.23)
coordinates. are the These so conditions
under called orthogonality
consideration are, in all are,ten conditions
orthogonal,
in number, which i.e.fourikthe our ones
the
for sixteen
kk == llrectangular and coefficients
six for aik six
asll ,consequently, degree of freedom,
they as it must be for the case of homogeneousaaikik
six
for degree
coefficients
among andofoffreedom, six forkkcoordinates.
transformation it,consequently,
must must beThese for the
satisfy they inleave
caseleave of for
order
conditions the
forthattheSsixteen
homogeneous
are, sixteen
2
in coefficients
transformation.
coefficients
beallinvariant,
,ten in they number, also four
ik
transformation.
From
six (16.22)
degree of , freedom, From
(16.23) (2.22),
and as it(16.24) (2.23)
must we
be and for (2.24)
obtainthe casewe obtain
of homogeneous transformation.
six degree
imply
for k that= l and of
thefreedom, for kasitl ,consequently,
transformation
six mustunder be forconsideration
the case theyofleave homogeneous
arefor orthogonal, transformation.
the sixteen i.e.coefficients
the ones aik
From
From (16.22)
a
(16.22) x   ,,a (16.23) 
(16.23) a x and

and (16.24)
(16.24) we
we obtain
obtain
among
six degree rectangular
ik i of freedom, ik coordinates.
il l as it must Thesebeconditions for the case are,ofinhomogeneous
all ,ten in number, transformation. four
for laaikikikand
k =(16.22) xxa six
ii  aaikik for
xaal ilililkxxlll kl land
xl,consequently, they leave for the sixteen coefficients aik
From i ik a,ilik(16.23)  x(16.24)
k we obtain
six degree
k = 1,2,3,4  of freedom, as it must be for 350the case of homogeneous transformation.
...(2.25)
aik xi  aik  ail xl  350
From (16.22) , (16.23)
which are the transformations inverse and (16.24) we obtain
350 to the former ones. The invariance of (2.21),

ik  ail xl 
aik xi  aunder
when required the transformation (2.25) leads to the orthogonality conditions.
350
aik ajk  ij...(2.26)
350
30 Self-Instructional Material
 which are the transformations inverse to the former ones. The invariance of
(16.21),
arewhen
(16.21), when required
requiredunder thethetransformation
underinversetransformation(16.25)
ones.leads
(16.25) Theto
leads tothe orthogonality
which
(16.21), the
when transformations
required under to the former
the transformation (16.25) leads thetheorthogonality
toinvariance orthogonality
of
conditions.
conditions.
(16.21), when required under the transformation (16.25) leads to the orthogonality
conditions.
conditions.aikaaikjka jk ij ij (16.26)
(16.26)
aik a jk   ij (16.26)
a a
These conditions,  (16.26)
however, are not materially different from those embodied in
These conditions, however, are not materially different from those embodied in
ik jk
Theseconditions,
ij
conditions,however,
however,
These
(16.23)
(16.23) areare
notnot materially
materially different
different fromfrom
thosethose embodied
embodied in in
(16.23)
(16.23)
From These conditions, however,
thethetransformation are not
coefficients aikamaterially
we differentthe
can construct from those embodied in (2.23)
determinant Special Theory
From
From the transformation
transformation coefficients
coefficients a ik we can construct the determinant
we can construct the determinant of Relativity
From the transformation
From coefficients
the transformation aik weik can
coefficients aik construct the determinant
we can construct the determinant
a11a11a12a12a13a13a14a14
a11
a11aa12aaa1213aaa1314 aa14
a21 22a22 23a23 24a24
a
 a aika
 a21
a22aa2223aa2324a24
ika21 21
(16.27)
(16.27) NOTES
a a
a a a31a31a32a32a33a33a...(2.27)
ik ik
a34
34 (16.27)
(16.27)
a31a31
a aa32 aa33 a34
a41a3241a42a3342a43a3443a44a44
a41a41
a42aa4243aa4344a44
For the evaluation of this determinant, let us consider its square :
ForFor
For theevaluation
thethe evaluation
evaluation
For the evaluation of of ofthis
this thisthis
determinant,
of determinant,
determinant, letlet
let us
determinant, usletusconsider
consider consideritsitssquare
its square
us consider
square: : :
its: square
2 2
a a a aa a (16.28)
(16.28)
a 2a2 ailaililikailikik ik ...(2.28) (16.28)
(16.28)
Of course if we write one of the two factor determinants with its rows and columns
Ofcourse
course
Of if
OfOfcourse ifweifwewrite
course weifwrite
write
we oneof
onewrite
of
one ofthe
one
the the
two twofactor
oftwo
the factor
two
factor determinants
factor itswith
determinants
determinants withwith
determinants itsrows
with
rows
its rows andcolumns
its columns
and rows
and columns
and columns
interchanged
interchanged
interchangedit it it would
it would not make
not make any
anyquantitative difference
quantitative difference to the
to result.
the Equation
result. Equation
interchanged
interchanged it would
wouldnotnot
would make
make
not make anyany quantitative
quantitative
any difference
difference
quantitative totothe
to the
difference theresult.
result. Equation
Equation(2.28)
Equation
result.
(16.28) would,
(16.28) would,
would,would,
(16.28) however, however,
however,
become become
become
(16.28) would,however,however, become
become
 aorilaaaklilaaailklakl  ...(2.28)’
2 2
a 2a a a aaikaikor
a2 aliaaliikalior or
(16.28)’
(16.28)’
(16.28)’
(16.28)’
li ik il kl
Which
Which onon
Which onmaking
Which useuse
making
on makinguseofofthe
use ofconditions
the (16.23)
conditions
the (16.23)
conditions oror(16.26)
or(2.23) givesgives
or(16.26)
(2.26) gives
Which onmaking
making of
use the
of conditions
the (16.23)
conditions (16.23) (16.26)
or (16.26) gives
2a
a
2
a 2
2

ik ik
 1 11 ...(2.29) (16.29)
(16.29)(16.29)
a ik
ik
1 (16.29)
Thus
Thus thevalue
theThus
Thus value oftheofthe
ofvalue ofdeterminant,
determinant, isa isequal
a isaequal either
either +1toor
to+1to
toeither +1or+1or-1.or-1.-1.
-1.
Thus thethevalue
value
the
of thethe determinant,
the determinant,
determinant, a equal
is equaleither
a is equal either to +1 or -1.
16.6
16.6
16.6
16.6 Illustrative
Illustrative
16.6Illustrative
16.6 Examples
Examples
Illustrative Examples
Examples
Illustrative
Illustrative Examples
Examples
2.7 16.6ILLUSTRATIVE
Illustrative Examples EXAMPLES
Example
Example
Example 16.116.1
16.1If If(Ifxy,,(yxz,(, xzyt),,,tyz)be
be )the
t ) tbe coordinates
the coordinates of an ofofevent
aninaneventin S-frame
inand and zand
inS-frame
(x ‘, y ‘,and
Example
Example 2.1
16.1 If ( x, y, z,, zt ),the
If (x, bebecoordinates
thethecoordinates
coordinates
of an event
of an 
event
S-frame
event in S-frame
S-frame and‘, t ‘)
( xbe
( ',x(',ythe
',
y z
',',
z t ')
', tbe
')
x ', ycoordinates be thethe
', z ', t ') be thecoordinates
coordinates
coordinates of the
of
same eventofin the same
the sameevent in
event
sameevent S
in
eventinmoves-frame
S  -framewhich
 -frame
inS S-frame moves
which
relative which moves
moves
( x ', y ', to
relative
relative z ', tS-frame
to S-frame
of the
') be the with coordinates
with a uniform
a uniform theSvelocity
of velocity -frame
same v
which
along
v x-direction.
along x-direction.Show
to S-frame
which that
Show moves with a
that
relativevelocity
uniform
relative to S-framev along with a uniform
x-direction. Showvelocity
that ds v dx
2 along
2  dyx-direction.
2  dz  c dtShow
2 2 that
2 is invariant
2 to S-frame with 2 a uniform velocity v along x-direction. Show that
2 c2 dt2 is 2invariant under Lorentz Transformation.
2 2 2 2
dsunder 2 2dx  2 dy 2 dz 
dsds  dx dx dy
Lorentz 2
 dy  dz c cdtdtis is
 dz
Transformation.
2 2 2 invariant
invariantunder underLorentz
LorentzTransformation.
Transformation.
ds 2  dx 2  dy 2  dz 2  c 2 dt 2 is invariant under Lorentz Transformation.
Sol.
Sol. Using
Using thetheLorentz
Lorentz transformation
transformation equations in differential
equations inin
differentialformform
Sol. Sol.Sol. Using
Using
Using the Lorentz
thetheLorentz
Lorentz transformation
transformation
transformation
equations
equations
equations
differential
inindifferential
differential form
form
form
dx ' vdt '
dx  , dy dy
 ', dz351 dz '
2 351
351
1 v 2 351
c
v
dt   dx
dt  c2 Where velocity v is constant
2
1 v 2
c
 ds 2  dx 2  dy 2  dz 2  c 2 dt 2
2 2
   v 
 dx ' v dt'   dt ' 2 dx ' 
2 2 2 c
 
2   dy '  dz '  c  2

 1 v 2   1 v 2 
 c   c 
1  2 v2 
 dx  v dt  2vdx dt  c dt  4 dx  2vdx ' dt '  dy   dz 
    
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
 2
1 v  c 
c2



dx2 1  v
2

c   dy  dz  c dt  
2
2 2
1 v 
c2 2
2
2
Self-Instructional Material 31

2 2
1 v 2 1 v
c c2
 dx  dy2  dz2  c 2 dt 2  ds2
2

Thus ds 2 is invariant under Lorentz transformation.

    v 
 dx ' v dt'  2 2 2
 dt ' c 2 dx ' 
 
2   dy '  dz '  c  2

 1 v 2   1 v 2 
 c   c 
1  2 v2 
 2  dx   v 2
dt  2
 2 vdx dt   c 2
dt  2
 4
dx2  2vdx ' dt '  dy 2  dz 2
1 v  c 
c2

 c   dy  dz  c dt  
1 v 
Electrodynamics and 2 2
Plasma Physics dx2 1  v 2 2
 2 2 c 2 2
2 2
1 v 1 v
c2 c2
NOTES  dx2  dy2  dz2  c 2 dt 2  ds2
Thus ds 2dsis2 invariant
Thus under
is invariant Lorentz
under transformation.
Lorentz transformation.
16.7Self
16.7 SelfLearning
LearningExercise
Exercise
2.8 RELATIVISTIC EQUATION OF MOTION MINKOWSKI
FORCESection A: Very Short Answer Type Questions
Q.1 What is Inertial frame?
We know that Newton’s equation of motion is invariant with respect to the Galilean
Q.2 Write down
transformations but Relativistic
are not invariant equation
underof Lorentz
motion?transformations. Thus in order to make
in in
orderorder Section
Newton’s tosecond
make B:Short
law conform
Newton’s Answer
second Type
to Einstein’s
law Questions
conformprinciple
to of relativity,
Einstein’s principle we of have to seek its
relativity,
order to to make
ingeneralization. makeHowever, Newton’s
Newton’sthese second
second law
law
generalized
conform
conform to
to
equations
Einstein’s
Einstein’s
must
principle
principle
reduce to the
of
of relativity,
relativity,
following Newtonian
in we
we Q.3
order
havehave State
to to make and
toseek seekexplain
Newton’s
its the
secondfundamental
itsgeneralization.
generalization. law conform postulates
However,
However, of generalized
these
to Einstein’s
these special theory
generalized
principle of ofequations
relativity.
relativity,
equations must
must
we have
equation
to seek its generalization.
v Newtonian
c
However, these generalized equations must
we reduce
reducehavetoProvetointhethefollowing
seek limit
itsthree
generalization. equation
However, in the generalized
these limitv 
v  cequations must
reduceQ.4 to the
the followingthat
following Newtonian
dimensional
Newtonian equation
volume
equation in the
the limit
inelement v  ccis not Lorentz invariant
limitdxdydz
reduce tobut the following Newtonian equation in thedxdydzdt
limit v  c
dd d four ( mv
dimensional
)  F
volume
...(2.30)
element is Lorentz Invariant.(16.30)
d ((mv
dt mv i)) i Fi i

 F (16.30)
(16.30)
16.8
16.8
dt
dt Relativistic
(mvii)  Fi i
dt Relativistic
Equation
Equation of Motion
ofequation
Motion Minkowski
Minkowski Force (16.30)
Force
The Thefour four
The dimensional
dimensional
four dimensional generalization
generalization
generalizationof of
equation (16.30)
(16.30)
of equation is
(2.30)is isobviously.
obviously.
obviously.
The four dimensional
The four dimensional generalization
generalization of equation (16.30) is obviously.
We know
  d pd p
  that Newton’s of equationof(16.30)
equation motionisisobviously.
invariant with respect to the
Galilean d p Where but
Ftransformations Where
1, 2,not
are 3,4 1,3,
1,2, 2,43, under
invariant 4 Lorentz transformations. (16.31)...(2.31)
F
F 
F  d dpd  Where
Where
Where 

 
1,1,
 2,2,
3, 3,
44 (16.31) Thus
(16.31)
(16.31)
dd

 
 isthethe
 is properproper time,
time, 
P P isfour
isfour four momentum
momentum 352 of particle and F is a force four-
of ofparticle and F
 is the is the proper
proper
proper time,time,
time, PPisisP  is momentum
four four momentum
momentum particle
ofofparticle
particleandandand FF ais
F is
aaa force
isisforce force
force four-
four-
four- vector
four-
vector
vector knownknown as as Minkowski
Minkowski force.
force.
vector
known
vector known
knownas Minkowskias Minkowski
as Minkowski force.force.force.
dP dP dPdP ds ds ds dP

F F  dP
dP
  
u   dP
dP 
u
 ds
. ds.  udsds
ds dPdP
dP 
u . . ...(2.32)(16.32)
(16.32)
F 

uu dt dt u u 
u u
ds .
ds. dt 
dt 
u .
u dt .
dt ds ds (16.32)
(16.32)
dt
dt dsds dtdt dtdt dsds
The
The interval
interval between
between two
two events
events in in four-dimensional
the four-dimensional space
The
The interval between
between
The interval two
twoevents
twoin
events
between inthethe four-dimensional
the in
events four-dimensional space
space
space space
the four-dimensional
2 2  22 c 222dt 2 2dx
2ds 2 2 2 dy
2 2  2 2
2 dz
ds
ds 2 ccc 2dt
ds dt
dt 2 
dxdx
dx 2 dy dzdz
dy 2
dy dz 2
2 22 2dx
2 2
2  
2 2
 dx
dx 
22
2  dy
 dy
dy 22
 2 
 dz  2dz
dz 
 dt c dx
22
   dy
   dz   
dt 2 ccc 2
 dt  dt  dtdt
 dt dt  dtdt
 dt 
  dt
dt   dt   dt   

dt 22dtc2 22c 2uux2x22ux2uu
22 2 2 2 2 
uuy uzz2 u z 
 dt 2 cc 2 
  u x  uy 2yy   u z 
22 222 2 22 2
 dt 2dt [c 2[c  uu2]u] ]
 dt
 dt [c[c  u ]
22 2 uu 2u
22 2
 ds 2 2 2
c dt 1
1    Where 1 1
 uu  1
 2dsc 2 dt c 2dt 1u2  2  Where 1
2 2
 ds
 ds c dt 1     c  Where
Where  u  u 2 u 22 u 2
  cc 2c 
2 u
1 1 12 u
1c c 22 c 2...(2.33)
c
2
 ds 2 2
 2  cc 22 c
 ds 2 2 ds dsc c
 

 ds
ds    c
 SoSoSods ds cc
 dt    
  2
2
So dt u 
dt dt   2 dt
dt  uu u
2
u
dt
 dt   uu u
ds
32 Self-Instructional Material   u ds ds  c (16.33)(16.33)
 u dt
 ds
u  c c (16.33)
  u dt dt  c (16.33)
dt
From equations (16.32) and (16.33) we have
From equations
From (16.32) and (16.33) we have
From equations
equations

(16.32)
d (16.32)

and
and (16.33)
(16.33) we
we have
have
F  c d Pd  (16.34)
F F cds
F  c ds P
dc P P (16.34)
(16.34)
(16.34)
We know that ds
ds
  dt cc 
 dt  uu xx   uu zz 
 uu yy 
2 22 2
dt 2 [c
 dt
 [c  uu 2 ]]
22 
1  uu 2 
2
ds 22 22
Where 11
  c dt
 ds c dt 1  22  Where  uu 
 cc  uu 22
11 
 22
cc
2 Special Theory
 ds 2
ds  cc 22 ds
ds  cc of Relativity

    So
So 
dt  uu
2
dt   uu2
 dt dt
ds
ds 
  uu
 cc
 (16.33)
(16.33) NOTES
dt
dt
From equations
From equations (16.32)(2.32)
(16.32)
From equations and (16.33)
and (16.33) we have
we
and (2.33) have
we have
 dd 
F  cc P
F  P  (16.34)
(16.34) ...(2.34)
ds
ds
We know
We know that
We that
know that
 dx dx 353
P m dx m0 u dx 353
P m 0
0 d m0 u dt
d dt
  dx 
So P  m0c  dx  (16.35)
So P  m0c  ds  (16.35)
 ds  ...(2.35)
From
From equations
equations (16.34) and
and (16.35)
(16.34)(2.34)(16.35) we
we have
have
From equations and (2.35) we have
 d dx 
F  c d  m0c dx  (16.36)
F  c ds  m0c ds   (16.36) ...(2.36)
ds  ds 
Thus
Thus equation (16.36)
Thus equation
equation is
is the
theisfundamental
(16.36)(2.36) relativistic
the fundamental
fundamental equation
relativistic
relativistic of
of motion.
equation
equation of motion.
motion.
16.9
16.9 Applications
Applicationsof Energy-Momentum Conservation
16.9
2.9 Applicationsofof
16.9Applications
APPLICATIONS Energy-Momentum
ofEnergy-Momentum
Energy-Momentum Conservation
Conservation
Conservation
OF ENERGY-MOMENTUM
CONSERVATION
ItIt is
is proposed
proposed to to treat
treat the
the application
application of of the
the energy
energy momentum
momentum conservation
conservation
in the
inItthe following
is following
proposed to two problems:
twotreat the of the energy momentum conservation in the following two
problems:
problems:(1)
(1) Kinematics
Kinematics of of decay
decay products
products of of an
an unstable
unstable particle.
particle.
(2)
(1) Centre
Kinematics ofofmomentum
decay products system
(2) Centre of momentum system and Threshold energy. and
of an Threshold
unstable energy.
particle.
Let (2) Centre of momentum system and Threshold energy.
Let us take these
us take these applications
applications one one by by one
one ::
(1)Decay Letof usantake these applications
Unstable Particle one by one : (1)Decay of an Unstable Particle In particle
(1)Decay of an Unstable Particle
physics, the study of decay process of unstable particles constitutes an intensive field of
In particle
Inresearch.
particle In physics,
physics,
order to
the study
study of
theillustrate ofthedecay
decay process
process
method,
of
of unstable
unstable
we consider
particles
particles
the two
constitutes
body constitutes
decay of anan
anunstable
intensive
particle at
intensive field
rest.of
field research.
ofThese In
In order
order to
are exemplified
research. tobyillustrate the
theofmethod,
the decay
illustrate charged we
method, consider
meson’s
we  , the
consider K ,two
the hyperons
two
body
 etc.
body decay
decay of
A charged an unstable
of an pi-meson
unstable particle
decays into
particle at rest. These
a  meson
at rest. are
These and exemplified
neutrino. by the decay of
are aexemplified by the decay of
charged meson’s

charged meson’s 
   v   
, K 
, hyperons  etc. A charged pi-meson decays into
  , K  , hyperons  etc. A charged pi-meson decays into a ...(2.37)
a 
meson and
and aa neutrino.
meson Experimentally neutrino. it found that the rest energy of  is 139.6 MeV and that of   
105.7MeV . The
     rest
v mass of neutrino is zero. (16.37)
   v (16.37)
Thus the energy balance for the decay is 33.9 MeV. This energy is to be shared between
Experimentally
Experimentally itit found
found that
that the
the rest
rest energy
energy of of   is
is 139.6
139.6 MeV
MeV and and that
 products. Let us treat the kinematics of decay through the use of the energy-momentum
the that of
of
   105.7 MeV . The rest mass of neutrino is zero.
 105.7 MeV . The rest mass of neutrino is zero.
conservation.
Thus
Thus the
Letenergy
the the restbalance
energy mass offor
balance thethe
for decay
unstable
the is
is 33.9
33.9 beMeV.
decayparticle m and
MeV. This energy
those
This of theis
energy to
to be
be shared
isproducts m1 and m2.
shared
between the
Definingthe
between products.
theproducts. Let
excess ofLetmassus treat
treatasthe kinematics of decay through the use of the
us m the kinematics of decay through the use of the
energy-momentum conservation.
energy-momentum conservation. Self-Instructional Material 33
Let
Let the
the rest
rest mass
mass of
of the
the unstable
unstable particle
particle be
be m
m and
and those
those of
of the products m
the products and m
m11 and m22
.. Defining
Defining the
the excess
excess of
of mass
mass m as
m as
m  m  (m1  m2 ) (16.38)
m  m  (m  m ) 1 2 (16.38)
354
354
 From equation (16.38) it clear that such a spontaneous decay is possible only if the
From equation
mass mexcess (16.38) itpositive.
clear that suchthe a spontaneous
decay takesdecay placeis possible
rest, theonly if theparticles
Electrodynamics and From equation
m (m1 is
(16.38) m it2clear
)...(2.38) Since
that such a spontaneous decay isatpossible onlydecay
if the
Plasma Physics mass equation
From excess is(16.38) positive. it Sincethat
clear thesuch decay a takes place
spontaneous atrest,
 decay the decayonly
 ispossible particles
if the
mass excess
must have
From is positive.
equation equal (2.38) andSince
itopposite
clear thethat decaysuchtakes
momenta a i.e.place
spontaneous
 p1  at rest,
 pdecay
2  pthe decay only
is possible particles
if the mass
must have
mass excessequal and opposite
is positive. Sincemomenta the decay i.e. takes  
ppp111   
ppp222 
place
   
atpp rest, the decay particles
must have equal and opposite momenta takesi.e. 11  atrest, 22  p get
p1p =  p2p =ofppenergy we get
excess is positive.
According toSincethe lawtheofdecay conservation place of 
energy the
we decay particles must have equal
must have
According
and opposite
equal
to the and
momentalaw opposite
of momenta
conservation of i.e.
energy p  we p get  p
NOTES According to the law
2 2
of i.e. conservation
2 4
1 2

According
According to
22 22
the c
law
to
p
22 the
of 
144 law m c
1 22of
conservation c 2 22pof
22conservation
2
m22of
244 energy c422 energy
 2
wemcgetwe get (16.39)
ccc222 ppp111222  m m11222cc 444   cc 222 pp222  m m222 cc444  mc 222
mc (16.39)
(16.39)
 m111 c  c pthis 2  m22 c  mcfind the magnitude of momentum (16.39) p and the
2 112We can 2 4 utilize 2 22 result
2 4 tomc 2
We c p
can 
1 utilize m c this c p
result  mto c 
2 find the magnitude of momentum p and the (16.39)
We
We can
energy canofutilize decaythis
1
utilize result
particles.
this
2
result For to
to find this the
find we can
the magnitude
...(2.39)
make use
magnitude of
of of momentum
the invariance
momentum pp and
andof the
the scalar
the
energy Weof
product decay
can particles.
utilize
ofparticles.
twothis this For
result
four-vectors. this towe find can make
the use
magnitude of theof invariance
momentum of the
p scalar
and the
energyWe of decay can utilize For to
result thisfindwethecanmagnitude
make useofofmomentum the invariance p and of
thethe scalar
energy of decay
product
energy of of two
decay four-vectors.
particles. For this we can make use of the invariance of the scalar
product
particles.
The of For two conservationfour-vectors.
this we can make of energy use ofand the momentum
invariance ofinthetwo scalarbodyproduct
decayofcan
two befour-vectors.
expressed
product
The The
of
conservation two
conservation
four-vectors.
of energy
of energy and momentum in two body decay can be expressed
through
The conservation a four-vector
of energy and and
equation. momentum
momentum in intwo twobody bodydecay decay cancan be
beexpressed
expressedthrough
through
The
through a
conservation four-vector
aa four-vector  of  equation.
energy  and momentum in two body decay can be expressed
a four-vector
through  four-vector

equation.
p  
p1equation.  p2 
equation. (16.40)
through p 
afour-vector
p  
p11  p22 equation.

(16.40)
  p111p , pp1222 and
Where ...(2.40)
p2  stand for the unstable particle, the decay (16.40) (16.40)
particle no. 1 and
p

Where Where p
p , p11p1and  p 2p2  stand for the unstable particle, the decay particle no. 1 and
Where decay p , p111particle

, p1 pand
and
2  stand
no.
22  p22respectively.
stand
for the for the unstable
unstable
We particle,
getparticle, thethedecay decayparticle
particleno.
no.11 and
and decay
 2
Where
decay p
particle
particle
decay , p
no. 12no.
particle no.and 2 p
respectively. stand
respectively.
2 respectively. for
We getWe get the
We unstable
get particle, the decay particle no. 1 and
decay particle no.
p2 p2   p1
 2 respectively. We get (16.41)
decay particle
pp22   no.
p
p  2
  p11 prespectively.
 We get (16.41)
(16.41)
 ...(2.41)
 
andp222  forming

 p  pthe 11
1 Lorentz invariant of the 4-vectors on both sides (16.41)
p2
and forming the p  p
Lorentz invariant of the of 4-vectors on both (16.41)
and forming
and forming thep2Lorentz 1
the Lorentz
invariant invariant
of the the 4-vectors
4-vectors on both onsides
both sides
sides
.
 2 p  p . p   p .
1 1 p  p  .2 p 1 (16.42)
and formingp22  . pthe   p . p invariant
Lorentz  p11 . p11of  thep .24-vectors
p11  on both sides (16.42) ...(2.42)
p222  . p222 the
Putting
2
2 p . p ofpthese
values 11
1
. p1terms
 11
 p .2 p111 are invariants as
which (16.42)
Putting p
the . p
2  values  p
of . p  p . p  p .2 p (16.42)
Putting Putting
Putting the
the values
2 the values
values p2  .of
ofp these
these
these
 ofterms
 m
1 1which
these
terms
terms
2 2
c
terms which
which
which
are
are
are
1invariants
 are invariants
invariants
invariants
as
as
as
as
Putting the
pp22  values
.. pp22    ofm22222these
m cc 222 terms which are invariants as
2  22 2

pp2222  .. pp2222 pm m222 cc 2 2

1 . p2212 222 m1 c
pp21 .. pp12   mm c
c
m11222cc 22 2 2
2 2 (16.43)
pp1111 .. pp1111 p
 .m
mp2 1112c2 m c
...(2.43) (16.43)
pp1..pp1mm2221cc222 2 (16.43)
(16.43)
pp .. pp  p mm. p2c2
c  mE (16.43)
   2 12 1
ppp...ppp11   mmE
mE c 11
We p .knowp111  mE that111 the term p . p1 is also Lorentz invariant and in the rest frame
We know p .that p1 the  mE term pp .. pp11 is also Lorentz invariant and in the rest frame
We know
We know of that
m,
that its the
the term
space
term
1
part
p  . vanishes.
p 11 is
is Ealso
alsois Lorentz
the total
Lorentz invariant
energy
invariantofand in the
particle
and in theofrest frame
mass
rest mof1 .From
frame
We know that thepterm 

. p
1
p . p is also
1 Lorentz invariant and in the rest frame m, its
We
of
of know
m, its that
space the
part term vanishes. E
 is
1is
thealso Lorentz
total energy invariant
of and
particle
 1 E1 is the total energy of particle of mass m1 .From ofin the
mass rest
m frame
.From
m, its
m, itsequation
ofspace space
space
part vanishes equation (2.42)
part
(16.42)
part vanishes.
we
vanishes. get E
1
1
1
1 is the
we gettotal energy of particle of mass m
1
1
1
1 .From
equation
of m, its space
equation (16.42)
(16.42)part we2 vanishes.
2we
get
get 2 2 E21 is2 the total energy of particle of mass m1 .From
equation (16.42) m2we c getm c  m1 c  2mE1 which gives
equationm(16.42) 2c 22  mwe
22 22 22 22 get 22 22
2c 22  m122 c22  2mE1 which gives
m
m2222 cc22m2m 2c 2 2 m
22c222mE
c2m1 cm2111122cc22m mE1111 which
which gives
2 2
m
c 222  gives 2 2 m 22c 22  m222c 22  m12c 2  ...(2..44)
m22 c1222c m
E   122mc 22 c m 22m cc1222 c  2mE1 which gives m
and similarly E222 c2 222 m222 c 222  m1222 c 222 (16.44)
2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
m
m 2c 2  m 12 c 2  m2 2m m 2c 2  m 2c 2  m
2 2c
1m
E  m c  m c
m2 c2  m112 c2  m22 c2  m c and similarly E  m c  m c  m c 2
(16.44)
E
E11111  and similarly EEE22222  mm2cc2  mm222222m
and similarly c2  m112 c2 (16.44)
1 2 2 1
E m
 c usmobtain221 mc m m1 cT of (16.44)
Let 2 m
m 2 c expressions for the kinetic
the energies cT
m
m and the decay
E1  Let us obtain 2 m the expressions and similarly
for E2  energies2Tm and
the kinetic 1
Tthe the(16.44)
of2decay decay Products.
Let us obtain 2
the m expressions for the kinetic energies T 2
andm T of
Let us
us obtain the
the expressions
expressions for for the
the kinetic energies TT1111 and
kinetic energies and TT2222 ofof the
the decay
1 1 2 2
Let
Products
Now obtain . Now decay
Let us obtain the expressions for the kinetic energies355
T 1 and T 2 of the decay
2
T
355
1
355
E1  m1c
355
355
355 2 2 2 2 2 2
m c m c m c 2 355
T1  m1c 1 2
2m
m 2c 2  m12c 2  m22c 2  2mm1c 2

2m
34 Self-Instructional Material m 2  m12  m22  2mm1 2 ( m  m1 ) 2  m22 2
 T 1  c c
2m 2m

 ( m  m1  m2 )
 m  m1  m2  c2
2m
 2m  2m1  m  m1  m2 
 mc 2  
 2m
 Products
Products mE. 2Now
T.Now
Products c2 .m c22 c 2  m22c 2
m
Now
TT11 E 1  m1c21 2  m1c 2 Products . Now
T m cm 1
1 T1 2 E2 
c m 1c  m c 2m
12m 2c 2 22 2
1T E11 T 1 1 E11  m1c 2 2
 1 2 2 2 2 2 22 2 2 22 2  m1c 2 T E1  m1c2
m c 
2 m
m c 2 2mmc1 c2212m
2 c
2m
2
2 mc2 c2
2m c
222
m2 2c
2 mm
2 c22 2 1
T m c  m m c c   m m c c   m m 2 1c
c
T11 mT21c 2T1 m 2c122m m1c 2 21m c m c2
1 2

 2mm22c12 2mm
2 21 m 2 c 2  m12 c 2  m22c 2
12 m 2m 1c
1
 2 22 2 m  T 1  m1c 2
m mc  m c m
2 2 22 2 2 22 2 22 2
2m m  c2mm  212mm 21c (c
2 2
m  m2 1 )  m2 2
2 2 2 m
 m 2c 2m2 cmm121c22c2m21cm2m 2
c22c2m22c2m mm 222cmm
T 2 c1  2mm1c 2 2 c 2 2
1 
1
22 1
2 2 2
 22m 2 m 2mm 2m 2 m c 2  m c  m c  2mm c
m  m1  mm2  2m 2m1 c 2 ( m  m1 )  m2 c 2
1 2 1
T1  2m Special Theory
2m 2 1m 2 2 ( m( m
2 2 2 2m 2
mm
2
2 
m mm 2 2m1m
m 22m
1 2 2
2
22 mmm
1 2mm (cm21 2m 2m m
21m
2 2
) 1m
)mmm
2
2 2
mm 1 )( m )2222 2cm2 22
T ( mT  m  1m
1m
) m m 12 2c 221mm c cm22 m2 2
( m  m1 ) 2  m22 2
of Relativity
1 c 2  2 mm1 2
2m
T1 
1 1 T1 22 mm  m cm
 2 m  c 2 m2 m c
1
1
 ( m  m1  m22m)
 2
2m m
1 2
c 2 T
2m 1 2m  c c
2m 2m
2m  2m  2)mm m1)mmm2m1
m
1mmmm12m1m2m12m2c22m2 
 ((mm
(m
mc m ( m
mm m
1
) m 2 m ) cm c 2 c 2  ( m  m  m )  m  m1  m2  c 2
2
1 2 m2 21m  2m
1 2
2 m 2 mm 
1 22m m 1 2m 2 
 mc  
1 2
2m NOTES
22m
 2m  2m 2 m 2 2m
m
 m  m
 m m m  m2 

2 mc 2  2  m 2 m 2 m m 
2 mm  
m 1 2 2 1  2 m m  m  m
   1  1 1  2mm11 2  2 m  2 m1  m  m1  m2 
2 1 1
 
 mc
T1mc  mc
mc
1
(16.45)
 2  m21 m
T1 
2m 2m     mc 
mc 1  m  2m  2m 
(16.45)
  m m12m m 
T 2 2mc m1m2
2  m m 1m m  m m  (16.45)
SimilarlyT
 T11T
 1mc

mc 
T1mc  111m
112mc 122
    T1  mc2 1  1  (16.45) (16.45)
(16.46)(16.45) (16.45)
2    1m m m
m2 m
m2 2m  
mm 
 2m 2 m 
m  m 2m(16.46)
Similarly T2  mc 2
 ...(2.45)
 m 2m 
Similarly
Similarly  T   
2 2mc
m
m
2 mc 122 m2mmm
2 1  
2m
m m
 Similarly T2 
 m m 
(16.46)
 m
Similarly
Similarly
Here 
m is T
Similarly
Tthe 
22  2mc

excess T 1
mc2  1of mass, 
  ofmmass, m
m 2m2m
 2mmis the  relativistic mc 2 1  2 (16.46)
correction.  (16.46)
If
 mIf 2 is  m (16.46)
 is not ...(2.46) (16.46)
Here m is the excess 2 m is2the
m m  relativistic correction. 2m not
2mm 2mmm
negligible
Here Here
Here
 m
negligible as
is m
mthe
as iscompared
isexcess
thetheexcess
compared excess of to ofofunity,
mass,
to mass,
mass,
unity,
m then
m
then
is is
Here
the the
mthe
isthe the product
 particles
relativistic
relativistic
m
relativistic
product must
correction.
correction.
is relativistic
theparticles
excess ofmust
correction.
Ifmbe
mass,
If be treated
treated
is m
isisisthe
mnot not
not negligible correction. If m is not
relativistic
Here Here m is the
m is the excess of mass,2m 2m excess of mass, is the is the
relativistic correction.
correction. If Ifm 2m not
is is
not
relativistically 2 m 2m 2m 222m m
2m
relativistically
as
negligiblecompared
negligible toasunity,
asas compared
negligible compared
as compared then the
totounity, to product
to then unity, then
unity, thethen particles
negligible
product must
the product beparticles
treatedtorelativistically
as compared
particles particles
the product must bemust unity, bethentreated
must
treated
be treated the product particles must be treated
negligible
For example ,
relativistically Wecompared
can take the unity,
case of then
  the product particles must be treated
   v decay
 relativistically   v,we ,we have
For example
For
relativistically ,
example,We
relativistically
relativistically can
We take
can the case
take theof 
case  of   v decay
 have
decay,we have

 m
For For
example
For example , 139.6
m  example
We

139.6
 , can
 WeMeV
MeV
, can
take
We ,,m
take
m
the case
can take105.7
the105.7

 case
of
the MeV
 For
of
MeV
case and
example
 and
 of v
 m
 v,0We
mvdecay
v 0  v
decaycan
,we take,we
,we
have
decay thehave
have case of       v decay ,we have
For example , We can take the case of    m v decay 139.6
 ,we have
MeV , m 105.7MeV and mv  0

Therefore
 m
Thereforem139.6
from m 139.6

MeV
equation
from MeV
,
139.6 m
(16.45)
equationMeV, m105.7
,the
m 105.7
(2.45) MeV
kinetic
theMeV
105.7and and
m
energy
MeV
kinetic mof
0
and m
the
energy 0 
of meson
0the
 
 meson


Therefore  from
m 139.6

equation


 
MeV , m 105.7MeV and mv  0
  
 kinetic
 energyv of the v meson
v
 

Therefore from equation

from 105.7
105.7 (16.45)
33.9
33.9
Therefore
thekinetic energy fromof equation
the  (16.45) the kinetic energy of the  meson
  meson


Therefore from
Therefore
 33.9 equation (16.45)
equation the kinetic
(16.45) the energy
kinetic of the
energy ofmeson
the  
meson
ThereforeTT from33.9 11139.6
equation 
(16.45) the kinetic
2(139.6)
4.1
  4.1 MeV of the   meson
MeV
energy  105.7 33.9 
 139.6 2(139.6)
 105.7  105.7 33.9 
33.9   T  33.9 1    4.1MeV
  T33.9
T  T33.9 1105.7
1 33.9    33.9
 1  105.7  4.1
 4.1 MeV
 MeV 4.1MeV  139.6 2(139.6) 
ItItwas
wasItthe  
139.6 33.9 
2(139.6)  from meson
 meson
Tthe unique
unique value
value
 of the meson
meson kinetic
kinetic
 energy
energy(4.1
(4.1MeV)
MeV)from

  33.9
139.6 2(139.6)
139.6 2(139.6)
was 1  value
the unique of the    4.1kinetic
 meson MeV energy (4.1 MeV) from  meson decay
It was the unique value of  meson
themeson kinetic energy (4.1 MeV) from  meson
decay
decay thatunique
that
Itled
was ledPowell
led
the  139.6
Powell
unique and
and
value 2(139.6)
coworkers
coworkers ininkinetic
1947 1947
1947 totoenergy
thethe discovery
discovery ofof  meson through
through
 meson
Itthat
was the
ItPowell
was value
theandunique theof the
of value
coworkers ofmeson
inthe meson tokinetic
meson
decay the kinetic
that
energy
discovery
led (4.1
energy
Powell
(4.1
MeV)ofand MeV)
(4.1fromMeV)
 coworkers
meson from
 meson
from
through
in  meson
1947 the nuclear
to the discovery of  meson through
the
Itthe
decay nuclear
nuclear
was
decaythe
that emulsion
emulsion
unique
that
led led
Powell technique.
technique.
value
Powell
that ledand of
and the The
 mass
mass
meson
coworkers inof
of the
the
kinetic
1947 incoming
incoming
to energy
the particle
particle
(4.1
discovery MeV)

m
of is
m
 determined
is
from
meson 
determined meson
through
emulsion decaytechnique. Thecoworkers
Powell and of
mass in
the1947
coworkers to
in
incoming the
the nuclear1947 discovery
to
particle the
emulsion m of
discovery
is meson of
determined
technique.terms through
meson
The mass with through
the help
of the incomingof particle m is determined
thewith
with
decay the
the
the that
nuclear help
help
led
nuclear of
of equations
equations
Powell
emulsion
emulsion and
technique. (16.42)
(16.42)
coworkers
technique.The by
by
The putting
in
massThe putting
1947
mass of the
tothe values
the values
discovery
incoming of of different
of
particle 
different meson
m isterms from
determinedfrom
through
equations the(2.42)
nuclearbyemulsion
putting the technique.
values ofof the
mass
different
with incoming
the ofhelp
terms particle
theofincoming
from equation
equations is(16.42)
determined
mparticle m by is determined
(2.43) and evaluating
putting the values of different terms from
equation
equation
the with
nuclear (16.43)
the
(16.43)help
emulsion and
of
and evaluating
equations
evaluating
technique. the
(16.42)
the
The scalar
scalar
massby product
putting
product
of pp1 . pvalues
the
incoming . 2  inin
p theof
the
particlelab Frame.
different
lab mFrame.
is terms
determined from
with the
the scalar help of
withproduct equations (16.42) by
the help of equations (16.42)equation putting the
by putting values
1the2and
(16.43) of different
values terms
of different
evaluating from
the scalar terms from p1 . p2 in the lab Frame.
product
withequation
equation theequation
help
(16.43)(16.43)
ofand and and
equations evaluating
evaluating
(16.43) (16.42)
the thebyscalar
scalar
evaluating theputting
product product
scalar the
p .
product pp1 in
values . pp2the
of
.in
p the
labin lab
different
Frame.
the Frame.
lab terms
Frame. from
2 E1 E2  1 2 1 2 ...(2.47)
equation m 2 (16.43)
 m12  m and
2
2 evaluating
2
 2 pthe cos356
1 p2scalar  product p . p in the lab(16.47)
Frame. 356
c 356 1 2

However However
in a threeinora morethreebody or moredecay,body the 356
356 decay,356 the
resulting decayresulting
products decaydo not products
have do not have
unique momentum and are
unique momentum and are distributed in energy distributed in energy,but these decays
356 ,but these decays have some upper have some upper end points
endwhichpointspertain
whichto pertain
the maximum values of energy.
to the maximum values of These
energy. maximum These energies
maximumcan, however be
determined
energies in the manner
can, however as illustrated
be determined in thefor a two-body
manner as illustrateddecay.for a two-body
decay.
(2) Centre of momentum system and threshold energy
(2) Centre of momentum system and threshold energy
A common problem in nuclear or high energy physics is the study of scattering of a projectile
A common problem in nuclear or high energy physics is the study of
from a Target. Incident particle called projectile of mass m1, momentum p1 and energy E1 is
scattering of a projectile from a Target. Incident particle called projectile of mass
made to impinge on particle 2 called target of mass m2 at rest in the lab frame. The collision
mmay
1 , momentum
give rise to p1 elastic
and energy E1 is made
scattering whentothe impinge
incident on particle
particle2iscalled scatteredtargetatofa certain angle
mass m2 at rest
and target in theat lab
recoils some frame.
otherThe angle.collision may givetherise
By applying laws to elastic scattering of momentum
of conservation
when
and theenergyincident
this particle
processiscan scattered
be analyzedat a certainto have anglecomplete
and target recoils at some
information about the particles
other
involved. However, the collision could also give rise to a reaction resultingthis
angle. By applying the laws of conservation of momentum and energy in the production
process
of twocan or bemoreanalyzed
particlesto have complete
at least one of information
which is different about the from particlestheinvolved.
incident particles. The
However, the collision could also give rise to a reaction resulting in the production
of two or more particles at least one of which is different from the incident Self-Instructional Material 35
particles. The study of such problems many times becomes much easier if we
transform the energy and momentum of the interacting particles from Lab frame to
the centre of mass frame. This system called the zero momentum system has the
advantage that the projectile and target have equal and oppositely directed
momenta. Alternatively we can employ the concept of the invariance of the scalar
product of two four-vectors.
 mass m at rest in the lab frame. The collision may give rise to elastic scattering
2
other angle. By applying the laws of conservation of momentum and energy this
when the incident particle is scattered at a certain angle and target recoils at some
process can By
other angle. be analyzed
applying the to have
laws complete
of conservation information
of momentum about the andparticles
energy this involved.
However,
process canthe be collision
analyzed tocould havealso give information
complete rise to a reaction about the resulting
particlesininvolved.
the production
ofHowever,
two orthemore collisionparticles at least
could also onetoofa reaction
give rise which resulting
is different in thefrom the incident
production
particles.
of two orThe morestudy particles of suchat leastproblems
one of many which istimes becomes
different from much easier if we
the incident
transform
particles. The the energy
study ofand suchmomentum
problems many of the times interactingbecomes particles
much from
easierLabif weframe to
Electrodynamics and study of such problems many times becomes much easier if we transform the energy and
Plasma Physics transform
the centre of mass frame. This system called the zero momentum systemtohas the
the energy and momentum of the interacting particles from Lab frame
momentum of the interacting particles from Lab frame to the centre of mass frame. This
the centre ofthat
advantage mass frame. This system called
targetthe zero equalmomentum system has thedirected
system called thethezero projectile
momentum andsystem has have
the advantage andthatoppositely
the projectile and target
advantage Alternatively
momenta. that the projectile we canandemploy
target the haveconcept
equal of andtheoppositely
invariance directed
of the scalar
have equal and oppositely directed momenta. Alternatively we can employ the concept of
NOTES
momenta. Alternatively we can employ the concept of the invariance of the scalar
product of two four-vectors.
the invariance of the scalar product of two four-vectors.
product of two four-vectors.
Letus
Let
Let usconsider
us considerthe
consider theinvariant
the invariant
invariant scalar
scalar
scalar products
products
products ofofthe
of the thefour
four fourvectors
vectors vectors inthetheLab
in theinLab Laband the
C.M.
and systems, we get
and the C.M.systems,
the C.M. systems,wewegetget
(( pp11 pp2 2 ).().(p1p1 p2p )  (p p
 )2 (p1 1
p2  1).(p
2  ).(p p
 
12 ) p 2  )
...(2.48) (16.48)(16.48)
The The unprimed
The unprimed
unprimed quantities
quantities
quantities refertorefer
refer to
labthe
tothethe lab lab system.
system.
system. Where Where
Where the spatial
the
the spatialspatial momentum p2  0
momentum
momentum
ppand the primed
0 and quantities on the onright hand, pertain to the CMCM
22  and the primed quantities on the right hand, pertain to the CM system where
the primed quantities the right hand, pertain to the system where
system the total spatial
where
momenta p2'  0 . p  p 
p1 momenta
the
the total spatial
total spatial momenta 1 p 2 p 0 . 0.
1 2
PuttingPutting
Putting the the values of different
the values
valuesofofdifferent
different terms,
terms, weterms,
get getwe get
we
1 2 2 12
12  E1  or
m2c2E2 
2
2  22  2
2
1Ec1 2pE2 2
E   EE1  E2  2
2
2 p (16.49)
 oror  EE  mm cc c ccc pp 
c2 E  m c 1 m2pc 
EE EE  
c
1
 2
11 22 2 
22 2 2 221 22 2 
11 22
2
(16.49)
(16.49)
orEm  Ecmmcc c pcccppp E357
1
 Eor , The energy in the CM system is (16.49)
2 2
Putting
or E
1 121 12 2
2
2 2 242 2 22 222 22 2 
 EE 
E  EE...(2.49)
total
11 2
2
22
2
(16.49)
given
(16.49) by
111
EE 2 m c 2 2cc1 pp  , ,The
1
Putting
Putting
2
2 4 4 2
2 2 2 22 Thetotal
357 totalenergy
energyininthetheCM
CMsystem
system is given
is given by by
m 4cc E cpc pp 2, The
11 1 11
EEE E
E  m c  c p  , The
2 214 4
Putting
Putting
Putting
 
Putting 11E m
2 4 1 2 22
11 mc c
212 22 22
2  total energy in the CM system is given by
, total
The totalenergy
energyin
energy the
in
in CM
the
the CMsystem
CM is
system
system given
isis by
given
given by by
1
EE 1
 E1  E22 1
E EE EE m
EcE   m c  2m E  c
2 2 2 2 2
(16.50)
E E 1  E2
1 1 1 22 2 2 1
11
EE  menergies mm EEbe
c ...(2.50)
2 2
m cc mm
22 22
22
mc ccand 11 22
cdetermined
c (16.50)
(16.50)
EE    m
The separate  2
2 21 2

E    m c  m c  2m E  c
2 2 1 1 2 2 22 1c  m cE
2
2 2 2 2
 22mmEE can
1 2 
2
22 2 11
2 2112 from the scalar products
(16.50)
(16.50)
(16.50)
like
The separate1
p ( penergies
2
energies
p E pand
)Eand and EE
2 1
(p Ecan be
)bedetermined
pbe determined fromfrom thethe
scalar products
like likelike
EE
The
The separate
The separate
Theseparate
separate 1 energies
energies
1 2E
 1 and
and 11 1E21
E can
can
can 22 be can
be determined
2  determined
determined from
from from
the
the
the scalar
scalar
scalar scalar
products
products
products(16.51)
products
like
like
11 22
The separate energies
p ( p E
 pand) E2pcan  (p be
  determined
p  ) from the scalar products like
Puttingpppthe((p(values
11
pp111 for
pp2p

1
2)) different
2 )p1p
p (p (p Lorentz
111(p 11pp2 ))p22 invariants,
 )  yields the result. (16.51) (16.51)
(16.51)
...(2.51)
(16.51)
p ( p 1  p1 )2 2p2 (p
4  2p4 )
2E  for
1 1 2
mdifferent
1cdifferent
1m2 Lorentz
cLorentz (16.51)
Putting
1
Putting
Putting
Putting
Putting
1
thethe
the
the
the values
values
E1values
values
values for
forforfor1different
different
different
2 Lorentz invariants, yields the result.
Lorentz invariants,
invariants,
Lorentzinvariants, yields
invariants, the
theresult.
result.
yieldsyields the result.(16.52)
result.
Putting the values for 2 2different 2224E4 Lorentz invariants, yields the result.
EE2 2m2m 1cc 4 
12c 
2 42 4
m22mc422c 4
E
E  EE E4m21m
 c424m 42 cm2 c2c 4  (16.52)(16.52)
(2.52)
E
Similarly
EE11 

11
2 Em1 c 2m2E2E
2  1m
 c2  m
2 c 1 (16.52) (16.52)
(16.53)
E1  2 2 E2 E   (16.52)
2 24E 
2  2
2 2 4
Similarly EE2 2EEEE m2m 2 c4 c m
2 4 2 c 42 4
2 m c 22  4m11m
cm1 2cc 4 (16.53)(16.53)
Similarly
Lastly
Similarly we E 2apply
2 E 
2the  2m
4 concept
2 E 22c 4 of 1the invariance
(2.53) of the scalar product of two four-
(16.53)
Similarly E  2
 (16.53)
Similarly E  E 2  m2 c 2 Em21Ec
vectors
Lastly 2 we to apply
the problem the of2 Ethe ofcalculation of theofthreshold (16.53)
the scalarenergy productforofthe twoproduction
Lastly
Lastly wewe applyapply the 2the concept
Econcept
concept of
the invariance
of
the the invariance
invariance of of
the the
scalarscalar
productproductof two
four-
of two four-
four-
Lastly we
of particles. apply the concept of the invariance of the scalar product of two four- vectors
Lastly Lastly
vectors
we we
apply
to the applyproblem
theproblem
concept the concept
of the calculation
of the of the
invariance invariance
of the threshold of the
energy scalar
for theproduct
production of two four-
vectors
to thevectors
problem
of toto
particles. ofthethe
the problem
calculation of of theofthe thecalculation
calculation
threshold ofofthe
ofenergy
the thefor scalar
threshold
threshold product
energy
energy
the production for ofthe
of two
thefour-
forparticles.
production
production
vectors vectors
Inparticles. to
athereaction, the problem
theofinitial ofparticles
the calculation ofofmass of the threshold
m1 and menergy energy
2 are transformed for
intothetwo production
or
Inofto
of aparticles.problem
reaction, the initial theparticles
calculation of mass the1 and
m threshold
m2 are transformed for the
intoproduction
two or more
ofIn a reaction,
particlesthe
particles.
more with initial
masses particles
mi , i of =3,4… mass etc. m1 and m2 are transformed into two or
ofparticles
particles.
awith
InInmore masses
reaction,
a reaction, themi, i
the initial =3,4…
initial etc.
particles
particles of mass
of etc.mass m1 andm1 and m2 are transformed
m2 are transformed into into
two or two or
particles with masses mi , i =3,4…
In Defining
In a reaction,
more a
Defining reaction,
m
the
particles  mas asthe
the
initial
with the difference
initial
difference
particles
masses particles
mi m of
, between
between
i mass
=3,4… of m
the the
mass
etc. sum
and sum mof of
and
the the m
m21 are transformed
masses
massesare of ofthethe
transformed product
product
into two into
and
or andtwo or
more
Defining
reactants.
particles with masses , i =3,4…
m as the difference between the sum of the masses of the product and
i 1 etc. 2

more
reactants.
more particles particles withdifferencemasses
mi , i =3,4… m i , i =3,4… etc. of the masses of the product and
Definingmmmasmasses
Defining
reactants. with
 asmthethe
(  m difference
 .....)
between
 ( m
etc.thethe
between
 m )
sum sum of the masses of the(16.54) product and
2  ...(2.54)
DefiningDefining
reactants.m as
reactants. mthe  m
 (m as 3
the
difference difference
4
between
1
the
between the sum of the masses of the product
3  m4  .....)  (m1  m2 )
sum of the masses of the
(16.54) and product and
IfIfm m is positive the reaction will not take place unless the projectile has certain
is positive the reaction will not take place unless the projectile has certain
reactants.
reactants. mis   (m(3mthe
mpositive  .....)
m4mreaction (m(1 m
will )m )place unless the projectile has(16.54)
notm2take
m kinetic3 energy 4  .....) Tth,called (16.54)
minimum Ifminimum
kinetic energy 1 the2 threshold energy of reaction. certain
At the
m m is 
IfIfminimum ( m m
positive
m is positive
threshold,   m(
kinetic m 
the  m
.....)
reaction
energy
4 3 the reaction
3the products   (.....)
m
T
4 are produced
th
1 
will m
,called (
will m )
not
2 1not 
take
the m
withtake )
place
threshold
2zeroplace
unless
energy
kineticunless the projectile
of reaction.
energy.theThisprojectile has
(16.54)
At
implies has that(16.54)
certain
the
certain
threshold,
minimum
is positive
If mIfminimum the
kinetic products
them reaction energy are T
produced,called with
the zero kinetic
threshold energy.
energy This
of implies
reaction. thatAt the
m is positive 2 the 2will
reaction th not2 take place unless the projectile has certain
will notthetake place unless energytheofprojectile has
At certain
 Tmc
36 Self-Instructional Material
threshold, Ethe kinetic
th products 1c 2 m
energy
22c produced
are th ,called
with zero
threshold
kinetic energy. This
reaction.
implies (16.55)
that
the
minimum E

kinetic  m c
energy  m c
2T are   mc 2
(16.55)
minimum
threshold, th thekinetic
products
1 energy th ,called T ,called
produced the threshold
withthezerothreshold energyenergy.
kinetic of reaction.
energy This At thethat At the
of implies
reaction.
Substituting this 2 value 2of Eth  inth2 Eq (16.50), we get
threshold, the
Substituting
threshold,  m
Eproducts
th the thisc value 2 m2produced
are cof  2
E  mc
th in Eq with 2 zero
(16.50), kinetic
we get energy. This impliesThis(16.55)
that
E
  1mproducts
th 1c  m2 c2  mc
are produced
2 2
with
2 2
zero kinetic
1
energy. implies
(16.55)that
Substituting
Eth m (m mm
21this 22m)
value m)
of 2cE2 2in (m 2Eq 12c(16.50),
2 m2 22 c  we2 m get E) c
1 2
(16.56)

Substituting (m
E 1c1  mm212c2cvalue mc2ofmcc thE(m
th1incmc
Eqm(16.50),
2 c  2 m 2we E12) 12 c (16.55)
(16.56) (16.55)
th this get
The
The
Substituting this incident
incident
(m value
kinetic
kinetic
m  of  m) E

energy
c in Eq
energy 2
of of 2 the
the
(m(16.50), 2 projectile
projectile
c  m cwe 2 2
at
 2get
at threshold
threshold
mE) c
1
2 is is (16.56)
1 2 th 1 2 2 1 1
 more particles with masses , i =3,4… etc.
more particles with masses mii , i =3,4… etc.
Defining m as the difference between the sum of the masses of the product and
Defining m as the difference between the sum of the masses of the product and
reactants.
reactants.
m (m  m  .....)  (m  m ) (16.54)
m (m33  m44  .....)  (m11  m22 ) (16.54)
If m is positive the reaction will not take place unless the projectile has certain
If m is positive the reaction will not take place unless the projectile has certain
minimum kinetic
Tminimum energy Tofth ,called
reaction.the threshold energy of reaction. At the
th,called thekinetic
threshold energyT At the threshold, the products are produced Special Theory
energy th ,called the threshold energy of reaction. At the of Relativity
threshold,
with zero the products
kinetic energy. are produced
This implies that with zero kinetic energy. This implies that
threshold, the products are produced with zero kinetic energy. This implies that
 2
E m c  m c  mc
 2 2
...(2.55) (16.55)
Ethth m11c2  m22c2  mc2
 (16.55)
Substituting
Substitutingthis thisvalue
valueofof Eth in Eq (16.50), we get NOTES
Substituting this value E
Eth in Eq (2.50), we get of th in Eq (16.50), we get 1
(m1  m 2   m)  c2 (m122c22  m22c22  2 m2 E1 ) 122 c
2
(16.56)
(m1  m 2   m)  c (m1 c  m2c  2 m2 E1 ) c ...(2.56) (16.56)
TheTheincident
incidentkinetic
kineticenergy
energyofofthetheprojectile
projectile at
at at threshold
threshold is
is is
The incidentthe
Evaluating kinetic
valueenergy
of E of theequation
from projectile
(16.56),threshold
we get
1
Tth E1  m1c22 ...(2.57) (16.57)
Tth E1 m1c m  m  (16.57)
Evaluating E1the
Evaluating
Evaluating value
the
the value
value ofofEE1E
1 from
fromequation (2.56), wewe
wegetget
m 1 of from equation (16.56),
 c  m(16.56), get
2 2
Evaluating the E111 equation 1c (16.58)
 m2 2 m2  358
 m m m m  222 358  ...(2.58)
EEE111  mm11 111m  m  c
c  
 m
m c
11
c222 (16.58)
(16.58)
therefore Tth   1m
m m
222 1 22m
m222  (16.59)

 m 2 2 m2 
 m m11 m m 
therefore
therefore
therefore
therefore
Let TTTththth
us applying 
 m
m 11 m (16.59)
Equation  ...(2.59) (16.59)pair in
(16.59)
to the production of a proton -antiproton
 m22 22m m22 
proton-proton collisions
Let
Let
Let usus
Letus applying
usapplying
applying Equation (16.59)
applyingEquation (16.59)tototothe
(2.59) theproduction
the production of
production of aa proton
proton -antiproton pairininin
-antiprotonpair
-antiproton pair
p
proton-proton
proton-proton p  p  p
collisions p  p (16.60)
proton-proton
proton-proton collisions
collisions
ppand
Where pp ppp
p stand
ppppfor
 ppproton and antiproton respectively.
 pp ...(2.60) (16.60)
(16.60)
The
Wheremass
Where
Where
Where difference
ppand
ppandand
andpp pstand
stand 
standforformc
forproton 2and
 and
proton
proton m2
 1.8777
cantiproton
pantiproton
and
2
BeV
respectively.
antiproton respectively.
respectively.
2 2
2 2m c2 
Hence
The
The
The from
Themass
mass
mass
mass Eq. (16.59)
difference
difference
difference
difference mcwe
mc
mc  have
m ppcc2221.8777
22m BeV
1.8777
1.8777
1.8777
p
BeV
BeV
BeV
Hence
Hencefrom
 Tth Eq.
from Eq.(2.59)
1.877[1 we
1
(16.59) have
wel]have
5.631BeV
Hencefrom
Hence fromEq. Eq.(16.59)
(16.59)we we have
have
T  Tththth us1.877[11
1.877[1 1 l]l] 5.631Be
5.631BeVV energy for the production of a  0 meson
LastlyTTlet
th
1.877[1
calculate
1.877[1  1 l]the threshold
5.631Be V
Lastly let us to
according calculate the threshold a energy for thephoton
production of aa proton
0 meson according
Lastly let
Lastly
Lastly let us
let usthe
us reaction
calculate
calculate
when
the
the
high energy
threshold
threshold energy
energy
energy for
for the
the
strikes
production
production ofof aata rest.
 00meson

0
meson
to the reaction when a high energy photon strikes a proton at rest.
according
according
according to
 totopthe the
the reaction
reaction
p   when
reaction 0 when a high energy photon strikes a proton at rest.
when aa high energy photon strikes a proton at rest.(16.61)
high energy
  p  p   0...(2.61)
Therest 
restmass
massppp ppthe
 p 
0
 000 is 135 MeV. Hence (16.61)
(16.61)
The ofofthe 0 is 135 MeV. Hence (16.61)
Therest
The
The restmass
rest massofof
mass the 000isisis135
ofthe
the 135135.0
135 MeV. Hence
MeV. Hence
MeV. Hence

 Tth 135.0 1  0   144.7 MeV
  2(938.5)
135.0
135.0 
 T 135.0 135.011   00 
 135.0  144.7
144.7MeV

 TTththth 135.0 1  0  energy 
2(938.5)
2(938.5)  144.7
 the
MeV
MeV
Therefore the
Therefore the minimum minimum
 2(938.5)
energy that
that the photonphoton musthave
must haveininthetheLaboratory
Laboratoryforfor
Therefore
producing
Therefore
producing  0 bythe the0 by

the minimum
striking
minimum
striking a protonenergy
a proton
energy that
at rest at
that the
rest
is 144.7 photon
144.7must
isphoton
the photon
MeV. MeV.have
must have inin
in the
the Laboratory
Laboratoryfor
for
Therefore minimum energy that the must have the Laboratory for
producing  0 by striking a proton at rest is 144.7 MeV.
0
producing  by striking a proton at rest is 144.7 MeV.
16.10
16.10Summary
producing  by striking a proton at rest is 144.7 MeV.
0
Summary
2.10 16.10
SUMMARY Summary
16.10Summary
Summary
16.10
16.10
16.10 Summary
Summary
Newton’s16.10 Summary
Newton’s
equations equations
of motion of motion
governing governingofthe
the dynamics dynamics
particles of particles
are invariant under are
invariant Newton’s equations
under Galilean
Newton’s equations of motion
transformation, governing the
whereasgoverning dynamics
Maxwell’s of particles
equations are
governing
Galilean transformation,
invariantNewton’s
under
whereas
equations
Galilean ofof motion governing
Maxwell’s
motion
transformation,
governing
equations
whereas
the
the dynamics
dynamics
Maxwell’s
the of
of
equations
particles
electrodynamics
particles
governing
are
are
invariant
the
are not. This
invariant under
electrodynamics
implies Galilean
that
under Galilean theare transformation,
not.
velocity Thisof
transformation, implies
light whereas
(in that the
vacuum)
whereas Maxwell’s
velocity
is
Maxwell’snot theequations
of light
same
equations (in
in governing
vacuum)
all inertial
governing is
the electrodynamics
theelectrodynamics
frames,whileelectrodynamics are not.
are not.
not. This implies
This frames
implies that
that the velocity
the velocity
velocity of light
ofvelocity
light (in vacuum)
(inof vacuum)
vacuum) is
is
not
the theMichelson-
same in Morley all
are experiment
inertial
This implies established
,while
that the that the of
Michelson- Morley
light (in light is not
experimentis
affected
not
by
the
the
same
motion
in
of
all
the
inertial
reference
frames
frame
,while
i.e. the
Michelson-
velocity of
Morley
light is the
experiment
same in all
not the
established
not the same samethat in all
the velocityinertial
velocity frames
of light ,while
is notaffected
affected Michelson-
by the motionMorley experiment
of the reference
established that inthe all inertial frames
of light is not,while Michelson-
by the motion Morley
of theexperiment
reference
established
frame that the velocity of light is not affected by the motion of the reference
frame i.e.
established i.e. the velocity
thatvelocity
the ofof light
the velocity light isisthe
of light theissame
same ininallallinertial
not affected inertial frames
by theframes
motion and
andof thehas
has the
reference
the valuevalue
frame
obtained
frame i.e. the velocity of
from of Maxwell’s
i.e. the velocity light
Maxwell’s is the
light is the same same in all inertial
electromagnetic
in all inertial framesframes and
wave has the value
valueSelf-Instructional Material
theequations
and hasequations 37
obtained from electromagnetic wave
obtained
obtained from
from Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s electromagnetic
electromagnetic wave
wave equations
equations
359
359
359
359
 1
v  3  108 m / sec  c . This led to doubt the correctness of Galilean
 0 0 1
v  3 1 10 m / sec 
8
c . This led. This
to doubt
led tothedoubt
correctness of Galilean
the correctness of Galilean
 v 
 3  108 m / sec  c
transformation
Electrodynamics and and
0 0hence
inertial framesand
0
Newton’s
 0 has the law
valuesay motion.
obtained Einstein
from Sought
Maxwell’s to resolve the
electromagnetic wave equations
Plasma Physics
transformation
contradictions and henceand
bytransformation
1enunciating 8two
Newton’s
postulates law
hence Newton’s of say
the motion.
special
law Einstein
saytheory
motion. ofSought toSought
relativity:
Einstein resolvetothe resolve the
v 
contradictions by 3enunciating
 10 m / sectwo  . This
c postulates led
This led to of to
doubt
thedoubt the correctness
the correctness
special theory of of of Galilean
Galilean
relativity: transformation
(i) All physical laws are same
contradictions
0  0 by in all inertialtwo
enunciating reference
postulates frames.
of the special theory of relativity:
(i) All physical laws are same in all inertial reference frames.
NOTES (ii)Thetransformation
velocity
and hence (i) ofNewton’s
light
All in law
andphysical
hence free space
laws
Newton’s
say has say
are same
law
motion. the
in all
Einsteinsame value
inertial
motion. equal
reference
Einstein
Sought to ctothe
frames.
to Sought
resolve inresolve
all the
contradictions by
(ii)The
contradictions
inertial velocity
frames.(ii)The
enunciating two of light
by postulates
enunciating
velocity of in free
oftwo
the space
postulates
lightspecial
in free has the same
ofspaceofspecial
theory value
thetheory
relativity:
has equal
sameofvalue to c
relativity: in all
equal to c in all
inertial
(i)(i)
AllAll frames.
physical
The above postulates easilylaws
inertial
physical areare
frames.
laws
explainsame samein all
negativein inertial
allresult
inertialreference
the frames.
ofreference frames.
Michelson-Morley
The above
experiment. (ii)The
Using
(ii)The
postulates
his
Thevelocity
above
velocity
easily
postulates,
ofoflight
lightin
postulates explain
Einstein
ineasily
free
negative
space
explain
space inhasthe
has
result
1905,
thesame of
samevalue
negative the
rederived
value
result Michelson-Morley
toLorentz
ofequal
equal the cto c ininertial
all frames.
Michelson-Morley
in all
experiment.inertial
transformation equations: Using
frames.
experiment. his postulates,
Usingeasily hisexplain Einstein
postulates, in 1905, rederived Lorentz
The above postulates negativeEinstein
result of thein Michelson-Morley
1905, rederived experiment. Lorentz
transformation equations:
transformation equations:
The
Usingabovehis postulatesEinstein
postulates, easily explain
1 1905,negative
in rederivedresult Lorentzof transformation
the Michelson-Morley equations:
x  ( x  vt ) Where   1
experiment.
x  ( xUsing  vt ) his Wherepostulates,
 v 2 Einstein1 in 1905, rederived Lorentz
 x  ( x  vt ) Where 1  2 v
transformation equations: c2 1  v2
c2 1
y  y 1 c2
 x y  ( x  vt )
y Where  
y  y v2
z  z z  z 1
z  z c2
 yv2 y  v 2 
t  
 t t 2 x t  x  v 2 
 zc z  t c 2   t  2 x
 c 
In Lorentz
In
In
Transformation
Lorentz v 2  space and
 Transformation
Transformation space time
space and
co-ordinates
time and are intermixed.
co-ordinates are We We
are intermixed. We v noteWe
 tLorentz
   In
t Lorentzx  Transformation andspace
time co-ordinates intermixed.
time co-ordinates are intermixed. that
theL.T.
L.T.the 
reduces c 2
 v v c the maximum
note thatnote
the that reduces
noteL.T. toto G.T.
G.T. to
that reduces
the
forG.T.
L.T. for
The
 1special
. The
reducesforto1G.T. special
. The
for
theory of
of relativity
theorytheory
v special relativity limits
limitslimits
of relativity
 1 . The special theory of relativity limits
c c
In Lorentz Transformation tospace and time c co-ordinates are intermixed. We
theattainable
the maximum attainable
maximum velocity
attainable of a velocity
velocity particle
the maximum attainable velocityof a particle
of the
a velocity
to
particlethe of
velocity
to the light (c)light
of
velocity inofempty
(c)
light in space.
empty
(c) in empty
According v of a theory particle to the velocity of light (c) in empty
space. space.
note that the L.T.toreduces
space.
the principle
to G.T.offorthe special  1 . The special of relativity,
theory ofifrelativitymomentum is conserved
limits
in one inertial frame, thenof it the
mustspecialc
be conserved
According According
thetomaximum to the
theAccording
principle principle
toof the
attainable the special
principle
velocity of theory the theory
aofparticle ofin
oftorelativity,
special the
all inertial
relativity,
theory
velocity ifofof if frames.
momentum momentum
relativity,
light
Energy
(c) inifisempty is will also
momentum is
conserved
conserved
conservedspace.
in oneconserved inin all
one frames
inertial
inertial frame, if momentum
frame, then itis conserved.
must be Similarly
conserved in it
all can be
inertial shown
frames.that momenta
in onethen inertialit must
frame,bethen conserved
it must inbeall inertial in
conserved frames.
all inertial frames.
is conserved in conserved
all frames,inifalltheframes energy is conserved. Thus conservation
Energy
Energy will According will
also Energy also
conserved
to the inalsoallconserved
willprinciple frames
of theif special if
inmomentum momentum is
theoryisifofconserved.
all frames conserved.
relativity, Similarly
momentum Similarly
isif conserved.
momentum it ofSimilarly
itisenergy and
it
momentum
can be shown gothat
together
momenta in theis relativity
conserved Theory.
in all The laws
frames, if of conservation
the energy is of momentum and
conserved.
can be shownconserved thatcan momenta
inbeoneshown is that
inertial conserved
frame,
momenta in all
then frames,
must beifconserved
isitconserved theallenergy
inlaw frames, in isall
ifconserved.
inertial
the energy frames.
is conserved.
energy
Thus can now be
conservation of coalesced
energy and tomomentum
give a composite go together ofinconservation
the relativity ofTheory.
four momentum.
Thus conservation
Energy
Thelaws law of
Thusof also
will energy
conservation and momentum
conserved
of conservation of
ofenergy-momentum
inenergy
all frames go together
and momentum
if momentum in gotheinistogether
is usedcan
relativity
conserved.
the
in Theory.
kinematics
theSimilarly
relativity
of decay
it Theory.
products
The
The laws can of conservation
be The
shown
conservation
lawsthat of
of of
momentum
conservation
momenta
momentum
is and
of momentum
conserved
and
energy
in
energy
all can andnow
frames, energy
if the
now
be be
coalesced
can now
energy
coalesced
is to
be
conserved.
to
coalesced to
of aancomposite
give unstable law particle
ofenergy and centre ofoffour
conservation momentum
momentum. system The and
law threshold
of conservation energy for the
give a composite
Thus
production
give
law a
of
conservation composite
conservation
of particles
of in
law of
of
and
a reaction.
conservation
four momentum.
momentum of
go four
The quasi-Euclidean
The momentum.
together law in of
the
geometry
The
conservation
relativity law
ofanthe
of conservation
Theory.
four dimensional
of
explainTheenergy-momentum
laws of conservation is used in the kinematics of decay products of unstable
orld is discussed toof energy-momentum
world Lorentz istransformation
isof discussed
energy-momentum
usedtoinexplaintheofkinematics
momentum
as orthogonal
isLorentz
used ofand energy
in transformation
the kinematics
decay can
products ofasdecaynow
of anbe
orthogonal
coalesced
products
unstable of anto unstablein
transformation
ansformation in 4 dimensions. particle
give
The and
a composite
chapter centre
particle and of momentum
lawchapter
of
theconservation
centre ofincludes system
momentum of and
four threshold
momentum.
system energy
andequation Thethe
threshold for
law the production
of conservation
energy forusing
the production
particle and centre
4particles
dimensions. ofincludes
momentum
The relativistic
system andequation
threshold
the ofenergy
relativistic for production
offour motion the concept
ofof energy-momentum
of in a reaction.
particles in is
a The
used
reaction.quasi-Euclidean
in the
The kinematics geometry
quasi-Euclideanof decay of the
products
geometry of ofdimensional
thean unstable
four dimensional
otion using the conceptofofparticles
properoftime
inproper and four
 time
a dreaction. dTheand momentum
quasi-Euclidean
four momentum four vectorgeometry by ofbythemodifying
four vector four dimensional the classical equation of
particle and centre
dp
of momentum
dp system
360 and threshold energy for the production
 360
odifying the classical equation of motion F in a as
of particles F  The
reaction. . .quasi-Euclidean
360 geometry of the four dimensional
dt d
6.11 Glossary
16.11 Glossary 2.11 GLOSSARY
360

quivalence : The condition of being equalzz orEquivalence

equivalent in: The
etc.
valuecondition of being equal or equivalent in value,worth,function
,worth ,function
c. zzInvariant: A function, quantity, or property which remains unchanged when a
specified
variant: A function, quantity, or property which transformation
remains unchangediswhen
applied.
a
ecified transformation is applied.
38 Self-Instructional Material

6.12 Answers
16.12 AnswerstotoSelf
SelfLearning
LearningExercise
Exercise
ns.1 : The frame in which Newton’s Law of Inertia holds good.
 d dx 
ns.2 : F  c  m0c 
2.12 REVIEW QUESTIONS Special Theory
of Relativity
1. What is Relativistic Mechanics ?
2. What do you mean by proper time?
3. In what condition Lorentz Transformation reduces to Galilean Transformation? NOTES
4. Derive relativistic equation of motion.
5. If a photon strikes a stationary electron giving rise to an electron position pair as
well as a recoil electron, show that the threshold energy for the reaction in 4m0c2
where m0 is the rest mass of an electron.
6. Calculate the threshold kinetic energy in MeV for the following process
ppo
Rest mass of 145 MeV) p and 0 are 1836 and 264 electron masses respectively.
7. What was the dead lock between theoretical conclusions and experimental results
in classical electrodynamics and how did Einstein resolve it by revising our
fundamental ideas of space and time.
8. State the fundamental postulates of special theory of relativity and deduce the
Lorentz transformation.
9. State Lorentz transformation and show that the result of two successive Lorentz
transformation is a Lorentz transformation form a group.
10. Discuss the spontaneous decay of unstable particles with particular reference of
charged pi-mesons.
11. What is Inertial frame?
12. Write down Relativistic equation of motion?
13. State and explain the fundamental postulates of special theory of relativity.
14. Prove that three dimensional volume element dxdydz is not Lorentz invariant but
four dimensional volume element dxdydzdt is Lorentz Invariant.

2.13 FURTHER READINGS

zzClassical electrodynamics by J.D. Jackson (John Wiley &Sons)
zzClassical electricity and magnetism by Panofsky and Philips (Indian Book, New
Delhi)
zzIntroduction to Electrodynamics by Griffiths.
zzElement of Electromagnetics by Mathew N.O. and Sadiku (Oxford Univ.
Press)
zzClassical theory of Electrodynamics by Landau-Lifshitz (Pergaman press, New
York)
zzElectrodynamics of continuous media by Landau&Lifshitz (Pergaman Press,
New York)

Self-Instructional Material 39
 Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics CHAPTER – 3
NOTES FOUR VECTORS IN
ELECTRODYNAMICS
STRUCTURE
3.1 Learning Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Minkowski Space and Space Time Continuum
3.4 Four Vectors
3.5 Current Density Four Vector
3.6 4-Potential Four Vector
3.7 Covariant Continuity Equation
3.8 Wave Equations
3.9 Covariance of Maxwell’s Equations (Four Tensor form)
3.10 Lorentz Force in Covariant Form or (Force density four Vector)
3.11 Energy and Momentum Tensor of the EM fields
3.12 Conservation Laws
3.13 Lagrangian and Hamiltonian of a Charged Particle in EM Fields
3.14 Summary
3.15 Glossary
3.16 Review Questions
3.17 Further Readings

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying the chapter, students will be able to:
zzTo study Four vectors in electrodynamics
zzTo study 4-current density and 4-potential
zzTo study covariant continuity equation and wave equation
zzTo study covariance of Maxwell’s equations

3.2 INTRODUCTION
Through the Lorentz transformation equations for space and time coordinates we have
learnt about the basic concepts of space-time continuum. The physical phenomena do not
40 Self-Instructional Material
 17.1
17.1 Introduction
Introduction
appear the same to observers in relative motion with respect to each other, although the Four Vectors in
Electrodynamics
17.1
physical Through
must bethe
Introduction
17.1lawsIntroduction Lorentz
the same transformation
for all observers. Theequations
equations of forelectrodynamics
space and time must
coordinates we have learnt about the basic concepts of space-time
be invariant i.e. retain their form on transformation from one inertial frame to another under continuum. The
physical
Lorentz Through
phenomena
transformation. the However,we
Lorentz
do transformation
not appear thefirst
will toequations
sameshow observers forin relative
that equations space and
motiontimewith
of electrodynamics
coordinates weinhave learnt about thethe basic concepts of space-time continuum. NOTES
can respect to each
be formulated other,
the four although
dimensional physical
form laws
as relations must befour
between same The
the vectors for four
and all
physical phenomena do not appear the same to observers in
observers. The equations of electrodynamics must be invariant i.e. retain their
tensors which posses the invariance properties under L.T (Lorentzrelative motion
transformation). with These
respect
setsform totransformation
each other,
of fouroncomponents will although
be from the physical
introduced
one in laws
the pseudo-
inertial must
frameEuclidean be the
to another space same
which
under forLorentz
all time
puts
observers. The equations
on atransformation.
different footing than the of
However electrodynamics
space
,we coordinates.
will first show must
To thatbe
this endinvariant ofi.e.electrodynamics
let us develop
equations retain theirvector
the four
form on transformation
formalism from one inertial frame to another under Lorentz
can be which is ideally
formulated suited
in the fourfor electrodynamics.
dimensional form as relations between four vectors
transformation.
In the However (18) ,we will first show that equations of electrodynamics
and fourprevious
tensorsunitwhich we introduced
posses the electromagnetic
the invariance propertiesfield tensorL.T(Lorentz
under which gives
can be formulated
the transformation).
correct description in the four
of thesets dimensional
electromagnetic form as relations
field, since between four vectors
These of four components willitbeaccounts for the
introduced in intermingling
the pseudo-
and
of electricfour
and tensors
magnetic which
fields.posses the
Subsequently,invariance
we properties
introduce the under
energy L.T(Lorentz
momentum tensor
Euclidean space which puts time on a different footing than the space coordinates.
transformation). These sets of four components will be introduced
of the electromagnetic field and will deduce the Law of conservation of linear momentum in the pseudo-
To this endspacelet us develop the four vector formalism which is ideally suited for
and Euclidean which
energy for a combined puts time
system on a different
consisting footing
of the than the space
electromagnetic coordinates.
field and the charge
electrodynamics.
To thisThen
endwelet will
us develop
particles. also findthe four vector
expression for formalism
Lagrangianwhich is ideally suited
and Hamiltonian of a for
charged
17.2
17.2 Minkowski
Minkowski
electrodynamics. Space
Space
particle in an electromagnetic field. and
and Space
Space Time
Time Continuum
Continuum
17.2 Minkowski
17.2 The idea of fourSpace
Minkowski Spaceand
andSpace
dimensional Time
Spacewas
space firstContinuum
Time ofContinuum
all suggested by Minkowski
3.3 to MINKOWSKI
whichThe heideacalled SPACEcontinuum.
as space-time AND SPACE TIME CONTINUUM
of four dimensional space wasAccording to Minkowski,
first of all suggested the external
by Minkowski
Theworld
toidea ofisfour
which notcalled
he formed
dimensional of ordinary wasthree
space continuum.
as space-time first of dimensional
all suggested
According tospace knowntheasexternal
by Minkowski
Minkowski, Euclidean
to which he
space,
world
called but
is not
as space-time it isformed
four dimensional
of ordinary
continuum. space
According threetotime continuum
dimensional
Minkowski, known
space
the known
external asworld
Minkowski
as isEuclidean
not formed space,of
where
space,three
ordinary the ittime
but dimensional or more
is four conveniently
dimensional
space spaceastime
known ict may bespace,
continuum
Euclidean regarded but itto
known is be
as fourth
Minkowski
four dimension.
dimensional space,space
timeThus
where
continuuman
the event
time knownorinmore
asMinkowski
conveniently
Minkowski spaceict may
space, can
where bethe
be represented
regarded
time ortomore be by fourth fourdimension.
conveniently coordinates
ict may
Thus an event
(x1 , x 2 , xto3 ,be
be regarded in
x 4 )fourth Minkowski
out dimension.
of which Thus space
the first can
an event be represented
threein are by
space co-ordinate.
Minkowski four coordinates
space can be This four
represented
(x ,
dimension
by four x , x ,
3 al
1 coordinates
2 x ) out
4 Minkowski of which
(x1, x2, x3, xspace the
4) out can
first
of which three
more are space
theconveniently co-ordinate.
first three are be space This
represented
co-ordinate. four(3+1)
This
dimension
fourdimensional
dimensional Minkowskial Minkowski
space timespace space
continuum.can
can moreLet more conveniently
(x1 , y1 , z1be
conveniently be
, t1representedrepresented
) and (x 2 , y(3+1) (3+1)
2 , z2 , t2 ) are the
dimensional
spacedimensional
time continuum.
coordinates space
of two Let time
events continuum.
(x1,iny1,four Let
z1, t1dimensional (x , y
) and (x2, y12,space,, z , t )
z12, t12) 1are and (x , y
thenthethecoordinates , z , t
2 2 2 of two
2quantity. ) are theevents
coordinates
in four dimensional of two events
space, in the
then fourquantity.
dimensional space, then the quantity.
S12  c2 (t2  t1 )2  ( x2  x12) 2  ( y2  y21 ) 2  ( z2  z21 ) 2
2 2
(17.1)
S12  c (t2  t1 )  ( x2  x1 )  ( y2  y1 )  ( z2  z1 )  (17.1) ...(3.1)
is iscalled
called the
the intervalbetween between theevents. two events . The interval between two
is called the interval
interval betweenthe two the two events The interval
. The between
interval two betweeninfinitesimally
two
infinitesimally
close event is close event is
infinitesimally close event is
dS  c 2 dt 2 dx 2  dy 2  dz 2 ...(3.2) (17.2)
dS  c 2 dt 2 dx 2  dy 2  dz 2 (17.2)
The interval between two events is Lorentz invariant in inertial frames. The invariance
of an interval is a mathematical expression of the invariance of the velocity of light.
364
364
3.4 FOUR VECTORS
Having introduced the idea of four dimensional space it is possible to extend ordinary vector
analysis to four dimensions to derive generally valid laws in the form of equations between
four dimensional vectors, these four dimensional vectors are called four vectors.

Self-Instructional Material 41
 extend ordinary vector analysis to four dimensions to derive generally valid laws in
the form
extend ofform
ordinary equations
vector between
analysis to four
four dimensional
dimensions tovectors,
derivevectors,these four
generally dimensional
valid lawsdimensional
in
the form the of equations of equations
between four between four dimensional
dimensional vectors, these fourthese four
dimensional
vectors
the form are of called
equations fourbetween
vectors. four dimensional vectors, these four dimensional
vectors arevectors
calledare fourcalled
vectors. four vectors.
vectors are called four
The coordinates of a vectors.
point in a reference frame S at time t is given
The coordinates
The coordinates of a pointofina apoint in a reference
reference frame S atframe timeSt atis time givent by is by
given ( x, y, z()x. , y, z ) .
( x, y, by z ).
The
Thecoordinates
coordinates of( xa, ypoint
, z ) in athereference
are space frame S at of
components time t is given
ordinary vectorby r( x,iny,three z) .
The coordinates
The coordinates ( x, y, z ) are ( x, ythe , z )space
are the space components
components of ordinary of ordinary
vector r vectorin threer in three
dimensional
The coordinates space.
dimensional ( x, yIf, z(ict)
) areisthe supposed
space to be the be
components fourth coordinate,
oftheordinary vector thenr the inthen space
three
dimensional
Electrodynamics and dimensional
space. If space. (ict) is Ifsupposed (ict) is supposed
to be the tofourth fourth
coordinate, coordinate,
then the space the space
expressed byspace.
(
The coordinates x , y If
, z (ict)
, ict
of a) is supposed
known
point in a as to be
four
reference the fourth
dimensional
frame S atcoordinate,
space.
time t is Wherethen
given the
(
byx , y space
,
(x, z ) are
( x,z).
y,
y, The
r p in three
Plasma Physics expressedexpressedby ( x, y, byz, ict( x) ,isy,known
z, ict ) isasknownfour as four dimensional
dimensional space. space.( xWhere
Where , y, z ) are z ) are
coordinates
expressed
positionposition
component y,y,z)z ,and
by (x,( x,componentare
ict )the space
is(ictand
known
) is (timecomponents
as four
component. of For
dimensional ordinary space.
these vector Where
components ( xwe, y , dimensional
z
can) are
use
position component and (ictto) isbetime ) is time component.
ictcomponent. For these For these components
components we can use we can use
space.
position If
tensor tensor(ict) is in
component
notation supposed
and
which (ict
we the fourth
) represent
is time x coordinate,
component. x , y For x then
these
, z the spaceictexpressed
components
x and we can
. Forbyuse (x, y, z,
tensor notation notation
in which in
we which
represent we represent
x  x

, y  x

1, z  x and

1 x  x ,2 y  x ,3 z  x and ict
2 ict
 x
3 x . Forthe
4 x4the. For the
ict ) isnotation
tensor known as in four
which dimensional
we represent space.x Where
x
1
, y (x,
 2y, z) are3 position component
x , z  x and ict  4
x . For and
the (ict) is
NOTES length length of of 1 2 3 4
length of
time component. For these components we can use tensor notation in which we represent x
four vector
length fourof vector 4
fourx x1vector
, y  x2, z  S x32 and
 x 2ict  2x . For
2 y 4
 2 z 
2 the 2 length
2
2 c t 2  x12 
2 of four
2
2 x2 
vector
2 x3 
2 2 x 4 ,.
2 x4  2m  2x
2 4
four vector 4 x42   x
2
x S 2  x 2 Sy 2  xz 2  yc 2t2 z x2 c tx 2  xx12  xx22  x3 
S 2  x 2  y 2  z 2  c 2t 2  1x12  2x22  3x32  4x42 
x x
x 

 1 2
1 x
 1
 1
Similarly in frame frame
Similarly S'
in frameinin
SimilarlySimilarly '
Sframe S' S '
Similarly in2 frame2 S ' 2 2 4
2 2 2x3x222x4x2244
4
S  2xS 22yx 2  2 c2z2t22c2x21t22
2 z y 2 2x2x 
2 
2x
2

S 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 c t2 2 x1 2 x2 2 1x3 2 2x4 23x14 2  x  2

 
2
        x
S   x  y  z  c t   x1  x2  x3  x4   1 x
  1
 1
Since 2Since
S  S 2
2 2

S 2 S 2 2S  S 
2
Since
Since
Since S  S 
Therefore
Therefore
Therefore
Therefore
Therefore 4 4

4 2 x   4
4 4
x22x ...(3.3) (17.3)
2 44 2

 x 
2  1 2
 x  x 2 (17.3) (17.3)
 x  
 1

 1

1 x
1  1 (17.3)
FromFrom Lorentz
Lorentz

From
Transformation
 1Transformation

Lorentz  1 thethecomponents
componentsofof the
the four
offour
dimensional
dimensional radius vector,
radius
From Lorentz
transform to Transformation
Transformation
according the components
the components of the four the four dimensional
dimensional radius radius
vector,Lorentz
From transform according
Transformation to the tocomponents of the four dimensional radius
x vector,
vector, transform
'   (x  transform
according
vt) according
to
vector,
x '  transform
(xx'  vt

according to
 )( x  vt )
x '  ( xx ' vt) [x  i  (ict)]

x
 x' '  ( x[xx vti ) [x
(ict)]
x '  [xWhere
  i' (ict)]  i  (ict)]
x '  [x  i  (ict)]

vvv 11 1 11 1
Where
Where
Where     and 
and   
and  
ccc v 22 2 1  22 365
2
11 1v2 v 1  1365 365
cc c 2
2
365
y ' y'
y 'yy' yy y
z ' zz'zz''zzz
 vx 
t ' t t vx 2 vx
t '  (17.4)
(17.4)
  t '   ct2c  2  ...(3.4) (17.4)
  c 
ict '  (ict  i x)
OrOrict
Or 

Or ' ict‘'(ict ((ict
ict ix)i xx))
ict
Using tensor notation system use Lorentz transformation reduces to
Using tensor
Using notation
tensor
Using system
notation
tensor usesystem
system
notation Lorentz
usetransformation
use Lorentz reduces
transformation
Lorentz toreduces
reduces
transformation to to
 x1  ( x1  i x4 )

x1 
  ( x  i x )
x2 x1 x12 ( x1  4i x4 )
x2 x (17.5)
 xx2x x
3 2 3 2  (17.5)
(17.5) ...(3.5)
x3 x x3( xi  x1  x4 )
4x
3 3
4 following
Writing xthe x4 (
i(   xx4) equations
xLorentz
1i  x4 ) in Matrix form
1

Writing theWriting
Writing following Lorentz
the following equations
Lorentz
the following
in Matrix
equations
Lorentz
formform form
in Matrix
equations in Matrix
 x1    0 0 i    x1 
    
0 0   x2 
 x1 x2 x   0  01  x1  x 
00 i0 i  (17.6)
42 Self-Instructional Material   x3 1   0 0 1 0 x3  1
 x2 x x2   0i 0 10 01 00 0 x2 x 
  4  
0    x4   2  (17.6)
(17.6)
x  x  0 0 0 10 10  0 x3 x3 
 3  3 i      
 x4  x4   i 0 00 0   x4 x4 
Any set of four components of vector A ( A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 ) which transform under
Lorentz transformations like the four components ( x1x2 x 3 x4 ) i.e. Equation
 x2  xthe
Writing
Writing the following
2
following Lorentz
Lorentz equations
equations in
in Matrix
Matrix form
form (17.5)
x3  x3
x4   ( i  x1  x4 )
xx1    00 00 ii   xx11 
Writing the followingxLorentz   equations in Matrixform
1
 
 x22    00 11 00 00  xx22 
x    00
   (17.6)
(17.6)
x  00 1
1 0
0   xx3


  
33
  3 Four Vectors in
 x1   xx4  0ii0
 i 00 00x1    xx4 
 Electrodynamics
   4 
 4
 x 
 x2    0 1 0 0   2  (3.6)
(17.6)
 x   0 0 1 0   x3 
Any set
3
 of four components of vector 
Any x4set
 of four
i  components
0 0  of  x4vector

AA ((AA11,, A
A22,, A A44)) which
A33,, A which transform
transform under
under NOTES
Lorentz
Lorentz transformations
transformations like like the
the four components ((xx11xx22xx33xx44)) i.e.
four components i.e. Equation
Equation
Any
(17.6) set
is of
called four a components
four vector. of vector A ( A , A , A , A ) which transform under
(17.6) is called a four vector. 
Lorentz transformations like the four components (3.6) is called a four vector. (x1x2x3x4 )
1 2 3 4

Any seti.e. of Infour

In fourcomponents
four
Equation dimensionalof space
dimensional vector
space the A ( Afour
the four 3 , A4 ) which
1 , A2 , vector
A
vector A should
A shouldtransform possesunder
posses the
the following
following
Lorentz properties
transformations like the four components ( x x x x ) i.e. Equation
properties
In four dimensional
(3) spaceitthe four vector A should 1 2 3 posses 4 the following properties
(17.6) is called(3) Three
a4 fourcomponents
Three vector. of
components of it are
are real
real andand oneonecomponent
component is is imaginary.
imaginary.
4
In(3)four
Three (4)
(1)
(4) The

The
dimensional A
(1)componentsAscalar
22
 
scalar space product
Lorentz
product
of
Lorentz it the of
fourthis
areInvarient
of
real this
Invarient four
onevector
four
vector
and vector
component
A should with another
with posses
another
is imaginary. four vector
vector is
fourfollowing
the is aa Lorentz
Lorentz
properties Invariant
 1
Invariant
 1 quantity.
quantity.
(4) The scalar product of this four vector with another four vector is a Lorentz
So (2)
(3) Invariant
Three
4 So(2) we It can
should
components
weItcanshould
quantity. write
write of the
thearetransformation
follow
followit the
realfollowing
the equation
equation isof
transformation
and one component
following
transformation transformation fourAuu vector
ofimaginary.
A
four  aa A
vector  AA in
A in accordance
accordance withwith
(1) 
(4) The
2
A  Lorentz
equation
scalar
equation
(3) Three (17.6)
product
(17.6) Invarient
as follows
asoffollows
this four :
of :itvector withandanother four vector  is a Lorentz
So we can 1 write thecomponents
transformation are real
equation ofone four component
vector Aisinimaginary. accordance with
Invariant
(4) quantity.
The scalar product of this four vector 366
366 with another four vector is a Lorentz Invariant
equation
(2) It (17.6)follow
should as followsthe :
following transformation Au  a A 
So we can write the A
quantity. transformation equation 00 00 iiof four vector A in accordance with

 A11       A A11 
equation (17.6)So we canas 
follows
 Awrite  :  0transformation   A  of four vector A in accordance with
 A   the
2  0 11 00 00 equation A2
equation   as
 A(3.6)     0: 0 i    A1    2 

Afollows
2   366 (17.7)
(17.7)

1
    0  0 0 1 0
0 1  0   A33   A
A33
AA12  A 0 0 1i00i 000A A2   
 A  A44 0 i 0 01    A
A44  (17.7)
A23    0 1 0 0 1 0 0 A 2 A3 
AA3    0i
   (17.7)
0 0 1 0 0   A 3A4  ...(3.7)
 4   4   
 A4   i 0 4 0    A4 

or A 
or A   aa A
 A
 (17.8)
(17.8)
 1,
  1
4  1,
  1

or A  4 a A 
or
Examples  (17.8) ...(3.8)
or A  of
Examples of1,Four
Four Vectors ::
 Vectors
 a1 A

 (17.8)
 1,
 1
(1)
(1)Examples
Position

Positionof
four
four vector
Four vector x (x , x , x , x )
Vectorsx:( x11 , x22 , x33 , x44 )
Examples
(2) of Four Vectors
Displacement :four
Examples of Four
(2)(1) Vectors
Displacement
Position four: vectorfour vector
vector
x ( x1,dx
dx (( dx
x2, xdx
,, dx
dx2 ,, dx
3, x4 ) 2
dx33 ,, dx
dx44 ))
(1) Position
(3) four vector x ( x1 , x: 2for, x3 this
, x4 )first of all we define proper time. It is the time
(3)(2) Velocity
(1) Position Velocity
four vector
Displacement
four
fourxvector
vector 2 , :x3for
( x1 , xvector
four this
, x4dx
) (dx, firstdxof2,all dx3we , dxdefine
4)
proper time. It is the time
(2) Displacement
measured
(2) Displacement four by
fourfour vector
vectoran dx
observers
dx ( dx
( dx , dx

which
, dxwhich
, dx is ,
atdx )
rest with respect to
to the event and it is
(3) measured by anvector
observers 2 , dx3first
, dx
is4at ) rest withdefine
respect the event It isandtheittime
is
 2 3 4
Velocity : for this of all we proper time.
(3) Velocity denoted
four
(3) Velocitydenoted
four vector
measured by
vector  :
byby: for
an .
forIn
. this
In relativistic
this first
relativistic
first of all
observers of
which all mechanics
we
wemechanics
define define
is at restproper time
proper
time
withtime. t is
time.not
t isIt isnot
respect It
the absolute
is
timethe
toabsolute time
the eventbut but the
andthe it is
measured proper
measuredproperby antime
by an time
denoted 
observers
by . In
observers is invariant.
which
is relativistic
invariant. is
which is atmechanics The
Theat
rest withproper
rest
proper with time of
respect
timet toof
respect
time a particle
to the
a particle
is the
not event
absolute is
event
and a
is but measure
and
ait measureit is
isthe proper of the
of the
time
denoted by
denoted length
 is
length 
by  . of. In
ofInthe
invariant. relativistic
time
time track.
The
relativistic
the proper
track. mechanics
If
If vv is
time
mechanics is the
of athe time
timevelocity
particle
velocity t
t is notof
is is
a not
measure
ofabsolute absolute
aa particle,
of the
but the
particle, but
the proper
length the
proper time
of the time
time
proper
proper timetrack.
time 
intervalIf
isis v is the
invariant.
invariant.
  is velocity
given TheThe
by of
proper a
proper particle,
time timeof athe
of proper
a particle
particle is time
a is interval
a
measure measure
of 
the is
of given
the by
interval  is given by 
length ofof the
length thetime
timetrack.
track.If Ifvv 22isv ...(3.9)
the
is the velocity
velocity of aofparticle, the proper
a particle, time time
the proper
v
 
interval isisgiven
interval given
   t 1
bytby1  2  (17.9)
(17.9)
c2 c
2
The v vof2
components
The t 1  of
 components velocity
velocityfour
fourvector
vectorororfour
fourvelocity
velocityare
aregiven
(17.9)by
given by
The  
components
 t 1 cof 2 velocity four vector or four velocity are given by
2
(17.9)
The components
uui 
of velocitydxciifour
dx
vector or four velocity are given by
...(3.10) (17.10)
i  d four vector or four velocity are given by
The components of velocity (17.10)
dxi d 
ui dx
where i 
dx displacement four vector. (17.10)
u dxdi
where i displacement four vector.
i (17.10) Self-Instructional Material 43
d
where dxi  displacement four vector.
where dxi  displacement four vector.

367
367
367
 Electrodynamics and where dxi  displacement four vector.
Plasma Physics
dx1 dx
dx
dx dx1dtdtdt
dx uuu x
dx  
uuu1dx1 11
dx 1dt1u. . .u xx
u1 
 u11 1 1dx dt
d. d
1 d  1dt.dtdtdx dd x vv2 2v 2
d d d dt d v 2
dt 11v12 2 2
2

1 2 1  cc
NOTES c c2 c
dx2dx
dx
dx 22 dx dx2u2 dtdtdt u uuy uy y
dx
dx2 2dt
dx2 u dx  
2dt .y.
.  y
u2 
 u2u2 22 
 2
.
d  .
dtddd2 
d dddd dt dtdt
dt d v 1
v2 2 2
v121v 2v
1  2 1  2 cc2 c 2
c c
dx3 dxdx dxdx
dx dt33dxdx dx
dxdt3u3 dtdtdt u uuz uz
u3 
 u3uu
u3 33  33 
.d
3
 3
3
.dt .. 
z.  z z
d  
d dd dt dt dt d
d vd d
  22 2
v
d dt v v v
2 2
1  2 1 11212 2 2
c c cc c
dx4  dx
(ict
ddx dx
dx 4)4 d (d
d
ict(d(
ict
dt)ict
(ict )
) ) dticdt dt ic icicic
dt
u4 
 u
 u u 
u4 ddd
4  4 ic   icicic
ic   
d 4   
4
d d dddd d dvd2d v 2 vv2 2
4 2
1  2 1 11 2 2v
c c 21cc c 2
     
       
 u  ic
u uu  ic icic  
Or in brief
Or
OrOrinuin 
ininbriefbrief
i brief 
ui i2  
, u, , , ic
Or Or brief  ui uu
in brief v  2 v22 2  , v 2 vv2 2  
 1  i 2 1111vvv2v 21 11  2 
 c  c12ccc2 2  c1 2 2 2v
  2
cc 2 
(4) Acceleration
(4)
(4) four vector:
(4) Acceleration four
Acceleration
Acceleration fourthecvector:
four vector:
vector: c acceleration
acceleration
the
thethe four vectors
acceleration isvectors
four
fourfour
acceleration defined
is as
vectors
vectors isisdefined
defineddefined
as asas
(4)(4)
Acceleration four vector:
dvi Acceleration
dui  v 2  four 1The
vector:1 1 the acceleration four vectors is defined as
1
2 acceleration four vectors is defined as
2 2 2 2 
ai  dvdv
 dv1 
i i i du du   v
du1i i v 2  1v   22
(17.11) (17.11)
a
d 
iaai i dt  c 2i du
dv
   1122v2  2
 (17.11)
(17.11)

(5) Energy a ddd
– Momentum
 i dt dtdt i c1 
 : 2 cc   ...(3.11)
(17.11)
four vector
i
(5)(5)
Energy
(5) Energy
Energy dMomentum
– Momentum
––Momentum dt four
 four
four cvector
vector : ::
vector
The momentum
(5) four
Energy vector
– Momentumis obtained fourby multiplying
vector the velocity four vector by
The The
The
(5) momentum
momentum
momentum
Energy – four
four
Momentum vector
four vectorisfour
vector obtained
is
is by::by
obtained
obtained
vector multiplying
by the the
multiplying
multiplying
The momentum velocity
the fourfour
velocity
velocity
four vector vector
four by byby
vector
vector
is obtained by
the rest mass mo so that
thetherest
The
the mass
rest m
momentum
mass m
rest mass mtheso that
four
so vector
that is obtained by multiplying the velocity four vector by
multiplying o o sovelocity
that four vector by the rest mass mo so that
o
pthe rest
mo u1
massmomuxo2 somothat umx u
vu1 mo2uo x x
1
 p1pp m
 oum1
11 m 
1 2o u
o 1 v v2 2x
p1 m c 1  1m2vou
 o u1 1c 2 2 2
mou y ccv
 p2 m u 1 
moumy u c 2

o 2
p2 p m ou v 2 mouo y y
 p2 2 m m
1 
ou
2
ou 2
c 1  vmvouv2 2y
2 22

 p2 m u 11c2 2 2
p3 m
mouoz 2 ccv 2
 o u3 2 m o z1  2
u
 p3 m u3 v
1 mmo2uouz z c
 pp3 3 omm u
o
o c
u3 2
3 v 22
1  m2 vu v
 p3 m u 11
co 2 2z

o 3 cc 2
v
imco2c368 iE iE1
and p4andm
and  pu4 moim
u4o c imc
  imc 368
o 4 2 v2 c
368 c 368
v 1
1 c2
c2 368
 iE   iE  
In briefInIn
thebrief
briefthe
themomentum
momentummomentum four
fourisvector
four vector writtenis as
written
p as p,p   p,  (17.12)
c
(17.12)
...(3.12)
 c  

44
17.4
Self-Instructional Material
17.4
17.4 Current
17.4 CurrentCurrent
Current
Density
Density
DensityFour Four
FourVector
FourVector
Density Vector
Vector
In electrodynamics
In electrodynamics in the context
in the context of specialof theory
special oftheory of relativity
relativity that a that a
charge charge distribution
distribution that is that
staticis instatic
one inframe,
one will
frame,appear
will toappear
be a tocurrent
be a current
distribution
distribution in another
in another intervalinterval
frame. Itframe. It implies
implies that the that the and
current current and charge
charge
densities
densities are not are not distinct
distinct entities entities
and theirand their relationship
relationship may be presented
may be presented though thethough the
definition of the four current density four vector J .
 andand
p4
p4 mom uIn4 brief11
uo4
 the2vmomentum
v2

imc
  c four vector is written as p   p, 
imc (17.12)
1 v vc 2
22 cc  c 
1 1 c2 2c2
cc
17.4 Current Density Four Vector
17.4 iE Current Density
InInbrief
brief the
the momentum
momentum four
four vector
vector isiswritten
written asas ppFour  iE
iE
iE

pp,,Vector
iE 

 (17.12)
(17.12)
In brief
InInbrief the momentum
briefthethemomentum
momentumfour four
fourvector vector
vector is is written
written
is written as asas p     p ,
pp p,p,c c  c  (17.12)
(17.12)
(17.12)
In electrodynamics in the  ccontext c  of special theory of relativity that a
17.4
17.4
17.4
17.4 Current
Current
Current
Current Density
Density
Density charge Four
Density Four
Four
distribution
Four Vector
Vector
Vector Vector that is static in one frame, will appear to be a current
17.4 17.4
17.4
17.4
17.4 Current Current
Current
Current
Current
17.4 Current Density Density
DensityDensity
Density
Density FourFour
Four
FourFourFour Vector
VectorVector
Vector
Vector
Vector
3.5 InCURRENT distribution
DENSITY in another FOUR intervalVECTOR frame. It implies that the current andFour charge
Vectors in
In electrodynamics
electrodynamics inin the
the context
context ofof special
special theory
theory ofof relativity
relativity that
that aa Electrodynamics
charge InInIn electrodynamics
electrodynamics
electrodynamics
distribution
densities
that inisininthethe
are
thecontext
static
context
not distinct
context
in one ofofofspecial
special
entities
specialtheory
frame,
theory
and
willtheory ofofofrelativity
their
appear
relativity
relationship
relativity
to be thatthat
athataaabe presented though the
may
current
In
charge
charge electrodynamics
distribution
distribution thatinthat the context
is static of in special
one theory
frame, of
will relativity
appear that
to abechargea distribution
current
charge
charge distribution
distribution that definition
that isisisstatic
static of in
static ininone
the one
four
one frame,
current
frame, frame, will
density
willwill appear
appear totobebebeaJaacurrent
four tovector
appear .current
current
distribution
that is staticin
distribution
distribution another
ininanotherone
another frame, interval
will appear
interval frame.
frame. toItbe ItItimplies
aimplies
current
implies that
distribution
that the
the current
in another
current and
and charge
interval
chargeframe.
distributionininin
distribution another
another

interval
interval
interval J
frame.
frame.frame.
(J , JIt2 ,Itimplies
J implies
, J )
that
that
( that
J , ic
the
thethe)
current
current
current and
and charge
andcharge charge (17.13)
densities
It implies
densities are
are that not
not the distinct
distinct current entities
entities and chargeand and their
theirdensities relationship
relationship are not may may
distinct be presented
entities andthough
their the
relationship NOTES
bebebepresented
presented though the
 1 3 4
densities
densities
densities are are
are not not
not distinctdistinct
distinct entities entities
entities and and and
their their
their relationship
relationship
relationship may may may be presented
presented though
thoughthough
thethe the
definition ofofthe
of the four current density four vector J . . contained
definition
may beof
definition
definition ofthe
presented the
the four fourfour
four current
though
To
current current
current justify thedensity
densitydensity
definition
thisfour
density four four
consider
four vector
of
vector vector
vector thetheJfour  .J current
J charge
J.  . 
densityinfour vector
a small J.
volume dV i.e.





J ((
JJJJ (
J

J(J1( ,,JJ , ,JJ , ,JJ ) ) (JJ(,(ic
J,1J1J11,2,J,2J22J2,3,J,3JJ333,4,J)4J444))(dq
J, ic,,ic
( JJ,  ic
ic

))) ...(3.13)
)dV ) (17.13) (17.13)
(17.13)
(17.13)(17.13) (17.14)
To justify this consider Multiplying
the charge both
containedsidesinofina the asmallequation (17.14) by dx , we get
ToTo justify
TojustifyTothis this consider
thisconsider
justify consider
considerthis consider the the the
the charge
charge charge
charge contained
thecontained contained
charge
contained in ina in
contained small asmall
asmall small volume
involume volume
volume
avolume
small dVdV
volumedV
dV
dVi.e. i.e.i.e.
i.e. i.e.
dV i.e.
dx
dq dq
dq
dqdq  dV dV
dVdV
dV dV  dqdx  dx dV   .dVdt
(17.14)
(17.14) (17.14)
(17.14)
(17.14) (17.15)
Multiplying
Multiplying both
both sides
sides of the equation (17.14) by dx ,dtwe get
Multiplying
MultiplyingMultiplying
Multiplying both both
both sides sides
sides both ofof ofsides
ofthe the
thethe equation
of
equation the (17.14)
equation
equation (17.14)
equation
(17.14)
(17.14) byby
by(3.14)bydx
dx dx
 by
 ,dxwe , ,dx
 , we
we
get
we get get
, weget get
Now as dxdq is a scalar and dx  is displacement four vector, so L.H.S. of equation
 dqdx   dx dV  dxdx dx
dx

.dVdt (17.15)
 dqdx  dx dV dV  isdtdt
(17.15)

a.dVdt.dVdt
four ...(3.15)
vector. So R.H.S. must also be(17.15) (17.15)
a (17.15)
four vector. But as
 dqdx
 dqdx    dx  dx
dx dV dV .dVdt
.dVdt (17.15)
 

dtdtdt
Now 1 vector,
Now
Now Nowasas
Now asasdqdq
asNow dq
dq
dqisisisas
isisaaadq
aascalar
scalar scalar
is a and
scalar
scalar
and
and
scalar and dx dxdx
dx isisis
dVdt
dx
and dx
displacement
isdisplacement
displacement
isdisplacement
isdx
 1dx2 dx3 dt four
displacement
displacement
four
four four
four vector,
vector,
vector,
four[dx sososoL.H.S.
1dx2 dx
vector,
vector,
L.H.S.
so dL.H.S.
L.H.S.
so
3so (L.H.S.
L.H.S.
of equation
ofequation
of equation
ictof)]ofequation equation (3.15)
equation
(17.15) is a four vector. So R.H.S. must also be a four icvector. But as
(17.15)
(17.15)
(17.15) is
is a four
(17.15) a four
isisisavector.
aafour
four vector.
fourvector. vector.
So R.H.S.
vector. So So R.H.S.
SoR.H.S.R.H.S.
must
R.H.S.also must must
must
must also also
bealso be
aalsofour a
bebe fourafour
afour
beavector. vector. vector.
fourvector.
But But
vector. asBut as
But
Butasasas
1 1
  dVdt dx
dVdt dx  1dxdx
dx 2 dxdt 3 dt
1 11[1dx1dx2 dx3dx
[dx dx dx dd(ict
dx)]
(1ict dx dx
)]2 3 4
(17.16)
 dVdt dx
dVdt dx dx
11dx 3 33dt ic [[dx
2 22dx 1dx 11dx
2dx 22dx
ic3dx3d (ict )]
3 d (ict )]
dVdt icic [dx1dx2 dx3 d (ict )]
1dx
  1dx2 dx3 dtic ic
dx
111dxSo 1dx 2dVdt
dxdx
3 dx is4 Lorentz invariant. So   must be(17.16)a(17.16)
four vector
(17.16)
ic1dx 1 dx
dxdx dx
1 1dx dx dx
2 2 dx dx
3 3 dx
...(3.16)
dt (17.16)
ic
ic ic dx11dx22 dx33dx44
4 4
(17.16)
ic dx
So dVdtSoisisLorentz
Lorentz invariant. So dx dx  dx
dxmust be a four vector
SoSo
So dVdt is
dVdt dVdt is Lorentz
Lorentz invariant.
invariant. Let
invariant.
So So  j So
dt 
must
dx  mustbebeaisfour
a4-current
must be
four fourdensity
avector
vector vectorfour vector
dVdtisisLorentz
So dVdt Lorentzinvariant.invariant.So So dt dtdt must dt be beaafour
fourvector
 
must vector
dx is 4-current density dt
Let j  dx
Let dx is 4-current density dxfourvector
four vector
LetLet j j   dt dx

dxis is

4-current
4-current
Then  density
Jdensity
four 1 vector
four vector
 u1
Let j 
Let j  dtdt  is 4-current
dt is 4-current density 1density dt fourvector
four vector
dt
dx1
Then dx dx
1 1  u1
Then
Then  JJ1 J1 1 
Then
Then
 
JJ1 

dt dx11  u1 uu1
dx
dt
Then  1
 dt
dt  u11 369
dt
dxdx
 J 2J 2   2 2
 u2 u2 369
369369
dtdt
369
369
dxdx
 J 3J 3  
3 3
 u3 u3
dtdt
dxdx d d
J 4 
 4  (ict ) ic 

4
 J 4 
dt dt (ict ) ic 

dt dt
i.e. thei.e.
components of the 4-current
the components density four
of the 4-current vector
density are given
J vector
four by given by
J are
i.e. the components of the 4-current density four vector J  are given by
J   ( J , ic ) (17.17)
J   ( J , ic ) ...(3.17)
(17.17)
As J  has been specified as four vector it must transform from one inertial frame S
 hasinertial
As J been
toAstheJother specified
has been as four
specified
frame vector
as four it must
vector transform
it must from
transform oneone
from inertial frame
inertial
S moving with velocity v relative to S along x-axis under
S S to
frame
the other
to the
Lorentz inertial
other frame
inertial
transformations asS moving
frame S movingwith velocity
with v relative
velocity to Stoalong
v relative x-axis
S along under
x-axis Lorentz
under
transformations as
LorentzJ transformations as
  a J 
J   a J
So that

Self-Instructional Material 45
JSo
 that
1  a1 J  a11 J1  a12 J 2  a13 J 3  a14 J 4

  Ja11J0 J2 a110J13  ia

J1J 
1  12 JJ24  a13 J 3  a14 J 4

 J Ji1J 0 J
J1
J  v
2 10 J 3  i  J 4
1 4 (17.18 a)
v2
1 J1 2 v 
  J1  i  J 4   c (17.18 a)
2
 i.e. the
components

J 4 dx
J
dx
dx

dt
4 4
of the
ddt
 
d 4-current
(ict ) ic  density four vector J  are given by
(ict ) ic 
 JJ43 4   dt u3 dt
3
(ict ) ic 
i.e. the components dt
dt dt of dt dt4-current density four vector J are given by
the
i.e. the J   ( J , icof
components  )the 4-current density four vector J  are given by (17.17)
i.e. the
i.e. the  components
components dx 4 ofof dthe
the 4-current
4-current density
density four
four vector
vector J J  are given by
are given by
JJ4  ( J , ic) dt (ict ) ic   
(17.17)
As J  has  ( Jdt, ic
J  been specified as four vector it must transform from one inertial frame S

J  ( J(,Jic, ic
) (17.17)
(17.17)
As
i.e. J
the Jcomponents
has  been of) the
)
specified as four
4-current vector
density it
fourmust transform
vector J are from
given byone (17.17)
inertial frame S under
toAstheJ other
has inertial
been specified moving
frameas Sfour vector with
it must velocity  v relative to S along
transform from one inertial x-axis
frame S
AstoAsJthe
Lorentz has
J other
 has
been
J been
specifiedasSasfour
( Jspecified
inertial
, ic )frame
transformations fourvector
movingvector
it itmust
with musttransform
velocitytransform from
from
v relative Sone
toone inertial
inertial
along
asmoving with velocity v relative to S along x-axis under
(17.17) frame
frame
x-axis SS
under
toto the other
theother

other inertial frame
frameSasSSmoving
inertialframe moving withvelocity
velocityv relative
v relativetotoS Salong
alongx-axis
x-axisunder
under
Electrodynamics and toLorentz
the transformations
inertial
As J  hastransformations
been specified asasfour vectorwith
it must transform from one inertial frame S
Lorentz J   a
Lorentztransformations J
transformations
Plasma Physics Lorentz 
J  a J
to the other inertial
 
 frame

asas
S moving with velocity v relative to S along x-axis under
J   a J
LorentzSo Jthat
JSo 
 that

a a J
transformations J
  
as
So that
SoJ  that
JJ1that
SoSo aa JJ  a J  a J  a J  a J
NOTES 1 that
a11J  a1111
J1 1 a12 J122 2a13 J 313 a3 14 J 4 14 4
J1that  a1 J  a11 J1  a12 J 2  a13 J 3  a14 J 4
JSo J
1J 111 a1aJJ1J1J1
  0a0J11a2JJ11 J01 J
21  a0312aJJ1232iJ 2 i J13a4J13J3J43 
a a14aJ144J 4
J    J  0 J  0 J  i  J
JJ1J1 1a1 J
1  J1J
1   0a11J
1 0J
2J1
2 2 0 JJ
0aJ12 3J
3 13J1
 aJ13 JJ43  a14 J 4
vi
i2 v 4 4
J1   J111  0 J 2 440J 3JJ1 i
   J J   i i
  J J    vvJ (17.18 (17.18
a) a)
  J1  i  J 4   J 1 v v 24 2
v  (17.18 a) ...(3.18 a)
  J1J1 iiJ4J4  J1 1v12v22 2
1 2 (17.18a)a)
(17.18
  J1  i  J 4   1 v cv2 c (17.18 a)
1 1v2 2c 2
JJ2  a J  a J  a c J  a J  a J
J 22  aa22JJ  a211J1cac222aJ222 J2a23 Ja323Ja3 24Ja4 24 J 4
21 1 
J a 2 J a 21 J

J 2J a J  aJ21 J211J101 J
a a22a22J2202JJ 2  a23 J3  a24 J4
2 a23 J 233  3 a24 J
JJ222a22002JJJ1  1
 a J  a 22 J2 a0
J  4 J a J
244 4
J 22  0 J1 11J2112J12  0 J0 3 0 J 423J 43 24 4
2 3
J  J01J1 1J12J2  0J  0J  ...(3.18 b)
J2 2 2J2 00
3
J J1J21J 2  00JJ3 3300J 4J 4 4 (17.18 b)
JJ22 




JJ3J22 
J 2    JJ2 2
J
aJJ322 J2  a31 J1  a32 J 2  a33 J 3  a34 J 4
(17.18b)(17.18
(17.18
(17.18(17.18
b)
b)
b) b)
J  aa33JJ a31aJ311J1 a32aJ322 J2a J 333Ja3 34Ja4 34 J 4
JJ3JJJ33333 aa033aJJ31J 0a Ja31231aJJ31111JJ1a3a3232Ja0J2322JJ4a2 33
aJ33a333J333a
Ja334aJ344aJ344J 4
JJ3  00JJ1 00J 2J 1J13J 0J04 J
JJ3J333J00J 0J1J11 0JJ022J2121JJ313J30 0J3 J404J 4 4  ...(3.18 c)
3 1 J3 (17.18 c)
 J
J 33  J
J 3JJ33 (17.18
(17.18(17.18 c)
c)(17.18c)(17.18
 JJ43J3 3 aJ 

43 J 3  a41 J1  a42 J 2  a43 J 3  a44 J 4
c) c)

JJJ44 a a44J Ja41aJ411 J1 a42aJ422 J 2a43 Ja343Ja344Ja4 44 J 4
J 4J  a aJ Jv
44 4a44 J  a41aJa 41141 J1J a1 42aJ42a2J2 J
42 243
a aJ433aJ43 3 aJ443aJ44
4Ja444 J 4
ic  '  vi v  J1  0 J 2  0 J 3   ic
ic' '
ic   i vi cvJ J 0J02 J20J 30J 3 ic   ic
icic 
ic '
 ''  iciicvJ11J1J1  0 J02J02J 0 J03J0 3 Jic  ic
 c c c 1 2 3   ic 
v
  2 J1  v J
 '  c 2 1
(17.18 d) (17.18...(3.18
  v'   c d) d)
1 v2 J12  v 2J
2
v 370 370
 '  c c 1 c 2 1 2 370 (17.18 d)(17.18 d)
  'v 2 c 370 370
Discussion Discussion of of Results
1  :21  v
ofcResultsResultsc 2::
2
370
Discussion
(1) (1)
Discussion Equation of of continuity in covariant form. form. The continuity equationequation
is
Discussion (1)Results
Equation Equation : continuity
ofofResults of continuity: in covariant in covariant form. TheThe
continuity
continuity is is
equation

(1) Equation
.J(1)  Equation of continuity
0  continuity in covariant form. The continuity equationequation
is
t.J  of 0 in covariant form. The continuity is
  t
.J   0  (ic0 )
can be written ast .J .J t   0(ic  )
can be written as((icict.J))   0
can beJwritten J as  . J
J J .J    (
0ic ( ict ) )
i.e. 1can  be2 written  3 as(4ict  )0  0
x1i.e.x2J1 x3J 2 x4 J 3  (Jict 4 )
0
J J2Jx J3Jx J4Jx Jx 
i.e. 1where     0
x1i.e. x2xic x J 4x  0
1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4

1 where 3x2 ic 4x3 J x4
and icticic
where
where
 x
 4 JJ44ic  J
4

J ict  x
where
and ict  x 4 4
and
and   .J44ict 0 x4 (17.19)
x
and J 
J    .J  0 (17.19)
   .JJx 0 . J 0 (17.19) (17.19)
x 
Where  
xis the four dimensional divergence operator.
x    ...(3.19)
Where    is the four dimensional divergence operator.
Where (17.19)
Where is isthe four dimensional
xcovariant ofdivergence operator.
Equation Where x   is the four form dimensional continuity divergence operator.
equation. This is unaltered
 x is the four dimensional divergence operator.
under Lorentz
Equation Equation
(17.19) transformation.
is(17.19)
covariant This equation
is covariant
form formalso
ofform shows
of continuity
continuity that four
equation. divergence
equation.
This is This This ofis unaltered
unaltered
Equation (17.19) is covariant of continuity equation. is unaltered
the current
under density
under
Lorentz Lorentzfour vector
transformation.  vanishes.
JThis
transformation. This also
equation equation
shows also
that shows
four that four divergence
divergence of of
46 Self-Instructional Material under Lorentz transformation. This equation also shows that four divergence of
(2) the
the current Special casefour
current
density : Let
density usfour
vector consider
vectorthatJ charge
 vanishes.
Jvector distribution is at rest in frame S.
vanishes.
the current
The (2)
current density
density four
J :inLetframe J  vanishes.
S is zero. i.e.charge J J
J=0, distribution J 0 Then
(2) Special (2) Special
case
Special : Let case
us :consider
case Let ususconsider
consider
that charge that
that distribution
charge is1 at rest
distribution
2
isinat3isframe
at rest
rest in frame
inS.frame S. S.
transformation equations (17.18) take the form 0 Then
The current The densitycurrentJdensityin frameJ in S isframe
zero. Si.e.is J=0,
zero. Ji.e.
 J=0,
J J3J1J0 J 
Then J03 Then
v The current density J in frame S is zero. i.e. J=0, J J2
1 2
1 2 3
transformation
J1   , J 2equations
transformation
transformation
2
 (17.18)
equations
0, J 3equations
 take
0 and (17.18)
 thetake
'(17.18) form
take the form
2 the form
(17.20)
v v
1v 2 vv 1 2  
J1 
 JJ1
 0,, JJ, 3J 
c , J 2  00,and
2
 3
0,J J '0 and

0 and 'c' (17.20) (17.20)
(17.20)
2 2
 4
ict  x4
and ict
and  x4
J 
..JJ  00
J   (17.19)

x   (17.19)
x

Where   isisthe
Where thefour
fourdimensional
dimensionaldivergence
divergenceoperator.
operator.
x
x
Equation
Equation
Equation (17.19)
(3.19)isisiscovariant
(17.19) covariant
covariantformform
form ofofofcontinuity
continuityequation.
continuity equation.This
equation. This
This isis unaltered
is unalteredunaltered
under Lorentz Four Vectors in
Electrodynamics
under Lorentz
transformation.
under Lorentz This transformation.
equation also
transformation. This
Thisshowsequation
equation also
thatalso shows
fourshows that
divergence four
that four divergence
of divergence
the currentof ofdensity four
vector J vanishes.
thecurrent
current densityfour
fourvector
vector JJ vanishes.
vanishes.
the density 
(2)
(2) Special case: :Let
Special case
case Letususconsider
consider thatthat charge
charge distribution
distribution is
restatininrest in frame S. The
(2) Special : Let us consider that charge distribution isis atat rest frame
frame S.S. NOTES
current density J in frame
The current
current S isJ zero.
density J1 = Ji.e.
i.e. JS=is0,zero. J3 = 0J
2 =J=0, then
1 JJ
transformation
J 3 00 Then
equations
The density J inin frame
frame S is zero. i.e. J=0, J
1 

2
2 J 3 Then
(3.18) take the form equations (17.18) take the form
transformation
transformation equations (17.18) take the form
v 
J1   v , J 2  0, J 3  0 and  '   (17.20)

J1   2 
v2 , J 2  
0, J 3  0 and  '  v22 ...(3.20) (17.20)
1 v 1 v
1  c22 1  c22
i.e. charge measured c in frame S  is the same asc that in frame S i.e. electric
Invariance ofof charge
charge :: IfIf dd''dx   
dx1 dx2 dx3 is the volume element in frame SS,,
Invariance
Invariance
i.e. charge of charge
measured : If
in d ‘
frame  dx
1 dxS  isdx
2 1dx
 2isdx'
3 the the
samevolume
is the
as element
volume
that in  frame
in
element
frame S;ini.e.frame S, then
electric
charge then
is invariant
charge underin Lorentz
contained the volume transformations,
element in 3
system but
S  is    the
then charge
charge containedcontained
in theinvolume
the volume elementelement in system
in system S isS  is v 2

charge is invariant under

' dx1dxLorentz
2 dx3 transformations, but 1 2  ; the

 dq '  dx   dx dx  ' dx1dx2 dx3  dx dx dx dq c
 dq '  dx  1 2 3
1 dx2 dx3  v 2 dx11dx22dx33 dq v2
electric
i.e. charge chargeindensity
measured frameisSnot  is relativistically
the 1same 2
1  v 2 as that invariant.
in frame S i.e. electric 1 
 c2 c2
17.5 electric
17.5 4-Potential
4-PotentialFour
charge is invariant charge
FourVector
under Vector
Lorentzdensity is notcrelativistically
transformations, but invariant.


; the
i.e. charge measured in frame S  is the same as 371
that insame
frameasSthat i.e.v 2inelectric
i.e.
17.5 charge measured
4-Potential inFourframe S is the frame S i.e. electric charge is
As
17.5
we have
4-Potential
study that
FourVector
magnetic
371
Vector
vector potential

1 2
and
charge invariant under
is invariant
electricare
charge densityunder
is not
Lorentz
Lorentz transformations,
transformations,
relativistically invariant.
but
but    A
 c
; scalar
the potential
the elctric charge  density is
known As we have
as electromagnetic
not relativisatically study
invarint. that magnetic
potentials becausevector theirpotential
variations
v 2
A and
withscalar
spacepotential
and 
1 2
17.5
17.5time4-Potential
4-Potential Four
are known
are responsibleFourfor Vector
as electromagnetic
Vector
electromagnetism. potentials
The Lorentzbecausecondition
their
c variations relates with space and
the space
electric charge density time are
is not relativistically
responsible for FOUR invariant.  The Lorentz condition relates the space
electromagnetism.
As we 3.6
variation haveof 4-POTENTIAL
study A (magnetic  vector
that magnetic vectorpotential)
potential VECTOR Awith time potential
and scalar variation of  (scalar
17.5
17.5 4-Potential
4-Potential
potential). variationFour
Four of Vector
Vector
A (magnetic vector potential) with time and variation of  (scalar
are known weThishavecondition
as electromagnetic
As studypotentials
thatformagnetic
freebecause
spacevector istheir potential
variations Apwith
andspacescalar potential  are known as
potential). This conditionThe for Lorentz
free space is
time areAsresponsible
we have study
electromagnetic magnetic
for electromagnetism.
thatpotentials 1 because
vector potential condition
A and scalar
their variations relates the space
withpotential
space and time are responsible for
are knownofas

electromagnetic
. A  2  
potentials
01  (17.21)
variation electromagnetism.
A (magnetic vector The .tA because
Lorentz
c potential) withtheir
 2condition  0timevariations
relates thewith
variation of space
space and of Ap (magnetic
variation
(scalar (17.21) vector
time are responsible forwithelectromagnetism. c  t 

potential).
We This potential)
know condition fortime space is The
free variation of Lorentz
(scalar condition
 that source of  is  (static charges) and that of A is J (moving
potential). relates
This the space for freespace is
condition
variation We
of A (magnetic  know 1and that
vector
 J are source
potential) of with is  (static
time forms charges)
variation and that of A is J (moving
of  (scalar
charges). Thus
 . A 
charges).cfor2 Thus  0 the two different of charge
(17.21) and
 andis J are the two different forms of charge and expressible ...(3.21)
 expressible in in
potential). This condition free
t space
terms of four terms current
 ofof1 that
know four  . The Jelectric
Jcurrent . The field infield
electric any ininertial frame frame
 inertial
any appears as as
appears
We know that We
source is source
 of charges)
(static is (static
and charges)
that of and
A isthat
J of A is Jp (moving
(moving charges). Thus
magnetic . Ain
field
magnetic  another  0 another
2 field inframe movingframe with
moving constant
with velocity
constant (17.21)
with
velocity respect
with to first
respect to first
charges). Thus  and  Jand
are the J caretwo
thet different
two differentformsforms of charge and expressible
of charge and expressible
 in in of four current J. The
 terms
frame. In this way in four dimensional system  and A  be
can expressed as the
termsknow
We of four electric
that frame.
current
sourcefieldof In this
J in.any
The way
is inertialin
electric four
 (staticframefield dimensional
charges) appears
in any as system
thatmagnetic
andinertial  and
A is field
offrame appearsA can asbe expressed
in another
J (moving frame as the with
moving
charges).
magnetic components
Thusconstant
field andofvelocity
components
in another aJ four
are the
frame vector
ofmoving
with arespect
twofour . toThis
Avector
different
with Afour
first frame.
forms
constant vector
. This
of four
In isvector
this
charge
velocity known
way in
and respect
with as four
isfour
known
expressible vector
asin
dimensional
to first potential
four vector
systempotential
 and Ap can


terms or electromagnetic
frame. ofIn four be
this way or
expressed
current
in four as four
electromagnetic
the potential.
four
components
J  . dimensional
The electricsystem We
potential.
of a
field in any can
four then
We
vectorcan
and inertial define
Athen
.
A can beframe Thisthis
define
expressedfourfour
appearsthis vector
vector
as the four
as is potential
vector
known potential
as four vector
magnetic ( Afield
components as
)potential ( Aor
of ina four
another ) aselectromagnetic
vector frame A .moving
This four four
with potential.
constant
vector is known We as
velocity canfour
then
with define
respect
vector thisfirst
to four vector potential (A) as
potential

or electromagnetic
frame. In this way in fourfourpotential. iA  We
 dimensional  can i  thendefine
system and Athis canfour vector potential
be expressed as the
 A,  (17.22)
A   A ,  c vector is known as four vector potential (17.22)
...(3.22)

( A ) as
components of a four vector

 Ac . This  four
or electromagnetic four i potential. We can then1 define   1this four vector potential
A  Note A, :Thecondition Lorentz condition . A  0 (17.22)
( A ) asNote : The Lorentz c  . A  2
 02
c t
c t
 i  1 i
A, x  Ay i. AAz 2 c 
A   Acondition
Note : The Lorentz 0 (17.22)
Ax Ay cA z  c c t  0
 x i y z  0 (ict )
Note x y z  (ict ) 1  0
Ax : The
Ay Lorentz
Az condition
cA1 A2 . A A3 2 A
  or )A 0  c t 4  0
x ory A1z A2 ( ict
x
i1  23 x A4x
3 0 x4


AxA1AyAx21Az
Ax3 2 cA4x3 x4  i  Self-Instructional Material
or     So   00 47
x x1 yx2 zx3  (ict x)4 . A  0 or A  A,
i   c 
So . A  0 or A   A, 
A A A3 A4  i  
or 0A, c 
So x1 .Ax2  0xor A 
x4  c  372
1 2 3

i 372
So . A  0 or A   A,  372
 c
 Note : The Lorentz condition . A  0

c 2 t
i

Ax Ay Az
   c  0
x y z  (ict )
A1 A2 A3 A4
or    0

x1 x2 x3 x4
Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics So . A  0
 or A   A, i 
 c

Since the Since Lorentz

the Lorentz transformations transformations govern govern the
372the lawlaw of offour
fourvector
vector transformation
transformation hence
NOTES Since
hence the
electromagnetic Lorentz transformations
four potential govern
must transform the law of four vector transformation
electromagnetic
Since the Lorentzfour potential
transformations must govern transform theaslaw as of four vector transformation
hence electromagnetic
Since the Lorentz fourtransformations potential must transform govern theaslaw of four vector transformation
Au  a A ...(
hence electromagnetic four potential must transform as ( 17.23) 3.23)
Sincethe
Since
Since thehence
Since
theAuLorentz
Since Lorentz
the electromagnetic
Lorentz aLorentz
the ALorentz
transformations
transformations
transformations transformations
transformations fourgovern potential
govern
govern governthegovern
the
the must
law
law law theof
of oftransform
the
fouroflaw
law
four
four asvector
of
four
vector
vector
vector four vector ( 17.23)
transformation
transformation
transformation
transformation
transformation
So
Sincethatthe AuuLorentz  a  A ( 17.23)( 17.23)
hence
So
hence
hence
So
hence that
electromagnetic
thatelectromagnetic
electromagnetic
hence Au transformations
electromagnetic
electromagnetic 
 afour  Apotential
fourpotential
four fourfour
potential govern
potential
musttransform
must
potential
must
the
mustlaw
transform
transform must of
transform
asas
as
fourasvector transformation
transform as
A1  a1 A four
So thatelectromagnetic
hence a11 Apotential 1  a12 A2must  a13transform A3  a14 Aas4
AAA
So A aa
uu 1uthat aAa
 A
uA AA 
A
  a a A
a  AA  a A  a A  a A (17.23)
17.23)
((17.23)
17.23) ( 17.23)( 17.23)
AAA   
thatSoA1that  a
a A A u
1 
A  0
 A a
 11 1
A

0  A a  12 2
iB
A  A a
13 3
A  a
14 4
A (
SoSothat
that u11
that 1A
11  
 0aA 21111 11 3 12 12 22 413 3 14 4
12A  0Aa311AiB 1  aA12134 A23  a1314A34  a14 A4
So
So that So 1 A 11 
A 
1   
aaa1A11A A a 0 A v
a1aia11A11A  0 A
aaa11a12)12 A  iB
1A22aaa12a13A A avaa13 A3A44 a14 A4
AAA
A 111
A11A1  

a11A
AA 1
11A
A 1 a a111AA A
22A
v111A
ic
1(1
 a 012A
 A
3A
a3A21122  A
A43
a3AA211234
A10a13(A13A 3AiB
 a
2 14
a1414
AA)A
Aa4413 A3  a14 A4 (17.23 a)
A A       AA A  A
 0 0A A11 ic
v   00(0
1 01A2212 0 A3323 iB 3A44 4 1 4ic
AA A 12  )

iB
0 iB A
 A 
A

13 ( iB A 3
 
A v
14  )
4 (17.23 a)
AA1111   A1A 11 2iA c10( ic30A)iB v 04A( 3A1 iBvA) 4 (17.23 a)
A  11    A  1A0
 1 A  A 2  A 1
 A2 A
1 1
2A 
  
1and
1
 vAv3c A1 Av3 i  (ic )    ( A1  v  ) (17.23 b)
(17.23 a)
 AAA 1 12   AA1 AA A
and
1
v
iivi A A
((ic
 (ic

1ic  i))A )3( ic
vc (()A (AA vv

1 ( A
v ))1)  v  ) (17.23a)
(17.23
(17.23 a)a) a)b)...(3.23 a)
(17.23
(17.23
But AA
1
   A  2 1
 1and i ccAc(33ic  A1 )
3
Ac33i ((ic
1
A11) v )  ( A1  v  ) (17.23 a)(17.23(17.23 a)
b)...(3.23
1 22  A 22 1

3 A
But   Aand c A  and 
A33 a42AA A c  (17.23 b) b)
But AA
A A2242  a A
A  A
42
 2and A and
2

A

A
A 2A3
 AA
aand2
341 A 3
1 3 2  a43 A3  a44 A4
3 (17.23
(17.23
(17.23 (17.23
b)
b)b) b)
 A
But
But 
2A  A
4 a 2 4and
2
A2A A33A a2 41and AA 31 
3
Aa3 42 AA23 a43 A3  a44 A4 (17.23 b) (17.23 b)
But
But
But ButA  a A a
But But 44  44    41 11  a42
A 42 A22  a43 43 A33  a44 44 A44
AiA4 4'aaa4A4A
A A 4
4AA
aa4aaa41A A

441
41
A
A A aa
1 1 a41a42a AA
42 A141A2A a43A43aAA242
a1aa42
2 iA33Aaa2a43a44A44AA3aA4434 aA443 A4a44 A4
A4i4' a44 iAA  

 Aa1a4141A01A 1
A2a42 42 2
aA02 A A3 a  43
43 3
aA3 i A a4444 Aa44 A  a A
c
i '  i  A1  0 A2  0 A3   i
4 4   41 1 42c 2 43 3 44 4
i
i  i c ' '  i 
 ii
' i '

( ' A  0 A  0 A  i 
i  c i  i
i c' 
' i 
 A A
1
11ivA
1

 00i01A A)A212
 2
200
A 01 0A
AAA
 320
320iiA
A 3
3 0cA3   (17.23 c)
ccc  ' i cic(A A
' 11  0vA A122) 0 A33   ccc
3
c ic (17.23 c)
 c '''  (((' in vA
  vAvA i)1
Covariant
(  11)) vA A11 ) 0form A2 c 0will A3 be A  0 where   1, (17.23 c)
Lorentz




condition
 '  
'  
 (c 'vA
(  

vA
 11) (  vA1 )
) cxA
(17.23
(17.23
2,3,
(17.23 c)
(17.23 c)c) c)(17.23
(17.23
c)
4 ...(3.23c) c)
Lorentz condition in1 Covariant form willbe 
A A  A A 0 where   1, 2,3, 4

Lorentz condition inin 'Covariant  (in  vA 1 )form
A x00where 
0A (17.23 c)
ininCovariant Covariant will be where 0where 1,1, 41,41,42,3,
2,3, 4

Lorentz
Lorentz
Lorentz Lorentz condition
condition
condition
LorentzA1 Acondition
condition Covariant
A3 inACovariant
Covariantformform
form will
will form
will be bewill
beform A be

x0xbe
will where where
 1,
 0
2,3,
2,3,
2,3,
where   1, 2,3, 4
Lorentz condition 2in Covariant form will be  x x  0 where  1, 2,3, 4
A1 A2  A3  A4 
4
0 xor
 x
  
  Ax . Au  0
 (17.24)
Lorentz
A xA1111 A
AA 1  A
AA x2condition
12222 

A AA3A
A x2333 in AA
A A xCovariant
3A4 444 A4
 0 form will or be .A0 
where
. Au  0  1, (17.24) 2,3, 4
A 1x
   A 2x A  
 A 3x A
 3 A 44

x
A  00 0 0  A 0 or
or or or or  x
 .
. A
A 

 00
. 0
A. A  
...(3.24) 0(17.24)
(17.24)
0
(17.24) (17.24)
(17.24)
Similarly xxx11x111 
1 1
xxx2xx2122
2 21 
2 x
xx333x2x33332xxx44x434x 44
0x4 4 
43
or0
 u u
or .Auu  0 u (17.24) uu
. Au  0 (17.24)
Similarly x  x  Ax  x  A
x  x  Ax   Ax
Similarly
Similarly Similarly
Similarly
Similarly   22 x 22 x 22 x 22 x  
Similarly
1 2 1 3 2 4 3 4
4
 0i  or  . Au  0 (17.24)
Similarly Similarly
         A , i    ( J , ic  ) (17.25)
 2 2 221
2x2 222222y2222
2
2
2 2
2 222
2
2 2
z22 22(ict
23 2
22)2iii
24
A

,icA i  0 
   ( J , ic  ) (17.25)
Similarly
2xx2 2 2  y2z22 2  2 2 
 2 )ict
A
 A

,,
A, i2A  
c,  ,

 
c  (
0(0

(
J
JiJ,,
ic
ic 
() )
J , ic
, ic(J) , ic  )   ) (17.25)(17.25)
(17.25)
(17.25)
0  (17.25)
2 0
 
 x   y x 22y
2y 
2
 z z   
(z (
ict 
ict (
)
2
ict
2)  
( 
A 
, )
 c
2
 
 c
  ( J , ic 
0
) (17.25)
2xxx2 2 yy2y 222zz2 z 222((ict ict()ict 2 c  0
) 222)   c 2 c2  A,i    0 (J , ic  )
(17.26) (17.25)
2 2 2 2 0
2 22Au  2x0 J  y 
0
Or  z  ( ict )   c   ...(3.25)
Or
Or
Or  2 A 
Or 2 22AAuAu uu 00uJJ020J  0 2  2
Or   A   J    J   2 
A ,     0 ( J , ic  ) (17.26)(17.25)
(17.26)(17.26)
(17.26)
(17.26)
Or  AAu uu 420x2J00J  y z  (ict )   c  (17.26) (17.26)
Or 4 44
Where 222 2 4  22 2A24u  2 0 J  
222222 D’Alembert operator and equation (17.26) isis known as (17.26)
...(3.26)
Where
Where
Where
Where 
 
Or 
Where
2   2 4

 

 
4
4 1   x
2A   D’Alembert
D’Alembert
D’Alembert
D’Alembert
  J D’Alembert operator
operator
operator operator operator
andand
and and and
equation
equation
equation equation
equation (17.26)
(17.26)
(17.26) (17.26)
isis
(17.26)
is known
known
known is known
as
as
known
as asas
(17.26)

2 2
Where 22
 1 xxx21 4D’Alembert
2  u x 2 0  operator and equation (17.26)(17.26) is known as
1 1x
1
Where   D’Alembert
 operator and equation is known as
'
Where
DDD''Alembert
Alembert
D
Alembert
' 'Alembert '

Alembert 
 1   x22x 22 
equation
equation
1
equation
1
equation  equation4
 1and
and
and
and 2
xand 2 this and
this D’Alembert
this is this
is is covariant
covariant covariant
is operator
covariant form
form form and
form
ofof equation
of of
Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s (17.26)
equation.
is known
equation.
equation.
equation. as
D  thisD’Alembert is covariant form of Maxwell’s equation.
D
D Alembert
Where    equation 2
D ' Alembert equation and2 this is covariant form of Maxwell’s
' Alembert equation

and
xLorentz
Lorentz
this
this
is
is this
covariant
covariant
operator form
form
and
 
of
equation
of
Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s (17.26) equation.
is known
equation.equation. as
D’AlembertD’Alembert
D’Alembert
D’Alembert
D’Alembert D ' operator
operator
operator
Alembert
operator operator
 is 1is is
equation
is Lorentz Lorentz

Lorentz is Lorentz
invariant,
and
invariant, invariant,
invariant, invariant, where
where
is
wherewherewhere  
where
covariant     
is
 xx isisfouris four
four
form

four is is four
four
dimensional
dimensional
of
dimensional dimensional
dimensionalequation.
Maxwell’s
D’Alembertoperator
D’Alembert operator is is Lorentz invariant, invariant, where   x x
 x is four
dimensional dimensional
D’Alembert D ' Alembert operator equation
is Lorentz and this
invariant, is covariant
where  x




form
 x

is offour Maxwell’s
dimensional equation.
divergencedivergence
divergence
divergence
divergence D’Alembert operator.
operator.
operator.
operator. operator. Equation
Equation
Equation
operator
Equation Equation (17.24)
(17.24)
is(17.24)
(17.24) Lorentz (17.24)
isiscovariant
is covariant is covariant
iscovariant
covariant
invariant, equation
equation
where
equation  equation
equation and
xand
and 

isisisand
and known
known
known known
is four
is known
as asas
asas dimensional
divergence
divergenceoperator. operator.Equation Equation (17.24) (17.24) is covariant is covariant equation  and is 
equation 
 known
x is as
and known as
Lorentz D’Alembert
Lorentz
Lorentz
Lorentz
divergence
Lorentz conditioncondition
condition
condition
operator.
condition in operator
ininin covariant
covariant isform.
covariant
Equation
covariant Lorentz
in covariant
form.
form.
form.
(17.24)form.
This
This isinvariant,
This
This This
equation
equation
equation
covariant
equation where
equation
expressesthat
expresses
expresses
equation
expresses that
that
expresses is
the
that
andthe four
that
the thedimensional
the
four
four
isfour
known
four four
four
as
Lorentz
Lorentz condition
divergence
divergencecondition
divergence
of the in
of the covariant
operator.
in covariantform.
Equation
electromagnetic
electromagnetic form.
four This
four equation
(17.24)
This
potential
potential is expresses
covariant
equation
vanishes.
vanishes. xthethat
that
equation
expresses andtheis known
four as
divergence of
divergence
divergence ofofthe
the electromagnetic
theelectromagnetic
electromagnetic
electromagnetic fourfour
four potential
potential
potential vanishes.
vanishes.
vanishes.
Lorentz
divergence
divergencecondition
divergence
of
Lorentz the
of in
thecondition covariant
operator.
electromagnetic four
in (3.24)form.
Equationpotential
four
covariant This
(17.24) equation
is
vanishes.
potential vanishes.
form. equation
This expresses
covariant
equation equation that
expressesand theis four
known as
that condition
the four
divergence
divergence ofoperator.
the Equation
electromagnetic fouris covariant
potential vanishes. and is known as Lorentz
Lorentz
divergence
in covariant condition
form. ofThis in covariant
theequation
electromagnetic
expresses form.
four Thisfourequation
thatpotential
the vanishes.
divergenceexpresses that the four
of the electromagnetic
373
373 373
divergence
four potential of the electromagnetic
vanishes.
373 four potential vanishes.
373 373
373
373
48 Self-Instructional Material
373
373
 17.6
17.6Covariant
CovariantContinuity
ContinuityEquation
Equation
17.6
The law 17.6
Covariant
Covariant
of conservation
Continuity
Continuity
of charge
Equation
Equation
is mathematically expressed by the continuity
17.6 17.6 Covariant
Covariant Continuity
Continuity Equation17.6
Equation
17.6 Covariant
Covariant Continuity
Continuity Equation
Equation
17.6
equation
17.6The Covariant
Covariant Continuity
Continuity Equation
Equation
law of conservation of charge is mathematically expressed by the continuity
3.7 The lawofconservation
COVARIANT CONTINUITY
of charge is mathematically The law of EQUATION
conservation
expressed by of thecharge is mathematically expressedFour
continuity by Vectors in
the continuity
The lawequation
divJ
of
17.6 conservation
Covariant
 0 of charge
t  Continuity Equation is mathematically equation expressed by the (17.27)
continuity Electrodynamics
equation
17.6 Covariant Continuity Equation
The
equation law of conservation
Where J is current densitydivJ   of
0 charge is mathematically
and represents flow of charge expressed
 per unit by the areacontinuity
per sec equation
(17.27)
t divJ   0 (17.27)
,whereas Thelaw
Where isdivJ of
volume 
conservation 
charge0 ofdensity charge isand represents
mathematically charge
expressed t per unit
by the volume.
continuity (17.27) So itsec
divJ  J is  current
 0
 t density
...(3.27) and represents flow of charge per unit area
(17.27) per
equation t current Where flowJ isofhence current density andarea represents secitflow of charge perNOTES unit area per sec
is clearWhere that J and
,whereas is isJ volumeare density
merely charge and
twodensity represents
formsand of represents
charge, charge
charge can perbeunit
per unit volume.
represented per asSo
where
Where J is current
J is current density
 
density and
and four represents
represents flow
,whereas
flow of charge is per
volume unit area
charge per
density sec, andwhereas
represents  is
charge per unit volume. So it
).ofcharge,charge perperunit area per sec


0J are
 (17.27)
,whereas
components is clear ofdivJcurrent
that isvolume
andt
 densitycharge merely density vector
two and
forms( represents
J  of The charge
equation
hence  can unit
(17.27)be volume.
contains
represented So itas
volume charge
,whereas  is volume densitycharge and represents
density four and charge
represents
is clearper unit that volume.
charge andper J are So merely
unit itvolume.
is clear twoSo that
formsit ofand Jp are hence can be represented as
charge,
iscomponents
clear that
Where J is current of
andcurrent are density
Jdensity merely two forms
and represents vector flow of (charge,
of ). The
J  charge henceequation
per can
unit be
area (17.27)
per seccontains
represented as
isspace
merely and twotime
clearcomponents
that
,whereas forms and is
derivatives
ofJofvolume charge,
are
current merely hence
density
charge
andtwo
density can
forms
four
respectively.
t and  of
components
be represented
vector charge,
represents ( J  ).charge
Thus as
hence
The
itpercan
of componentscan
current berepresented
density
unitbevolume.
equation
conveniently
(17.27)
four vector
of current ( J ). The equation (17.27) contains
it asdensity four
Socontains
components space of andcurrent time derivatives   and respectively. Thus it can be and conveniently

transformed
vectoris( Jclear into
 ). The thatcovariant and Jdensity
equation
 form.
are(3.27)
merely four contains
twovector space
tspace
forms ).and
(ofJ charge, and The time
time equation
hence can be (17.27)
derivatives
derivatives  and
represented contains
as respectively.
respectively.Thus it can be conveniently
space and time derivatives  and respectively. Thus it can be 
conveniently t
Equation
Thus andtransformed
itcomponents
(17.2)
can can
be conveniently into
of covariant
becurrent
written density form.
asand four vector t into  ). The
( Jform. equation (17.27) contains
space time derivatives transformed transformed
respectively. Equation
Thus into covariant
it can (3.2)be can
form. be written as
conveniently
transformed
Equation
space  (17.2)
( ic into

and time derivatives ) covariant
can be writtenform.
 and
as
 t 
Equation (17.2)
respectively. Thus itcan canbebewritten as
conveniently
transformed .J  into(17.2) covariant  0 t
Equation ( ict ) can(ic be)form.written as  (ic  )
.J into  covariant  0form. .J  0
Equationtransformed
(17.2)
J . J
can  J  be( ic(written

ict

)
J
)
 0 
as( ic  )  (ict )

Equation (17.2) y
Or x(icJ) (ictJ) yz J  (ic can be written as  0) J J
.J xOr .(Jict
yx (ic
)


0)z   (z ict
J  0 )  0 Or x  y  J z   (ic  )  0
Jxx  (ict)yy Jzz  (ic(ict  ))
If we use theOr following  four  dimensional  system
 0 in which x y
we have z  (ict )
If wewe use xJfollowing
the JyJ four
following zzfour (ict) )
(ic)dimensional system in which we dimensional
have
 x1 x ,If
x2 Juse
Or y the
x, x J xzy
Or3 , x4 y zictJand
(icdimensional
 J1  J0x,0J 2Ifsystem
weJ y , J 3 in
use thewhich
z, J 4 weicthave
Jfollowing four system in which we have
 x
If we1 x
use, x
x 2thexfollowing y  , x
y 3 yz four z, x ict
4 z  (ict and
dimensional
 ()ict ) 1 J  J x , J
system
x1 2
x , x J , J
y
2iny which, x
3 3 we J z ,
z
 ,
J
 x
4have
4 ict
ict and  J 1 J x, J 2 J y , J 3 J z, J 4 ict
 J ,use  J  J  J
If we x1If we
use 1x
the  xfollowing
2J
2 y
the ,following
x3J 3four z,xJ4four
4 ict
 0Jand
dimensional
dimensional  J1 system Jorx
system, J 2 inin which
Jwhich
yJ,1J 3 we JJ2 zhave
, J4J ictJ
 x  x 1
  x 2
  x 3
 4
 0 or  we have3  4  0 or
 x 1 x ,xJ2 x2 y , xJ3x 3 z , xJ4x 4 ict and
x4 J4 1 J1 J x , J 2 J y , J3x J z , xJ 4 ict x3 x4
 x1 x , x21 y , x13 1  z , 2x24  3 3 and
ict J J ,
 J J , J 1 J ,
 J2 ict
    0 x 2 ory 3 4 z 4
xJ1J14 
4
xJ 2 Jx3 J x4  J
J Jx 2 x  2J
0J 3 J 4
 3  4  0 or
 0 (17.28) (17.28)
1
 4
 1,2,3,4 x1  J 2
x

 x
 3  0  x 40 or  1,2,3,4 x
(17.28)
x1  x1,2,3,4 Jx3  0x4
.4J    42

0
 
.J   0
(17.28)
 
J.J  x0  0
1,2,3,4  x  (17.28)
 (3.28)
WhereWhere
 .xJ  00
 1,2,3,4

 1,2,3,4is.four
 

J is0dimensional divergence Where operator


is four
and
  (17.28)
Jdimensional
is four divergence
current operator and

J  is four current
 x  x four dimensional divergence operator x and J  is four current
.J   0 isisis four 
densityWhere
Where
Where
vector.
density vector. Equation
xx
four
four dimensional
dimensional
dimensional
(17.28) is divergence
divergence
divergence
Equation (17.28) is covariant continuity Jequation
covariant density operator
operator
continuity operator
vector.and and and
Equation
equation  is i.e.is i.e.
isJfour
(17.28) four
current
current
its is current
form covariant
its formdensity continuity equation i.e. its form in
in in vector.
under unaltered under Lorentz  transformation. This equation expresses that the four
unaltered
Where density
Equationunaltered
density isvector.
(3.28) four
vector. Lorentz
under Equation
Lorentz
dimensional
Equation
is covariant transformation.
(17.28)
(17.28)
continuity is iscovariant
transformation.
divergence This
covariant
equation equation
This
operator continuity
continuity equation
i.e. expresses
and
equation
its equation
form expresses
J in that
isdensity
i.e. i.e.form
four
its
unaltered the
its
that current
in four
form
theunder in Lorentz
four
 x divergence of the current four vector J  vanishes.
divergence
unaltered of the
divergence
unaltered
transformation. under current
of
under
This theLorentz density
current
Lorentz
equation four vector
density
transformation.
transformation.
expresses fourthat vectorJ the
This vanishes.
This Jfour vanishes.
 equation
equation expresses
divergence expresses thatthe
of that
the the four
four
current density four
density vector.
divergence Equation
of current(17.28) density is covariant
four vector 17.717.7
continuityWave
vanishes. Wave Equations
Equations
equation i.e. its form in
17.7 Wave
divergence
17.717.7
vector Wave
J17.7 Wave
vanishes. Equations
Wave of the
Equations current
Equations
Equations density four vector J  J  vanishes.
unaltered 17.7
17.7  under
17.7 Wave
Wave Wave Lorentz Equations
Equations
Equations transformation. ThisConsider equation two expresses that Sthe four
divergence
17.7 of
Wave Equations systems S and ' . Where S ' is moving with velocity v relative
Consider
3.8 WAVE twothesystems
Consider current
two systems
EQUATIONS Sdensity
andS Sand four
' . WhereSvector
' . Where S 'Jis vanishes.
' is moving
Smoving withwith velocity
velocity v relative
v relative
Consider two systems S and S ' . Where S ' is moving with velocity v relative
relative374
17.7
17.7Wave WaveEquations
Consider two
Equations systems S and S '
374 374
. Where S ' is moving with velocity v
Consider two systems S and S' . Where S'374 is moving with velocity v relative to S along (+ve)
istotravelling
S along (+ve) direction of x-axis. If a wave is travelling in a space w
374
to Softwo
Consider
direction along (+ve)
systems
x-axis. direction
and is
If aSwave of x-axis.
. Where
S 'travelling ' isIfamoving
S in a wavewith
space with velocity vvinin
velocity asystems
space with
relative velocity
S, then the
v in systems S, then the propagation wave Equation for such a wave is o
v in systems
propagation S, then the
wave Equation for propagation
wave wave
such a374 is of theEquation
form for such a wave is 2of the form
 2 2  1 2 
     0
2 2 2 2
    1    2
 2  2  2  2 2   0 ...(3.29)  x y 2 z 2 (17.29)
c 2 t 2 
 x y z c t 
Where  is known as wave function and differential
Where  is known as wave function and   2 differential
2 2 1operator
2 
Where  is known 2 as2 wave function
2 and
2 differential operator     2 
is called D’Alembert’s operator
    1    x 2
y 2
 z 2
c 2
t 
   2
 2
is called D’Alembert’s operator and it is
2 2 2 
 x
is called D’Alembert’s yoperator
z and c ittis denoted by denoted by 2 . Here of isx, function
2. Here  is function y, z and of x, y, z and t and thus it may be
t and thus it maybybewritten
denoted 2
. Hereasis( x,function
y, z, t ).of x, y, z and
 ( xt, and
y, z, tthus
) . it may be written as
 ( x, y, z, t ) . Now in frame S ' which is moving relative to S, the propagation wave
Now in frame S ' which is moving relative to S,same by equationSelf-Instructional
wave is givenwave
the propagation of Material 49

same wave is given by  2 2 2 1 2 

 2  2  2  2 2  
0
 2 2 2 1 2   x y z c t 
 2    2 

0 (17.30)
where c is not primed, because according to the second postulates of spe
 x y z  c t  
2 2 2

relativity c is always constant. Thus  may be written as

where c is not primed, because according to the ofsecond postulates of special theory
 ( x ', y ', z ', t ')
 

x 2  2x
isy known z
2y
c as 2z 2  c t 
t  wave function and differential operator
Where Where Where   isis known known asas function
wave wave function function andand differential
differential operator
operator
Where   2 is 2 2 known 2 as 2wave
2  2 2 1 22  2
and differential operator
    1 1is 2called   is D’Alembert’s
 x2 2  y22 22z2 21c2 2t 2  called D’Alembert’s operator operator
2 2 2 2 2 is called D’Alembert’s operator and it is
and it isand it is
 2   2x 2x 2yy 2zz2  cisctcalled
2 2 t  D’Alembert’s operator and it is
x y z c t 
denoteddenoted
by 22 .by
denoted Here
by 22 is function of x, y, z and t and thus it may be written as
. Here is isfunction
denoted by  . Here  is function  . Here offunction
x, y, zofand ofx, x,y,t and
y,z and
zthus
andt and
itt and thus
thus
may it may
beitwritten
may beasbe written
written as as
 ( x, y,z,(tx)(,x. y, ,yz, ,zt,)t.) .
 ( x, y, z, t ) .
Electrodynamics and Now inNowframe
NowinininSframe ' which
Sframe is' which
S' which moving
is moving relative
relativetorelative
S,tothe topropagation
S, the
S, S,propagation wave
waveequation
equation ofof same
Plasma Physics Now inNow frame 'frame
whichS S'iswhichmoving is isrelative
moving
moving torelative
S, the to thethepropagation
propagation propagation wave
wave
wave equation equation
ofequation of of
same
wave waveissame iswave
given given
waveby isby
same same
wave is
2
given 2
byisgiven
givenbyby
2 2
 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 11222  11 2 2
0 
  2   2   2     0 0 ...(3.30) (17.30)(17.30)
(17.30)
  2 02 2  (17.30)
2
 x2  y2 2 2 z2 2 2 c2 2 t22 2 
2
     
NOTES  x yx x z yy c ztz  c ct t  
where
whereccwhere
where isiswhere
c not notnot
is primed,
cisisprimed,
cprimed, not notprimed,because
primed,
because because according
because
because
according according totothethe
according
according second
to tothe
tosecond
the the
second postulates
second
second of special
ofpostulates
postulates
postulates postulatesof of
special of
specialtheory
special
special
theory theorytheory
theoryof
of relativity
ofrelativity
relativityofofrelativity ccisisisalways
crelativity always
always c cisis constant.
constant.
alwaysconstant.
always
constant. Thusmay
Thus
constant.
Thus may
Thus
Thus
may be
bebe written
written
may maybeasas
written aswritten
bewritten as as
 ( x
(x',
 ( x ', y  ', y
y', ',
',  z
z', ', t
t') ')
z(',x(t',x')',y y', z', ',zt',')t ')
IfIf (( xx ',',IfIfyyIf',',(x',
zz(',',x(ty',
tx',')')',yz', and
y',and ')t(')(xx,and
',zt')',z t',respectively,yand
y, z, ,zt,()txare
)(,xare
then ,,ztcoordinates
and
y,,yzcoordinates
), tare z,oft)of
(x,coordinates
) are anyany
y,coordinates
are event
coordinates
of of
anyany
event inSevent
of
in event Sand
any and
inevent
inSS' in 'Sand
SSand S 'S'S '
and
respectively
respectively
respectively respectively
respectively then DD'then
then the D' ' Alembertian
Alembertian
Alembertian
thenDD' Alembertian operatoroperator
operator
operator
' Alembertian insystem
in system
system
inoperator SisSsystem
is
inSinsystemis S isS is
2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1222 1 1 2 2
and Alembertian operator in'system is inS 'isSis'
2
2 
W  2  2 2 2and
2  DD
S' D' 'Alembertian
' Alembertian
and operator inoperator
operator
' Alembertian
andD D ' Alembertian in isS ' in
Soperator is
xx2 yy2x2x 2 zz2y2y 2c 2czt22zt2 c 2c2 t2 t 2
 22 2 2 22 2 2 22 2 1 1222 2 1 1 2 2
'22  
W ' 2
    2 2 2 222 2
xx'2'2 ' yyx'2'x22 '2 z yz'2'y22 '2c
cz'tz' t'2' c c2 t' t '2
According to
to transformation
transformation
According
According ofofdifferential
differential
tototransformation
transformation ofof operator
differential weoperator
operator
differential have
we have
operator wewe
have
have

 11  1 1 vv   v v  

xx '' 2 x c 2 2t  2 
2
x'' 1 
11x x 2 c t
1   2 xx c ctt 
2

 
      
yy'' yyy ' y
y ' y
 
     
z '  z 
z ' zz'z ' zz
and and
and
1 and
 
  1 v 1 1       

t '
 1t '  2  vx 2 tvvx  t  
2
t ' 1   1 x 2 t  
Which gives 2t2 ' 1    22x 2t2  2 2
Which
Whichgives
Which gives 
gives 11   vv  22v v 2 2  

   4 4 2 2 2 2 
xx''22 (1
(122))xx2 2 375
cc t t c c xxtt 
375 375
22 22 22 22 375
   
 22
22 
and
and 2 2  2 2
yy'' yy zz' ' zz
22 11  22 22 2 2 2 2  
And

 2  v
v 
2  2  2v
 2 v 
tt ''22 (1
(1 2)) xx 2 t t 2 xxtt 
22 22 22 22
   1 
  2  2  21 2
2
 
Therefore 
Therefore 2
2 
x ' 2 y ' 2 z ' 2 c 2z ' 2
x ' y ' z ' c z '
 11  22 vv2 2 2 2 22vv 2 2    2 2  2 2
 
 2 

2  4

2  2  
t t  y2y 2 z2z 2
11  2 xx 2 cc 4 t t 2 cc 2xx 
11 11  2 22 2 2 2 2  
 2 v 2   2v 
c 2 (1   22) v x 2 2 t 2 2  2vxt  
c (1   )  x t xt 
2  22  22  2 2 1  2 2 2


 2       1    2
  x 22 y 22 z 2 2 c 2 2t 2 2   
x y z c t
Thus we may say that 2 2is invariant under Lorentz transformation. But
50 Self-Instructional Material Thus we may say that  is invariant under Lorentz transformation. But
 22  22  22
     i.e. Laplacian operator is not invariant under Lorentz
2

x 22  y 22  z 22 i.e. Laplacian operator is not invariant under Lorentz
2

x y
transformation. z
transformation.
17.8
17.8Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise
Exercise
17.8
17.8Self
SelfLearning
LearningExercise
Exercise
Section A : Very Short Answer Type Questions
  1   v  2v    
  2  2
 4 2 2  2  2
 1     x c t c xt  y z
1 1  2 2 2 2 
 2  v   2v 
c (1   2 )  x 2 t 2 xt 
2 2 2 2 1 2
      2
x 2 y 2 z 2 c 2 t 2
Thus we may say that  2 is invariant under Lorentz transformation. But Four Vectors in
Thus we may say that 2 is invariant under Lorentz transformation. But Electrodynamics
2 2 2
2
   i.e. Laplacian
Laplacianoperator
operator
is notisinvariant
not invariant undertransformation.
under Lorentz Lorentz
x 2 y 2 z 2
transformation. NOTES
3.9 COVARIANCE OF MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS (FOUR
17.8
17.8Self
TENSOR SelfLearning
FORM) Exercise
Learning Exercise
In orderSection A covariance
to obtain : Very Short Answer Type
of Maxwell’s equationsQuestions we have to represent these equations
in terms
Q.1 of four
What vectors.
 Maxwell’s
is Minkowski space? field equations  in free space are
divE   
 ( a ) 
Q.2 What is four divE
divE  

vector?  (
( a
a )
) 
divE  0 ( a ) 
  
0
0000 
Section divB
B : Short
 0 Answer Type Questions
( b )
divB
divB   0
00  ( b )
((bb)) 
divB 
Q.3 Express Lorentz  condition
 and equation ofcontinuity in covariance form.
  B B
(  (17.31)
CurlE
Q.4 What is a CurlE
four
CurlE 
vector?

 B ((cc))) ...(3.31)
c
Bt Explain with examples. (17.31)
CurlE  tt (c)  (17.31) (17.31)
t 
17.9Covariance
17.9 Covariance
CurlB

of
 of Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s
 
  J  
E
E  equations
  equations
( d ) 
(FourTensor
(Four Tensorform)
form)
 0  J  0 E
CurlB
 E  ( d ) 
00  J  00 t  (d )
In orderCurlB to
CurlB  obtaincovariance00 
0
 J  000 tof Maxwell’s
tt  ( d )  equations we have to represent
  Maxwell’s 
these equations
Writing in terms
these of fourin vectors.
equations component form by field equations
introducing the in free space
coordinates
Writing
Writing these
these equations
equations in
in component
component form
form by
by introducing
introducing the
the coordinates
coordinates
are Writing these
Writing xxthese
equations
equations in in component
xxcomponent
form
form by introducing the coordinates
xx4 . by introducing the coordinates

 1 ,, y
xx
 y xx 2 ,z ,z 3 and
and ict
ict 
 .
 xx xx 11 , y
1 xx 22 ,z
2 xx333 and
3 ict  x44 .
4
 11 , y  22 ,z 3 and ict  x44 .
E  E
E yy  Ez   E 
E Exx  E  17.32(a)
x y z
E  17.32(a)
Exxxxx  
 Eyyyy  
yy  zz  Ezzzzz   0 376

 17.32(a)
17.32(a)
 x x By z 000  0 (3.32)(a)
0
0
B B  B B
xx  B yy  B
y
B
x
B
z 
z
00 17.32(b)
17.32(b)
Bxxxx   Byyyy   Bzzzzz   0 17.32(b)
xx  yy  zz  17.32(b)
0 ...(3.32)(b)
x y B z
curlE ic B  00 17.32(c)
curlE 
curlE 
 ic xB
ic B4   0 17.32(c)
17.32(c)
curlE  ic xx44  0 ...(3.32)(c)17.32(c)
ii xE 44
curlB  i E 4
 u0 J 17.32(d)
curlB
curlB 
 c i xE E4   uu000 JJ 17.32(d)
17.32(d)
curlB  cc xx44  17.32(d)
u00 J ...(3.32)(d)
c x444
E1 E2 E3 
E 11   E 22   E 33  
 17.32(a’)
E E x 11  
 
E
E
x 22  
 

E
E
x 33 
  17.32(a’)
17.32(a’)
...(3.32((a’)
xx111  xx222  xx333 
1 2 3


0
00 17.32(a’)
x11 x22 x33 00
1 2 3 0
B B B
B 11   B 22   B 33  00 17.32(b’)
1 2 3
B   B  B 33  17.32(b’)
B xx111 
1

B
 x
x 2
2  
2
2
 

Bx
x3 3 
 0
0
 ...(3.32)(b’)
17.32(b’)
17.32(b’)
xx111 xx222 xx333
1 2 3

NowNow
Now considering
considering
considering
1 the
the
the non
non homogeneous
2
homogeneous
non
3
homogeneous pair
pair ofof
pair equations
equations
of i.e
i.e
equations i.e equation
equation
equation (17.32
(3.32 a) a)
(17.32 and
and
a) and
Now
Now considering
considering the
the non
non homogeneous
homogeneous pair
pair of
of equations
equations i.e
i.e equation
equation (17.32
(17.32 a)
a) and
and
(3.32 d)(17.32
in d)
terms in
of terms of
componentscomponents
we get we get
(17.32 d) in terms of components we get
(17.32
(17.32 d)
d) in
interms
terms of
of components
components we
we get
get
B B i E E
00  B zz   B yy  ii  xx  17.33 (a)
z y x
B B  E 
 0J 1 ...(3.33)(a)
17.33 (a)
  00 J
B yy   E xx 
B  i 17.33
00  x  x y  c  x   J 17.33 (a)
z
z 11
 xx222  xx333  cc xx444 
z x
000 J111 (a)
x222 x333 c x444E
Bz B B x  ii E yy 
 B B zz  0    B i E yyy   0J 2  17.33 (b)
...(3.33)(b)
  0
Bx1zz  0  B  x3xxx 
xx
cci E xx4y   00 J 17.33
17.33 (b)
   J 17.33 (b)
z 22
 xx11  0  xx33  c x44  00 J 22
0 2 (b)
B x111 x333 c x444
B i E z
B yy   BBx  0  i E 17.33 (c)
y x
B
B yyy  Bxxx  0  ii  E zz  0 J 3 17.33 Self-Instructional Material
(c) 51
xx1  x  0  c E
x zz 
 
 00 JJ 33 17.33 (c)

xx111 xx222 x 2  0  c x4 
x
cc xx444
z
 00 J 33
0 3 17.33 (c)
1 2 4

377
377
377
377
377
 (17.32 d) in terms of components we get
Bz By i E x
0   0 J1
 17.33 (a)
x2 x3 c x4
Bz B i E y
 0 x  0 J 2 17.33 (b)
x1 x3 c x4
Electrodynamics and B y Bx i E z
Plasma Physics
 0  0 J 3  17.33 (c)(c)
...(3.33)
x1 x2 c x4
E EyEEx xEzE EEy y EEz z 
and xand and
and
  E 
 EE   
E  E y 0
y

E EEzz This 00   This
can beThis can
written bebe
canbe written
aswritten
writtenasasas
x1and x2Exx1x
and x 
x
 xy  Ex
 x   x
E

 x  00  

This This
This can can
can
be be written
written as as
andxxx11 1x3xx222 2xxx333003
x z
NOTES y z
0  This can be written as
00 0377
1x 2x 3x 0 0
i E x ii iE EE 1 ii iE Ey2 i i3EEz z 0

iiiEEExxyxixiiEyEEyyz iyi0iE EEzz0 J400  JJ 17.33

17.33 (d)17.33 (d)
17.33(d)(d)
c x1 ciccxExx2x1x  ic Ex3yx2 
1 c cx
 icczE xzx3000
3
 000JJ0444 4
J 17.33
17.33 (d)(d)
c cccx1xxx11 ccccx2xxx22 ccccx3xxx33  0 
2 0 4 J
0 4 ...(3.33)d) 17.33 (d)
Considering
Considering J
J1 , J 2 , J 3 J1and
Considering , J , J
, J , J3 34 and andin the J in
J4 4 R.H.S. the
in thethe of R.H.S. of
equations
R.H.S. equations (17.33)
(17.33) (17.33)
of equations
equations as(17.33)
the asasas the
thethe
1 2 3
Considering
Considering
Considering J J
, JJ11,,J,1JJ222,,2JJ3and
3 andand J JJ44in inthe
in the R.H.S.R.H.S.
R.H.S. of ofequations
of equations (17.33)
(17.33) as asthethe
componentsConsidering
components
of current
components J1, Jof J ,
21of
J
, 32current, J
density
current and
J4 indensity
four J
density in
vectorthe
four
four R.H.S.
vector
 .vector
Now of . weequations
Now
JJ (3.33)
. Now
Now we
introduce(17.33)the ofthe
introduce
wecomponents as
introduce the
thethe
Considering 1 2 3and the4 R.H.S.
4 ofJ equations as the
components
components
components of ofof current current
current 3
densitydensity
density four four
four vector
vector
vector J J
J
. . we introduce
 Now we introduce thethe
. Now we introduce
electromagnetic
current components
electromagnetic antisymmetric
electromagnetic
density four of antisymmetric
vector current fielddensity
antisymmetric
J. Now tensor
we field
field
introduce tensor
byfourtensor thebyby
vector J  . Now antisymmetric
electromagnetic
 we introducefieldthe
electromagnetic antisymmetric
electromagnetic
electromagnetic antisymmetric field
antisymmetric field fieldtensor
tensor tensor by
by by by
tensor
A
electromagnetic
by A antisymmetric
AAAA field tensor
AA ..(3.34)

F AAA
F
F
 A (17.34)
(17.34) (17.34)
(17.34)
F FF
 
 A x
x A x  A   A A (17.34)
(17.34)

F x  A
  xxx AAA

(17.34)
where
where Awhere AAelectromagnetic
 is or A isiselectromagnetic potentialpotential potential
four vector. four vector.
 where
or A or A electromagnetic potential fourvector.
vector.
where
where
where A A or
A
or or
A A
is
is is electromagnetic
is electromagnetic
Aelectromagnetic
electromagnetic potential
potential
potential four
four four
four vector.
vector.
vector.
where A or A is electromagnetic  
potential fouriEvector. iEiEx x 
 0  B z0000  BBBB yB z z   BxByy iEiE
iEcxxc 
0  B zz  B yBcByy xiE
 
  0 z Bz  B y c cc x  
 F11 F12 F FF
13 F14FF  FF 1313FF 1414   iE y  iE
ciEyy 
 F F F11F FF F1112FF
F11
1111
F
1212
12 F F13F13 FF  B z 0BBz z Bx 00  BB iE
iE
iE cyyyc 
14
21 22 23
F F12
F 13 F F 14 F14
F 
F2121F2412F2222 13F232314F2424 B BBzz 0 00 B BBcxx  x   yiE
x
  F  FFFF F 11
21 F22
 F 22 F23 F F
FF2424 z Bz  0 x Bx  c cc  ...(3.35) (17.35)
(17.35) (17.35)
(17.35)
  F  
F F
21 22F F  F F2324  
  F FF F  21
 F F F
21 F F F
22
23 F F
23  F
24      iE  iE
ciE     (17.35)
(17.35)
 F  F31F

31 32
F F3132FF
33
31
31 31 34
F
32
32F
32
F33F33FF
33 33
B
34
34y  
34
BBB B 0BB  00 iE z
iEzz z z
(17.35)
 F41 F42F F F4141FFF4432
F43 32
F423342FF33F4334FF F4444 ByB
34
4334
xyyy y BBBxxx x0 0c0  iE ziE
 czc 
31
FF41 FF42F FF43FF4444  By xiE Bx 0  cc 
 F41FF41 42 F
41 F42 F43 F44x  iE
42 43 43 44iE iE  iE iE iE iEy y iEiEzz c c  
 x iEiE
y x x iE y iE
z
0iE  00 
 c  iE ciE
 cxxc cyiEcyyc iE ziEczzzc 0 00  
xiE
 0 
 c ccc c ccc c ccc compact
Now
Nowequations
Now equations (17.33 a,(17.33
equations c,d)a,may
b,(17.33 a,b,b,c,d)bec,d) may maybebeinwritten
written a moreinincompact
written aamore
more compact
form form
formbybysingle
by single single
Now Now
Now
Now equations
equations
equations
equations (17.33 (17.33
(3.33
(17.33 a, a,
a, b,a, b,c,d)
b, b, c,d)
c,d)c,d)
maymay
may
may be be
bebe written
written
written
written inininain a more
more
a amore
more compact
compact
compact
compact form
form
form
form by
byby
by single
single
single
single
equation equation
Now
: equation :
equations : (17.33 a, b, c,d) may be written in a more compact form by single
equationequation
:
equation
equation : : :
equation
4
 444: 4 
 4F
4
 F0 J0 J  ...(3.36)
0 JF
(17.36)
(17.36) (17.36)
(17.36)
 1 x 11F xxFF  
 0
J00JJ (17.36)
(17.36)

1
1x
 1
xx F  0 J 
x

(17.36)
For
For example For example
  if2 ifequation
ifexample  22equation
(17.36) (17.36)
takes takes
thetakes
form. the form.
ifif22equationequation (17.36) takes theform.
form.
  1 
For
For example
example equation (3.36) takes
(17.36) the form.
the
ForFor example
example if if
 22 equation
equation (17.36)
(17.36) takes
takes thethe form.
form.
For
4
example 4 4
if   2 equation (17.36) takes the form.

 x F

4 4
4 2 JFF JJ
xxFF J JJ
 
0 222 00 22

4
 1

F x 
F
11
 J2
22
0 2
0 20 2
x x  1
 1 1   2 0 2
F x FFF FFF FFF FF2424
 1 
Or OrOr FFF FFF FFF 
21 22 2121
0FF
23 2222
J 24 
24 2323
 0 JJ2
Or xxxFxx xFxxF24  J020JJ022 2
21 22 2 23
OrOr x1 xF 21 21
Or xxx xxx xxx xxx44 
11
2 21
22 22
3 2222 x
F24x4 4
23 23
24 4 23
33
0 0 J 2
1 2 3
Now putting thexvalues xofof1 1
F , xF
and2 2
, F 4x 3 3
and F
Now putting
Nowthe values
putting of
the F , F
values , F
Now putting the values of F , F , F242323and FF
F , F F , F andand form 2424and form
(17.35)
andform (17.35)
form(17.35)
(17.35)
1 2 4 3
NowNow
Now putting
putting
putting thethe
the values
values
values of ofof
F
21 22
F, F, F, F, Fand 232121 2222
23and
21 22F F
22 and
24 and
and form
form (17.35)
(17.35)
Now putting the values of F , F , F and24F and form (17.35)
WeWe
We shall get
We shall
getget
shall
23
21 21 22 2324
shall
getget
21 22 23 24
WeWeWe shall
shall
shall get get
We shall get
Bz Bx   iE y 
 0   0 J 2
x1 x3 x4  c 
 B  B i E y 378 378
378
 z   x  0 J 2 378
 378
 x x c x 378378
 1 3 4

52 Self-Instructional Material
This is same as equation (17.33b). Similarly for   1,3 and 4 we get equations
(17.33a), (17.33c) and (17.33d) respectively. Now writing homogeneous pair of
Maxwell’s equation i.e. equation (17.32b) and (17.32c) in terms of four
dimensional components.
Bx By Bz
  0
 17.37(a)
x1 x2 x3
 Bzz Bx   iE yy 
 B Bzz  0  Bxxx     iE yy   000 J 222
 B B xx11z  0  B xx33x  xx44   iE
B cc y  
iE 0 J 2

 xx11z   00 
 xx33x  xx44    cc y   
00 JJ 22
xB 1 z 
1 Bxx 3 i xE4 yy c 
3 4  
  B Bzzz   B
Bxxx  ii E yy  000 J 222
  B x
x 


  
Bx
x  c
i
c
B3 ci x4y 


 E
x
x
E  0 J 2
B1 1 3 y
4


  xx1z    xx3x  00 JJ 22
1z 3x 4
 c x4 
This is same 
 x1as  x3 c (17.33b).
equation x4 Similarly for   1,3
1,3 and 44 we get equations
as equation for   1,3 and
1 3 4
This is same (17.33b). Similarly and 4 we get equations
This
This
This is is
(17.33a),
is
same same
same (17.33c) as
as
as equation equation
equation and(3.33b). (17.33d) (17.33b).
(17.33b). Similarly Similarly
for  for
respectively.
Similarly 1, 3
Now
for  
and
 1,3
writing
1,3 and
4 we 44 equations
we
we get
homogeneous
andget get equations
pair of
equations
(3.33a), Four Vectors in
(17.33a),
Maxwell’s (17.33c) equation and i.e.(17.33d) equation respectively.
(17.32b) Now
and writing
(17.32c) homogeneous
in terms ofpairfour
of Electrodynamics
(3.33c)(17.33a),
Maxwell’s
and (3.33d)
(17.33a), (17.33c)
(17.33c) equation
respectively. and
and i.e.(17.33d)
Now
(17.33d) equation
writing respectively.
(17.32b)
homogeneous
respectively. Now
and
Now writing
(17.32c)
pair homogeneous
in
of Maxwell’s
writing terms
homogeneousequation ofpair of
four
i.e.
pair of
Maxwell’s
dimensional equation
components. i.e. equation (17.32b) and (17.32c) in terms of four
Maxwell’s
dimensional
equation (3.32b) and
Maxwell’s equation
(3.32c) ini.e.
components.
equation i.e.terms equation
of four dimensional
equation (17.32b)
(17.32b) and and (17.32c)
(17.32c) in
components. in terms
terms of of four
four
dimensional components.
dimensional
dimensionalB Bxx components.components.

BB y Bzzz 
Bxx   Byyy   Bz  00 17.37(a)
17.37(a) NOTES
  Bx
Bxx11xx  B 1   x
B
xx22y  B
2 y   x
B
xx33zz 
3  0  17.37(a)
...(3.37)(a)
1  2  3 
00 17.37(a)
17.37(a)
xx1B xx2  iExx3    iE 
 1B Bxxx 
x 2  iE3zz 
  iEzz     iE yyy   00 17.37(b)

 B x 
  x
 iE c 
  x
  iEc y    0 17.37(b)
17.37(b)
Bx  x
 


2  iE  c 

  x
 3 
 iEc y 

 ...(3.37)(b)
  x
4
4
4 x
 x4  x2  c   x3  c  
x   x
2
2

 c z
z     x
3
3

 c y

  0
0 17.37(b)
17.37(b)
B 
x44yy x22  iEczz  x33  iEcxx    
 By    iE zz     iE xx  
y
0 17.37(c)
 B Bx44y  xx11  iE
x c
c 


  
 x
x 


 3  iE  0 
 iEc
c 


  0 17.37(c)
1  iE 
3

 xx4y 
4
 xx1  iEcc z  
z
 xx3  cc x  
3 x
 0 17.37(c)
...( 3.37)(c)
17.37(c)
B  
 iE
x4zzz  x1  iEc yy   x3  iE 
  
 iEc 

  y    xxx  
4 1 y 3 x
 B 0 17.37(d)
 B xB444zz  x111  iE iE c y  

   
x 

2 

 iE
iEc 


  0
 0 ...(3.37)(d)
17.37(d)

 xx4z   xx1  cc y    xx22  cc x  
2 x
 0 17.37(d)
17.37(d)
Using
Using electromagnetic
electromagnetic  x  x 1  cfield
field  tensor
 x
tensor 2 
 Fc  these equations (17.37) can be written as.
 these equations (17.37) can be written
  these equations (3.37) can be written as. as.
4
Using
Usingelectromagnetic
electromagneticfield 4 1
fieldtensor tensorFF
2
 these equations (17.37) can be written as.

Using electromagnetic
Using electromagnetic field
field tensor
tensor F F these equations (17.37) can be written as.
F23 23  F31 31  F12  these equations (17.37) can be written as.
F23  F31  F12  0 
23 31 12  0 
12 0
00 ...(3.38)(a) 17.38(a)
17.38(a)
F F x111  F31
  Fx 
222  F12
 F x 
333  0 
0  17.38(a)
x23 23
1  x2  x3  0 
31 12 00 17.38(a)
17.38(a)
xx1F34xx2 F xx3 F23
42 3
0  F34 1 34
 F42 2 42
 F23 23
 0 17.38(b)
0  F Fxx34
2    F
Fxx42
3   F
Fxx234  0 ...(3.38)(b) 17.38(b)
00   x3422 
34
2
 x4233 
42
3
 x2344 
23
4
 00 17.38(b)
17.38(b)
F F 43  x
x 
 
F
F x
x14  x31 

 F
F x
F43  0  F14  F31 
43
43  2
20  14
3
14
3
31
4
31
4 0
00 17.38(c)
17.38(c)
F F x
x  0 
1  0  F33  F44 
1 
 Fx
x 3  
 x
F
x 4  17.38(c)
x43 43 1
1 0  x 14
 x 31
0
0 ...(3.38)(c) 17.38(c)
17.38(c)
xx33  Fxx12 4 
14 31
F xx24  F
F 11
24 
F24  F41  0  F12   F 41 30 
41  F 4
4 
12 0 17.38(d)
F x
24
  Fx
41
 0   F
x
12
 00 17.38(d)
17.38(d)
F 24 1  F41
1
x241  x412  0  x124 
1 2  0  F12
2
2
4
4 
4 00 17.38(d)
xx1 xx(17.38) xx4 be written ...(3.38)(d) 17.38(d)
All the equations 2 can by a single equation in tensor form as
All the equations (17.38) can be written by a single equation in tensor form as
1 2 4
All
All the
Allthe equations
theequations F
equations F(17.38)
(3.38) (17.38) F
can can
can be
be written
be written written by aby aa single
bysinglesingle equation
equation
equation in
in tensor
formform
tensor
in tensor as as
form as
F

  F



  F
F

 

0 17.39
 
F Fxxx    FFxxx    FFxxx 

0 17.39
    

   

   

00 17.39
xx   xx   xx

   17.39
...(3.39)
For example  if  ,  and  and take the values as any combination of (1,2,3) we
Forexample
For example if if  , get
always and,  and

and  take and the
take values
the as any
values as combination
any combination of of (1,2,3)
(1,2,3)we
For
always
For get ifif  ,,  and
example
example and 
 and
and take
take the
the values
values as
as any
any combination
combination of
of (1,2,3)
(1,2,3) we
we
always
we always get get
always
always getget
F F12 F23 F31 379
12  F23  F31  00 379
 379
xx3 xx1  xx2  379
379
3 1 2
B  B B
Bzz  B11  B22  00
xx3  xx1  xx2 
3 1 2
This is
This is same
same as as equation
equation (17.37a).
(17.37a). Similarly
Similarly wewe may
may get
get equations
equations (17.37b)
(17.37b)
This is same as equation (3.37a). Similarly we may get equations (3.37b) (3.37c) and
(17.37c) and (17.37d) from equation (17.39).
(3.37d)(17.37c) and (17.37d)
from equation (3.39). from equation (17.39).
Hence equation
Hence equation (17.36)
(17.36) and(17.39)
and(17.39) represents
represents Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s equations
equations inin terms
terms FF
Hence equation (3.36) and(3.39) represents Maxwell’s equations in terms F
(electromagnetic
(electromagnetic
(electromagnetic
field Tensor).
fieldAsTensor).
field Tensor).
As tensor equations
As tensorareequations
tensor equations
are invariant
are invariant
invariant under
under Lorentz
under Lorentz
Lorentz transformation.
transformation.
transformation.
So Maxwell’s equationsSo
So Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s
(3.36)
equations
equations
and (3.39)
(17.36) and
(17.36)under
are invariant
(17.39)
andLorentz are
are invariant under
invariant
(17.39) Transformation. under
So
Lorentz Transformation. So equation (17.36) , (17.39) and consequently
Lorentz Transformation. So equation (17.36) , (17.39) and consequently equations equations
(17.33)
(17.33) and
and (17.37)
(17.37) represent
represent Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s field
field equations
equations inin covariant
covariant form.
form.
Self-Instructional Material 53

17.10
17.10 Illustratetive Examples
17.10Illustratetive
17.10 Illustrative Examples
Illustrative Examples
Examples
Example.
Example. 11 Prove
Prove that
that the
the law
law of
of conservation
conservation of
of charge
charge i.e.
i.e. continuity
continuity equation
equation
is self contained in the inhomogeneous pair of Maxwell’s field equations.
is self contained in the inhomogeneous pair of Maxwell’s field equations.
 3 1 2
This is same as equation ThisThis(17.37a).
is issamesame asSimilarly
equation
as equation we(17.37a).
may
(17.37a).getSimilarly
equations
Similarly we(17.37b)
wemay may getgetequations
equations (17.37b)
(17.37b)
(17.37c) and (17.37d) from This is
equation same as
(17.39). equation (17.37a). Similarly we may get equations (17.37b)
(17.37c)
(17.37c) and and(17.37d)
(17.37d) from fromequation
equation (17.39).
(17.39).
(17.37c) and (17.37d) from equation (17.39).
Hence equation (17.36)Hence and(17.39)
Hence equation represents
equation (17.36)
(17.36) Maxwell’s
and(17.39)
and(17.39) equations
represents
represents inMaxwell’s
terms
Maxwell’sFequations in terms F
equations
Hence
(electromagnetic field (electromagnetic
Tensor). equation
As tensor (17.36)
equations and(17.39)
are represents
invariant under Maxwell’s
Lorentz equations in in terms
terms FF
(electromagnetic field Tensor).
field Tensor). AsAstensor
tensor equations
equations areareinvariant
invariant under
under Lorentz 
Lorentz
transformation. So Maxwell’s (electromagnetic
equations
transformation. SoSo field Tensor).
(17.36)
Maxwell’s As tensor
and equations
(17.39) equations
are(17.36)
invariant andand are invariant
under
(17.39) areare underunder
invariant Lorentz
transformation.
transformation. Maxwell’s
So Maxwell’s equations
equations (17.36)
(17.36) andand (17.39)
(17.39) invariant
are invariant under
under
Lorentz Transformation.
Electrodynamics and equation So
Lorentz equation (17.36)
Transformation.
(3.36),Transformation.
Lorentz , (17.39)
(3.39) and consequentlySo So and
equation consequently
(17.36)
equations
equation (17.36) ,
(3.33)
, equations
(17.39) and (3.37)
(17.39) andconsequently equations
represent Maxwell’s
consequently equations
Plasma Physics
(17.33) and (17.37)field Lorentz
represent Transformation.
Maxwell’s field equations So equation
in (17.36)
covariant form., (17.39) and consequently equations
(17.33)
equations
(17.33) and in(17.37)
covariant represent
form. Maxwell’s field equations in covariant form.
(17.33) andand (17.37)
(17.37) represent
represent Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s field field equations
equations in in covariant
covariant form.form.
17.10 Illustratetive
17.10 Illustrative 17.10Examples
Illustratetive
Examples
17.10
17.10
Illustrative Illustratetive
Illustrative
Examples Examples Examples
Examples
17.10
17.10
17.10 Illustrative
Illustratetive
Illustrative Examples
Examples
Examples
NOTES
Example. 1 Prove that the law of
Example.
Example.
Example. 11conservation
11 Prove
Prove that
Prove thatthe
that ofthe
the
law charge
law
oflawof ofi.e.conservation
conservation continuity
conservation ofequation
of charge charge
of charge i.e.i.e.
continuity
i.e. continuity equation
equation
continuity is self
equation
is self contained incontained Example.
the isinhomogeneous Prove
pair that the law of conservation of charge i.e. continuity equation
self
is incontained in theofthe
the inhomogeneous Maxwell’s
inhomogeneous fieldpair
pair of Maxwell’s equations.
offield
Maxwell’s
equations. field equations.
is self
self contained
contained in in the inhomogeneous
inhomogeneous pair pair of
of Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s field field equations.
equations.
Sol. The inhomogeneous Sol.
Sol.
Sol.The pair
The of Maxwell’s
inhomogeneous
inhomogeneous pair field
pair
of equation
of
Maxwell’s Maxwell’s
field in terms
field
equation of
in equation
terms in interms
of electromagnetic of of
Sol. The The inhomogeneous
inhomogeneous
F
pair
pair of
of Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s field
field equation
equation in terms
terms of
FF
tensor FF is given by tensor 
electromagnetic tensor electromagnetic
is given
electromagnetic
by F  0isJ given by
byxF  J (1) (1)(1)
electromagnetic tensor x F is given
given by  0  J

tensor F is   0 J 
xx
 0  (1)
where J  is the currentwhere
density
where J fouris thevector.
current density four vector. 

whereJ JJis the

where is current
is the
the density
current
current four
density
density vector.
four
four vector.
vector.
Now differentiating equation
Now
Now (1) w.r.t.
differentiating
differentiatingx we get
equation (1)
equation w.r.t.
(1) x xwewe
xw.r.t. get
x we get
Now differentiating  equation w.r.t.  we get
2
Now differentiating equation (1) w.r.t. get
 F J  2 F
2 J J
 0 2 F (2)
 F  
 J  (2)(2)
x x x x xxx  0
00x x  (2)
x x x
Since F is antisymmetric
Since i.e.
F F is
SinceFF is   F then
antisymmetric
is antisymmetric
antisymmetric equation
i.e.i.e.FF(2) reduces
F thentoequation (2) reduces to
i.e. F  FF then
then equation
equation (2)
(2) reduces
reduces to
 
Since Since F
is antisymmetric i.e. F F then
 equation reduces to to
 2 F J  2 F
2 J
 0 
   2F F
 
0   JJ  (3) (3)(3)
x x  x x xxx  00x x (3)
x x x
Interchanging dummy indices 
Interchangingand  in
dummy equation
indices (3)we
and get
 in in
equation (3)(3)wewegetget
Interchanging
Interchanging dummy
dummy indices
indices 
 and
and in equation
 equation
equation (3) we get
2 Interchanging dummy indices  and  in we get
 F J   2 F
2  J
 0   2F F
 
0   JJ  (4) (4)(4)
x x  x xxx x  00x x (4)
x x x
 2 2    2 2 2 
Using the property of perfect
Using
Using differentials
the
the property
property i.e.
of
of perfect

perfect 
differentials
differentials i.e.

i.e.    2    22  
Using the
the property
property of of perfect
perfect differentials i.e. x x x x 
x x  i.e.
Using  x x differentials    xxxx xx  xx 
Equationcan(4)becan
Equation Equation (4) be written
written
can beas
written as
as      
Equation
Equation (4)
(4)2 can
380be
can be written
written as
as 380380
 2 F J 380
  222 F
F
F 0 JJJ 
 (5)

 
 xxx 
x
 

0000 xxx



 (5)
(5)
(5)
x
x xx x
Now
Now
Now adding equation (2) and (5) we get
adding equation
(2)(2)
andand
(5)(5)
wewe
getget
Nowadding
addingequation
equation
Now addingequation (2) and (5) we get
(2) and (5) we get
J J
2 0 JJ   0 i.e. JJ  0
22
 00 x  00 i.e.
i.e. x
 0
00 xx xx  0
x x
J1 J 2 J 3 J u 
i.e.
i.e. JJJ111  JJJ 222  JJJ 333  JJJ uuu  0
00
i.e.
i.e. x11   x22   x33   xuu  
xx1 xx2 xx3 xxu 0
   
x1 x2 x3 xuuu
J111 J 222 J333  (ic )
or JJ1  JJ 2  JJ 3   ((ic )  0
or
or
or
11 
x11  22 
x22  x33  33 
(ict)) 
ic 00
 
xx1 xx2 xx3 ((ict 
ict )) 0
11
1
22
2 33
3
or divJ   This is

or
or divJ
divJ   tt 
 

0
00 This This
This is continuity
continuity
isiscontinuity
continuity
equation
equation
equation
equation
tt
17.11
17.11Summary
17.11 Summary
Summary
17.11
17.11Summary
17.11 Summary
Summary
54 Self-Instructional Material
In
In this
this unit
unit we
we have
have learnt
learnt about
about Minkowski
Minkowski space
space and
and space
space time
time
In
continuum. this
We unit we
develop have
the learnt
four about
vector Minkowski
formalism whichspace
is and
ideallyspace
suitedtime
for
continuum.
continuum. We
We develop
develop the
the four
four vector
vector formalism
formalism which
which is
is ideally
ideally suited
suited for
for
electrodynamics
electrodynamics e.g.
e.g. four
four current
current density
density four
four vector
vector and
and four
four potential
potential four
four vector.
vector.
electrodynamics
Then using the e.g.offour
law current density
conservation of four we
charge vector
haveand four potential
derived covariant four vector.
continuity
Then
Then
Then using
using the
the
usingThen law
the law
law of
of conservation
of conservation
conservation of
of charge
of charge
charge we
we have
we have derived
derived covariant
derived covariant
haveequations covariant continuity
continuity
continuity
equation.
equation. Then we
we derived
derived covariance
covariance of
of Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s equations in
in four
four dimensional
dimensional
equation. Then we derived covariance of Maxwell’s equations in four dimensional
equation. Then we derived covariance of Maxwell’s equations in four dimensional
 theconservation
of energy momentum
of lineartensor of the electromagnetic
momentum and energy for afield and willsystem
combined deduceconsisting
the Law
of conservation of linear field
the electromagnetic momentum
and theandcharge
energyparticles.
for a combined
Then wesystem
will consisting
also find
of the electromagnetic
expression for Lagrangian field and the
Hamiltonian of a charged particlealsoin find
charge particles. Then we will an
expression for Lagrangian
electromagnetic field. and Hamiltonian of a charged particle in an
electromagnetic
19.2 Lorentz field.Force in Covariant Form or (Force density
19.2 Lorentz Force in Covariant Form or (Force density
19.2
3.10 LORENTZLorentz
19.2 four
Lorentz Force
fourFORCE INin
Force
Vector)
Vector) Covariant Form
inCOVARIANT or (Force
or
FORM (Force density
density
OR (FORCE Four Vectors in
Electrodynamics
DENSITY FOURfour
fourVector)
Vector)
VECTOR)
We know that when a charged particle is placed in an electromagnetic field, it
We know Wethatknow
whenthat
experiences aa force
charged
whengiven aparticle isparticle
by Lorentz
charged placed
forcein
is an electromagnetic
equation
placed field, it experiences
in an electromagnetic field, it
a force given byLorentz
experiences  force
a force  equation
given  by Lorentz force equation NOTES
F  qE
   qu  B ...(3.40) (19.1)


F  qE  qu  B   (19.1)
 q  
E  u  B 
 q E uB  
Where q is electric charge on the particle and u is the velocity of the particle. In
u p isutheis velocity

Where
orderqtoisq obtain
Where is electric
electric Lorentz
chargecharge force
on on
thethe particle
equation
particle inand
and covariant the velocity
form, we ofparticle.
the particle.
consider
of the theInforceIn
order
order
to obtainacting toonobtain
Lorentz aforce Lorentz offorce
unit equation
volume incharge equation
covariantdensity in covariant
form, is theform,
; if fconsider
we thewe
force perconsider
forceunit the
on force
volume
acting athen
unit
volume acting
equationon(1)
of charge adensity
unit
yields volume
r; if f of is thecharge forcedensity
per unit volume
; if f is the force
then per unit
equation (1)volume
yields then

equationF(1) yields   
 q E  u  B
  
VF Vq   
 
E  u  B 
VfF
for
f11  

1 

VEE E
E xx  x J J B J
J22BBuz2z z B
J B 
J33BBy3y y
for f
f22  F

2
 
EEyyEyEJ
  E  u  B
J33BJBux3xB
xBJ 
J11BJBz1zBz (19.3)
(19.3)
(19.3)
  E  J B  J B
ff33 f3 E
EEzzuz J J11BBBy1yy JJ22BBx2x x
F   E  J  B ...(3.41)
(19.2)
  FF1111F11FF1212F12FF1313F13FF1414F14 
F  E  J  B
In In terms
terms of of componentsabove
components aboveequationequation(3.41) (19.2)may maybebewritten
FF
F F
written FF asas22FF F23FF F24(19.2) 
  21 24 
InUsing electromagnetic
f1   Ex  J 2 B field 3 Btensor
 Jtensor FFFgiven given by
FFF
21 22 2323 24
 written
21 22
Using
Using electromagnetic
termselectromagnetic
f1ofcomponents
 Ex  J 2 Bz zabove
field
field tensor
J 3 B y equation
y given
 (19.2) by
bymay be
 F31FF32F asF FFF F 
FF31 32 32F 33 33 34 34 34
(19.3)
33
f 2   E y  J 3 Bx  J 1 Bz   31

f 2   E y  J 3 Bx  J1Bz ...(3.42) FF F FF F FF F FF F (19.3)

403  41 41 41 4242 42 4343 43 4444 44
f 3   E z  J 1 B y  J 2 Bx
f3  Ez  J1By  J 2 Bx iExiE 403
0 BBzzBz BByyBy  iE  xx 
 00 cc c    F11 F12 F13 F14 
   F11 F12 F13 F14 
Using electromagnetic  B B field tensor iE
FF iEy  by F   F21 F22 F23 F24
iEgiven
Using electromagnetic 0 field
0
0 tensor BtensorB  yygiven by F  F21 F22 F23 F24 
 Bzz z field Bxx x F given
c  by F   F31 F32 F33 F34

Using electromagnetic c
 c
FFF    ...(3.43) F31 F32 F33 F34(19.4)  (19.4)
(19.4)
 BB  B BB B 00 0 iE iE iE  z   F41 F42 F43 F44
 
 F41 F42 F43 F44 
z z
 yy c 
y xx x
c
iEc
  0iE iE BiE iE  By iExx 

iE 0xx x iE
iE Byzyz y iE  BziE z z  c0 
00 
 cc c cc c cc c
y
c 
 B iE y 
Equation (19.3)can 0 written Bx as iE y 
Equation
Equation
Equation (19.3)
(3.42)(19.3)

canBzcan
can z be be
be written
bewritten
0written Bas as
as  c
F   c  (19.4)
x

fFf11f1 F F
F1111 JJ11
1B
J

1 1 12
F
F FJJ
1212 2B
J
 F
F
2 2 13
FJJ
13013
J
 
33 3  F
F iE
F
J
14 J
J
44z4
14 (19.4)
 Jy FB xJ 0F J iEFcz J ...(3.44)
14

ff22  f2 FF2121FJBJ11y1FF2222JJ222x22FF2323JJ23333FF2424cJJ2444 4 (19.5)(19.5)

(19.5)
 21 iE 
ff33  f3 F iEJx F
F3131FJiE
J31 FJJ32yJ2FF33iE F34340FJJ3444J4
FJ33z33J3F
1 F iE 33 J
 11cx 3232 c2y2 iE cz
0 
Where
Where
Where
Where current
current
current
current density cdensity
density
density c four
four
four
four vectorcvector
vector
vector J JJJ (
(J, ,(,ic
(JJic ic,
J ic)) )
)
Equation (19.3) can be written as
Equation
EquationEquation
Equation
Equation (19.3)
(3.44)
(19.5)
(19.5)(19.5) can can
cancan
can be
be written
be written
bewritten
be written
written as
in inthethe
inthe form form
form ofof
of a single
aaasingle
single
single equation
equation
equation
equation asas
asas
f1  F11 J1  F12 J 2  F13 J 3  F14 J 4
fffk1k fk F
FF11FJJk1JF12
k J
J(with
(with
(with F J3  F
2 k=1,2,3)
13k=1,2,3)
k=1,2,3) 14 J 4
...(3.45) (19.6)
(19.6)
(19.6)
f2  F k
21 J1  F22 J 2  F23 J 3  F24 J 4 (19.5)
Itis clear f 2that
isclear
clear theF21 JR.H.S. FR.H.S.
J 2ofF J 3 (3.45)
F24(19.6)
J(19.6) (19.5)
that
It Itis
It isclear that 1the 22of ofof23equation
equation isevidently
4 is evidently evidently
thethethe
space space component
component of of of
aa a
aoffour
f3that Fthe
the R.H.S.
R.H.S. equation
equation
31 J1  F32 J 2  F33 J 3  F34 J 4
(19.6) isis evidently the space
space component
component
vector. four
Sofourfour f
vector.
fkvector.
must
vector. 3 be  SoF
Soa31So J 
fk1kmust
fspace F
k must
fmust J
be 
be2 beF
aaspace
component
32 J
a33space
space  F
3 component
of J
component
a34four
component 4 ofofof
vector a four
aafour
ffour vector
vector
such  such
fsuch
that ffsuch
vector that
that
that
Where current density four vector J   ( J , ic  ) 
Where current ff f F Fdensity
FJ JJ four vector J   ( J , ic  ) (19.7)
(19.7)
(19.7)
Equation (19.5) can be written in the form of a single equation as Self-Instructional Material 55
Equation
HereHereffisfis(19.5)
Here iscalled
called can
called the
the be
the
forcewritten
force
force density in the
density
density form
four
four
four of a This
vector.
vector. single
vector. This
This equation
equation
equation
equation ascan
can
can also
also
also be
bebe written
written
written asasas
f k  Fk J (with k=1,2,3) (19.6)
fFF FFk J (with k=1,2,3) (19.6)
It(using
(using  )J) ) of equation (19.6) is evidently the space component of a
00JJ0R.H.S.
k
(using
is clear that
Itfour xxthat
is clear x the
  the R.H.S. of equation (19.6) is evidently the space component of a
vector. So f must be a space component of a four vector f  such that
four vector. So f k1k1must 1FFbe
Fa space
 11 1component
FFF of a four vector f  such that


 ffff FF F
 F
J      FFF  (19.8)
(19.8)
(19.8)
(19.7)
f   F J000xxx  00 0 xxx


(19.7)
 Where current density four vector J  ( J , ic  )
Where current density four vector J   ( J , ic  )
Equation (19.5) can be written in the form of a single equation as
Equation (19.5) can be written in the form of a single equation as
f  F  J (with k=1,2,3) (19.6)
f k  Fk Jk  k(with k=1,2,3) (19.6)
It is clear that the R.H.S. of equation (19.6) is evidently the space component of a
It is clear that the R.H.S. of equation (19.6) is evidently the space component of a
four vector. So f k must be a space component of a four vector f  such that
four vector. So f k must be a space component of a four vector f  such that
Electrodynamics and f =FF JJ ...(3.46) (19.7)
Plasma Physics f   FJ   (19.7)
Heref fis iscalled calledthetheforce force densityfour four vector.This Thisequation
equationcan can alsobebewritten
written as
Here Here
f  is called
 the force densitydensity four vector.vector.
This equation can also bealso written as as
F
(using
F  J )
m0J0x)J  ) 0 
NOTES (using
(using
x
Equation (19.7)or (19.8) is a tensor equation, So it is invariant under Lorentz
1  F  1 F ...(3.47)
 f  1 F
transformations
Equation
Fi.e. 1 equations
 these FF (19.7) and (193.8) represents the (19.8)
(19.8) covariance
 f  F
Equation   (19.7)or
(19.7)or  x is
0(19.8)
(19.8)
F is a equation,
a tensor
 tensor
x equation, So it isSoinvariant
it is invariant under Lorentz
under Lorentz
the0Lorentz
form oftransformations  x force  0 equation.
i.e.equations x
0
transformations
Equation(3.46)or
Equation
Physical (19.7)or
meaning
i.e. (19.8)
these
(3.47)
of the is isthese
fourtha
equations
atensor (19.7)
tensor equation,
component
(19.7)
and
equation, of So
and it(193.8)
(193.8)
So
the it
represents
is
force
represents
isinvariant the under
invariant
density under
four
theLorentz
covariance
covariance
Lorentz
vector :
form ofform of the Lorentz
the Lorentz
transformations force force equation.
theseequation.
transformations i.e. thesei.e. equations equations
(3.46) and(19.7)
404 and
(3.47)
404 of force
(193.8)therepresents
represents covariance theform
covariance
of the
We canPhysical
Physical
Lorentzform
write
meaning
forceofequation.
the themeaning
Lorentz fourth ofequation.
thecomponent
offorce fourth the component
fourth component
ofdensityoffour
the forcethedensity
force density
vector four :vector :
four vector
We canWe
Physical
Physical
fwrite can
4 meaning
meaning 4write
Fthe Jfourth
 
of ofthe
the
Fthe fourth
 F42component
J1 fourth
41component
fourth
of
component 43 J 3of
J 2component
 Fforce  force
density
of theof 4density
F44 Jthe
four
force
four
vector
force
density
vectorfour vector :
density
four vector :
f 4 iE f 4 iE
 xF4the
J FF4y41JJ1component
F41
 iE J  F 43JJ23  FF4344JJ34  F44 J 4
42 J12  F42
Wecancanwrite
We write the  fourth
J1fourth component
J 2  z J 3 of  0of force
force density
density four
four vector
vector
c iE c
iE  J iExyJF J iE iE c iE
f 4 x F 1  zJF2J42J2 0z FJ433 J 30 F44 J 4
y
J41  1J41 2 
ic c c c c
3
c
 iE[Ex x J1  E iEyy 2 J  E J
ziE 3z]
 ci J1 i [E J J2 E J  JE3 J ]0
 [E c x J1  E ycxJ 21 E zyJ 3c2] z 3
ci   c i   
   
i 
J1i
 
E.J   E.u  
i c.yJJ 2  Ei z J 3 E
(19.9)
 c

      
ci [E
c
E. J
x
c
EE
c
E.u
c
] .u
Since the fourth component of force density four vector is imaginary and contains
(19.9) (19.9)
i thecomponent
i   of forceofdensity
Since

i Since
the  E.J fourth component
fourth
factor, So

c it represents
c
E.u  force density four
 isvector
four vector is imaginary
imaginary and
and contains
(19.9) contains
(3.48)
the amount of work done by the electric field on the
ci factor,i factor, So it represents the amount
of workof workbydone by the electric field
the on
Since So it represents theofamount done the electric field oncontains i the
c thethe
Since
charge cper fourth
fourth component
unitcomponent
volume of force
perforce
unit density
density
time. fourfour
Hence vector
vector is imaginary
theisLorentz
imaginary andand
force contains
equation cin
charge
i it represents
charge
factor, Covariance
So per unit per
form,the
unit volume
volume
gives per
amounttheof unitperoftime.
rate
work done
unit time.
Hence
change
by
Hence
the
theofelectric
the Lorentz
Lorentz
mechanical onforce
fieldthe momentumforce per
equation
the charge
equation
per inunit
unit
in
factor, So
Covariance it represents
form, the
gives amount
theforce of work
rateequation
of change done by
of mechanical electric field
momentum on the
per unit
Covariance
cper unit
volumevolume itsform,
astime. Hence
space gives
thethe
part rate
rate of
Lorentz
and of change
change of mechanical
in Covariance
of mechanical momentum
form,per
energy perthevolume
gives
unit unitrate
charge
volume asvolume as its space part and rate of change of mechanical energy per unit volume
peritsunit volume
part andper perunit time. ofHence the Lorentz force ofequation
volumeofin
of change
as itsof time part.spacemomentum
mechanical rate of change
unit volume mechanical
as its space energy
part andper
rateunit change
Covariance
as
mechanical
as its
itsenergy
time time
form,
part.
per
part.volume
unitgives theasrate of change
its time part. of mechanical momentum per unit
19.3
19.3 Energy
Energy and
and Momentum
Momentum Tensor
Tensor ofofthe EM fields
volume
19.3 as
19.3its Energy
19.3
19.3 Energy
Energy space part
Energy
and
and and
and rate
Momentum
Momentum of change
andMomentum
Momentum
TensorofTensor
Tensor Tensorthethe
mechanical
ofoftheofEM EM
energy
the
ofEM
theEM fields
EM
fields per
fields unit volume
fields
fields
as itshave
3.11 ENERGY
We timederivedpart.
AND MOMENTUM
Lorentz force force
equation TENSOR
in covariant OF THE
form in EM FIELDS
(19.2) article as as
We have Wederived have derived
LorentzLorentz
force equation equation in covariant
in covariant form inform in article
(19.2) (19.2) article
as
19.3
follows
19.3
follows
We have derived Energy
:: Energy
follows : and
Lorentz andMomentum
force Momentum
equation Tensor
Tensor
in covariant formof the
theEM
inof(3.41) EM fields
articlefields
as follows :
We have
ff   FFf JJ F J (19.7)
(19.7)as
 derived Lorentz
   ...(3.49)
  force equation in covariant form in (19.2) (19.7)article
Using
follows
Using
Using equation
Using: equation
equation
equation forMaxwell
for
for Maxwell
Maxwell covariant
for Maxwell
covariant
covariant formof
covariant
form
form ofof non-homogeneous
form of non-homogeneous
non-homogeneous
non-homogeneous pair
pair
pair we
getget
wepair
we get we get
fF F  F
  FJ
 (19.7)

 0JJ  0 J 
xx x Maxwell covariant form of non-homogeneous pair we get
for
0 
Using equation
1 F 1 F
1F F  1 F 1 F
or J  or J 0 Jxoror JJor1 JF

or (19.10)
(19.10)
(19.10)
...(3.50)
0x0 xx 0  0 0 xx 0 x 
Thus
ThusequationThus equation (19.7) takes the form
equation (19.7)
F(19.7)
1 (3.49) takesthe
takes theform
the form
form
1 F
Thus  takes
or J   1
or J 
F
(19.10)
 11x  FF F 0 x
f  0 fF F
 
00 x thex
Thus equation (19.7)x0takes form
405 405
1 F 405
56 Self-Instructional Material f  F 
0 x

405
  
  0 ff   ( F F )  F  ( F )
   ( F F )  F  ( F )
xx ((FF FF
0     x Four Vectors in

 
 0 ff  ) )FF
  x ( F(
F)) Electrodynamics
 00  x ( FF)  Fx ( F )

xx  x
x1 F
1   F  F FF
or 00 ff  x ((FFFF)) 
or  12FF Fxx  F F
F  F xF
 
or 0 f   x ( F F )   121F F F
 x

 

or 00 ff  x ((FFFF) ) 2  F  

Fx  F Fx  
xx 22 xx xx NOTES
or  f   (F F )  11 F FF  F FF 
or 00 fuu  x ( FF)   12F F xx  FF
xF 
or 0 fu  x ( F F )   121F F   F F
F x  
 
Fx  

or 00 ffuu  xx ((FFFF) )2  F

2
Fx  F
 x xx
(We can inter change(
(We can inter change(  ) dummy
x  ) dummy 2suffixes) suffixes)
 x  
(We can inter change(  ) dummy suffixes)
(Wecan
caninter
inter change(  ) ) dummy suffixes)
(We
(We can interchange
change( ( 
) dummy dummy FF FF
11 Fsuffixes)
suffixes)
or 00 ff  x ((FFFF)) 
or 

 1 FF  F  (19.11)
(19.11)
or  0 f   x ( F F )   1221F F
xx
F

xF
x
  F 

   (19.11)
or 0 ff  x ((FF FF ) )
or 2 FF xx  xx 

  (19.11)
...(3.51)
(19.11)
   2
But we know 0 
thatxhomogeneous

homogeneous
x Maxwell’s
 equations
  2
Maxwell’s  equations
equations
x   in Covariant form is
x in Covariant form is given
 given
by But we know that homogeneous
Butwewe
weknow
know Maxwell’s in Covariant form is given
But
Butby knowthatthat
that homogeneous
homogeneous
homogeneous Maxwell’s
Maxwell’s
Maxwell’sequations
equations inin
equations Covariant
Covariant
in form
form
Covariant is is given
given
form by
is given
by F F FF
by 
F  F  F   00
Fx
 
Fx Fx 
  x 0
Fx  F x  xF 

0
 x
 
Fx Fxx   x  0
 
 xFF

F  F    F
Fx F 
  x  Fxx
Fx  F x   xF
x  x 

x
becomes
Thereforeequation
Therefore xequation
x (19.11)
(19.11)
(3.51) becomes
xbecomes
Therefore
Therefore equation

equation (19.11) becomes

(19.11) becomes
11  FF
 (19.11) becomes
Therefore equation
0 f    ( FF  F)) 
 F  1 FF F 
0 f   x ( F F )  122F  Fxx 
0 f   x ( F F )   2 F   x  
 
1  F 
01f   xF( F F )  2 F  x  
 1  2 F x FF  
 2  x 
 41 2 F 
Fxx 
 4  2 F x 
41  xF
 1 2 F
 14  F  .x.FF


 414 xx  F .F
  

 4 x  F .F 
41 x
 f   F  .FF   11 
1  FFFF
  004fuu F
0 fu  xx  F F  
x F  F   144 xx  F F 
0 fu  x  F F  
 
4 x  F F 
x 411x
 0 fu   F F   11  F
 1444   F
FF 
 F 
F
  F 

x x
x  F
 4 x   F F 
 x
4 x
   1   F F
Where x   x  4 x     

Where   
Where
Where xx    x 
 x 
  x 
 x  
  
When Where   then    1 
When    then d
 x = 1 x  406
406
If then   0 406
If    then
 d = 0

406

 1  1 406 
  f   F F    F F  
x  0  4 

or  f   T  (19.12)
x
Where
Self-Instructional Material 57
1  1 
T   F F    F F   (19.13)
 0  4 
is called electromagnetic energy momentum tensor. The characteristics of this
tensor are
(i) It is symmetric tensor i.e. T  T
 
or  f    T  (19.12)
Where or  f 
 1xT  1  (19.12)
  f  x F F    F F  
Where x  0  4 
Where 1  1  
 T    F F    F F   (19.13)
or  f 10 T  14 
 (19.12)
 T 1x F F
    1   F F  (19.13)
is calledTelectromagnetic
  0F F energy 4  Fmomentum
F  tensor. The (19.13)
characteristics of this
Where  0  4 
Electrodynamics and Where
tensor
is called are electromagnetic energy momentum tensor. The characteristics of this
is called electromagnetic
1 
energy momentum tensor. The characteristics of this
Plasma Physics tensor
(i) It are
is symmetric tensor 1 i.e. T  T  ...(3.52)
 tensor Tare   F F    FF   (19.13)
(i) ItIt has
(ii)  0 nine tensor
is symmetric
only 4
independent  T 
i.e. Tcomponents  because sum of diagonal elements is
(i) electromagnetic
is iscalled
It is symmetric tensor
energy
i.e. T  Ttensor. The characteristics of this tensor are
momentum
called It electromagnetic
(ii) zero. has only nine independent energy momentum componentstensor. becauseThesum characteristics of this is
of diagonal elements
NOTES (ii)
(i) tensor Itsymmetric
It isare has only nine tensor independent
i.e. T  Tcomponents because sum of diagonal elements is
zero.T11  T22  T33  T44 
i.e. 
0  T  0
(ii) It haszero. only nine independent components because sum of diagonal elements is zero.
(i) It isi.e. symmetric
T  T tensor  T  i.e. T T
1 T3333  T4444 
 0
1
 T  0
i.e. T1111  T2222 0  T  0 
L . H
(ii) It has only nine .S .
1
F F
independent

   
1
components
 11   33   44 sum
22  because F Fof  diagonal elements is

zero.L L .H .S. 10  F F  14         F F 
.H .S. 0 FF  41111   2222   3333   4444 FF
(iii) Evaluationof different elements4 :-
T11  T22  T0 33  T44 
i.e. Evaluation 0  T  0 
(iii) of different elements :-
(iii) (iii)
Evaluation
Evaluation of different
of different elements :-  0 B  B  iEx 
elements:
1  1 y
F F  11   22  330  44 BF F iE 
z
L.H .S.
0   4  
0 z  B y iEcxx 
 Bz  By  iE c
 B 0 B  c y
(iii) Evaluation of different elements :-   B 0 B iE z x iE y 
Electromagnetic field Tensor is F  B z 0 B x  ccy  (19.14)
Electromagnetic field
Electromagnetic field Tensor is Tensor is F   iE iE  ...(3.55)
(19.14)
 c 
z x
Electromagnetic field Tensor is F 0 By Bz  Bx By 0 cx iE
z
 cz  (19.14)
B
  B y  B x 0  B 0  iE
 cz 
 B  iEy x iExy iEz iE y c0 
 ziEcx 0 iEcy Bx iEcz  
Electromagnetic field Tensor is F   iEcx iEcy iEcz c 00  (19.14)
NowNow we have we have for for  4and  4and  4  4  B c  B c 0 c  iE z  
Now we have for   4 and   4  y x
c 
NowFwe F
 have  for
F F
41 14   4F and F
42 24    F4 F
43 34  F F
44 44 
F F  F41F14  F42 F24  F43 F34iEx F44iE F44y iEz 
F F  F F 
 iEx  41iE14x  42 24y F  iE
F 
 F iE
F 
 F F
 iE  iE z  0
  iE 
  iE    iE y   43iE34yy c  44iEc44z 
 c   0 
iE
Now we  iEcxx  
 iEcxx  iEcy   iEcy  iEczz 
 iEczz  0

 have  c for

  c 4 and
   c  4
 c   c   cc  0
 c   c 
Ec2  2 c 2  2c     
F F x F EF
 y  EFz F E  F F  F F
    41 14 42 24 43 34 44 44
407
c2 c2
 iEx  iE x   iE y andiE y   iE z  iE z 
407
    F 2 F2  F 2  2   2 4072  2  20
F
 c  F  c11  12 c  13  F c  21 c 22 F23c F24
14  F  F
 F312  F322  F332  F342  F412  F422  F432  F442
 2 2
E407 E y2 Ez2 
 F F 2  Bx  By  Bz  2  2  2 
2 2 x
 c c c 

 E2 
 2  B2  2 
 c 
 1 1 
T44
  F4 F 4  4  44  F F  
0
1  E2 1  2 E 2 
  2  1 2  B  2 
0  c 4  c 
1  2 E 2  1  02 H 2  0 0 E 2
  B  2  
2 0  c  2 0 2 0
1 1 ...(3.56)
T44  0 E 2  0 H 2 U (19.15)
2 2 
This is called energy density of electromagnetic field.
This is called energy density of electromagnetic field.
58 Self-Instructional Material (v) Now if we put   4 and   1 then
1  1 
T41  F4 F1   41F F  Since  41  0
0  4 
1
T
41  F F  F42 F21  F43 F31  F44 F41  0
 0 41 11
1   iE y   iE  
 1  2 E 2  1  02 H 2  0 0 E 2
  B  2
 
2 0  c  2 0 2 0
1 1
T44  0 E 2  0 H 2 U (19.15)
2 2
This is called energy density of electromagnetic field.
4
(v) (v)
NowNow if we
if we putput  1then
  4 andand 1 then Four Vectors in
Electrodynamics
1  1 
 T41  F4 F1   41F F  Since  41  0
0  4 
1
T41  F F  F42 F21  F43 F31  F44 F41  0 NOTES
 0 41 11
1   iE y   iEz  
 0      Bz      By   0 
0   c   c  
i
   E B  E z B y 
0c  y z
i
   E y H z  E z H y 
c
i   1
   E  H    Nx
c x c
ii 
or TT41 i (x component of Poynting vector  N ) (19.16)
or T41  41 (xcc component of Poynting vector N ) )
or (x component of Poynting vector N (19.16)
(19.16)
c i i
Similarly
Similarly TT42 i i N N and
408
and TT43 i i N ...(3.57)
Similarly T42 42 Nccy y y
and T43 43 Nccz Nzz
So this given the c
momentum density. Hence c momentum tensor is given by
energy
So So So
thisthisthis
given
given given
thethe the
momentum momentum
momentumdensity. density.
density.Hence Hence
Henceenergy energy
energymomentummomentum
momentum tensor
tensortensor is given
isisgiven
given by by
by
 iN 
  TT1111 TT1212 TT1313 iN xiN x 
x
T
 11  T T  c 
 c c 
12 13
  iNy
 T TT2121 T TT2222 T TT2323 iN yiN y 
 c 
T   c c   (19.17)
21 22 23
T T   iN (19.17)
...(3.57)
(19.17)
T T T 
iN iN z 
 T T3131 T T3232 T T3333 z c  z

 31 32 33
c c 
iN iN
  iNxxiN iNyy iNzz iN  
U
 iNx c y
c
iN z U
c U  

 c c c c c c
 

Where
Where NNxx,,N
N Nyy and
and Nzz represents
N represents the
the Poynting
Poynting vector
vector along
along x,x, yy and
and zz direction
direction
Where N x , y and N represents the Poynting vector
Where N , N and N represents the Poynting vector along x, y and z direction
z along x, y and z direction
respectively
x y
respectively and
and zU is energy density of electromagnetic field.
Uenergy
is energy density of electromagnetic field.
respectively and U is
respectively and U is energy density density of electromagnetic
of electromagnetic field. field.
19.4
19.4
19.4
19.419.4Conservation
Conservation
Conservation
Conservation
Conservation Laws
Laws
Laws
Laws
Laws
19.4 Conservation Laws
3.12 CONSERVATION LAWS
(a) Law of Conservation of energy
(a)(a)
LawLaw of Conservation
of Conservation of energy
of energy
(a) Law of Conservation of energy
We
We know
know that
that Lorentz
Lorentz force
force tensor
tensor isis given
given by
by
WeWe know
know thatthat Lorentz
Lorentz force
force tensoris isgiven
tensor givenbyby
TT
f T  Let   44 then
f  f xx LetLet   4 thenthen
x 
T T T T T44
f 4 T T44 T T4141T T4242T T4343 T44T44
f 4 f 4  4xx  41xx1 42xx2 43x x4
x  x1 1 x2 2 x3 x3 x4 x4
3

ii N N
  NxxiiN i y NyyiiN i N
Nz UU U

i c x  c x  c z x z 
 N
  ()ict))
( ict
x
c cx1 x1 c cx2 x2 c cx3 x3  (ict
1 2 3

ii  ii U
 .N iU U



i.c..N .
 .N  c t
c c c ct t
ii  
   
We know that f i  E.J from covariant form of Lorentz force equation.
equation. Self-Instructional Material 59
WeWe know
know thatthat f 4 f 4  E
4
cc.JE.fromJ from covariant
covariant formform of Lorentz
of Lorentz force
force equation.
c
ii   ii   ii U
   
Or i  
E . J  i   . N U
Or Or Ecc.JE. J c.N .Ni cU t
c   c c
 c ct t
 E.J     U  U
Or  .N U (19.18)
Or Or E .JE.J.N.N  tt (19.18)
(19.18)
t
 f 4  T4  T41 T42 T43 T44
f 4 x x1 x2 x3 x4
x x1 x2 x3 x4
i N x i N  N i N z U
  i N x i y y i N z U
  
c x1 c x2 c x3  (ict )  
c x1 c x2 c x3  (ict )
i  i U
  .i.N  i U
 c ..N c t
c c t
Electrodynamics and i   
Plasma Physics We
We know
Weknow knowthat
i  
thatf4 f4 c E.EJ.J from fromcovariant
covariantform
fromcovariant formofofLorentz
Lorentzforce
form ofLorentz forceequation.
force equation.
equation.
c
i   i  i U
OrOr iE.EJ.J
c
    i . N  i U
c .N c t

NOTES c c c t
Integrating  aboveequation U (19.18) overall
Integrating 
OrOrE.EJ.J  
above  
equation
. N   U (19.18) overall space
space volume
volume wewe get
get (19.18)
   . N  
  t ...(3.58) (19.18)

 JdV
 overall 
 (19.18) 
t   overall
IntegratingIntegrating Integrating
above equation
Integrating  EE..above
(19.18)
above equation
Integrating
E .above
JdV 
  ..NdV
equation

equation
JdV (19.18)
V above equation
space
. NdV
NdVoverall
(3.58)
volume


(19.18)  UdV
we
UdV
tt Voverall
space
 overall
getspace
space
volume
UdVspace
volume
wevolume
get wewe
volume
we
get
get
get (19.19)
(19.19)
   V  
V
  t 409
 UdV    VUdV
V V
V V

E.JdV   .
V E.JdV  VE.Using
.NdV Gauss’s  409
Using 

JdV Gauss’s

 E
 ..JdV
 NdV
t  divergence
   
divergence
 .
NdV
NdV  UdV theorem
 
theorem
 t 
 to
UdV
to change
change (19.19)
volume
volume
...(3.59) integral
integral of
(19.19)
(19.19)
of second
second term
term of
(19.19) of
V
equationVV (19.19) into V
V 
V
tV
Surface t V
integral V
V
equation
Using (19.19)divergence
Gauss’s into Surface integralto change volume integral of second term of
theorem
Using Gauss’s
Usingdivergence
Using
Using
Gauss’s theorem
Gauss’s
Gauss’s
divergence
 
totheorem
change
divergence
divergence
 
volume
theorem
theorem
to

 change integral
to
to changechange
volume ofintegral
volume second
volume term
integral
of of of
integral
of2 second
second second
term
term term of
of of equation

   
   1 1
  11 0 E 22  11 0 H 22 dV

equation (19.19) intoequation
Surface ..JdV
 into( 
(19.19)
integral
E  E  
H ).dintegral
Surface ss   
2
(19.20)
equation equation
(3.59) into
(19.19) E JdV
into(19.19)
Surface  
JdV into
.integral
ESurface ( E  H
Surface ).d 
 H ).dintegral
integral
(E s  
  E 
 E   H dV t   2 00
H dV (19.20) 22 00 
    VV 
V
   SSS 1  2  1 tt2VVV 122 12
2

( This
  Hequation .JdV
 (19.20)  known
 V E t V 2 
 1 1
V SE.This t  s( E2
. ).d E  ( E isH ).d 
s1 
as 
Poynting   E 2
theorem  
(19.20) H
i.e. dV

conservation (19.20)
of
E JdV  E
JdV equation
s 
( E.JdV H(19.20)
).d
 
is
H
E
0 known

).d 

as
s 2
H
00 E 2 
Poynting dV
 00 Htheorem

E2 dV2 00i.e.
2 ...(3.60)
H conservation
2
dV
(19.20) of energy
energy
(19.20)
V VS t V  2  t V   2   2 
VS S 
((  

 ).dtheorem
ss represents
This equation
This (19.20)
equation
in
This
in
This iselectromagnetism.
equation
known
electromagnetism.
equation
(19.20) is
(19.20)
asknown
Poynting
(19.20)
This equation (3.60) is known as Poynting
Here
is
Here
is
as
known
known
term,
theorem
term,
Poynting
as
as 
i.e.

S
(
E
Poynting
E
E
Poynting
theorem



H
conservation
H
H ).d
).d of i.e.
s represents
theorem
i.e.
theorem
energy
i.e.i.e.
conservation
the
theofenergy
conservation
energy flowing
of
energyofflowing
conservation
conservation ofenergy
out
energy
outin
energy
   SS    
 (
).d srepresents E 
Henergy
in electromagnetism. in
in
inelectromagnetism.from
electromagnetism.
electromagnetism.
Here term,
electromagnetism.
the
from the surface surface
Here
Here ( E  HHere
per
term,
term, Here

second
( E
term,
term,
 Hand
).d
per second andSS  EE..JdV

 s 

E
the
.JdV
(Erepresents
represents
).d s represents
JdV represents the flowing
s represents
H ).drepresents theenergy work
energy
work
the
out
the energy
energy
done
flowing
flowing
done by flowing
flowing
out
by the
out
out
out
electric
thefrom the
electric
S
S V
  V  
V
field on moving charge.   and work 
E.JdV done
from the from
surface
surfaceper
the surface
from
per second
field the
second
on surface
and
moving
from thepersurface  E per
. JdV
charge.
secondperandsecond
second
represents
represents
 E . and
JdV 
work
 E
represents . JdV donerepresents
bybythethe
represents
work
work
electric
electric
done by field
work the
done
on by
done the
the electric
moving
by
electric charge.
electric
(b)
field Law (b) Law of Conservation
V
of Conservation V of Momentum
V
of Momentum
V
field on moving Lawon
field oncharge.
(b)field
moving ofmoving
on charge.
Conservation
moving
charge. charge. of Momentum
For
For this
this substituting
substituting  11 in Lorentz force equation
(b)
(b) Law of Conservation
For Law
this ofofMomentum
Conservation
substituting
(b)Conservation  
 1
Law of Conservation in1 in Lorentz
of
Lorentz
of Momentum forceequation
Momentum
force equation
(b) Law of T
ofTMomentum
T T T
For this substituting For
 this  T
ff1Lorentz
1 insubstituting  T
T111 force T11 1 inT
 T12
equation  T
LorentzT13  T
13 forceT14
equation
For this 
substituting
f  

For this substituting  1x in Lorentz
1 
x
11
11
 

1 in
12
12
force
Lorentz

13
x equation
x 
force

14
x equation
14
1 xx x1 x2 x3 x4
T1 T11 T12 TT Tx111411 Tx1222 Tx1333 Tx1444
f1   T1 f1T11T1iiT12 1 
13 T T T T T  T
N
x f1 x1 x f1 

 .T1
2 .T x3 i 
x
 N x1114xxx 13 x122 14 x133  x144
N
x  x.1T11x cx2 (ict x1 )x3 x2 x4 x3 x4
 i N x  icc ((Nict ict ))
 i  N.T  i N xx1 N
 .T1  x1 
c ( .
ictT )  
Or  .T
f 1 c.T(ict11)2 N N xx (19.21)
c Or (ictff111)  c..T
 T( ictc)22 t x ...(3.61) (19.21)
1

 1 N x  c
c 
 t
t
1 N x over space volume, we get
Or f1 Or .T Integrating
Integrating Or  fequation 11  
equation N.xT (19.21) 1 N x over space volume, we(19.21)
(19.21) (19.21)
Integrating
f1c 
2 Or
.tT  12equationf   . T 
(3.61) c 22 over t space volume, we getget (19.21) (19.21)
c t 1  c  t 
11 volume,
(19.21)  dV
equation Integrating
IntegratingIntegrating (19.21)
Integrating
equation 
overff1dVequation
dV space
equation
VV f(19.21)
11dV


 cover 22 (19.21)
2
t 

N
N xx dV
space
N x we
dV
dV over

get
over
 

volume,
space
space
..T
 .T volume,
TiJiJiJwe
dV
volume,
dVget
we
we get
get
...(3.62)
(19.22)
(19.22)
cc1 tt VV
V V
1  
dV   dV of equation
V 1 cUsing
f dV  
Using
2 f Using
dV
1t V
N

1
dV 
Gauss

x Gauss
Gauss
f
f 
1
1
dV
dV N
 
.T 12dV  Ntheorem
divergence
divergence
divergence dV
x 2ciJ
 t  N

theorem dV
theorem
.T
x
x iJ dV in

.TR.H.S.
in

in .T iJ dV ofof
R.H.S.
R.H.S. iJ (19.22)
equation
equation
(19.22)
(19.22)
(3.62) we
we
we get (19.22)
getget (19.22)
(19.22)
2V
c V t V c t V V
V
11 
Using Gauss Using Using
divergence
Gauss Using theorem V fff111dV
Gauss
Gauss
divergence dV in  c 222 t vinN
divergence

R.H.S.
dVdivergence
theorem 1  ofNtheorem equation
x dV
xx dV
dV 
Ntheorem
R.H.S. 
 SininTTT(19.22)
of iJR.H.S.
ds of
we
ds ...(3.63)
R.H.S.
equation
iJ ds
iJ
equation
get we(19.22)
of(19.22)
equation (19.22) we get (19.23)
get we get (19.23)
c 
c1 t vv t
1  V
V SS

V f 1dV 
cHere t vfirst
Here
2 f Here
1dV
N x
1
dV  f1term
first
term
 first
f 
1 dV
term
dV
T 
iJ ds
in
in
1
SinNxequation 
c 2 equation
dV 2
 t v TNiJ(3.63)
equation N
xds
x dV 
 S TTiJiJ ds
(19.23)
represents
dV(19.23)
ds
represents
represents mechanical(19.23)
mechanical
mechanical momentum
momentum
momentum
(19.23)
(19.23)
and
and second
and second
(19.23)term
second
term c 2V
represents t c  t
electromagnetic field momentum.
represents
V
termelectromagnetic
represents electromagnetic
V v field momentum.
Sv
field momentum.
S
Here first Here
term first Here
in equation
Now
Here first term
(19.23)
equation
first term in equation
represents
(19.23)
in(19.23)
equation (19.23)
(19.23) represents
mechanical
becomes. momentum
represents mechanical momentum
and second
mechanical momentum and second
Nowterm
Now in equation
equation
equation (19.23)
(3.63) represents
becomes.
becomes. mechanical momentum and secondand second
term represents term
term represents
electromagnetic fieldelectromagnetic
represents momentum.
electromagnetic field
field momentum.
momentum.
term represents electromagnetic
  1 field momentum.
Now equation (19.23) Now equation
becomes. (19.23) becomes. 410
2   TiJ ds ...(3.64)
Now(19.23)
Now equation  P1becomes.
equation (19.23)N x dV 
becomes. 410
410 (19.24)
t  c V  S
410 410
60 Self-Instructional Material This equation (19.24) represents
410 the conservation
410 of momentum. The volume
integral of the force density f1 gives the total force which is expressed as the time
dP
derivative of the mechanical momentum P1 Thus  f dV  dt . In case the field
V
1
1

vanishes outside the volume V, then it also vanishes at the boundary surface S
which encloses the volume V. Thus.
  1 
1   P1  2  N x dV  
 TiJ ds
t  c V
2   TiJ ds   P1  12  N x dV  
 N x dV   (19.24)  S
c V   S 1  TiJ ds (19.24)
 P1  2  N x dV t    TciJ dsV  S This equation (19.24) represents the conservation of mom
(19.24)
t
(19.24) represents c Vthe conservation
 S of momentum. The volume
This equation (19.24) represents the conservation of momentum. integral of the Theforce
volumedensity f1 gives the total force which is e
force density
This equation1 Thisf gives
(19.24) the total force
represents which is expressed as the time
equation
integral forcetherepresents
of the(3.64) densityconservation
f1 the of
themomentum.
givesconservation
total force The volume
of momentum.
which The volume
is expressed
derivative of as
the
integral
themechanical
time Four Vectors in
momentum P1 Thus  f1dV 
Electrodynamics
d
integral ofofthe theforce
forcedensity
densityf1f1gives
givesthe thetotal dPforce
total forcewhich
whichisisexpressed
expressedasasthe thetime
time derivative of the d
he mechanical momentum P Thus  f1dV  1 . In case the field dP1 V

InVcase
derivative 1of the mechanical dt momentum PdPThus f dV 
vanishes . In case the
outsideoutsidefield
the volume
the V, then it also vanishes at the
1 1
derivativemechanical
of the mechanical momentum P1 Thus P1 Thus  f1dV  1 . In
momentumV
casethethe dt
fieldvanishes
field
de the volume V, then it also vanishes at the boundary surfacedt S
vanishes outside the volume V, then V
it also vanishes at which enclosessurface
the boundary the volumeS V. Thus.NOTES
s the volumeoutside
vanishes V. Thus.
volume V, then
the volume
it alsoV,vanishes
then it also
at thevanishes
boundaryatsurface the S which encloses
boundary surface Sthe volume V. Thus.
which encloses the volume V. Thus. d  1  1
which
1 encloses
 the volume V. Thus. 1  P1  2  NdV   0  P1  2  NdV 
 2  NdV   0 d  P1  1 2  NdV  constant (19.25) 1 dt  c V  c V
2 
c 2 V (19.25)
c V d  1   P1  c NdV   0 1  P1  NdV  constant (19.25)
...(3.65)
 P1  2  NdVdt  0 c VV  P1  2  NdV  constant Which expresses the law of conservation of the momentum
dt  c 
ses the law of conservation of the momentum for the combined c
V
Whichexpresses
expressesthethe law
V
of conservation ofmomentum
the momentum systemforof the particles
combined and fields. However, if the field does
ticles
Which andexpresses Which
fields. However, law
if conservation of
the field doesof not
the lawof ofparticles conservation vanishof the
on the for the combined system of
system and fields.theHowever, momentum for field
if the the combined
does not vanish on Tthe
of V, the  iJ
system of particles
particles and and fields.
fields. However,
However, if theif field
the field
does does
not not
vanish onvanish boundary
on
the boundarythe of V, the .ds represents the outward flow of mom
, the  TiJ .ds represents the outward flow of momentum per unit area S

boundary
S represents
boundaryoutward
of V, the the
of V, theflow
TiJ .ds represents
S TtheiJof.dsoutward
represents per
momentum
the outward flowthe
unit area ofper
flow of momentum
of momentum
surface
unit area
per unit area
S surrounding the N
N
of the surface S surrounding the volume V. Term 2 repres
S surrounding the V. volume V. Term 2 represents c
of the momentum field. N
S
volume of theTermsurface S surrounding c densitythe electromagnetic
volume V. Term 2 represents density ofthe momentum field.
electromagnetic
N
of the surface
tromagnetic field.S surrounding the volumeAND V. Term 2 represents thec momentum
3.13 LAGRANGIAN
density of electromagnetic field. HAMILTONIAN c OF
19.5
19.5SelfASelf CHARGED
Learning
LearningExercise Exercise
earning
density ofExercise
Learning electromagnetic field.
Exercise
PARTICLE
19.5 IN EM FIELDS
19.5 Self 19.5Self
Learning SelfLearning
Learning
Exercise
Exercise
Exercise Section A: Very Short Answer Type Questions
19.5 Self Learning
A: Very Short Answer Exercise
(a) Non Type Questions
Relativistic Case: We know that the total force on a charged particle moving
Section A: Very Short Answer Type Questions Q.1 What is Lorentz force?
Lorentz Section A: VeryvShort
with velocity
force? in an Answer Type Questions
electromagnetic field is given by
Q.2 What is electromagnetic energy momentum tensor ?
Q.1  What  is Lorentz
   force?

 
Q.1 What is Lorentz
electromagnetic force?
energyFmomentum F

F q 
 is Eq  Ev Bv 

tensor
q electromagneticB ? 

E  v B  ...(3.66) (19.26)
(19.26)
(19.26)
Section B: Short Answer Type Questions
energy momentum tensor ? p 
Bp isand
Q.2 What energy momentum tensor ?
Q.2ShortWhat
B: is electromagnetic
Answer Type Questions    
WhereWhere
Where
Where isqqthe
q qisSection is
the the B:charge
charge
is charge
the of
of the
Short
charge the of the
the moving
moving
moving
Answer
of particle,
particle,
particle,
Type
moving EE is is
Questions
particle, theE is
Ethe the
the electric
electric field
Q.3
is electric and
field
electric field
Using
and
field the
B
and is
is the
ismagnetic
B
expression
Bthe the of electromagnetic energy momen
expressionSection
field B: Short
of electromagnetic
magnetic
induction.
magnetic Answer
field energy
field Type
induction.
induction. Questions
momentum tensor, explain
induction. of electromagnetic energy momentumLaw of conservation
magnetic field explain of energy.
p and p inBterms p Lagrangian
Q.3 Using expression tensor,
conservation
Q.3 Usingof expression
energy. of     energy momentum tensor, explain
electromagnetic
  
The
The Thefield
field
The Law
field vectors
vectors
field EEand
of conservation
vectors
vectors E BBin
E and
and Bterms
in ofofelectromagnetic
of terms
in energy.
terms electromagnetic
of
of electromagnetic
electromagnetic

 

19.6
potentialAAand
19.6
potential
potential
potential and
A are
and
and are
ALagrangian
 given
are
 given
are given
given and
and Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian of a CharChar
angian
rangianandLaw of conservation
and Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian of energy.
  ofa ChargedCharged Particle
Particle 
 in ChargedEM
Ain of a Charged
 Lagrangian and   A  A Fields
by 19.6
by 19.6
by
by B  Lagrangian
B
B 
curl
 curl
A
curl A
A and and
E
and and

 Hamiltonian
E  Hamiltonian

grad grad
  
  ...(3.67) EMParticle
ParticleFields
(19.27)
(19.27)
(19.27) inin
19.6
19.6 Lagrangian
ields
Fields Lagrangianand and Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian of a Charged
t
E   grad Charged

t  t Particle
Particle inin
EM Fields
p andEEp from
EM Fields    
EM
EMFields we(a)get
Non Relativistic Case:

Fields
NowNow
Now putting
putting
putting
Now putting the value
thethevalue ofofBof
value
the value Band
of B
B and
and E
from
E from (19.27)
(19.27)
(3.67)
from in
(19.27) in (19.26)
in (3.666)
(19.26)
in we
(19.26) we
we get
get
ativistic Case: (a) Non   Case:
Relativistic

  A  A
 Case:       
We know that the total force on a charged particle moving w
curl in an
(a) Non Relativistic A
vvelocity A v A
force on a chargedparticle
  
the total force on a charged
F Fq particle
 q
    moving
 
grad  with
grad  vv 
 curl electromagnetic 
F   q 
We know that   
 
 grad
 t total
the 
t
t
curl A 


moving with velocity field
v in isangiven by
c We
fieldknow
is given total force onfield
thatbytheelectromagnetic a charged particle  movingwith  velocity v in an
  is given by 411
electromagnetic field is given byA  A      
 411 qq  
q A
  grad  grad
   v
grad    
   vv  A  A A411 
 t tt 411
 
 
 A  A         
 q  qq  
A  grad
 tgrad grad      
 v  A v
. A vv.. A .vv A  A
.. A
 t t  
 
       A  AA         
ii..ee..F
i.e.F  qqgrad
Fq  grad
    
grad      v   
.vv A A
.. A v
  . A vv.. A (19.28)
(19.28)
A  ...(3.68) (19.28)
   t tt    

AAisp is
 
Since
Since
Since vector
vector
vector
Since vector potential
potential
potential
potential A
Atheis the function
isthefunction
thefunction
function of of of
both
ofboth both
space
both space
spaceandand
space and
time
and time
time
time
  
A A
i.e. i.e.
i.e. AA( Ay((,xxz,,,yyt ),, zz,, tt ))
x,A
dA dA A xA xA yA AyyA zA Azz A A
We We
havehave
We have dA  Ax     t
A
Self-Instructional Material 61
dt  x  t
dt dtx tx t y ty tz tz tt t  y  t  z  t
A A A A A A A A

vxAvvxx 
v yA vv yy vz Avvzz 

A
x xx y yyz zz t tt

  ˆˆ ˆjv
ˆx iv
 iv iv x 
x 
ˆˆjvkv
y  jvˆyy   
z kv
kv
    ˆ ˆ  ˆ   A A
.ˆˆ zziˆ ..  iiˆˆˆj 
  x x  x  y
 kkˆAz  A
 ˆjjky 
 z
y z 
A

A
 t
t t
  A     
 q 
 t
 
 grad   v . A   v .  A


    A      
i.e.F q   grad     v .  A   v . A    (19.28)
  t  

Since vector potential A is the function of both space and time
Electrodynamics and  
Plasma Physics i.e. A  A( x, y, z, t )
dA
We have  A x  A y  A z  A
dt x t y t z t t
NOTES A A A A
 vx  v y vz 
x y z t

. iˆ x  ˆj y  kˆ z  A  At

 

 iv x y
ˆ
ˆ  ˆjv  kv
z

 A
  v .  A  ...(3.69) (19.29)
t
Putting values Puttingfrom values (3.69)
fromin(19.29)
(3.68) in we(19.28)
get we get

    
F q     
dA
  v. A 
 dd A

  dt 
 A 

  i.e.  F  
 qq 
F  d

A

 vv..A
A
 
   (19.30)

i.e. F q 
i.e. F i.e.

q F
    

 v .
 q 
A
 
 

v. Adt
   d
 dv.AA ..(3.70)

dt
dt
A 

 412

(19.30)
(19.30)(19.30)
Equation (19.30) expresses  the Lorentz dt
dt  forcein terms of electromagnetic potential
Equation (19.30)  in terms of electromagnetic potential
 expresses theexpresses
Lorentz  force
ddLorentz
Lorentz ppLorentz dd force  in in
 Equation Equation
Equation
A
A
(19.30)
and 
(19.30)
(3.70)
. Since
  d p 
expresses
expresses 
Force the F the
F 
d  
the   force in
mv
mv
force
termsterms oftermsofofelectromagnetic
electromagnetic
electromagnetic potentialAp
potential
potential

 .. Since
and
A and
A and A . and

Since Force
Since
F  d p mv
 .Force
Since  FForce
dt  
     dt
dd p  d
dtF mv  mv 

dt 
d  dt  dtdt  dt   dd A 
d So.   d mv  
mv 
 qq  
d A  vv..AA
  A 

So.   
mvd  q dt
So.dt So.mvdt
dt
dmv 
    
 
  v. A   d A
q   
dt  v .
 ddt
A 
dtA 
q 
      v . A     dt 
dt d
 d
 i.e. mv mv 

 qq A 
A 


 qq 
 
dt 
 vv.. A
A   00

(19.31)
i.e.
d
dt
i.e.
  
mv 
d i.e.q Adt
dt
d  
 
       
q  

mvq Aq  
mv  q(19.31)
A
v . A   0  

A v0. Aformof
 vq.general 0 ...(3.71)
(19.31)
(19.31)(19.31)
Thisdtequation dt has the a set of Lagrangian equation given
This equation (19.31)
byequation
This equation has (19.31)
the general has formgeneral
the of a setform
of Lagrangian equation given
This equation
This (19.31) (3.71)has the
has general
the generalform of
form a a of
ofset of
setaof
setLagrangian
of Lagrangian
Lagrangian equation
equation givengiven
given
equation by
by by
by dd  L L   L L  
d  L  dt   Lx       00  (19.32)
...(3.72)
 d  Ld  L L0  xL   (19.32)
dt  x   x     0  0 (19.32)(19.32)
Now xdt   x xequations
dt  comparing    x (19.31) and (19.32) we get
Now comparing
Now comparing equations equations
(19.31) and(3.71)(19.32)andwe(3.72)
get we get
Now comparing
Now comparing equations
L
L
equations
(19.31) (19.31)
and and
(19.32) (19.32)
we get we
 get
 mv  qA ((aa )) 
L
 Lmv xxqA
 L mv  qA 
  
mv  qA
( a )   (a )  (19.32)
x  mv  qA  (a )  
x 
 x
L
L




 (19.32)
 x  x  A   ((bb))  
  
 L

 qq 
   vv .. A (19.32)(19.32)
...(3.72)
L  xqL xv . A  (b)   
x x  q  qv. A  v . A (b)  (b) 
x xx x xx
Where 
x xx  
 t
Where x  Wherexx  xt
Where xt  t
NowNow integrating
integrating equations(19.32a)
tequations (3.72a) and and(3.72b)
(19.32b) wewe getget
Now integrating equations(19.32a)
Now integrating and (19.32b)
  and (19.32b)
11 equations(19.32a)
we get
and (19.32b)
Now integrating L    
equations(19.32a)
mv

22
 q v . A  c ...(3.73) we get we get (19.33)
1
    
1
L  mv12  q2 v122. A 2c1  
1
(19.33)
2L  mv L  qmvv. Aqcv. A  c1 (19.33)(19.33)
2 L
L   
2qq
   vv.. AA 
1
 cc22 (19.34)
L...(3.74)
q  v. A  c2
L qL
    

  
v.qAc are
 
v. A  c2 of integration such that constant c (19.34)
(19.34) (19.34)
62 Self-Instructional Material
Where cc1and
1 11 2 c2  c2constants
22 1 c1 is independent of
11
Where c1 andWhere
c2 are constants
positioncand
and c
ofconstants
constant
are integration
c is such
independent
of thatof constant
integration velocity
such c. 1Ais glance
that independent
constant atc
of (19.33)
equations
Where c1 and c21are constants
2 cof2 integration such that constant c1 is independent
2 1 is independent
of of
position andand
constant c is independent of velocity . A glance at equations (19.33)
and(19.34)
positionposition andreveals
2
constant c2 is that
constant c2the properofLagrangian
is independent
independent . Aforglance
of velocity
velocity the. Acharged
glance particle is (19.33)
at equations
at equations (19.33)
and (19.34) and
reveals that the proper Lagrangian
the
 Lagrangianfor the charged particle is
and (19.34)(19.34) 1reveals
2 that proper Lagrangian
mv 2  q  v. A   q
for the charged
particleparticle is
1
reveals
L  that the
 
proper
L  mv  q v. A  q
for the charged is
2L  mv
    
L  mv12  q2 v122. A 2q  
L  qmvv. A q qv. A  q
2 2
 Now integrating equations(19.32a) and (19.32b) we get
1  
L  mv 2  q v. A  c1
2
  (19.33)
 
L q  v. A  c2   (19.34)
Where
Where c1 cand
1 andc2care
2 areconstants
constantsofofintegration
integration such
such that constant cc1 isisindependent
that constant
1 independentofof Four Vectors in
c2 is independent Electrodynamics
positionposition and constant
and constant c2 is independent of velocityof velocity
. A glance. Aatglance at equations
equations (19.33)
(3.73) and (374)
and (19.34) reveals that the proper Lagrangian
reveals that the proper Lagrangian for the charged particle is for the charged particle is
1  

L  mv 2  q v. A  q
2
  NOTES

  
i.e.i.e.
L
1 11 mv
2 2
mv 2 222
 q   v    
i.e. L 2 mv  q  . Avv.. AA ...(3.75)
L   q 
413
(19.35)
(19.35)
(19.35)
ThisThis
is
ThisThis is the
is the
the
is the desired
desired
desired
desired value
value
value of Lagrangian
of Lagrangian
of
value Lagrangian
of Lagrangian
As As
we
As As we
wewe know
know
know Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian
know Hamiltonian function
function
function
function isdefined
defined
isisdefined
is as
asasas
defined
  
H H
H 
p xpp xxL L p .vpp..vvL
 L L L
 



     1 11 2 22     

mv
mv  
 q
mv Av ..vv
Aqq .A  
 mvmv
 2 22
mv2q    
 vqq. Avv.. A  qq
 q
A  
 
1 11 mv
2 22

 mv

2 mv2q qq

2 2
2
mv mv  q
2 22
  
mv
 q

  q
2m22m m
   2 222


p ppq  
Aqq A
A
 q  qq

 
2m22m m
1 11  q2A 222  q
So So
So Hamiltonian
HamiltonianH H
Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian
So H  2mp ppq
2m2m
    (19.36)
(19.36)
Aq A q q...(3.76)
(19.36)
Equation Equation (19.35) and (19.36) represent expression for Non relativistic Lagrangian
Equation
Equation
Equation (19.35)
(19.35) andand
(19.35)
(3.75) and and
(3.76)(19.36)
(19.36)
(19.36) represent
represent
represent
represent expression
expression
expression
expression for
NonNon
forforNon
for Non relativistic
relativistic
relativistic
relativistic Lagrangian
Lagrangian
Lagrangian
Lagrangian and
andand Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian
and Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian of
of a chargedof
of
a a charged
charged particle
particle
a charged
particle in
particle
in E.M.
in
E.M.E.M. field.
field.
in E.M. field.
field.
(b)(b)
(b)
(b) Relativistic Lagrangian and Hamiltonian of a charged particle in
Relativistic
Relativistic
Relativistic Lagrangian
Lagrangian
Lagrangian andand
and Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian of aof
of a charged
a charged
charged particle
particle
particle in in
in an
an an electromagnetic
electromagnetic
electromagnetic field : field
field : :
TheThe
The x-component
x-component
x-component
The x-component of of
of force
force
of force
force is
is given
isis given
givengiven byby
by equation
equation
equation
by equation (19.30)
(3.70)
(19.30)
(19.30)
 
     
   v.A dA dA
 xxx 
xdA
 F
Fxxx q  qq
Fx 
    v. Av. A x    
xx dt dt
  x dt
 
  
 q   v.A d dd   v.A 
Or Or
F F

Orx Fxx 
x q   q    v
 x xx
   
. Av. A
dt dt
   
    v . Av .A  
dtx xx  
(19.37)
(19.37)
(19.37)
...(3.77)

  Since         

Since
 
 


Since


x

        
v. Av. A 
xx v. A v 

x x
v. Av. A A Ax
vvxx v. A x Axx 
 
 
As As
As thethe
the
As scalar
scalar
scalar
the potential
potential
scalar  is
potential is
is independent
isindependent
independent
independent of
of velocity
of velocity
velocity
velocity xx ,, i.e.
xx , i.e. i.e.  0 00 Therefore
.Therefore
Therefore
Thereforeequation
x xx
(3.37) is equivalent to
U d  U  ...(3.38)
on (19.37) is equivalent to Fx 
    414414
414
(19.38)
x dt  x 
  Self-Instructional Material 63
U q   v. A
Where 
y U is the function of x and x This is known as velocity dependent potential.
 

U q   v. A
  (19.39)
The Lagrangian L given by 
L E * U
 U  dUU
UU d d UU
U U
  d  U 
equation(19.37)
equationequation
(19.37) is(19.37)
isisisisequivalent
equivalent equivalent
to Fxx toto
totoFFFx F
x 
 x  (19.38)(19.38)
(19.38)
equation (19.37)
(19.37) equivalent
equivalent x 

x    x  
 dt (19.38)
(19.38)
Electrodynamics and
x dtxxxx dt
dt  xx 
 dt
 
Uv.qAqqv.vAv. A.A
Plasma Physics  q   v.A
Where Where
UWhere
Where
Where  q
Where
U

U
U

   
Clearly
Clearly U
Uisis isisisthethe function
thefunction
function ofof and
ofxxxxand
and x This
isisisisasknown as velocity dependent potential.
Clearly
ClearlyClearly
UClearly Ufunction
is theU U thethe of x and
function
function  ofxofThis and
xand xThis
isxxxknown
This
 This
This
known
isknown asasas
velocity
known
known
velocity
velocity dependent
dependent
dependent
velocity
velocity
potential.
potential.
potential.
dependent
dependent potential.
potential.
U qq  A
NOTES       
 U
U q 

U
  
  vv.. A
Uv.qAq  v. Av. A ...(3.39) 
(19.39) (19.39)
(19.39)
(19.39)
(19.39)
The
The Lagrangian
Lagrangian LL given by  L E E ** 
U
TheTheLagrangian
Lagrangian
The Lagrangian givenLby
LLgiven
Lagrangian Lgiven
given
L by
given

by*
EbyLL

L E *E*UU
U U
2 2 2
Where
Where E*E
Where is
is kinetic
Eis**kinetic energy
kineticenergy given
energygiven by
by E
givenby E22 ** 
 mc 2 m
mc2222  m00cc 22  (m22 m
2 (m 
 m00 )c
)c22
Where Where E *Eis* energy
* is kinetic
E Where iskinetic energy
given
kinetic bygiven
energy bymc
E* 
given byE*E
*mmc
00cmc
  m
 (mc0cm
0m  (m
00
m
)c(m  0m)c0 )c2
 
   m m0     22

 Or EEm**00  m0m0220 22  m
Or m00 cc22 2
Or 
 OrOrE*E*   11 m2vv00  c22 m0m0c c
E*
 1  v  221 1v v2cc 2  
22 2 2

  c c c  
  
 E*   
 1
1  
 E *   11 m c 22  (19.40)
(19.40) ...(3.40)
  1   11v122 22   m00c2 2

 
E*  E*E* 22  1 12vm2cc00c22 11m0mc 0c (19.40) (19.40)
(19.40)
 1 v  1  v v
 1  c 2 2   
 c22 Lagrangian
relativistic  c of ofthe charge particle in an electromagnetic field is
TheThe
relativistic
The relativisticLagrangian
Lagrangian of thethe charge particleininananelectromagnetic
charge particle electromagnetic
fieldfield
is is
TheTherelativistic
The relativistic  Lagrangian
Lagrangian
relativistic of the charge
Lagrangian of
 ofthethe charge
chargeparticle
particle inparticle in inananelectromagnetic
an electromagnetic field is field
electromagnetic fieldis is
 1   
 qq vv..A
A 
 
L   1 2  11m
22

 L m00 cc 2  qq
  (19.41)
(19.41) ...(3.41)
1   111 vv 2 2 22   2 2 
q q  v.A 
 1
 
L  L L 22   12 mcc00c2 1q0m0qc  v. A
 2 1 
m c  q   q v . A (19.41) (19.41)
(19.41)
 1  v  221 1 v v 2 2 2  
2
 
 Or Lc 1  c 1c vv2   mc 22  q  q v.A ...(3.42)
Or L  1  1  c2  mc  q  q v.A
2   (19.42)
(19.42)
 2 2c     

    v 
  
2
2
L Or L1 1vequation
 1   v 2 q2mc (19.42) (19.42)
2 2
L 
Or Differentiating 2
. A
q q qv. Av.vAthe relativistic momentum
q qvrespect
1Or 1c22  1mc  mc
2
(19.41) with (19.42)
Differentiating
Differentiating equation
equation c c  with
(3.41)
(19.41) respect to
with respect totov vthetherelativistic
relativistic momentum
momentum of
of the
theof the
charged charged
particle particle
in a equation in a
electromagneticelectromagnetic field field is
charged
Differentiating
Differentiating particle
equation
Differentiating in a electromagnetic
(19.41)
equation (19.41)
with respect
(19.41) withis
with field
respect
torespect is torelativistic
v the tov the
v therelativistic
momentum momentum
relativistic of the of ofthethe
momentum
chargedcharged
chargedparticle
particle in
 
 L
Lin in
a electromagnetic
ppparticle mv
a electromagnetic
mv field
a electromagnetic qAis field fieldis is ...(3.43)
 33  qA (19.43)
 (19.43)
 
vv 2 3
L Lmv L 1 mv vvmv
2 2
2
p  p p  133  qAcc22 3 3 qA  qA (19.43) (19.43)
(19.43)
  
vv22 22 2 2 2

v v
1 v 221 mv 1  vc2 2 q A
2

 or
or pp c mv 3c  q A
 H  pp xx  L L
 or 
The Hamiltonian

p
mv

 1 mv 1 
isvdefined
or orp p 33  q Acc 3 3 qAq A
22  32
2

  as H
vmv22 2   
(19.44)
Substituting value2 of2 pp2 and L in equation (19.44) we get an expression for the
The
The
1 
relativistic v
Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian
22
 
1 221isvdefined
Hamiltonian
c 22 is c c 
defined 
v 2 2of2 aascharged particle
as H  p415  in electromagnetic field as (19.44)
 x  L ...(3.44)
415

    
Substituting value
 of
m00vv
p and L in equation
415

 
 415 11
415
(19.44) 
we get an expression
  
  for the
 m     22
 1 m c  q field
 H
relativistic
 
HHamiltonian qA vv 
of33 a charged
qA  particle in electromagnetic
33  1 m00 c  q  qq((vv ..as
A)) 
A
    
   
22 22
 11 
 v
v 22 2
2
  11  v
v 22 2
2
  
   
   

cc cc 
     
m0v qA   1    
 H  22   
  v  
   1 m c 2
 q  q ( v . A )
m0vv 3   11   2 22  3 0
 m
   
H 11 m   (19.45) 
H
 1  v02 2 
33  

 m
v 00 c
c 2
 q
q  
    v 22
  1 

 
   ...(3.45)
 
 1  vv 22 c2 22  11  v c22  c 
2 2
  
1  c2  c 
c
2   
So, Equations m 0v
(19.42) and(19.45) 1 represents expression for relativistic Lagrangian
H    1 m0c 2   q (19.45)
3  1 particle
and Hamiltonian 2of a charged 2 in 
E.M. field.
1  c Examples
64 Self-Instructional Material v 2 
v 
2
c   
19.7
19.7Illustrative
Illustrative Examples
2

So, Equations (19.42) and (19.45) represents expression for relativistic Lagrangian
andExample 19.1 Express the Lorentz force formula in terms of electromagnetic
Hamiltonian of a charged particle in E.M. field.
potentials.
19.7
Sol. Illustrative
19.7 The force on Examples
Illustrative a Examples
charged particle in electromagnetic field is given by
   
 Substituting value of p and L in equation (3.44) we get an expression for the relativistic Four Vectors in
Electrodynamics
Hamiltonian of a charged particle in electromagnetic field as
So, Equations (3.42) and (3.45) represents expression for relativistic Lagrangian and
Hamiltonian of a charged particle in E.M. field. NOTES

3.14 SUMMARY
In this unit we have learnt about Minkowski space and space time continuum. We develop
the four vector formalism which is ideally suited for electrodynamics e.g. four current density
four vector and four potential four vector. Then using the law of conservation of charge
we have derived covariant continuity equation. Then we derived covariance of Maxwell’s
equations in four dimensional form. We show that these equations of electrodynamics are
invariant i.e. retain their form on transformation from one inertial frame to another under
Lorentz transformation.
covariant
In thisform
unit we have derive expression for force
energy and momentum form.tensor of thethisE.M.
covariant form we derivederived Lorentz
expression for energyin and covariant
momentum Then using
tensor of the E.M. covariant
fields.
form weThenderiveweexpression
discuss lawforofenergy conservation
and momentum of energy tensor and lawof oftheconservation
E.M. fields.ofThen we
fields. Then we discuss
covariant derivelaw of conservation ofand
energy and law of conservation of
momentum,
discuss law ofform
using weenergy
conservation expression
and momentum
of energy for
andenergy
lawtensor ofmomentum
the EM fields.
of conservation tensor ofInthe
of momentum, theE.M.
lastusing
we energy
momentum,
covariant
fields.
covariant form
Then using
form wewe energy
derive
wediscuss
derive lawandof momentum
expression for energy
conservation tensor and
of energy ofmomentum
the
and EM
lawEM fields.
oftensor In the
of
conservation the E.M.
last we
ofHamiltonian
derive
and momentumLagrangian tensorand theexpression
ofHamiltonianEM fields. offoraIncharged
energy
the last and momentum
particle
we in
derive tensor
fields,ofinthe
Lagrangian E.M.
both
and non
derive
fields.
covariant Lagrangian
Then
momentum, formwe we
using and
discuss
derive Hamiltonian
energy law
expression
and ofenergy
ofofconservation
for
momentum a chargedofand
tensor energyparticle
theand
ofmomentum EM inlawEM ofoffields,
tensor
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the last
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weofofnon
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charged Then
and we discuss
in EMlaw
relativistic
particle form
fields, conservation
as both nonofrelativistic
follows.
in energy andand law relativistic form as follows.
momentum,
relativistic
fields.
deriveThen
momentum, andusing
we
Lagrangian
using energy
relativistic
discuss
and law
energy and
form momentum
as follows.
of conservation
Hamiltonian
and tensor
of a charged
momentum oftensor
energyofofthe
particleand EM
thein law
EMEMfields.
offields. InIn
inthe
conservation
fields, thelast
both nonwe
of
last we
(a) (a) Non
momentum, Non
relativistic
derive relativistic
relativistic
using
and
Lagrangian energy expressions
relativistic
and expressions
and
form
andHamiltonian momentum offor
as follows. Lagrangian,
for Lagrangian,
tensor
chargedofparticlethe Momentum
EM Momentum
ininfields. In and
theand Hamiltonian
lastHamiltonian
wenon for a
(a) derive Lagrangian
Non relativistic Hamiltonian
expressions foraacharged
of Lagrangian, particle MomentumEMEMfields,
fields,
and ininboth
both non
Hamiltonian
for a charged
derive
relativistic
(a) charged
relativisticNonandparticle
Lagrangian
and andinHamiltonian
particle
relativistic
relativistic
relativistic an inelectromagnetic
forman as
expressions
form electromagnetic
of a charged
asfollows.
for
follows. field
Lagrangian, areMomentum
field
particle are
in EM fields, and inHamiltonian
both non
for a charged particle in an electromagnetic field are
relativistic and relativistic form as 2follows.Lagrangian,
1electromagnetic   are
(a)for aLagrangian, q  v. A
(a) charged
Non particle in an field
Nonrelativistic
Lagrangian,
relativistic Lexpressions
1 m0v 2  for
expressions  Lagrangian,
qfor Momentum
Momentumand andHamiltonian
Hamiltonian
(a)
for a Lagrangian,
Non
charged
for a charged
relativistic
particle 
in
particle in
Lagrangian,
L
 an 21 m
expressions v for
electromagneticq   q
m0v q  q  v.field
0 2
L an2electromagnetic


Lagrangian,v
field.
 A are
A  are
Momentum and Hamiltonian
for a charged particle inan electromagnetic
1 2  
 field
 are
Momentum,  p m v  q A
v qAqqq v.vA. A 
Lagrangian,  pL 1m
L 1m
0 v 2q
0v2
2

Lagrangian, 
Momentum,
Momentum, 0m
Momentum, 
Lagrangian, p 2m
L 2 00vv qqA  q  v. A 
1m
0

Hamiltonian,  H
 2 1m v 2q
Momentum,
Hamiltonian,
Hamiltonian,   p
Hp m2m01v0m 0 vq22A q
Momentum,
Hamiltonian,
Momentum,  
pH m022v m v00qvAqAq
(b) Relativistic expression 1 for2 Lagrangian, momentum and Hamiltonian for a
(b)(b) Relativistic
Hamiltonian,
Relativistic
Hamiltonian,  HH 1 1mm0for
expression
expression for Lagrangian,
qq
v2 v 2Lagrangian, momentum
momentum andand Hamiltonian
Hamiltonian for afor a
charged Hamiltonian,
particle in an
 electromagnetic
H 2m2 0 v  q field are
0
charged particle
charged particleininanan
(b) Relativistic electromagnetic
electromagnetic
expression 2 fieldarearemomentum
field
for Lagrangian, momentum and Hamiltonian for a charged
 
(b) Relativistic expression  for for Lagrangian,   and
  Hamiltonian for a
   
(b) Lagrangian,
(b) Relativistic
Relativistic
particle expression
expression11 11 
in anLelectromagnetic for Lagrangian,
v 2
Lagrangian,
2 2 field mc momentum
momentum
are 2
2 2  q  q and vand
 Hamiltonian
.Hamiltonian
A for afor a
charged Lagrangian,
particle in an L
electromagnetic  vvfield 2 are mc  q   q v . A
chargedLagrangian,
charged 1  1 field
Lelectromagnetic
particleininananelectromagnetic
particle field mc  q  q v. A
are
ccc2 2are
 

    
  mv  

    
 2 2
qqqqvq.Av.vA.A
2
Lagrangian,
Lagrangian,
 LpL111mv mv1 vv2 v 22 q 
Amc
 q
Momentum,
Lagrangian,
Lagrangian,

Momentum, L p 1 1
   qA mc mc
2
 

Momentum, p  22 32323c2cc2qA
Momentum 
Momentum,

Momentum,

Momentum,

p
pp

 11
1 
mv

v
mvv
vmv 
2 2 2 
c 2 3qqAA
c 3 3  q A
        
2
1 v v
1 1 mv c2v2222 2  1
2 2 22

Hamiltonian, H H mc0vc2  
0   1  1 m0c 2  2 q
Hamiltonian, mv    1  1 m c   q
Hamiltonian, H 1  v2022 2 2 2323  11v2vc222  1 m 00c2  q
3

 
vv0v2 c22 2  1 1 v c 2    2  2  
Hamiltonian,
Hamiltonian, HH
Hamiltonian,
Hamiltonian,
1m m0m v

H 1  v0 c 32 33 2 2 c1
 1 1 21m0m 
 1cm0c0c2 qqq
19.9
19.9
19.9Glossary
Glossary
Glossary
19.9Glossary
19.9 Glossary   c cc
2 2 c 2 2  
111vvv 22 2 2 1 
2 
v v
11 v2 2      
2
c cc 2    
 
19.9
19.9
19.9 GlossaryConsisting of parts all of the same kind, in mathematics
Homogeneous:
Glossary
Glossary
19.9
19.9Glossary
19.9 Glossary
Homogeneous:
Glossary
containing termsConsisting
all of the same of degree.
parts all of the same kind, in mathematics
Homogeneous: Consisting of parts all of the same kind, in mathematics
containing
Homogeneous:terms all
Homogeneous: of the same
Consisting degree.
ofofmagnitude
parts all but
ofofchanged
the same kind,byinexchange
inmathematics
containing
Homogeneous:terms Consisting
Antisymmetric :all
Unaltered
of the same
Consisting in parts
parts allall
of degree. of the
the same
in sign
same kind,
kind, in mathematics
of two
mathematics Self-Instructional Material 65
containing
Antisymmetric
containing terms
variables terms all of
by: aUnaltered
all the
ofofthe same in degree.
magnitude but changed in sign by exchange of two
containing
Antisymmetric orterms
: all
Unalteredthesame
particular same
in degree.
symmetry operation.
degree.
magnitude but changed in sign by exchange of two
Antisymmetric
variables
19.10 or by
Answer
Antisymmetric a:: particular
Unaltered
to
UnalteredSelf insymmetry
in magnitude
Learning
magnitude but changed
operation.
Exercise
but changed in insign byby
sign exchange
exchangeof two
of two
19.10orAnswer
Antisymmetric
variables
variables or by
by aaa particular
to Self
:particular
Unaltered inLearning
magnitude
symmetry
symmetry
Exercise
but changed in sign by exchange of two
operation.
operation.
19.10
19.10 Answer
variables
variables
19.10
or
Answerby to
totoSelf
particular
Itorisbythea particular
Ans.1:Answer force Self
Self Learning
symmetry
Learning
symmetry
Learning
experienced
Exercise
operation.
Exercise
by operation.
Exercise
a charge particle moving in electromagnetic
19.10
19.10 Answer
Answer
Answerto
19.10Answer
19.10 totoSelf
to Self
Self
Self Learning
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Learning
Learning Exercise
Exercise
Exercise
Exercise
19.10
Ans.1: Answer
19.10It isAnswer to Self Learning
the forcetoexperienced
field. Self Learning Exercise
Exercise
by a charge particle moving in electromagnetic
 Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics
3.15 GLOSSARY
zzContinuum: A continuous sequence in which adjacent elements are not perceptibly
different from each other, but the extremes are quite distinct.
NOTES zzInvariant: A function quantity, or property which remains unchanged when a
specified transformation is applied.
17.13
17.13Answers
AnswerstotoSelfSelfLearning
LearningExercise
Exercise
zzAntisymmetric: Unaltered in magnitude but changed in sign by exchange of two
Ans.1: Fourvariables
dimensional
or byspace time continuum
a particular symmetry is known
operation. as Minkowski space.
Ans.2: Any set of four
zzD’Alembert components
: French  which
physicist Aand transformJean
mathematician under Lorentz
le Rond d’Alembert.
transformation
zzHomogeneous:like the
Consisting of parts all ofx1the
four components , x2 same  is incalled
, x3 , x4kind, a four containing
mathematics
vector.
terms all of the same degree.
17.14
17.14Exercise
zExercise
zAntisymmetric: Unaltered in magnitude but changed in sign by exchange of two
variables or by a particular symmetry operation.
Section – A (Very Short Answer Type Questions)
3.16 REVIEW
Q.1 QUESTIONS
Give two examples of four vectors in electrodynamics.
Q.2 Write covariant
1. Give continuityofequation.
two examples four vectors in electrodynamics.
Q.3 Write homogeneous pair of Maxwell’s field equations.
2. Write covariant continuity equation.
Q.4 Write inhomogeneous pair of Maxwell’s field equations.
3. Write homogeneous pair of Maxwell’s field equations.
Section – B (Short Answer Type Questions)
4. Write inhomogeneous pair of Maxwell’s field equations.
Q.5 Discuss Minkowski’s four dimensional space-time continuum.
5 Discuss Minkowski’s four dimensional space-time continuum.
Q.6 Derive expression for electrmagnetic potential four vector and give its
6. Derive expression for electrmagnetic potential four vector and give its Lorentz
Lorentz transformation.
transformation.
1 2
7. Show
Q.7 Show that that D’Alembertianoperator
D’Alembertian 22 = 2 
operator  is invariant
invariantin mathematical
in
c 2 t 2
form for Lorentz transformation.
mathematical form for Lorentz transformation.
8. What is a four –vector?
Section C (LongObtain Lorentz
Answer Typetransformation
Questions) of the components current
density and charge density .Hence show that these form a four vector.
Q.8 What is a four vector? Obtain Lorentz transformation of the components
9. Explain
current densityhowandthecharge
Minkowski’s
densityfour dimensional
.Hence show thatspace
thesetime description
form a four of events
and intervals is consistent with the postulates of special theory of relativity. State
vector.
Lorentz transformation in a four vector dimensional space representation.
Q.9 Explain how the Minkowski’s four dimensional space time description of
10. Using
events and continuity
intervals isequation, define
consistent withfour
the vector of current
postulates density.
of special Writeofthe equation
theory
in terms
relativity. StateofLorentz
operator . Interrelateinthe
transformation components
a four in two inertial
vector dimensional spaceframes and
establish the invariance of charge.
representation.
11. Define
Q.10 Using electromagnetic
continuity fieldfour
equation, define tensor andofderive
vector currentMaxwell’s fieldthe
density. Write equations in
covariance
equation of operator  . Interrelate the components in two inertial
in termsform.
frames
12. Whatand isestablish
Minkowskithe invariance
space? of charge.
13. What is four vector? 382

66 Self-Instructional Material
 14. Express Lorentz condition and equation of continuity in covariance form. Four Vectors in
Electrodynamics
15. What is a four vector? Explain with examples.
16. What is Lorentz force?
17. What is electromagnetic energy momentum tensor ? NOTES
18. Using expression of electromagnetic energy momentum tensor, explain.
19. What is covariant form of Lorentz force?
20. Give relativistic expression for Lagrangian.
21. Give relativistic expression for Hamiltonian.
22. Derive Lorentz force formula for a charged particle moving inelectromagnetic
field.
23. Define electromagnetic energy momentum tensor and gives its various properties.
24. Using expression for electromagnetic energy momentum tensor, explain Law of
conservation of momentum.
25. Derive the Lorentz force equation in covariant form and explain the meaning of
the fourth component of the force density four vector.
26. Derive an expression for electromagnetic energy momentum tensor of the E.M.
Field using covariant form of Lorentz force and discuss it.
27. Choose a suitable Lorentz invariant Lagrangian for the relativistic description of
motion of a classical particle of mass m and charge q in an electromagnetic field
given by four vector potential Am(x).

3.17 FURTHER READINGS

zzClassical electrodynamics by J.D. Jackson (John Wiley &Sons)
zzClassical electricity and magnetism by Panofsky and Philips (Indian Book, New
Delhi)
zzIntroduction to Electrodynamics by Griffiths.
zzElement of Electromagnetics by Mathew N.O. and Sadiku (Oxford Univ.
Press)
zzClassical theory of Electrodynamics by Landau-Lifshitz (Pergaman press, New
York)
zzElectrodynamics of continuous media by Landau&Lifshitz (Pergaman Press,
New York)
zzElectrodynamics by S.P. Puri.

Self-Instructional Material 67
 Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics CHAPTER – 4
NOTES SINGLE-PARTICLE MOTIONS
STRUCTURE
4.1 Learning Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Definition of Plasma
4.4 Concept of Temperature
4.5 Debye Shielding
4.6 The Plasma Parameter
4.7 Criteria for Plasmas
4.8 Applications of Plasma Physics
4.9 Uniform E and B Fields
4.10 Nonuniform B Field
4.11 Nonuniform E Field
4.12 Time-Varying E Field
4.13 Time-Varying B Field
4.14 Summary of Guiding Center Drifts
4.15 Adiabatic Invariants
4.16 Summary
4.17 Review Questions
4.18 Further Readings

4.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying the chapter, students will be able to:
zzTo study postulates of special theory of relativity
zzTo derive Lorentz Transformation
zzTo study Relativistic equation of motion
zzTo study application of energy momentum conservation

4.2 INTRODUCTION
It is now believed that the universe is made of 69 % dark energy, 27 % dark matter, and 1
% normal matter. All that we can see in the sky is the part of normal matter that is in the
plasma state, emitting radiation. Plasma in physics, not to be confused with blood plasma,
68 Self-Instructional Material
 is an “ionized” gas in which at least one of the electrons in an atom has been stripped free, Single-Particle Motions
leaving a positively charged nucleus, called an ion. Sometimes plasma is called the “fourth
state of matter.” When a solid is heated, it becomes a liquid. Heating a liquid turns it into
a gas. Upon further heating, the gas is ionized into a plasma. Since a plasma is made of
NOTES
ions and electrons, which are charged, electric fields are rampant everywhere, and particles
“collide” not just when they bump into one another, but even at a distance where they can
feel their electric fields. Hydrodynamics, which describes the flow of water through pipes,
say, or the flow around boats in yacht races, or the behaviour of airplane wings, is already
a complicated subject. Adding the electric fields of a plasma greatly expands the range of
possible motions, especially in the presence of magnetic fields.
Plasma usually exists only in a vacuum. Otherwise, air will cool the plasma so that the
ions and electrons will recombine into normal neutral atoms. In the laboratory, we need to
pump the air out of a vacuum chamber. In the vacuum of space, however, much of the gas
is in the plasma state, and we can see it. Stellar interiors and atmospheres, gaseous nebulas,
and entire galaxies can be seen because they are in the plasma state. On earth, however, our
atmosphere limits our experience with plasmas to a few examples: the flash of a lightning
bolt, the soft glow of the Aurora Borealis, the light of a fluorescent tube, or the pixels of a
plasma TV. We live in a small part of the universe where plasmas do not occur naturally;
1 Introduction
1 Introduction
otherwise, we would not be alive.
ason
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i and constant,
Ui and Ui is the
ization energy of
the ionization the gas—that
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and UK,i ¼we may (fornneV 25 –3
m , T  300°K, and Ui =
¼take  3(for
× 10
25 �3 25 �3 � �
10
n � 3m � 10(see mProblem 1.1),
(see Problem �1.1), T K,
� 300 14.5
and UieV 14.5 nitrogen), nitrogen),
�19 �19
eV ¼ 1.6
here 1 eV�¼ 10 � J. The fractional ionization n /(n + n ) �
14.5 eV (for nitrogen), where 1 eV × 1.6 × i10 n J. iThe fractional
1.6 10 J. The fractional ionization
i n i /(n n
–19+i/n
n n) predicted
� n /n
i n ionization ni/(nn + ni) 
predicted
y.1)Eq.
is ridiculously low: low:
(1.1) is ridiculously
ni/nn predicted by Eq. (1.1) is ridiculously low:
ni ni
� 10�122 � 10�122
nn nn
temperature As the
is raised, isthetemperature
degreetheofdegreeis raised,
ionization the degree
remains low of ionization
until Ui is only remains low until Ui is only a
As the temperature raised, of ionization remains low until U iais only a
s KT.
ew Then
times few
KT.ni/n times niKT.
n rises
Then /nabruptly,
n rises nand
Thenabruptly,
i/nn rises abruptly,
the and
gas is ingas
the aand
is the
in agas
plasma is inFurther
state.
plasma astate.
plasma state. Further increase in
Further
n temperature
ncrease temperature
makes nmakes
in temperature makes
n less nn nless
than niless
n
, and
thanthan
the ni, and
ni,plasma
and the plasma
theeventually
plasma eventually
becomes
eventually becomes
fully
becomes fullyfully ionized. This is
This
onized. is the
Thisreason plasmas exist in astronomical bodies with temperatures of
the reason plasmas exist in astronomical bodies with temperatures ofofmillions of degrees,
is the reason plasmas exist in astronomical bodies with temperatures
of degrees,
millions but not on
of degrees, butthe
notearth.
on the Life could
earth. Lifenotcould
easily notcoexist
easilywith
coexista plasma—
with a plasma—
tlasma
least,of but
the type
plasma not on
we type
of the the earth.
are talking Life
we areabout. could
talkingThe not easily
natural
about. coexist
Theoccurrence with a plasma—at
of plasmas
natural occurrence at
of plasmas least,
at plasma of the type
peratures
igh temperatureswe are
is the istalking
reasonthefor about.
the
reason for The
designation natural
“theoccurrence
the designation fourth“thestate ofofplasmas
fourth state of at
matter.” high temperatures is the reason
matter.”
ugh we do not
Although for the designation “the fourth state of matter.”
we intend
do not to emphasize
intend to the
emphasize Saha equation,
the Saha we should
equation, we point
should outpoint out
al meaning. Atoms in a gas have a spread of thermal energies,
s physical meaning. Atoms in a gas have a spread of thermal energies, and an atom and an atom
Self-Instructional Material 69
when,
ionizedbywhen,
chance, it suffersitasuffers
by chance, collision of high enough
a collision of high energy
enoughto knocktoout
energy knock out
nn.electron.
In a coldIngas, suchgas,
a cold energetic collisions
such energetic occur infrequently,
collisions since ansince
occur infrequently, atom an atom
accelerated to much higher than the average energy by
must be accelerated to much higher than the average energy by a series of “favor- a series of “favor-
lisions.
ble” The exponential
collisions. factor infactor
The exponential Eq. (1.1)
in Eq.expresses the factthe
(1.1) expresses thatfact
thethat the
f fast atoms
umber of fastfalls
atoms exponentially with Ui with
falls exponentially /KT. U Once
i /KT.an atom
Once is
an ionized,
atom is it
ionized, it
charged
emains chargeduntil it meets
until itanmeets
electron; it then very
an electron; it thenlikely
veryrecombines with thewith the
likely recombines
o become
lectron neutral again.
to become neutralThe recombination
again. The recombinationrate clearly rate depends on the on the
clearly depends
 Electrodynamics and Although we do not intend to emphasize the Saha equation, we should point out its
Plasma Physics
physical meaning. Atoms in a gas have a spread of thermal energies, and an atom is ionized
when, by chance, it suffers a collision of high enough energy to knock out an electron. In a
cold gas, such energetic collisions occur infrequently, since an atom must be accelerated to
NOTES
much higher than the average energy by a series of “favorable” collisions. The exponential
factor in Eq. (4.1) expresses the fact that the number of fast atoms falls exponentially with
Ui /KT. Once an atom is ionized, it remains charged until it meets an electron; it then very
likely recombines with the electron to become neutral again. The recombination rate clearly
depends on the density of electrons, which we can take as equal to ni. The equilibrium ion
fraction, therefore, should decrease with ni; and this is the reason for the factor ni–1 on the
right-hand side of Eq. (4.1). The plasma in the interstellar medium owes its existence to the
low value of ni (about 1 per cm3), and hence the low recombination rate.
What makes plasmas particularly difficult to analyze is the fact that the densities fall in
an intermediate range. Fluids like water are so dense that the motions of individual molecules
do not have to be considered. Collisions dominate, and the simple equations of ordinary
fluid dynamics suffice. At the other extreme in very low-density devices like the alternating-
gradient synchrotron, only single-particle trajectories need be considered; collective effects
are often unimportant. Plasmas behave sometimes like fluids, and sometimes like a collection
of individual particles. The first step in learning how to deal with this schizophrenic
personality is to understand how single particles behave in electric and magnetic fields. This
chapter differs from succeeding ones in that the E and B fields are assumed to be prescribed
and not affected by the charged particles.

4.3 DEFINITION OF PLASMA

Any ionized gas cannot be called a plasma, of course; there is always some small degree of
ionization in any gas. A useful definition is as follows:
A plasma is a quasineutral gas of charged and neutral particles which exhibits collective
1.2 Definition of Plasma 3
behaviour.

Fig. 4.1.
Fig. 1.1 Illustrating
Illustrating the long the
rangelong range of
of electrostatic electrostatic
forces in a plasma forces in a plasma

70 Self-Instructional Material We must now define “quasineutral” and “collective behavior.” The meaning of
quasineutrality will be made clear in Sect. 1.4. What is meant by “collective
behavior” is as follows.
Consider the forces acting on a molecule of, say, ordinary air. Since the molecule
is neutral, there is no net electromagnetic force on it, and the force of gravity is
negligible. The molecule moves undisturbed until it makes a collision with another
molecule, and these collisions control the particle’s motion. A macroscopic force
applied to a neutral gas, such as from a loudspeaker generating sound waves, is
 We must now define “quasineutral” and “collective behaviour.” The meaning of Single-Particle Motions
quasineutrality will be made clear in Sect. 4.4. What is meant by “collective behaviour” is
as follows.
Consider the forces acting on a molecule of, say, ordinary air. Since the molecule is
NOTES
neutral, there is no net electromagnetic force on it, and the force of gravity is negligible.
The molecule moves undisturbed until it makes a collision with another molecule, and
these collisions control the particle’s motion. A macroscopic force applied to a neutral gas,
such as from a loudspeaker generating sound waves, is transmitted to the individual atoms
by collisions. The situation is totally different in a plasma, which has charged particles. As
these charges move around, they can generate local concentrations of positive or negative
charge, which give rise to electric fields. Motion of charges also generates currents, and
hence magnetic fields. These fields affect the motion of other charged particles far away.
Let us consider the effect on each other of two slightly charged regions of plasma
separated by a distance r (Fig. 4.1). The Coulomb force between A and B diminishes as 1/r2.
However, for a given solid angle (that is, Δr/r = constant), the volume of plasma in B that can
affect A increases as r3. Therefore, elements of plasma exert a force on one another even at
large distances. It is this long-ranged Coulomb force that gives the plasma a large repertoire
of possible motions and enriches the field of study known as plasma physics. In fact, the
most interesting results concern so-called “collisionless” plasmas, in which the long-range
electromagnetic forces are so much larger than the forces due to ordinary local collisions
that the latter can be neglected altogether. By “collective behaviour” we mean motions that
depend not only on local conditions but on the state of the plasma in remote regions as well.
The word “plasma” seems to be a misnomer. It comes from the Greek πλάσμα, 4–ατoς,
τo', which means something molded or fabricated. Because of collective behaviour, a plasma
1 Introduction
does not tend to conform to external influences; rather, it often behaves as if it had a1.3
mind Concept of Temperatur
1 Introduction
of its own.
3 Concept of Temperature
3 Concept of Temperature Before proceeding further, it is well
4.4 CONCEPT OF TEMPERATURE “temperature.” A gas in thermal equ
fore proceeding further, it is well to review and extend our physical notions of
Before proceeding further, it is well to review and
our extend most probable distribution of these v
fore proceeding
mperature.” further,
A gas it is well
in thermal to review
equilibrium and extend
has particles of allour
physical physical
notions
velocities,of notions
and theof “temperature.”
emperature.” tion. For simplicity, consider a gas
st probableAA gasininthermal
gas
distribution thermal equilibrium
ofequilibrium
these hasparticles
has
velocities particles
is knownofofallall velocities,
asvelocities,
the andandthe
Maxwellian themost probable distribution
distribu-
ost probable distribution of these velocities is known as the Maxwellian distribu- dimension. (This is not entirely frivo
n. For of these
simplicity, velocities
consider is
a known
gas in as the
which Maxwellian
the particles
n. For simplicity, consider a gas in which the particles can move only in one distribution.
can move For simplicity,
only in oneconsider a gas in
constrain electrons to move only
mension. (This
mension. (Thiswhich is
is not not entirely
theentirely
particles frivolous;
can move
frivolous; a strong
only inmagnetic
a strong magnetic
one dimension. field,
field, for(This for instance,
is not
instance, can can
entirely frivolous; a Maxwellian
strong distribution is given by
nstrain electrons to move only along the field lines.) The one-dimensional
magnetic field, for instance, can constrain electrons to move only along the field lines.) The
nstrain electrons to move only along the field lines.) The one-dimensional
xwellian distribution
axwellian distribution is is given
given by by
one-dimensional Maxwellian distribution is given by f ð uÞ ¼ A
� 1� 2 � �
f ðufÞðu¼Þ A¼exp �2 mu
A exp �12=KTmu2 =KT ...(4.2) ð1:2Þ ð1:2Þ
where f du is the number of particle
whereof
here f du is the number f du is the number
particles per m of
3
withparticles perbetween3
m with uvelocity
and u +between
du, u and u + du, 1 mu2 is the kinetic energy, and K i
3 velocity
2 f du is the number of particles per m with velocity between u and u + du,
ere 2
mu2 is the kinetic
is the kinetic and K is
energy,energy, andBoltzmann’s
K is Boltzmann’sconstant,
constant,
u is the kinetic energy, and K is Boltzmann’s constant,
K ¼ 1:
K ¼ 1:38 � 10�23 J=� K �
�23
K ¼ 1:38 � 10 J= K
ote that a capital K is used here, since lower-case k is reserved for the propagation NoteSelf-Instructional K is used
that a capitalMaterial 71 here, sin
te that of
nstant waves. K
a capital Theis used
density here,n, orsince lower-case
number k is reserved
of particles 3
per m , is forgiven
the propagation
by constant of waves. The density n,
ee Fig. 1.2) 3 (see Fig. 1.2)
nstant of waves. The density n, or number of particles per m , is given by
e Fig. 1.2) ð1
n¼ ðf ðuÞdu ð1:3Þ
�1 1 n¼
n¼ f ðuÞdu ð1:3Þ
e constant A is related to the density n by
�1(see Problem 1.2)
 2
where f du is the number of particles per m with velocity between u and u + du,
1
2 mu fisdu
theis kinetic energy, 2 K is Boltzmann’s
and constant,
where the number of12particles
mu is the per m3energy,
kinetic with velocity
and between u constant,
K is Boltzmann’s and u + du,
1 2
2 mu is the kinetic energy, and K is Boltzmann’s constant, �23 �
K ¼ 1:38 � 10�23 J=� KK ¼ 1:38 � 10 J= K
�23 �
K¼
Note that1:38 � 10
a capital J= here,
K is used K since lower-case k is reserved for the propagation
Note that a capital K is usedconstant
here, since lower-case k is reserved
of waves. The density n, or numberfor the propagation
of particles per m3, is given by
3
constant
Note that aofcapital
waves. The
K is density
used (see
here,Fig.n,1.2)
sinceorlower-case
number ofk is particles
reservedper for m the, propagation
is given by
(see Fig. 1.2) ð 3
Electrodynamics and
constant of waves. TheNote that an,capital
density K is used
or number of here, since
particles 1 per m , is kgiven
lower-case is reserved
by for the propagation
Plasma Physics
(see Fig. 1.2) ð1 n ¼ f ð u Þdu ð1:3Þ
constant of waves. The density n, or number �1
of particles per m3, is given by (see Fig. 4.2)
n ¼ð f ðuÞdu ð1:3Þ
The constant 1
A
�1is related to the density n by (see Problem 1.2)
n¼ f ðuÞdu ...(4.3) ð1:3Þ
� m �1=2
NOTES �1
The constant A is related to the density n by (see Problem
A ¼ n 1.2) ð1:4Þ
The constant A is related to the density2πKT
n by
The constant A is related to the density�n by (see Problem 1.2)
m �1=2
A ¼ n� ...(4.4) ð1:4Þ
m �1=2
2πKT
A¼n ð1:4Þ
2πKT

1.3 Concept of Temperature

1.3 Concept of Temperature 5 5

1.3 Concept of Temperature

1.3 Concept of Temperature 5
The width of the distributionThe width ofis the characterized
distributionbyis the constant T,by
characterized which we call5T, which we call
the constant
the temperature.
1.3 Concept of Temperature To
thesee the exact meaning
temperature. To see the of T,exactwe can compute
meaning of T,the weaverage
can computekinetic
5 the average kinetic
The width of the distribution is characterized
Fig.is 4.2. by the constant T, which we call
energyTheofwidth of the
particles in distribution
Fig.
energy 1.2
thisofdistribution:
A Maxwellian
particles in A
characterized
velocity
thisMaxwellian
distribution
distribution: by the velocity
constant distribution
T, which we call
the temperature.
the temperature. To seeTo thesee exactthemeaning
exact meaning of T, weofcan T, we compute the average
can compute the kinetic
average kinetic
The
energy width
of of
particles the distribution
The
in this width of
distribution: isthecharacterized ð
distribution
1 by
is the
characterized ð
constant
1 T,
by which
the we call
constant T, which we call the
energy of particles in this distribution:
the temperature. To see the exact meaning of T,12 mu we2can f ð u Þdu
compute 1the average
mu 2
f ð u Þdu kinetic
temperature. To see the ð 1exact meaning of T, we can2compute the average kinetic energy of
energy of particles in this distribution: Eav ¼1 ð�1 ð21 �1 ð1:5Þ
Þdu2 Eav ¼ ð 1
1 ð1:5Þ
particles in this distribution: 2 mu f ð1umu f ð u Þdu
2 f ðuÞdu
Eav ¼ ð�1 1ð �1
f ðuÞdu ð1:5Þ
Fig. 1.2 A Maxwellian velocity distribution Eav 1 ¼1 mu ð�1
21
f ðuÞdu �1 ð1:5Þ
2 f ðuÞdu
Fig. 1.2 A Maxwellian velocity Eav ¼ �1
distribution ð�1 f ð u Þdu
...(4.5) ð1:5Þ
Defining Defining 1 �1
f ðuÞdu
Defining �1
Defining v ¼ ð2KT=mÞ1=2vth and ¼ ð2KT=m y ¼ u=v Þ1=2th and y ¼ u=vth ð1:6Þ ð1:6Þ
Defining th 1=2
Defining vth ¼ ð2KT=mÞ and y ¼ u=vth ð1:6Þ
we can write Eq. (1.2)
we can asvthwrite ¼ ð2KT=m Eq. (1.2) Þ1=2as and y ¼ u=vth ...(4.6) ð1:6Þ
we can write Eq. (1.2) as 1=2 �y¼ � � � ð1:6Þ
we can write Eq. wev(1.2)
can
th ¼writeðas2KT=m Eq. f ð(4.2)
uÞÞ ¼ as and �u 2 u=v 2 th
A
� 2 2�exp f=v
ð u Þ
th ¼ A exp �u2 =v2th
we can write Eq. (1.2) as f ðuÞ ¼ A exp �u =v�th �
and Eq. (1.5) as and Eq. (1.5)f as ðuÞ ¼ A exp �u2 =v2th
and Eq. (1.5) as and Eq. (4.5) as � 2 2�
f ðuÞ ¼ A expð 1 �u =vth
and Eq. (1.5) as 1 ð1 3
� � 2 �� ð2 1 � � �� 2
2 mAvth� � exp�� �y 1
mAv 3y dy
th exp �y 2
y dy
1 3 2 2 2
and Eq. (1.5) as mAv
E2av ¼ �1 1 Eav ð
exp
ð�1 �y y dy �1
th
1ð
1 � ¼� � �2 �� ð21 � �
Eav ¼ mAv1Av
3
� exp
exp � �y �y 2
dythy dy exp �y2 dy
2 ð 1 th th Av
Av � �1 � 2 ��
�y 2dy 2
� �1
E1 av ¼ 3th exp ð�11
2 mAvth �1 exp �y � y dy 2
The integral in theThe Enumerator
¼ �1
ðthe Avth
isinintegrable expparts:
by �y dy
av integral 1 numerator � is integrable by parts:
The integral in the numerator The integral in the numerator
is integrable by �1 � is 2integrable
parts: by parts:
ð1 Av exp �y dy ð1
�ð�1 � ð1
th
ð 1 integral
The � the� numerator is� �integrable
1� ��� by �ð1�1 �
12 � �1 2 � �
� y � in
�exp � �
�y 2
ydy � ¼
y 1�½exp
�1
�
expð2�y ½ exp
�y 2ð�y 2 parts:
Þ
ydy�¼�1
1 �y �2��
1
½exp � �
1 ð�y2 Þ2�y exp �y � dy �12exp �y2 dy
� exp �y2 ydy ¼ �
yð�1 2
Þ �y exp �y dy �1
The integral�1 in 1 the numerator
� � 2 �is �1 2
� integrable ð
ð 1 1 � 11 by parts:
�1
� 22 � ��1 ð 2 ð�1 1 �1
� � 11 � 12 � � 2 �
ð1 y � exp �y ¼ 2�
ydy
1 ¼ ¼ � ½
2exp 2 �y dy
exp
exp2 ð �y
�y Þ �ydy
¼ 2�11 �
ð 1 exp �y2 dy � exp �y dy
� � 2 ��
�1 ð�1 �1 �1 � �
y � exp �y ydy ¼ �2½exp �11 1 2
1 ð�y Þ�y �12�
� � �1�1exp �y2 dy
ð 1¼integrals, exp �y dy�1 2
72 Canceling
�1
Self-Instructional Material the integrals,
Canceling we have the we
� have
Canceling the integrals, we have 2
�1�
¼ 12 exp �y2 dy
13 1 31
Canceling the integrals, we 2 mAvth 2 2 1 1 2 2 mAv
1 have �1 1 31
mAv 1 th 2
Eav ¼E2av ¼ th 2 ¼ 14 mv¼ E¼ mv
th 4 av2 th¼
KT ¼ 2 KT ¼ 14 mv2th ¼ ð1:7Þ 1
2 KT
ð1:7Þ ð1:7Þ
Canceling the integrals, we have th 1 Av Av th Av th
31
2 mAvth 2
ThusThus the average kinetic E av 1¼ 1
KT. ¼ 14 mv2th ¼ 112 KT ð1:7Þ
the average kinetic Thusenergytheenergy is 2 KT.
1average
mAv 3is1 Av
2kinetic
th energy is 2 KT.
th
2to three2dimensions.
It is It
easy to extend
is easy thisEIt
to extend result
is¼easy
this
av result to to ¼ 14 this
three
extend 2
dimensions.
mv thresult
1
¼Maxwell’s
2 KT
distribution
Maxwell’s
to three dimensions. is Maxwell’s
then
distribution ð1:7Þis thendistribution is then
Av 1
 ðThe The integral
1 integral
in the numerator is integrable by
ð 1parts:
� �in the 2
��numerator � 1is integrable 2
�by
1
parts: � 2�
y ð� exp ð�y 1 ydy ¼ �2½expð�y Þ�y �1 � �ð12exp �yð 1 dy
�1
1 � � � 2 ��� ð 2 �� � 1 � 1 2 �1�1 2
�11 � 1 2� � 2�
y � expy ��y exp ydy�y1¼ ydy � �
2
¼
½ exp �
2
ð��y
2 ½exp Þ ð�y Þ�y
�y �1
� �1
�
� 1
exp ��y2
expdy�y dy
�1 �1 ¼ 12 exp
ð1 �y ð dy
1 �1
2 �1

�1 1 1 � 2� � 2�
¼2 ¼ exp
2 �yexpdy�y dy
�1 �1
ing the integrals, we have
CancelingCanceling the integrals,
the integrals, we have we have
Cancelling 1 the
mAv integrals,
31 we have Single-Particle Motions
th 2
Eav ¼ 2 ¼ 14 mv 1
2
th ¼
1
3 12 KT ð1:7Þ
Avth 1 mAv3th21mAv th 2 1 1 2 1
2Eav ¼ 2
Eav ¼ ¼ 4 mv¼
Av
1 2
th ¼4 mv th ¼
2 KT
 2 KT ð1:7Þ ð1:7Þ ...(4.7)
he average kinetic energy is 2 KT. 1 Av th th
1
easy the
toThus
extend Thus
the this thekinetic
result
average average kinetic
to threeenergy
dimensions.
1 isenergy
1 is KT. distribution is then
KT.Maxwell’s NOTES
Thus average kinetic energy is 2 KT. 2 2
It istoeasy
It is easy It istoeasy
extend extend this� to
thistoresult
extend result
this
three todimensions.
resultthree to dimensions.
three � Maxwell’s
dimensions.
Maxwell’s Maxwell’sdistribution
distribution is then is then
distribution is then
f ðu; v; wÞ ¼ A3 exp �12 mðu2 þ v2 þ w2 Þ=KT ð1:8Þ
� � 1 �
1� Introduction
f ðÞu;¼v;Aw3Þexp¼ A�31exp � 2 mð2u2 þ v 2 2 þ w2 Þ=KT 
f ðu; v; w 2 m ð u þ
2 v þ w Þ=KT ð1:8Þ ð1:8Þ ...(4.8)
1 Introduction
1 Introduction
erage kinetic where
where where 6 energy is � m �3=2 1 Introduction
6 1 Introduction
e ððð
kinetic
he average energy is
1 kinetic energy is3 A ¼ n � ��3=2 �3=2 ð1:9Þ
2πKT � 1 m...(4.9) m �
ððð 1 ððð A3112 average
The mðu2 þ vkinetic 2
þ w2energy Þexp
A�3 ¼ � 2 3m¼
nAis ðu2n þ v2 þ w2 Þ=KT du dv dw ð1:9Þ ð1:9Þ
�11 The average kinetic energy �
is 2πKT � �
ðu2The þ3 12vaverage 2 kinetic
w212energy is1 vm2ðþ
2πKT
v ¼ A3 2 mððð A1 2
m ðþu2w1
ððð þ v2 þ �
�Þexp m ð u2 �
Þexp þ 2 u2 wþ2 Þ=KT 2
�v� þ wduÞ=KT
2
dv dwdu dv dw
�1 ððð�1 ððð A ððð
exp � 1
m ð u 2
þ v 2
þ w 2
Þ=KT du dv dw �
Eav ¼ 1 3
1�
1 1
A2 3�2 m 2 2
ðu 2þ v 2þ w �Þexp 2 1
� 2� m
� ðu2 2þ v2 2þ w2 Þ=KT � dv dw
du
�1 11 2 1 2
A exp � A1 exp
�1 m ð uAððð
2 3�
þ mvmð2uðþ u 2þ 2v 2þ w 2Þexp � mðu þ v þ w Þ=KT du dv dw
wþ v
Þ=KT þ w du Þ=KT
dv dw du dv dw
Eav3¼ 3
2 �1
2 2 2
�1 Eav ¼�1 ððð11 � 1 2 2 2
�
te that this expression is symmetric A u, v,�
in3 exp � and
2m1
ð uw, þ
2
v
since þ
2 aw Þ=KT
Maxwellian
2
� dv dw
du
�1 A3 exp �2 mðu þ v þ w Þ=KT du dv dw
ution
We
hatnote is isotropic.
this that Consequently,
this expression
expression is symmetric each
is symmetric in�1 of v,
u, thein andthree
u, w, v,terms
and w,
since ina the
since numerator
Maxwellian a Maxwellian is
me isasisotropic.
the others.
nstribution is We need
isotropic.
Consequently, onlyeach
Consequently, to evaluateof the the
eachthree offirstthetermsterm
threeinand themultiply
terms inv,the
numerator by three:
numerator
is sinceisa Maxwellian
We
We
note
We
note
that
note that
thisthisexpression
that this expression is
expression
symmetric
isissymmetric
symmetric in in u,inv,u,u,and v,
and
w, since
and
w,
w,a Maxwellian
since distribution
anumerator
Maxwellian
ethe
same as Ðthe
others. We others.
need�We
distribution onlyis need only� toConsequently,
to2evaluate
isotropic. evaluate
Ðthe
Ð first � termthe first and
each term
multiply
of and
the multiply
�by three:
three terms by three:
in the is
3A3 is2distribution
1 isotropic.
mu 2
exp �Consequently,
1
=KT dueach
muisotropic.
2is exp of the
Consequently, �2three
1
mðv each2terms
þ w of 2 in
Þ=KTthe
thefirst numerator
dv dwterms
three is the
in same
the as the others.
numerator is
av ¼ Ð Ð
the Ð
same�� as the �others. �� Ð Ð
WeÐÐ �
need�� Ð Ð
only �
to evaluate the
�� �
term and multiply by three:
1 A 3AWe 2the need
same
3exp2 � mu only
1 112 22
�22mu exp
as
mu to
the �
=KTevaluate
1
mu
others. 2
=KT
du �exp the
We exp � first
du
need 1 1term
exp
only 22and
�to
� mðv þ w Þ=KT dv dw mmultiply
1 22 2
ð v
evaluate þ w by
2
the Þ=KTthree:
first dv
term dw and multiply by three:
3A3 mu
¼ Eav 2м �A 1Ð exp
3 exp � =KT 2 du Ð Ð 22m�ðv þ2 w Þ=KT dv dw
1 � Р12РР2 � �1 1 2 2 1 2 � 2 Р� 2 � 1
� �
A3 exp �32 mu =KT 2 � mu
3A2 3 duÐ2 mu =KT exp expdu � �
� mexpðmuv � þ=KT
2 mðÞ=KT
w vdu
� þ Ðwexp Ð
dv Þ=KT
dw � � dvðvdw
m 2
þ w2 Þ=KT � dw
dv
1 2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2
our previous result, Eavwe ¼ have 3A3 Ð 2 mu�exp 1
�22 mu �=KTÐ Ðdu �exp 1
�22mðv 2þ w Þ=KT � dv dw
Eav ¼ A3 Ðexp � � 2 mu 1
=KT � Ð exp
du Ð � � 2m 1
ðv 2þ w Þ=KT � dw
dv
2 2
sing our previous
previous result, weresult, have we Ahave 3 exp �2 mu =KT du exp �2 mðv þ w Þ=KT dv dw
Using our previous Eav ¼result, 3
2 KT
we have ð1:10Þ
Using our previous result, we 3 have
Using our previous Eav ¼ 32result, KT ¼we
Eav...(4.10) 2 KT have ð1:10Þ ð1:10Þ
neral result is that Eay equals 2KT per degree ofE freedom. 1 1 3 KT
The general result is1KT thatper Eaydegree
equals av ¼KT 2 3 per degree of freedom. ð1:10Þ
he general
T and is
el result Eav result
that areEso is
ay
that
closely
equals E equals
ayrelated,
1
KT per it is
degree
2 customary
of freedom.E 2
of
avin¼freedom.
KT physics to give
plasma
2 ð1:10Þ
2
Since
atures EavinTare
andsoEof
units Since
are
energy. soTrelated,
andTo Eavoid
closely are
related, so it
confusionclosely
is customaryonrelated,
the number it physics
in is customary
plasma giveintoplasma
physics
of dimensions give physics to give
and The av closely
general result isavitthat is customary
Eay equalsin12KT 1
plasmaper degree oftofreedom.
mperatures in units
not temperatures of energy.
inresult
units To avoid
ofconfusion
energy. EayToconfusion
onavoid on the
confusion number
ofondimensions
the of dimensions
number of dimensions
physics toinvolved,
esd, in
it isunits E
ofThe but the To
general
avenergy. energy avoid corresponding
is that equals totheKT KT that
2number peris degree
used toof denote
freedom. the
volved, it is Since
not E T
but and the Eenergy
av are �19 so closely
corresponding related, to KTit isthat customary
is used toindenote
plasma the give
ature. For KT
itbut
t is not Eavtemperatures ¼ 1
Since
the E
is not eV
avenergyT¼but 1.6
and the�E 10
energyare
corresponding
av soJ, we
closely have
corresponding
to KT related,
that toisKTit
used is
that customary
to is used
denote to in plasma
denote
the the physics to
temperature. give
For
mperature. For KT ¼ av1 eV in ¼units1.6
�19 �of10 energy.
�19
J, To have
we avoid confusion on the number of dimensions
e. For KT ¼ temperatures
1 eV ¼ 1.6 � in
10 units –19 J, ofwe energy.
have To avoid confusion on the number of dimensions
KT = 1 eVit=is1.6
involved, not × 10Eav but J, we
�19 the haveenergy corresponding to KT that is used to denote the
involved, it is1:6not �E10 but the energy to KT that is used to denote the
temperature. T¼For KT 1:6
�19
av
¼� 1�23eV
10 ¼ ¼11,
�19 1.6 � 10corresponding
600 �19
�19J, we have
temperature. 1:61:38 �For
T¼ 10� KT10 ¼ 1 eV ¼ ¼ 1.611, � 10 600 J, we have
T¼ 1:38 � 10 �23 � 10
1:38 ¼ 11, �23600
1:6 � 10�19 �19
he conversion factor is T¼ 1:6 � 10�23 ¼ 11, 600
hus the conversion factor is Thus the conversion factor T¼ is
1:38 � 10 �23 ¼ 11, 600
onversion factor is 1:38 � 10
1 eV ¼ 11, 600 � K...(4.11) ð1:11Þ
Thus the conversion1 eV factor ¼ �11, is 600 � K ð1:11Þ
ThusBythe 1conversion
a 2-eV ¼ 11, 600
eV plasma factor
we mean Kis that KT = 2 eV, or E = 3ð1:11Þ eV in three dimensions.
eV plasma we mean that KT ¼ 2 eV, or Eav ¼ 3 eV in three av
� dimensions.
1 eV ¼ 11, 600 K ð1:11Þ
yinteresting
a 2-eV plasma
plasma we thatItawe
mean
isplasma
that
interesting
mean that
KT ¼ can2
that
KT
eV,have ¼a 2plasma
or
eV, orcan
several
E av ¼ 3
EeV have
¼
1temperatures
eV
av
in
several
¼3threeeV600
11, �temperatures
inatthree the same
K
dimensions.
dimensions. at the same time.
time. It often
ð1:11Þ
It is interesting
happensthat happens
that the that
ions a
that and plasma
the ions the andcan
electrons have
the electrons several
have temperatures
have separate
separate Maxwellian at
Maxwellian the same time.
distributions with different
distribu-
eresting
often happens Bya athatplasma
2-eV the can
plasma
ions have
and wethe several
mean temperatures
that
electrons KT have eV,atorthe
¼ 2separate same time.
av ¼ 3 eV indistribu-
EMaxwellian three dimensions.
with
ppens different
that temperatures
the By temperatures
a
ions 2-eVand Ti and
plasma
the TiTwe
electronse. This
and mean can
Thave
e. Thiscome
that
separateKT about
can ¼ 2 because
comeeV,
Maxwellian about
or Ethe av collision
because
¼ 3 eV
distribu- rate
inthe among
three ions or among
dimensions.
ons with differentIt is interesting
temperatures thatTai and plasma Te. can Thishave can several
come than temperatures
about because atthethe same time.
ndifferent
rate among electrons
ions orthemselves
It ishappens among
interesting isthe
Tlarger
electrons
andthat
Ti among aThis than
themselves
plasma the
can rate is
have of collisions
larger
several between
the rate
temperatures an ion
of at the andsame
an electron.
time.
ollision
ns betweenratetemperatures
It often
among
an ion ions
and or
an
that
electron.
. ions
eelectrons
Then
andcan the come
themselves
each
electrons
species
aboutis can because
have
larger be
separate
than
in
the
itstheownMaxwellian
rate of distribu-
ate amongbetween ionsIt often
tionsorwith happens
among that
electrons
different the ions
themselves
temperatures and the
Tiiseachelectrons
larger
and Te.than have
Thisthe canseparate
rate come Maxwellian
of its about distribu-
ollisions
l equilibrium, butand an
thean ion
plasma and an
may electron.
not last Then
long enough species
for the can two betemper-
in own because the
between an tions
ion
collision but with ratethe different
electron.
among temperatures
ionsThen or not each
among T
species
i and canT e . This
be in can
its own come aboutthan because the
ermal equilibrium, plasma may last electrons
long enough themselves
for the two is larger
temper- the rate of Self-Instructional Material 73
o equalize. When
collision there rate is a magnetic
among ions field
or B,
among even a single
electrons species,
themselves say ions,
is larger
uilibrium,
ures to equalize. but theWhen
collisions plasma between
there may is an anot ionlastand
magnetic long anenough
field electron.
B, even foraThenthe
single two each temper-
species,species can be in its ownof
say ions,
than the rate
ve two temperatures. collisions isThis
abetween is because anfield ion theand forces acting
an aelectron. onThen an ioneach along B are can be in its own
species
qualize.
an have two When thermal thereequilibrium,
temperatures. magnetic
This isbut theB,
because even
plasma
the forces single
may notspecies,
acting last onlong ansay ion ions,
enough
along for B are the two temper-
nt from
wo those
temperatures. atures
acting
thermal This
to
perpendicular
equilibrium,
is
equalize. because When butthere
the theBplasma
to
forces is
(due
acting
a
to
may
magnetic
thean
on notLorentz
ion
field lastB,alonglong force).
even Benough
a are Thefor the two temper-
single species, say ions,
fferent from those acting perpendicular to B (due to the Lorentz force). The
nentsthose
rom of velocity atures
acting perpendicular
to equalize.
perpendicular When totoBBthere and(due parallel
is a
to magnetic
the B may
toLorentz field then
B,
force). evenbelong
Thea to species, say ions,
single
omponents can have twoperpendicular
of velocity temperatures.toThis B and is because
parallel the to Bforces may then actingbelong on an to ion along B are
nt
s ofMaxwellian
velocity can distributions
havedistributions
perpendicular with
two temperatures.
to Bacting temperatures This isto
and temperatures
parallel ⊥Band
Tbecause Tthe||.then forces acting on an ionforce). along B are
fferent Maxwellian
different from those with perpendicular Tmay
⊥ and
to B T .
(due
||
belong to to
the Lorentz The
Maxwellian components different
distributionsof from with those acting
temperatures
velocity perpendicular
perpendicular to B (due
T⊥ andtoT||B. and parallel to B may then belong to to the Lorentz force). The
components of velocity perpendicular to B and parallel to B may then belong to
 Electrodynamics and Then each species can be in its own thermal equilibrium, but the plasma may not last long
Plasma Physics
enough1.4 for
1.4 the
Debye twoShielding
Debye temperatures
Shielding to equalize. When there is a magnetic field B, even a single 77
species, say ions, can have two temperatures. This is because the forces acting on an ion
along B 1.4areDebye
different
Before
Before leavingfromour
leaving
Shielding those
ourreview acting
review ofofperpendicular
the thenotion
notionofof totemperature,
B (due to the
temperature, weweLorentz
should
should force).
dispel
dispel The
the
7the
NOTES popular
components popular misconception
of velocity
misconceptionperpendicular that high
that high temperature
to B and necessarily
parallel tonecessarily
temperature B may thenmeansmeans a
belonga to lot of heat.
lotdifferent
of heat.
People areareusually amazed toto learn that the electron temperature inside a fluorescent
Maxwellian People distributions
Before usually
leaving with
ouramazed temperatures
review learn
of thethatT
notion and
the T
of||. temperature,
electron temperature inside
weOfshould adispel
fluorescent
the
�K. “My, it⊥doesn’t
�
light
light bulb
bulb is about
is about 20,000
20,000 K. “My, it doesn’t feel
feelthatthathot!”
hot!” Ofcourse,
course, thethe heat
heat
Before
popular
capacity leaving
must our
misconception
also review
bebetaken of the
that high
into notion
account. of temperature,
temperature The necessarily
density weelectrons
of should dispel
means a
inside lotthe ofpopular
heat.
a fluores-
capacity
People are must
usually alsoamazed taken to learn into account.
thata the The
electron density of electrons inside a fluores-
misconception
cent
cent tube that
tube is ishigh
much
much temperature
less
less thanthan
�
that necessarily
that of of gas
a gasmeans atemperature
atatatmospheric lot of heat.
atmospheric
inside
pressure,People
pressure,
a fluorescent
and arethe
and usually
thetotaltotal
light bulbofisheat about 20,000 K. “My, it doesn’t feel thatstriking
hot!” Of course, the heat
amazed amount
to learn of
amount that thetransferred
heat electron temperature
transferred to tothethe wallwall inside
by by a fluorescent
electrons
electrons striking light
it at
it atbulb
their
their is thermal
about
thermal
capacity
velocities must alsothat
isdoesn’t
not be taken
great. into account. The density of electrons inside a fluores-
20,000°K.
cent “My,
velocities
tube it
is ismuch
not that feel
less that Everyone
great.
than hot!”
thatEveryone
of
has
Ofa course,
gas hasat had thethe
had theexperience
heat
atmospheric capacity
experience
pressure,
ofof
must a acigarette
also
and be taken
cigarette
the
ash
totalash
dropped
dropped innocuously
innocuously on on his his hand.
hand. Although
Although the thetemperature
temperature is high
is high enough
enough to cause
to cause
into account.
amount Theof density
heat of electrons
transferred inside a fluores cent tube is muchit less than that of a
a aburn,
burn, thethe total
total amount
amount ofofto heat theinvolved
heat
wall
involved
byiselectrons
not.
is not. Many
Many
striking
laboratory
laboratory
at plasmas
their
plasmas
thermal
have
have
gas at atmospheric
velocities
temperatures ispressure,
not
ofofthat
the and
great.
order theof total
Everyone amount
1,000,000 has �ofhad
�Kheat (100 transferred
the experience
eV), but toattheof wall by electrons
a cigarette
densities ash
ofofonly
temperatures the order of 1,000,000 K (100 eV), but at densities only
strikingdropped
10it10at
18
–10
18
–10
innocuously
their
19
thermal
per
19
per mm 3
, 3the
,
onheating
the
his hand.
velocitiesheating isofof Although
not
the that
thewallswalls isthe
great. is
temperature
Everyone
not
not a aserious
serioushas is had
highthe enough
consideration.
consideration. experienceto cause of
a burn, the total amount of heat involved is not. Many laboratory plasmas have
a cigarette ash dropped innocuously on his hand.� Although the temperature is high enough
Problems
Problems of the order of 1,000,000 K (100 eV), but at densities of only
temperatures
to cause10 a –10
18 burn, 19 the total
per mthe 3 amount of heat involved is not. Many laboratory plasmas have
, the heating ofunits
the walls is�3
1.1. Compute density (in(in of mm �3
)not
of
) ofan
a serious
ideal consideration.
idealgas under the 18following
19 per
temperatures of the orderthe
1.1. Compute of density
1,000,000°K (100ofeV),
units but atandensities gasof under
only 10the –10following
Problems conditions:
m3, the heatingconditions:
of the walls is not a serious consideration.
�
(a)(a) AtAt0 the
1.1. Compute 0C� C andand760
density 760 (inTorr units
Torr of m�3(1)(1
pressure
pressure Torr
of an¼ideal
Torr ¼1 1mmHg).
gas under
mmHg). This the
This is isfollowing
called
calledthe the
Problemsconditions: Loschmidt
Loschmidt number.number.
�3 �
(b) InIn a vacuum ofof 1010 �3Torr–3atat room temperature (20 C).
� This number is a
4.1. Compute Atthe
(a)(b)useful 0adensity
�vacuum
C and (in
760 units Torr ofTorr
m ) ofroom
pressure an(1ideal gas
temperature
Torr ¼ under
1 the
mmHg).(20following
�3 is conditions:
C).
This This called
numberthe is a
one
useful one number.for the experimentalist to know
for the experimentalist to know by heart (10 Torr ¼ 1 μ). by heart (10 Torr
�3 ¼ 1 μ).
(a) AtLoschmidt
0 °C and 760 Torr pressure
�3
(1 Torr = 1 mmHg). This is called the Loschmidt
1.2. Derive
1.2. (b)Derive In athe
vacuum constant of 10 A ATorr forforata aroom
normalized temperature one-dimensional
(20 � C). This Maxwellian
number is a
number. the constant normalized one-dimensional
�3
Maxwellian
distribution
useful
distribution one for the experimentalist to know by heart (10 Torr ¼ 1 μ).
(b) In a vacuum of 10–3 Torr at room temperature �� 2 (20� �°C). This number is a useful
1.2. Derive the constant ^f AðuÞfor a normalized one-dimensional
–3 Maxwellian
one for the experimentalist ¼
^f ðuÞ ¼ to Aexp
Aexp know �mu
�mu by heart=2KT
2
=2KT(10 Torr = 1 μ).
distribution
4.2. Derive the constant A for a normalized one-dimensional Maxwellian distribution
such � �
suchthat that ^f ðuÞ ¼ Aexp �mu2 =2KT
ð1 ð1
such that
such that
^f ð^uÞdu ¼ 1
f ðuÞdu ¼ 1
�1
ð1
�1
1/2
Hint:
Hint: To
To save
Hint: save
To save writing,
writing, writing, replacereplace (2KT/m)
replace ^f (2KT/m)
(2KT/m)
ðuÞdu 1/2 by ¼1/21by byv(Eq.
vth thv (Eq.
1.6).1.6).
th (Eq. 1.6).
1.2a.
1.2a.(Advanced
(Advancedproblem). problem).Find FindA Aforfora atwo-dimensional
two-dimensionaldistribution distributionwhich whichinte-
�1
inte-
4.2a. (Advanced
grates to problem).
unity. Extra Find credit A for for a two-dimensional
a solution in distribution
cylindrical which integrates
coordinates.
grates to unity. Extra credit for a solution1/2 in cylindrical
by vcoordinates. coordinates.
to Hint:
unity. To Extrasave writing,
credit for areplace solution(2KT/m) in
� cylindrical
� �
th (Eq. 1.6).
�distribution
1.2a. (Advanced problem). ^f ð^u; Find
v Þ ¼ AAexpfor a�m �two-dimensional
u �2 þ 2 �
2 v 2=2KT
� which inte-
grates to unity. Extra f ðu;credit vÞ ¼for Aexp �m u inþcylindrical
a solution v =2KT coordinates.
� � 2 � �
4.5 1.4
DEBYE SHIELDING
Debye
^f ðu; vÞ ¼ Aexp
Shielding �m u þ v2 =2KT
1.4 Debye Shielding
A fundamental characteristic of the behaviour of plasma is its ability to shield out electric
potentials
1.4 that are applied
AAfundamental
Debye
fundamental to it. Suppose
characteristic
Shielding
characteristic we
ofofthe tried
thebehaviorto put
behavior an
ofof electric
plasma
plasma is isfield insidetoatoshield
itsitsability
ability plasma
shieldoutby
out
insertingelectric
two charged
electric balls connected
potentials
potentialsthat are to a battery
applied
that are applied to to it.(Fig.
it. Suppose 4.3). The
Suppose we we balls
tried would
tried to to put attract
put an particles
electric
an electric field
field
inside
of the opposite
insidea plasma
acharge,
plasma by
andinserting
by almost two charged
immediately
inserting two charged aballs
ballsconnected
cloud of toto
ions would
connected a battery
asurround
battery(Fig.
the
(Fig.1.3). The
negative
1.3). The
A fundamental
balls would characteristic
attract particles of of
thethe behavior
opposite of
charge,plasma
and is
almost its ability to
immediately shield
a out
cloud
ball and a cloud
balls
electric of electrons
would attract
potentials that would
particles
are surround
of theto
applied theSuppose
opposite
it. positive
charge, ball.
we and (We
almost
tried toassume that
immediately
put an a layer
electric of
afield
cloud
ofofions
ionswould
wouldsurround
surround the
thenegative
negative ball
balland
anda acloud
cloud ofofelectrons
electrons would
would surround
surround
inside a plasma by inserting two charged balls connected to a battery (Fig. 1.3). The
74 Self-Instructional Material balls would attract particles of the opposite charge, and almost immediately a cloud
of ions would surround the negative ball and a cloud of electrons would surround
 dielectric keeps the plasma from actually recombining on the surface, or that the battery is Single-Particle Motions
large enough to maintain the potential in spite of this.) If the plasma were cold and there
were no thermal motions, there would be just as many charges in the cloud as in the ball, the
shielding would be perfect, and no electric field would be present in the body of the plasma
outside of the clouds. On the other hand, if the temperature is finite, those particles that are NOTES
at the edge of the cloud, where the electric field is weak, have enough thermal energy to
escape from the electrostatic potential well. The “edge” of the cloud then occurs at the radius
8where the potential energy is approximately equal to the1 thermal
Introductionenergy KT of the particles,

and the shielding is not complete. Potentials of the order of KT/e can leak into the plasma
and cause finite electric
8 fields to exist there. 1 Introduction

Fig. 4.3. Debye shielding

Fig. 1.3 Debye shielding Fig. 1.3 Debye shielding

Fig. 1.4 Potential

Fig. 1.4 Potential distribution near a grid
distribution near a grid in a plasma
in a plasma

the positive ball. (We assume that a layer of dielectric keeps the plasma from
actually recombining on the surface, or that the battery is large enough to maintain
the potential in spite of this.) If the plasma were cold and there were no thermal
Fig. 4.4. Potential distribution near a grid in a plasma
motions, there would be just as many charges in the cloud as in the ball, the
shielding would be perfect, and no electric field would be present in the body of
the positive ball. (We assume thatoutside
the plasma a layer
of theofclouds.
dielectric
On the keeps the ifplasma
other hand, from is finite,
the temperature
Let us compute the approximate thickness of such a charge cloud. Imagine that the
actually recombining on the surface,
those particles or
thatthat
are atthe
the battery
edge of the iscloud,
largewhere
enough to maintain
the electric field is weak, have
enoughIfthermal
the potential in spite of this.) energy to
the plasma escape
were fromand
cold the electrostatic
there were potential well. The “edge”
no thermal
potential f on the plane × = 0 is held at a value f by a perfectly transparent grid (Fig. 4.4).
motions, there would be equal
of the cloud then occurs at the radius where the potential energy is approximately
just toasthemany charges in the cloud 0 as in the ball, the
thermal energy KT of the particles, and the shielding is not complete.
1.4 We wish to compute f(x). For simplicity, we assume that the ion–electron 9mass ratio M/m
shielding would be perfect,
Debye Shielding and no
Potentials of electric
the order field
of KT/e would
can leak beinto
present
the in the
plasma and body
cause of electric
finite
1.4
1.4 Debye
Debye Shielding
Shielding
the plasma outside of thefields
clouds. Onthere.
to exist the other hand, if the temperature is finite, 9 9
is infinite, so that the ions do not move but form a uniform background of positive
those particles that are at the Let
edgeus compute the approximate
of the cloud, where the thickness
electricof such
fielda charge
is weak, cloud.
haveImagine that charge.
the potential ϕ on the plane x ¼ 0 is held at a value ϕ0 by a perfectly transparent grid
enough To
thatbethe
more precise,
enough thermal energy to(Fig.
inertia escape
of weions
the can say
1.4).from
We wish that M/m
the toelectrostatic
prevents isfrom
large moving
compute ϕ(x).potential
them enough that
well.we
For simplicity, Thethe inertiaonofthe
“edge”
significantly
assume the ions prevents
that the ion–
enough
enough that
thatthe inertia
the inertia of of
of the cloud then occurs atelectron thethe
ions
the radius ionsprevents
where prevents
the them
potentialthem from
so thatenergyfrommoving
moving
is not significantly
significantly
approximately on the
on theequation in
time
time them
scale of from moving
the experiment. significantly
mass ratio
Poisson’s M/m is
on the
infinite,
equation time in scale of
the ions do
in one the
dimension experiment. Poisson’s
move but form a uniform
is
timescale
scaleofofthethe experiment.
equal to the thermal energy background Poisson’s
KT of the
experiment. of positive
particles,
Poisson’s equation
charge.
andTothebe more
equation one dimension
precise,iswenot
shielding
in one is is
say that M/m is large
cancomplete.
dimension
one dimension
Potentials of the orderis of KT/e can2 leak into the plasma and cause finite electric
d 2ϕ 2
2ϕ ¼ ε0 d ϕ
fields to exist there. 2
∇
εε00the
∇ ϕ ¼ ε ¼ϕ �e
2d ¼ �eof ððnnsuch
ii � ÞÞ ððZZcloud.
� naneecharge ¼
¼ 11ÞImagine
Þ ð1:12Þ
ð1:12Þ

Let us compute ε0 ∇ ϕ ¼0 dx
2
approximate
0 2 2 ¼ �eðni � ne Þ ðZ ¼ 1Þ ...(4.12)
εdxthickness that ð1:12Þ
the potential ϕ on the plane x ¼ 0 is held dxat a value ϕ0 by a perfectly transparent grid
If
If the
the density
(Fig. 1.4).
density far
farWeaway
wish is
away to nncompute
is , we haveϕ(x). For simplicity, we assume that the ion–
If the density
11, we have n¥the, we
If theelectron
density massfarratio
awayM/m is isfar
n1away
, we
infinite, so is
have
that ionshavedo not move but form a uniform
background of positive charge. To be n
        nii ¼
more¼ n1 we can say that M/m is large
n
precise,
ni ¼1n1
In
In thethe presence
presence In theof aapresence
of potentialofenergy
potential a potential
energy qϕ,
qϕ, the energy
the electronqf, the
electron electron distribution
distribution
distribution function
function is isfunction is
In the presence of a potential energy qϕ,
 1 2 the electron
 distribution
 function is
ffððuuÞÞ ¼  ee ...(4.13)
¼ AA expexp � �212 mu1 2 þ
mu þ2qϕqϕ =KT =KT  ð1:13Þ
ð1:13Þ
f ðuÞ ¼ A exp � 2 mu þ qϕ =KT e ð1:13Þ
ItIt would
would notnot bebe worthwhile
worthwhile to to prove
prove thisthis here.
here. What What this this equation
equation says
says isis intuitively
intuitively Self-Instructional Material 75
It wouldThere
obvious:
obvious: not beare
There worthwhile
are fewer
fewer particles to prove
particles at this
at places
places here. where
whereWhat thethis
the equation
potential
potential says is
energy
energy isintuitively
is large,
large,
obvious:
since
since not
not all There
all are fewer
particles
particles have particlesenergy
have enough
enough at places
energy to
to getgetwhere
there.the
there. potential ffenergy
Integrating
Integrating (u)
(u) over
overis u,
large,
u,
since
setting qnot
¼ all
�e, particles
and noting have
that
setting q ¼ �e, and noting that nee(ϕ ! 0) ¼ n1 enough
n (ϕ ! energy
0) ¼ n , to
we get findthere. Integrating f (u) over u,
1, we find
setting q ¼ �e, and noting that ne(ϕ ! 0) ¼ n1, we find
nnee ¼¼ nn1 expðeϕ=KT Þ
1 expðeϕ=KTee Þ
ne ¼ n1 expðeϕ=KT e Þ
This
This equation
equation will will bebe derived
derived with with moremore physical
physical insight insight in in Sect.
Sect. 3.5.
3.5. Substituting
Substituting
 dx 2
If the
If the Ifdensity
density
density farfar
the density
far away
away away
far
isisaway
nnis ,nwe,1 is, have
we we
nhave have
1, we have
11
If the density far away is n1, we have
nin¼ i ¼
nni 1¼ n1nni 1¼ n1
ni ¼ n1
In In
thethe Inpresence
the presence
presence
presence ofofaof a potential
of a potential
apotential
potential energy
energyenergy qϕ,energy
qϕ,the qϕ, the the
qϕ,
electron electron
the distribution
electron electron distribution
distribution distribution
function function
function is is is
isfunction
In the presence of a potential energy qϕ,   the  electron
  2 distribution  =KT   function  is
Þf Þð¼u¼ÞAf¼ �1 21 þ 1 þ=KT ð1:13Þ
f ðf uðu AexpA
ðuexpÞ¼ exp
�
1� A12 exp
mu mu2 mu
�2 qϕ
þ 
2 mu
qϕ qϕ2
þ
=KT e qϕ e =KT
e e ð1:13Þð1:13Þ ð1:13Þ
f ðuÞ ¼ A exp � 2 mu22 þ qϕ =KT e ð1:13Þ
It would
It would
would
Electrodynamics
It Itnot
and not
would
not be benotworthwhile
beworthwhile It would
be
worthwhile totoprove
worthwhile to
not
prove prove
beto this this
here.
worthwhile
prove
this here.here.
What
this to What
here.
What this
prove What
this this
equation
this equation
here.
this
equation says issays
What
equation
says is intuitively
intuitively
isthis
says equation says is intuitively
is intuitively
intuitively
Plasma
would Physics
It obvious: not
obvious: be
There
obvious: worthwhile
There are are
Therefewer fewer
areto prove
particles
fewer this
particles at here.
particles at
places What
places
atwhere this
placeswheretheequation the
potential
where says
potential
the is
energy intuitively
potential energy
is large,
energyis large,
is large,
obvious: Thereobvious:are fewer There areat
particles fewer at particles
places atthe
where places the whereenergy
potential the potential
energy energy is large, since not all
is large,
obvious:
since
since There
not notall areparticles
fewer
particles haveparticles enough places
energy where
toenergy
getto there. potential
Integrating f (u)is large,
over
f (u) fu,over u, u,
since since
not allallnot all
particles particles
have have enoughenough
have enough
energyenergy to get getto
there. there.
get Integrating
there.
Integrating
Integratingff (u) Integrating
f (u) over(u)u,over
since
settingnotqall
setting ¼ q ¼ �e,
particles
particles
�e, and have
noting
and
have
noting enough
that enough
n
that (ϕ energy
n ! energy
(ϕ 0) ! ¼ to0)
n to
get
¼ ,get
we
n
there.
there.find
, we Integrating
find over u,
(u) over u,setting q = –e, and noting
q ¼ �e,qthat
setting setting ¼ �e,
and and noting e
that(ϕnne! e !n0)
that e(ϕ ¼! 1 n10),1 ¼ nfind 1, we find
setting q ¼ �e, and nnoting
notinge(f ® that0)n= e ¥, we
(ϕ 0) ¼ find n1, we
we
find
NOTES ne ¼nen1 ¼ exp ðexp
eϕ=KT e Þðeϕ=KT
nen¼ exp n1 nneexp
1 ¼ 1ðexp
ðneϕ=KT eϕ=KT eÞ e
Þ eÞ
ne ¼ 1 ð eϕ=KT e Þ
ThisThisequation
equation willwill be derived
be derived with more
with morephysical physical insight in insight
insight Sect.in 3.5.
Sect. Substituting
3.5. Substituting
This
This
This
equation
equation
equation
will will beThis
be (1.12),
will
derived
derived equation
be with
derived
withmorewillmore be derived
with
physical
more
physical with
physical
insight insight more
in Sect. inphysical
Sect. in3.5.insight.
Sect.
3.5. Substituting Substituting
3.5. Substituting
Substituting for ni and ne in
forforni and
n andn e in
n Eq.
in Eq. (1.12), we have
we have
forforni nand for
i and
i n and
ne ninei ine
Eq. Eq.
Eq.n in
e(4.12),Eq.
(1.12),
(1.12), wewe (1.12),
we have
have have we have
d ϕ d 2 ϕ 2  eϕ=KT
2
 e     
εd02 ϕd22 ϕ ¼ end 1ϕ e eϕ=KT � 1eϕ=KT
eϕ=KT
ε0 ε0dx ε0¼ en ε¼ ¼ 2en
201ene1 ¼1e en
eϕ=KT ee1 e e� �
�1 1 1�1
e e

dx dx2 dx
2 dx
In the region where jeϕ/KTej � 1, we can expand the exponential in a Taylor series:
InIn In
the the Inregion
region the where
region
where jeϕ/KT Injeϕ/KT
where
jeϕ/KTthe
ej �
region
jeϕ/KT
ej 1,�ejwe �1,where
1,
wej� we f
1,|ecan
we /KTexpand
can 1, the
e|<<exponential
expand we can
the expand
exponential
exponential inthein aexponential
Taylor
in a Taylor inseries:
series: a Taylor series:
the region where  can expand the exponential a Taylor series:
ecan expand the
2    in a Taylor series:
d ϕ 2 2 eϕ 1 eϕ 2   
εd0 dx
2 2 d¼ϕen
ϕεd 2 ϕ ¼ d1ϕeϕ eϕþ eϕ 2 KT e12 
eϕ þ21� 2�eϕ
eϕ � 2  ð1:14Þ ...(4.14)
ε0 ε0 2 0¼ en ε¼ 01 en en KT¼1 þeen1þ 1 eϕ þ
1
2
eϕþþKT � � þ� þ
� � �
� � þ� � � � ð1:14Þ ð1:14Þ
ð1:14Þ ð1:14Þ
2e KT e
dx dx2dx2 dxKT 2
1
eKTKT e
2 KTKT
e 2e KT e e

No simplification is possible for the region near the grid, where jeϕ/KTej may be
No No simplification
No simplification
simplification
large. Fortunately, is is
is this No
possible simplification
possible
region isfor thefor
possible
does region
not the is region
for possible
the
nearregion
contribute the for
near
much grid,thethe
near region
grid,
where
togrid,
the near
where
thethickness
grid,
jeϕ/KT theof
wherejgrid,
ejeϕ/KT
jeϕ/KT may jwhere
thejeϕ/KTej may
be ejbe
fbe
|emay/KTebe
| may be large.
No simplification possible for the region near the where ecloud
may
large. large.
(called
large. a Fortunately,
large.
Fortunately,
sheath),
Fortunately, Fortunately,
Fortunately,
this this
region
because
this regionregion
this this
does
the doesregion
does
region
not
potential does
not
does
contribute
not falls
contribute not
contribute
not much
very contribute
contribute tomuch
rapidly
much theto muchmuch
to the
thickness
there.
the to to
Keeping
thickness the
thickness
theof thethickness
thickness of
cloud
only
of the
thethe of
cloudthethe
ofcloud cloud (called a
cloud
(called a
(called
linear terms
(called sheath),
a
(called asheath),
because
sheath), sheath),
in Eq. because
a sheath), because
the
because
(1.13), we because the
thehave the
potential potential
potential
the falls
potential veryfalls
falls very
rapidly
very
falls rapidly
there.
rapidly
very
potential falls very rapidly there. Keeping only the there.
Keeping
rapidly there. Keeping
only
Keeping
there. only
the
Keeping onlythe linear
the
only the terms in Eq.
linear terms
linear
linear linear
terms in
terms Eq. (4.13),
interms
in (1.13),
Eq.Eq. we
Eq.have
we
in (1.13),
(1.13), have
(1.13),
wewe have we have
have
d 2 ϕ n1 e 2
εd02 ϕ 22 ¼n21 e22 ϕ 2 2 ð1:15Þ
ε0 dx d¼ϕ d ϕKT dn ϕeϕne12...(4.15)
e n1 e ð1:15Þ ð1:15Þ
dx ε
ε0 2dxKT
2 0 ε¼ 0 ¼ 1
2 edx2KTϕ KT
¼ ϕ ϕ ð1:15Þ ð1:15Þ
Defining dx KT e e e
Defining
Defining
DefiningDefining
Defining  1=2
λ  ε0 KTe1=2
�
D ε0 KT    1=21=2 ð1:16Þ ...(4.16)
λD � nee2ε0 KT
ε KT ε e0 KT
1=2 e ð1:16Þ
λ λ�Dne �λD � 2 2
2 0 e ð1:16Þ
ð1:16Þ ð1:16Þ
10 where n stands for nD , and ne 2ne ne
10 KT is in joules. KT is often given in
1 Introduction eV,
1 in which
Introductioncase, we will
where n stands for n1, and KTe is in ¥joules. KTe e is often given ein eV, in which case,
where
we will n stands
writefor it write
n1, as
also it T
and alsoKT. as TeV.joules. KTe is often given in eV, in which case,
e is in
where
We where
can n n
We
stands
write stands
thecan
for n for
write
solution
eVn
, and the,
of and
KT KT
solution
is ine isofinEq.
joules. asjoules.
(1.14)
KT KT
is as e isgiven
often often
given given
in
eV,eV, in ineV,which
in whichcase,case,
e Eq. (1.14)
n stands n1 1
wewhere
will write it alsoforas T,eV
We
1and. KT
can write isethe
in joules.
solution KT of ise often
e Eq. (1.14) as in in which case,
wewe will we
willwritewillitwrite
write it also
also it also
as as
TeV T.eV as. TeV.
ϕ ¼ ϕ expϕð�¼jxϕj=λ
0 0 exp ð�jxj=λD Þ
D Þ ...(4.17) ð1:17Þ ð1:17Þ
TheλDquantity
called λlength,
D, called the Debye is alength, is aofmeasure of thedistance
shieldingordistance or
The quantityTheλD,quantity
called the ,Debye the Debye is alength,
measure ofmeasure the shielding
the shielding distance or
thickness ofsheath.
the sheath.
thickness ofthickness
the sheath.of the
Note that as the
Note that density
as is increased,
the density λD decreases, as one would expect,
expect,since
Note that as the density is increased, λ isdecreases,
increased, D decreases,
λas one wouldasexpect,
one wouldsince since each layer
each layer of plasma containsDmore electrons. Furthermore, λD increases with
of plasma
each layer of plasma contains
contains moreelectrons.
more electrons. Furthermore,
Furthermore,λ λD increases increasing KT . Without
withwith
increases
increasing KTe. Without thermal agitation, the chargeDcloud would collapse to an e
thermal
increasing KTe. Without
infinitely thinagitation,
thermal the charge
agitation,
layer. Finally, it iscloud
the would collapse
charge
the electron
cloud wouldto an infinitely
temperature which is thin
collapse to
usedlayer.
an
in theFinally, it is
infinitely thin layer. Finally,
the electron
definition
it is the
temperature
of λD because
electron temperature
which is used
the electrons, beinginmore
which
the definition is
mobile than
used
of λDthe in
becausethe the electrons, being
ions, generally
definition ofdoλDthe
because
more
shieldingthe
mobileby electrons,
than the ions,
moving being more
so generally
as to createmobile
do athe than the
shielding
surplus ions, generally
by moving
or deficit so as to charge.
of negative create a surplus or
do the shielding by
Onlydeficitmovingsituations
so as to create a surplus or Problem
deficit of1.5).
negative charge.
of negative charge. Only in special situations is this not true.
in special is this not true (see
Only in specialThesituations
followingis this not true
are useful (see of
forms Problem 1.5).
Eq. (1.16):
The following are
The following are useful forms of Eq. (1.16): useful forms of Eq. (4.16):
λD ¼1=269ðT e =nÞ1=2 m, T e in � K
λ D ¼ 69ðT e =nÞ m, �
T e in K ...(4.18) ð1:18Þ
λD ¼ 7430ðKT e =nÞ1=2 m, KT e in eV ð1:18Þ
λD ¼ 7430ðKT e =nÞ1=2 m, KT e in eV
76 Self-Instructional Material
We are now in a position to define “quasineutrality.” If the dimensions L of a system
We are now are in amuch
positionlarger than λ“quasineutrality.”
to define D, then whenever Iflocal the dimensions
concentrations L ofof
a system
charge arise or
are much larger external λD, then are
thanpotentials whenever
introducedlocalinto
concentrations of charge
the system, these arise or out in a
are shielded
distance are
external potentials shortintroduced
compared withinto L,the
leaving
system, the bulk
theseofare
the shielded
plasma freeoutofinlarge
a electric
distance short potentials
compared or fields.
with L,Outside
leavingofthe
thebulk
sheathof on
thethe wall or
plasma onofanlarge
free obstacle, ∇2ϕ is very
electric
2 6. It takes only a
potentials orsmall,
fields.and ni is equal
Outside ne, typically
of thetosheath to better
on the wall or onthan one part in
an obstacle, ∇10ϕ is very
small charge imbalance to give rise to potentials of the 6
order of KT/e. Theaplasma is
small, and ni is equal to ne, typically to better than one part in 10 . It takes only
 We are now in a position to define “quasi neutrality.” If the dimensions L of a system Single-Particle Motions
are much larger than λD, then whenever local concentrations of charge arise or external
potentials are introduced into the system, these are shielded out in a distance short compared
with L, leaving the bulk of the plasma free of large electric potentials or fields. Outside of
the sheath on the wall or on an obstacle, D2f is very small, and ni is equal to ne, typically to NOTES
better than one part in 106. It takes only a small charge imbalance to give rise to potentials
of the order of KT/e. The plasma is “quasineutral”; that is, neutral enough so that one can
take ni  ne  n, where n is a common density called the plasma density, but not so neutral
that all the interesting electromagnetic forces vanish.
A criterion for an ionized gas to be a plasma is that it be dense enough that λD is much
smaller than L.
The phenomenon of Debye shielding also occurs—in modified form—in single-
species systems, such as the electron streams in klystrons and magnetrons or the proton
beam in a cyclotron. In such cases, any local bunching of particles causes a large unshielded
electric field unless the density is extremely low (which it often is). An externally imposed
potential—from a wire probe, for instance—would be shielded out by an adjustment of the
density near the electrode. Single-species systems, or unneutralized plasmas, are not strictly
plasmas; but the mathematical tools of plasma physics can be used to study such systems.
Debye shielding can be foiled if electrons are so fast that they do not collide with one
another enough to maintain a thermal distribution. We shall see later that electron collisions
are infrequent if the electrons are very hot. In that case, some electrons, attracted by the
positive charge of the ion, come in at an angle so fast that they orbit the ion like a satellite
for Plasmas around a planet. How this works will be clear in the discussion11of Langmuir probes in a later
1.6 Criteria for Plasmas 11
chapter. Some like to call this effect anti-shielding.
e Plasma Parameter
1.5 The Plasma Parameter
4.6 THE PLASMA PARAMETER
of Debye shielding
The picturethat we haveshielding
given above is valid only ifabove
there are
The picture ofofDebye
Debye thatwe
shielding that we havegiven
have given above isis valid
valid only
only if
if there
there are
are enough
ticles in the charge cloud. Clearly, if there are only one or two particles
particles in the charge cloud. Clearly, if there are only one or two particles
enough particles in the charge cloud. Clearly, if there are only one or two particles in the sheath
th region, Debye shielding would not be a statistically valid concept.
in region, Debye theshielding
numberwould
ND of not be awould
statistically
the sheath region, Debye shielding not bevalid concept. Using
a statistically validEq. (4.17), we can
concept.
1.17), we can compute particles in a “Debye sphere”:
Using Eq. (1.17), we can compute the number
compute the number ND of particles in a “Debye N of particles
D sphere”: in a “Debye sphere”:
N D ¼ n 3 πλD ¼ 1:38 � 10 T4 =n
4 3 6 3=2 1=2 �
ðT in KÞ ð1:19Þ
N D ¼ n 3 πλ3D ¼ 1:38 � 106 T 3=2 =n1=2 ðT in � KÞ ...(4.19) ð1:19Þ
to λD � L, “collective
In addition L, “collective behaviour” requires
to λD �toL,λD“collective
behavior”<< requires
In addition behavior” requires
ND ⋙ 1  ð1:20Þ ...(4.20)
ND ⋙ 1 ð1:20Þ
4.7 CRITERIA FOR PLASMAS
teria for Plasmas
1.6We have given two
Criteria forconditions
Plasmasthat an ionized gas must satisfy to be called a plasma. A third
condition has to do with collisions. The weakly ionized gas in an airplane’s jet exhaust, for
ven two conditions that annot
ionized gasasmust satisfybecause
to be calledcharged
a plasma.
Weexample, does
have given qualify
two conditions a plasma
that an ionized gas the
must satisfyparticles collide
to be called so frequently
a plasma.
dition has to do with collisions. The weakly ionized gas in an airplane’s
A with
third neutral atoms
condition has that
to dotheir
withmotion is controlled
collisions. by ordinary
The weakly ionized hydrodynamic forces rather
gas in an airplane’s
for example, does not qualify as a plasma because the charged particles
jet exhaust, for example, does not qualify as a plasma because the charged particles
requently with neutral atoms that their motion is controlled by ordinary
collide so frequently with neutral atoms that their motion is controlled by ordinary Self-Instructional Material 77
mic forces rather than by electromagnetic forces. If ω is the frequency of
hydrodynamic forces rather than by electromagnetic forces. If ω is the frequency of
ma oscillations and τ is the mean time between collisions with neutral
typical plasma oscillations and τ is the mean time between collisions with neutral
require ωτ > 1 for the gas to behave like a plasma rather than a
atoms, we require ωτ > 1 for the gas to behave like a plasma rather than a
neutral gas.
e conditions a plasma must satisfy are therefore:
The three conditions a plasma must satisfy are therefore:
 Electrodynamics and than by electromagnetic forces. If w is the frequency of typical plasma oscillations and τ is
Plasma Physics
the mean time between collisions with neutral atoms, we require wt > 1 for the gas to behave
like a plasma rather than a neutral gas.
The three conditions a plasma must satisfy are therefore:
NOTES
1. λD << L:
2. ND >>> 1:
3. ωτ > 1:

Problems
4.3. Calculate n vs. KTe curves for five values of λD from 10–8 to 1, and three values of
ND from 103 to 109. On a log-log plot of ne vs. KTe with ne from 106 to 1028 m–3
and KTe from 10–2 to 105 eV, draw lines of constant λD (solid) and ND (dashed).
On this graph, place the following points (n in m–3, KT in eV):
1. Typical fusion reactor: n = 1020, KT = 30,000.
2. Typical fusion experiments: n = 1019, KT = 100 (torus); n = 1023, KT =
1000 (pinch).
3. Typical ionosphere: n = 1011, KT = 0.05.
124. Typical radio frequency plasma: n = 1017, KT = 1.5 1 Introduction

5. Typical flame: n = 1014, KT = 0.1.

Convince yourself that these are plasmas.
6.
121.4. Typical laser plasma; n = 1025, KT = 100.
12 Compute the pressure, in atmospheres and in tons/ft , exerted
2
1 1Introduction
by Introduction
a thermonu-
7. clear
Interplanetary space: 6
n = 10 Assume
, KT = 0.01.
plasma on its container. KTe ¼ KTi ¼ 20 keV, n ¼ 1021 m�3, and
pConvince¼ nKT, where
Convince
Convince yourself
T ¼that
yourself
yourself T i +these
that
that Tthese
e.
these are
are plasmas.
are plasmas.
plasmas.
2 2
1.4. Compute
1.4. Compute the pressure,
the pressure, in inatmospheres
atmospheres
1.5. In a strictly steady state situation, both andthe
and inintons/ft
tons/ft
ions , exerted
, exerted
2, and
by by a thermonu-
a thermonu-
the electrons will follow
4.4. Compute
clearclear the pressure,
plasma on in atmospheres and in¼ tons/ft ¼ exerted
container. Assume KTee ¼ KTi i ¼ 20 keV, n ¼ 10 m, and, and
its container. Assume KT KT 20 keV, n by
¼ a
10 thermonuclear
21 21�3 �3
m
the plasma
Boltzmann on itsrelation –3
plasma ¼ on
p ¼pnKT, nKT,itswhere
wherecontainer.
T¼ +i +TTe.e. KTe = KT
T ¼TiTAssume
 i = 20 keV, n = 1021 m , and p = nKT,

where
1.5. 1.5. T = Ti +steady
In aInstrictly
a strictly Tsteady
e.
statesituation,
state situation,
n j ¼ n0 exp both�q
both the ions
ionsand
thei ϕ=KT and
j
the
theelectrons
electronswillwill
follow
follow
the Boltzmann relation
4.5. In
thea strictly
Boltzmannsteady state situation, both the ions and the electrons will follow the
relation
  to a potential ϕ, show that
Boltzmann relation infinite,
For the case of an n j ¼transparent
n0 exp�qi ϕ=KTgrid charged
j 
n ¼ n exp
the shielding distance isj then0given approximately�q i ϕ=KT j by
For the case of case
For the an infinite, transparent
of an infinite, grid
transparent charged
grid to 
charged a potentialf,ϕ,show
atopotential showthat
that the
Forthe
theshielding
case of an infinite,
distance ne2 approximately
transparent
is then
�2 given grid 1 byto a potential ϕ, show that
1 charged
shielding distance is then given approximately
λD ¼ by þ
the shielding distance is then given
20 approximately
KT e KT  i by
ne2 1 1
2

λ�2
D ¼ þ 
Show that λD is determined
�2 ne
2
by the
0 KT1 KT1i of the colder species.
temperature
e
λ ¼ D þ
1.6.ShowAn that λD is determined
alternative derivationby of 20λtemperature
the D KTwille give KTofi further
the colder species.
insight to its meaning.
Show that λD is determined by the temperature of the colder species.
Consider two infinite parallel plates at x ¼ �d, set at potential ϕ ¼ 0. The
4.6. 1.6.
An alternative
An alternativederivation of λDofwill
derivation λD give
will further insightinsight
give further to its meaning. Consider
to its meaning.
Show
spacethat λD is determined
between by the
them isparallel
uniformly temperature
filled a of
by�d, gastheofcolder
densityspecies.
nϕ of particles of
plates at xof± d, x ¼ f = 0. The ¼
1.6. two infinite parallel setwill
at potential space between them
Consider two infinite plates at set at potential 0. The
Ancharge
alternative
q. derivation λD give further insight
space between them is uniformly filled by a gas of density n of particles of
to its meaning.
isConsider
uniformly
charge
filled
two by a gas
infinite
q. Poisson’s parallel platesn of
of density at particles
x ¼ �d, of setcharge q.
at potential ϕ ¼ 0. The
(a)
space Using
between equation,
themequation,
is uniformly show
filled that the
by apotentialpotential
gas of density distribution
n ofbetween between
particles of
(a) Using
(a) the
Poisson’s
plates
Using is
Poisson’s
show that the distribution
equation, show that the potential distribution between
the
charge q.
plates
theisplates is
(a) Using Poisson’s equation, nq that 
ϕ ¼show 2 the
nq2ε 2d �2 x
2 potential distribution between
the plates is ϕ¼ 0d � x
2ε0
78 Self-Instructional Material (b) Show that for d > λD, thenqenergy  2 needed  to transport a particle from a
(b) Show that for d > λDϕ ¼ energy
, the � x2 to transport a particle from a
d needed
plate to the midplane is 2ε greater
0 than the average kinetic energy of the
plate to the midplane is greater than the average kinetic energy of the
particles.
particles.
(b) Show that for d > λD, the energy needed to transport a particle from a
1.7. plate toλλDDthe
1.7.Compute
Compute and NDD for
N forthe
andmidplane the following
isfollowing
greater than cases:
cases:the average kinetic energy of the
16 16�3 �3
(a)particles.
(a) AAglow
glow discharge, withn n¼¼
discharge, with 1010 m m, KT e ¼ e2¼
, KT 2 eV.
eV.
12 12�3 �3
(b)
(b) The
1.7. Compute
Theearth’s
λ and Nionosphere,
earth’s ionosphere, with withn ¼
for the following n¼ 1010m m, KT, eKT
cases: e ¼ eV.
¼ 0.1 0.1 eV.
D D 2323 �3�3
 (b) Show that for d > λD, the energy needed to transport a particle from a plate Single-Particle Motions
to the midplane is greater than the average kinetic energy of the particles.
4.7. Compute λD and ND for the following cases:
(a) A glow discharge, with n = 1016 m–3, KTe = 2 eV. NOTES
(b) The earth’s ionosphere, with n = 1012 m–3, KTe = 0.1 eV.
(c) A θ-pinch, with n = 1023 m–3, KTe = 800 eV.

4.8 APPLICATIONS OF PLASMA PHYSICS

Plasmas can be characterized by the two parameters n and KTe. Plasma applications cover an
extremely wide range of n and KTe: n varies over 28 orders of magnitude from 106 to 1034
m–3, and KT can vary over seven orders from 0.1 to 106 eV. Some of these applications are
discussed very briefly below. The tremendous range of density can be appreciated when one
realizes that air and water differ in density by only 103, while water and white dwarf stars are
separated by only a factor of 105. Even neutron stars are only 1015 times denser than water.
Yet gaseous plasmas in the entire density range of 1028 can be described by the same set of
equations, since only the classical (non-quantum mechanical) laws of physics are needed.

Gas Discharges (Gaseous Electronics)

The earliest work with plasmas was that of Langmuir, Tonks, and their collaborators in the
1920s. This research was inspired by the need to develop vacuum tubes that could carry large
currents, and therefore had to be filled with ionized gases. The research was done with weakly
ionized glow discharges and positive columns typically with KTe  2 eV and 1014 < n < 1018
m–3. It was here that the shielding phenomenon was discovered; the sheath surrounding an
electrode could be seen visually as a dark layer. Before semiconductors, gas discharges were
encountered only in mercury rectifiers, hydrogen thyratrons, ignitrons, spark gaps, welding
arcs, neon and fluorescent lights, and lightning discharges. The semiconductor industry’s rapid
growth in the last two decades has brought gas discharges from a small academic discipline
to an economic giant. Chips for computers and the ubiquitous handheld devices cannot be
made without plasmas. Usually driven by radio frequency power, partially ionized plasmas
(gas discharges) are used for etching and deposition in the manufacture of semiconductors.

Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion

Modern plasma physics had its beginnings around 1952, when it was proposed that the
hydrogen bomb fusion reaction be controlled to make a reactor. A seminal conference
was held in Geneva in 1958 at which each nation revealed its classified controlled fusion
program for the first time. Fusion power requires holding a 30-keV plasma with a magnetic
field for as long as one second. Research was carried out by each individual country until
2007, when the ITER project was started. ITER stands for International Thermonuclear
Experimental Reactor, a large experiment being built in France and funded by seven countries.
Serendipitously, ITER is a Latin word meaning path or road. It is a road that mankind must
take to solve the problems of global warming and oil shortage by 2050. Of all the “magnetic
Self-Instructional Material 79
 Electrodynamics and bottles” presented at Geneva, the USSR’s TOKAMAK has survived as the leading idea and
Plasma Physics 14 1 Introduction
is the configuration for ITER. First plasma in ITER is scheduled for about the year 2021.
The
Thefuel is heavy
fuel hydrogen
is heavy hydrogen(deuterium), which
(deuterium), exists
which naturally
exists as as
naturally oneone
partpart
in ~6000
in
of water.
�6000Theofprincipal
water. Thereactions,
principalwhich involve
reactions, deuterium
which involve(D) and tritium
deuterium (T) tritium
(D) and atoms, are
NOTES
as follows:
(T) atoms, are as follows:

D þ D !3 He þ n þ 3:2 MeV
D þ D ! T þ p þ 4:0 MeV
D þ T !4 He þ n þ 17:6 MeV
These cross
These cross sections
sectionsare
areappreciable
appreciableonly for incident
only energies
for incident above above
energies 5 keV. Accelerated
5 keV.
beams of deuterons
Accelerated bombarding
beams a target
of deuterons will not work,
bombarding because
a target most
will not of the
work, deuterons
because most will
lose their energy by scattering before undergoing a fusion reaction. It is necessary to create
of the deuterons will lose their energy by scattering before undergoing a fusion
reaction.
a plasma with Ittemperatures
is necessaryabove
to create a plasma
10 keV with
so that temperatures
there are enoughabove
ions in10
thekeV so that
40-keV range
there are enough ions in the 40-keV range where the reaction cross section
where the reaction cross section maximizes. The problem of heating and containing such
maximizes. The problem of heating and containing such a plasma is responsible
a plasma is responsible
for the rapid growthfor ofthe
therapid growth
science of thephysics
of plasma sciencesince
of plasma
1952.physics since 1952.

Space Physics
Another important application of plasma physics is in the study of the earth’s environment
1.7.3 Space Physics
in space. A continuous stream of charged particles, called the solar wind, impinges on the
earth’s magnetosphere, which shields us from this radiation and is distorted by it in the
Another important application of plasma physics is in the study of the earth’s envi-
process. Typical
ronment parameters
in space. in the solar
A continuous windofarecharged
stream 106 m–3, KTi
n = 9 ×particles, = 10
called theeV, KTewind,
solar = 12 eV,
B = 7impinges –9
× 10 T, onand
thedrift velocity
earth’s 450 km/s. which
magnetosphere, The ionosphere,
shields us extending from an altitude
from this radiation and is of
6 �3
50 km to 10 earth radii, is populated by a weakly ionized plasma with density varying
distorted by it in the process. Typical parameters in the solar wind are n ¼ 9 � 10 m ,with
�9
KTiup
altitude ¼ 10 = 10KT
to neV, 12 me¼
–3.12
TheeV, B ¼ 7 � 10
temperature is onlyT,10and drift
–1 eV. Thevelocity
solar wind450blowskm/s.theThe
earth’s
ionosphere, extending from an altitude of 50 km to 10 earth radii, is populated by a
magnetic field into a long tail on the night side of the earth. The magnetic 12 field lines there
weakly ionized plasma with density varying with altitude up to n ¼ 10 m�3. The
can reconnect and accelerate �1 ions in the process. This will be discussed in a later chapter.
temperature is only 10 eV. The solar wind blows the earth’s magnetic field into a
The tail
long VanonAllen radiation
the night side ofbelts
the are twoThe
earth. rings of charged
magnetic particles
field lines thereabove the equator
can reconnect
and accelerate ions in the process. This will be discussed 9in a
–3later chapter.
trapped by the earth’s magnetic field. Here we have n ::: 10 m , KTe ::: 1 keV, KTi  1 eV,
The Van Allen radiation belts are two rings of charged particles above the
and B  500 × 10–9 T. In addition, there is a hot component with n = 103 m–3 and KTe = 40
equator trapped by the earth’s magnetic field. Here we have n � 109 m�3 ,
keV, KTande �some ionsKT
1 keV, have
i ’ 1100s
eV, of MeV.
and B ’ 500 � 10 �9
T. In addition, there is a hot com-
�3
Exploration
ponent 103 mplanets
with nof¼other and have
KTe ¼ revealed
40 keV,theand presence
some ionsof plasmas.
have 100s Though
of MeV. Mercury,
Exploration of other planets have revealed the presence
Venus, and Mars have little plasma phenomena, the giant plants Jupiter and Saturn and of plasmas. Though
Mercury, Venus, and Mars have little plasma phenomena, the giant plants Jupiter
their and
moons can have plasma created by lightning strikes. In 2013 The Voyager 1 satellite
Saturn and their moons can have plasma created by lightning strikes. In 2013
reached
Thethe boundary
Voyager of the solar
1 satellite system.
reached theThis was ascertained
boundary by detecting
of the solar system. an increase
This was in
the plasma frequency
ascertained there (!).
by detecting an increase in the plasma frequency there (!).

Modern Astrophysics
Stellar interiors
1.7.4 and atmospheres
Modern are hot enough to be in the plasma state. The temperature at
Astrophysics
the core of the sun, for instance, is estimated to be 2 keV; thermonuclear reactions occurring at
this temperature are responsible
Stellar interiors for the sun’s
and atmospheres radiation.
are hot enoughThe solar
to be in corona is a tenuous
the plasma plasma
state. The
with temperature
temperaturesatuptheto 200
coreeV.
of The
the interstellar medium is
sun, for instance, contains ionized
estimated to behydrogen
2 keV;with

80 Self-Instructional Material
 1.7 Applications of Plasma Physics 15

n 106 (1 per cc). Various plasma theories have been used to explain the acceleration Single-Particle Motions
m–3
thermonuclear reactions occurring at this temperature are responsible for the sun’s
of cosmic rays. Although
radiation. The solarthecorona
starsisina tenuous
a galaxy are with
plasma not temperatures
charged, they up tobehave
200 eV. like
The particles in
6 �3
a plasma; and plasma kinetic theory has been used to predict the development of galaxies.
interstellar medium contains ionized hydrogen with n ’ 10 m (1 per cc). Various
plasma theories have been used to explain the acceleration of cosmic rays.
Radio astronomy
Although hastheuncovered numerous
stars in a galaxy are notsources
charged, oftheyradiation that
behave like most in
particles likely
a originate
NOTES
from plasmas. The Crab nebula is a rich source of plasma phenomena because it is known to
plasma; and plasma kinetic theory has been used to predict the development of
galaxies. Radio astronomy has uncovered numerous sources of radiation that most
contain a magnetic field.from
likely originate It also contains
plasmas. a visual
The Crab nebulapulsar.
is a richCurrent
source of theories of pulsars picture
plasma phenom-
them as rapidly rotating
ena because it isneutron
known tostars
contain with plasmas
a magnetic emitting
field. synchrotron
It also contains a visual radiation
pulsar. from the
Current theories of pulsars picture them as rapidly rotating neutron stars with
surface. Active galactic
plasmas nuclei
emitting and black
synchrotron holesfrom
radiation havethecome to the
surface. forefront.
Active galactic Astrophysics
nuclei now
requires an under-
and blackstanding
holes have ofcome
plasmato thephysics.
forefront. Astrophysics now requires an under-
standing of plasma physics.

MHD Energy Conversion and Ion Propulsion

Getting back down to earth, we come to two practical applications of plasma physics.
1.7.5 MHD Energy Conversion and Ion Propulsion
Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) energy conversion utilizes a dense plasma jet propelled across
a magnetic field
Gettingto back
generate
down electricity
to earth, we (Fig.
come 4.5).
to twoThe Lorentz
practical force qvof×plasma
applications B, where v is the
jet velocity, causes the ions to drift upward and the electrons downward, charging the two
physics. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) energy conversion utilizes a dense plasma
jet propelled across a magnetic field to generate electricity (Fig. 1.5). The Lorentz
electrodes toforce
different
qv � B,potentials. Electrical
where v is the current
jet velocity, can
causes thethen
ions be
to drawn fromand
drift upward the electrodes
without the the
inefficiency of a heatcharging
electrons downward, cycle. the two electrodes to different potentials. Elec-
trical current can then be drawn from the electrodes without the inefficiency of a
A more important
heat cycle. application uses this principle in reverse to develop engines for
A more important application uses this principle in reverse to develop engines
interplanetary missions. In Fig. 4.6, a current is driven through a plasma by applying a
for interplanetary missions. In Fig. 1.6, a current is driven through a plasma by
voltage to the two electrodes.
applying The
a voltage to the twoj electrodes.
× B forceTheshoots
j � B the
forceplasma outplasma
shoots the of the
outrocket,
of and the
ensuing reaction force accelerates the rocket. A more modern device called a Hall thruster
the rocket, and the ensuing reaction force accelerates the rocket. A more modern
device called a Hall thruster uses a magnetic field to stop the electrons while a high
uses a magnetic field
voltage to stopthe
accelerates theions
electrons while
out the back, a high
giving theirvoltage
momentaaccelerates the ions out the
to the spacecraft.
back, givingAtheir momenta
separate dischargetoejects
the spacecraft. A separate
an equal number of warmdischarge ejects anthe
electrons; otherwise, equal number
space ship will charge to a high potential.
of warm electrons; otherwise, the space ship will charge to a high potential.

6 1 Introduction
Fig.
Fig. 1.5 Principle of the4.5.
MHDPrinciple
generator of the MHD generator
ig. 1.6 Principle of
lasma-jet engine for
pacecraft propulsion


Fig. 4.6. Principle of plasma-jet engine for spacecraft propulsion
1.7.6 Solid State Plasmas
Self-Instructional Material 81

The free electrons and holes in semiconductors constitute a plasma exhibiting the
ame sort of oscillations and instabilities as a gaseous plasma. Plasmas injected into
nSb have been particularly useful in studies of these phenomena. Because of the
attice effects, the effective collision frequency is much less than one would expect
n a solid with n ’ 1029 m�3. Furthermore, the holes in a semiconductor can have a
ery low effective mass—as little as 0.01 m —and therefore have high cyclotron
 Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics
Solid State Plasmas
The free electrons and holes in semiconductors constitute a plasma exhibiting the same
sort of oscillations and instabilities as a gaseous plasma. Plasmas injected into InSb have
NOTES been particularly useful in studies of these phenomena. Because of the lattice effects, the
effective collision frequency is much less than one would expect in a solid with n  1029 m–3.
Furthermore, the holes in a semiconductor can have a very low effective mass—as little as
0.01 me—and therefore have high cyclotron frequencies even in moderate magnetic fields.
If one were to calculate ND for a solid state plasma, it would be less than unity because of
the low temperature and high density. Quantum mechanical effects (uncertainty principle),
however, give the plasma an effective temperature high enough to make ND respectably
large. Certain liquids, such as solutions of sodium in ammonia, have been found to behave
like plasmas also.

Gas Lasers
The most common method to “pump” a gas laser—that is, to invert the population in the states
that give rise to light amplification—is to use a gas discharge. This can be a low-pressure
glow discharge for a dc laser or a high-pressure avalanche discharge in a pulsed laser. The
He–Ne lasers commonly used for alignment and surveying and the Ar and Kr lasers used
in light shows are examples of dc gas lasers. The powerful CO2 laser has a commercial
application as a cutting tool. Molecular lasers such as the hydrogen cyanide (HCN) laser
make possible studies of the hitherto inaccessible far infrared region of the electromagnetic
spectrum. The krypton fluoride (KrF) laser uses a large electron beam to excite the gas. It has
the repetition rate but not the power for a laser-driven fusion reactor. In the semiconductor
industry, short-wavelength ultraviolet lasers are used to etch ever smaller transistors on a
chip. Excimer lasers such as the argon fluoride laser with 193 nm wavelength are used, with
plans to go down to 5 nm.

Particle Accelerators
In high-energy particle research, linear accelerators are used to avoid synchrotron radiation
on curves, especially for electrons. The 3-km long SLAC accelerator at Stanford produces 50-
GeV electrons and positrons. Plasma accelerators generate plasma waves on which particles
“surf” to gain energy. This technique has been applied at SLAC to double the energy from
42 to 84 GeV. A 31-km International Linear Collider is being built to generate 500 GeV
colliding beams of electrons and positrons. In principle, plasma waves can add 1 GeV per cm.

Industrial Plasmas
Aside from their use in semiconductor production, partially ionized plasmas of high density
have other industrial applications. Magnetrons are used in sputtering, a method of applying
coatings of different materials. Eyeglasses can be coated with plasmas. Arcs, such as those
in search lights, are plasmas. Instruments in medical research can be cleaned thoroughly
with plasmas.
82 Self-Instructional Material
Atmospheric Plasmas Single-Particle Motions

Most plasmas are created in vacuum systems, but it is also possible to produce plasmas
at atmospheric pressure. For instance, a jet of argon and helium can be ionized with
radiofrequency power. This makes possible small pencil-size devices for cauterizing skin. NOTES
Industrial substrates can be processed by sweeping such a jet to cover a large area. Large
atmospheric-pressure plasmas can also be produced for roll-to-roll processing.

Problems
4.8. In laser fusion, the core of a small pellet of DT is compressed to a density of
1033 m–3 at a temperature of 50,000,000 °K. Estimate the number of particles in
a Debye sphere in this plasma.
4.9. A distant galaxy contains a cloud of protons and antiprotons, each with density n
= 106 m–3 and temperature 100°K. What is the Debye length?
4.10. (Advanced problem) A spherical conductor of radius a is immersed in a uniform
plasma and charged to a potential f0. The electrons remain Max-wellian and move
to form a Debye shield, but the ions are stationary during the time frame of the
experiment.
(a) Assuming ef/KTe << 1, write Poisson’s equation for this problem in terms of
λD.
(b) Show that the equation is satisfied by a function of the form e-kr/r. Determine
18 k and derive an expression for f(r) in terms of a, f0, and λD1. Introduction
4.11 A field-effect transistor (FET) is basically an electron valve that operates on a
1.11. A field-effect transistor (FET) is basically an electron valve that operates on a
finite-Debye-length effect. Conduction electrons flow from the source S to the
finite-Debye-length effect. Conduction electrons flow from the source S to
D drain
drainthe through a semiconducting
D through material
a semiconducting when awhen
material potential is applied
a potential between
is applied
them.between
When them.
a negative
Whenpotential
a negativeispotential
applied istoapplied
the insulated gate G, gate
to the insulated no current
G,
no current can flow through G, but the applied potential leaks
can flow through G, but the applied potential leaks into the semiconductor and into the
semiconductor and repels electrons. The channel width is narrowed and the
repels electrons.
electron flowThe channel
impeded width is narrowed
in proportion and
to the gate the electron
potential. If theflow impeded
thickness of in
proportion to theisgate
the device too potential. If the
large, Debye thickness
shielding of the device
prevents the gateis too large,from
voltage Debye
shielding prevents
penetrating the gateEstimate
far enough. voltage the
from penetrating
maximum far enough.
thickness Estimate the
of the conduction
layer of an n-channel FET if it has doping level (plasma density) of 1022 m�3,
maximum thickness of the conduction layer of an n-channel FET if it has doping
is at room temperature, and is to be no more than 10 Debye lengths thick.
level(See
(plasma density) of 1022 m–3, is at room temperature, and is to be no more
Fig. P1.11.)
than 10 Debye lengths thick.

Fig. P1.11 Fig. 4.7

Self-Instructional Material 83
1.12. (Advanced problem) Ionization is caused by electrons in the tail of a Max-
wellian distribution which have energies exceeding the ionization potential.
For instance, this potential is Eioniz ¼ 15.8 eV in argon. Consider a
one-dimensional plasma with electron velocities u in the x direction only.
What fraction of the electrons can ionize for given KTe in argon? (Give an
analytic answer in terms of error functions.)
 trajectories need be considered; collective effects are often unimportant. Plasmas
behave sometimes like fluids, and sometimes like a collection of individual parti-
cles. The first step in learning how to deal with this schizophrenic personality is to
understand how single particles behave in electric and magnetic fields. This chapter
differs from succeeding ones in that the E and B fields are assumed to be prescribed
and not affected by the charged particles.
Electrodynamics and 4.12. (Advanced problem) Ionization is caused by electrons in the tail of a Max- wellian
Plasma Physics
distribution which have energies exceeding the ionization potential. For instance,
2.2 Uniform E and Bthis potential is Eioniz = 15.8 eV in argon. Consider a one-dimensional plasma with
Fields
20 electron velocities u in the × direction only. What fraction of the
2 Single-Particle electrons can
Motions
20NOTES
2.2.1 E ¼ 020 ionize for given KTe in argon? (Give an analytic answer
2 Single-Particle Motions
in terms of Motions
2 Single-Particle error functions.)
20 mv_ x ¼ qBv y mv_ y ¼ �qBvx mv_ z ¼20 Single-Particle Motions
mv_ x ¼ qBv y mv_ y ¼ �qBvx mv_ z ¼0 
In this case, a charged 4.9 particle
UNIFORM has m _x E
a vsimple ¼ AND qBv cyclotron
y qB
 y2
mBv_ FIELDS ¼ �qBv
gyration. qBx The z ¼0
2mv_equation of
motion is
20 mqB v_ ¼ qBv € v ¼ qB v_
mav_simple ¼
yy¼ �qBv
2  � v
 x z ¼ Motions
Single-Particle
mx 2mv_gyration. 0
x
20 In this case, a charged €vx ¼ x particle v_ y ¼ �yhasqB m vx cyclotron qB 2 Single-Particle The equationð2:2Þ
Motions of motion is
m €vx ¼ m v_ y ¼ �  2 vx ð2:2Þ
20 dv qBm 2 m
Single-Particle
qB 2 Motions ð2:2Þ
mv_ x ¼ qBv y m mv_ y¼¼qv�qBv mqB 0� � qB vx v
dt qB
� €€vvxyB¼ ¼x � m qB
v_ yzv_¼x2 ¼ 
m 2 y ð2:1Þ
ð2:2Þ
...(4.21)
20 mv_ x ¼ qBv
€v y ¼ � y m v_ ¼ �qBv
xy �2qBx v y z m m v _ ¼ m
0
qB 2 Single-Particle Motions
mv_ x ¼ qBv y z^ to
Taking mqB _y ¼
vbe the mdirection
�qBv €v yx qB ¼m� of _ zm
v B ¼(B v_0x =¼B�z^), we  vy
Taking z^ to be the direction of €vx B¼(B ¼v_B y ¼ z
qB^ ),�we haveqB vmqBx 2 m 2have
qB
m  €v y ¼ 
m
¼2oscillator
�¼ �qBv v_ x ¼ vatxx�themm ð2:2Þ
This describes a simple qBmv_€vx x¼¼harmonic qBv yv_qB y mv_� y m _ z ¼ v0y frequency, which we
vcyclotron
This describes a simple
define to be harmonic
€v ¼
x a simple v_ y
oscillator
¼ � m at the
v  cyclotron
m
x 2  at 
frequency, which weð2:2Þ
define to be
This describes m qBharmonic mqBqB oscillator
 
the2 cyclotron frequency, which we
ð2:2Þ
define to be €vay simple ¼� v_ x ¼ � vqB y qB 2
...(4.22)
This describes €vxqB
m¼harmonic ¼ oscillator v_ y2 ¼ �

m at thevcyclotron frequency, which we
qB €
v y � v_m
qB x ¼ � j q jB m vy x ð2:2Þ
define Publishing
© Springer International to be €v y ¼Switzerland� v_ x ¼ 2016 � m
j qjB ωvc y� m  2 19 ð2:3Þ
This describes
F.F. Chen, a simple
Introduction harmonic
to Plasma Physics mandωControlled
oscillator c � at the mqB cyclotron
Fusion, jqmjBfrequency, qB which weð2:3Þ
€v y ¼m � atωv_the cx�¼ � vy ð2:3Þ
This
to bedescribes a simple harmonic oscillator
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-22309-4_2
define mω � jcyclotron qmjB m frequency, which we
ð2:3Þ
This describes
define atosimple
be theharmonic
By convention oscillator
we have the cyclotron
at chosen, ωc c is mfrequency,
always nonnegative. which we B is measured in
By
define to bethe convention
tesla, orwe The have
webers/m describes
chosen,
2
, a a simple
unit ω is
equal
c harmonic
always to 10 G.oscillator
4nonnegative.
The at
solution the
B cyclotron
is ofmeasured
Eq. frequency,
(2.2) in
is then which we define
ThisBydescribes
the2 convention a simple we have
harmonic 4jqjB chosen, oscillator ωc isat always theEq. nonnegative.
cyclotron frequency, B is whichmeasuredwe in
tesla, or webers/m to be , a unit equal to 10 G. The solution of (2.2) is then
tesla,
define
By theor
to webers/m2,we
beconvention aωunitc � equaljq
havem chosen, tojB10ω4 cG. is The always solution  of Eq.ð2:3Þ
nonnegative. (2.2) ismeasured
B isð2:3Þ then in
2 vω
jqjBx, y m⊥ 4  c
c � ¼ v exp �iω t þ iδ x, y
tesla, or webers/m vx, y ¼ , a unit
ωc v�⊥ exp �iω equal ...(4.23) to 10
c t þ iδx, y
G.
 The solution  of Eq.
ð2:3Þ (2.2) is then
By the convention we have chosen, ωc m x, y ¼ v⊥nonnegative.
isvalways exp jqjB 
�iωc t þBiδxis, y measured in

the2 � denoting the sign4 of vq. We ωmayc⊥� choose tthe phase δ so that ð2:3Þ
tesla,
theorBy the convention
�webers/m , a unit weequal have to chosen,
10 G.choose xω
The , yc ¼ is valways
solution exp mof �iωnonnegative.
Eq.δ þthat
(2.2)iδ x,is
y thenBnonnegative.
is measuredB in
denoting the signBy the
of q.convention
We may
ωc isto we have the chosen,
phase ω cso
c is always is measured in tesla,
By the convention thewe�have
tesla, or webers/m denoting
2
, chosen,
a unit theequalsign ofalways
10q. We
4
G. nonnegative.
may solution
The choose iω t
B is
the
of phase
Eq. measured
(2.2) δ sois in
that
then
2 or webers/m2, a unit  vx4 ¼ ⊥ e solution
G.equal to t10may G. of vThe ¼ x_ isofthen Eq.δ (4.23) is then ð2:4aÞ
c
tesla, or webers/mthe , a unit equalvx, y to 104vexp The solution Eq. (2.2)
By the � denoting
convention ¼the
wev⊥sign havex ¼ �iω
of v⊥q.eiω
chosen, We
c tc þ¼ ωiδxc_x,isy choose
always the phase
iωc t  nonnegative. B ð2:4aÞ
so thatis measured in
2 vx, y ¼ v⊥ expto �iω
 equal vx4¼ t vþ⊥ e x, y ¼ x_
iδ ð2:4aÞ
tesla,
where v⊥ vis
or webers/m a
y ¼
, a
positive
v⊥may unit
exp choose constant
�iωc t þthe 10
denoting
iδvxxphase
cG.
, y¼ v⊥ δ
The theiω
solution
tspeed in of
the Eq. (2.2)
plane is then
perpendicular to B.
� denoting
thewhere the sign the x, q.
ofconstant We e soplane
c
¼ x_ perpendicular to B.
that ð2:4aÞ
v⊥ is aThen
positive
where the v⊥ is ± denoting
a positive
denoting the
constant signthe of speedq.
denoting We
 inmay the choose  the phase δ so
the plane perpendicular to B. that
Then the � denoting sign of q. We vmay choose
x, y ¼ v⊥ exp �iωc t þ iδx, y
the the phase speed δ sointhat
the � denoting thewhere Then
sign of v⊥ q.isWe may
a positivevx ¼choose constant
v⊥ e m iω cthe denoting
t
¼ phasex_  δ1 so thethat speed in the plane perpendicular to B....(4.24a)
ð2:4aÞ
iωc t
Then v v ¼ ¼ v v_e iω¼ ct �
¼ x_ v _ ¼ �iv e ¼ y_ ð2:4aÞ ð2:4bÞ
the � denoting where
vy ¼ thevmsign is
v_ a of
¼
y
q.
�
x1
iωcWe
positive t qB
m v_
⊥
may
constant
¼
x
�ivchoose ω1eciωc tthe
denoting
x
¼ phase
ythe
_
⊥
speed δ sointhat the plane
ð2:4bÞ perpendicular to B. Then
where v⊥ is a positive constantqB v x ¼
denotingx v e
⊥v ¼ ¼
ωc speed
x x_ ⊥ iω t ð2:4aÞ
¼ y_ to B.
y the v_ x ¼in�the v_plane x ¼ �iv perpendicular
⊥e ð2:4bÞ
c

v qB
m ω 1 B.
Then where is a
⊥Integrating once again,v ywe
positive constant denoting
¼ have the
vxv_ x¼¼v⊥�e v_ ¼speed iω c c t in
x ¼
the plane
x_ �iv⊥ e ¼ y_ iωperpendicular
c t ...(4.24b)
to ð2:4aÞ
ð2:4bÞ
v⊥Then
whereIntegrating
is a positive constant
once again, wedenoting
have the speed qB in theωplane c perpendicular to B.
Then Integrating once m again, 1we havev v⊥ perpendicular
where v⊥ visy Integrating
a¼positive _ x ¼m
v x
v
once
constant
�� x again,
v_ ¼x denoting
¼�i we
�iv ⊥ have
⊥eiωeiω c tc t ¼
the speed _y⊥�iny0the
vyiω ¼� plane eiω ct
ð2:4bÞ to B.
ð2:5Þ
Integrating once
qB again, ⊥ ωiω we0 t have 1 ω t iω t ω
Then x �mx0v¼ y ¼ �i 1 e
vx ¼ �
_ c c
yv_ ⊥� y
x ¼iω0�iv
c
ct
¼ �
⊥e
c e
¼y c
_ v c
⊥ iωc t ð2:5Þ ð2:4bÞ
v y ¼ v_ x ¼ � qB ω
x c� v_x0 ¼
x
¼ �iv �ic eiω
ω
vω
⊥c
e c t ¼ y_ ωyc� y0 ¼ � ð2:4bÞ e
vω⊥c iωc t
 ð2:5Þ ...(4.25)
Integrating onceWe again, qB
wethe have ω
x �radius
⊥ iωc t
0 ¼ �i y � y0 c¼ t �ω e ð2:5Þ
define Larmor c xm to bee1
define the Larmor
WeIntegrating radius to v be ¼ v_ ¼ ω�c v_ x ¼ �iv⊥ eiω ¼ y _ ð2:4bÞ
once again,Wethe define
we
Larmor the Larmor
havey
qB to
x radiusbeωcto be
c
Integrating once again, We define we have v⊥ iωc tradius v⊥v⊥ eiω mv ct ⊥
x � x 0
We define the Larmor¼ �i e v
radius y to � y
ber0 ¼ � � ¼ v⊥ iωc t ð2:5Þ ð2:6Þ
x � x ω¼ c �i ⊥
e viω⊥ c t mv L
y⊥ � ω
y ω ¼c � j q jB e ð2:5Þ

Integrating once again, v⊥0 iωcwe rt L � have ¼
ωc yω� v v
⊥ ⊥0c iω tmv⊥ ð2:6Þ ...(4.26)
x � x0 ¼ �i e c y0 jq rjB
¼ L� � e¼c ωc ð2:5Þ ð2:6Þ
We define the Larmor radius ω ω
v⊥ iωrcLt �ωvc⊥c ¼ mv⊥ v⊥ iωc t
toc be jqjB
Taking the real x
part� x
of ¼Eq. �i (2.5), e we have y � y ¼� e ð2:6Þ
ð2:5Þ
We define the Larmor Taking radiusthe real to be
0 part ω of Eq. (4.25), ωc wejqhave 0jB
ω
Taking the
We define the Larmor real part
radiusof Eq. (2.5),
to be of Eq. we have c c
Taking the v⊥ (2.5), mv⊥we have
real part rxL��x0 ¼¼r Lvsin ωcmv t ⊥ y � y0 ¼ � r L cos ωð2:6Þ ct
 ð2:7Þ ...(4.27)
WeTaking
definex � thex0Larmor
the real
¼ rpart L sin of
radiusω ωtrc to
Eq. (2.5),
� jyq⊥jB
be � ¼ we
y ¼have � r cos ω t ð2:7Þ ð2:6Þ
v⊥ mv⊥ ωcjqt jB y � y ¼ � r L cos ωc t
c L 0 L c
r L x�� x0¼¼ r Lωsin c 0 ð2:6Þ ð2:7Þ
This
84 Self-Instructional Material describes a circularω orbit
j q jB around a guiding center (x0, y0) which is fixed
This the
Taking describes parta of
real (Fig. circular
Eq. The orbit
(2.5), we �have
x around c
x0 ¼ raL guiding sin ωvc t⊥ center mv y� ⊥ (x y00,¼y� 0)such L cos ωis
rwhich t fixed ð2:7Þ
This 2.1).
describes a direction
circular oforbit the
r L around� gyration ¼a is guiding always center that, c ythe
(x ) magnetic
which ð2:6Þ
is field
fixed
(Fig.Taking
2.1). the
Thereal part of of
direction Eq.the (2.5), gyrationwe have is always ωc such jqjB that the magnetic field 0 0
Taking the real part (Fig.
Thisof
x �Eq.2.1). ¼The
x0 (2.5),
describes adirection
we
r L sin ωhave
circular of �the
yorbit y0aroundgyration
¼ � r Lacos is
guiding ωalways such (x
center that ythe
0,ð2:7Þ
magnetic field
0) which is fixed
ct ct
(Fig. 2.1).x � The x0 ¼ r sin ωof
direction c t the ygyration � y0 ¼ � is ralways L cos ωcsuch t that the magnetic ð2:7Þ field
Taking the x0 ¼real part oft LEq. (2.5),
sin ωaround y0we ¼ have r L cos ω
This describes ax � circular r Lorbit c ya�guiding � center (xc0t, y0) which is ð2:7Þ
fixed
This The
(Fig. 2.1). describes
direction a circular
of the x �orbit x0 ¼around
gyration r L sinis always ωa tguiding y �center
such ythat ¼ the �(xr0Lmagnetic
, cos
y0) ωwhich
ct
field is fixed ð2:7Þ
This describes
(Fig. 2.1).a circular orbit around
The direction of thea gyration guidingc is center always (x0,0such y0) which that theis magnetic fixed field
 Larmor orbits
Uniform E and B Fields 21
gnetic field
armor orbits
2.1 field
tic Larmor orbits
magnetic field

This describes a circular orbit around a guiding center (x0, y0) which is fixed (Fig. Single-Particle Motions
4.8). The direction of the gyration is always such that the magnetic field generated by the
charged particle is opposite to the externally imposed field. Plasma particles, therefore, tend
to reduce the magnetic field, and plasmas are diamagnetic. In Fig. 4.8, the right-hand rule
with the thumb pointed in the B direction would give ions a clockwise gyration. Ions gyrate NOTES
ed by the charged particle is opposite
counterclockwise to generate to theanexternally
opposing imposed field. Plasma
B, thus lowering the energy of the system. In
es, therefore, tend to reduce the magnetic field, and plasmas are diamagnetic.
by the chargedaddition to this
particle motion, to
is opposite there
the isexternally
an arbitrary velocity
imposed field. PlasmaB which is not affected by B.
v along
2.1, the right-hand rule with the thumb pointed in the B direction zwould give
rated by the
therefore, The trajectory
charged
tend
clockwise gyration.
to particle
reduce ofEaandcharged
the
2.2 Uniform
Ions gyrate
is opposite
magnetic
B Fields particle in to
to
field,
counterclockwise
the
and space
externally
plasmas is, in an
are
generate general,
imposed
diamagnetic.
opposinga Plasma
field. helix.
21
B,
1,cles,
the therefore,
right-handtend ruletowithreduce
the thumbthe magnetic
pointedfield,
in theand plasmas are
B direction diamagnetic.
would give
wering the energy Fig. of 2.1theLarmor
system.
orbits In addition to this motion, there is an
g. 2.1, the
ckwise right-hand
gyration. in arule
Ions gyrate with
magnetic the thumb pointed
counterclockwise
field in the B direction
to generate an opposingwouldB, give
y velocity vz along B which is not affected by B. The trajectory of a charged
a clockwise
ering gyration.
the energy of the Ions gyrate In
system. counterclockwise
addition to thistomotion,
generatethere is an B,
an opposing
e in space is, in general, a helix.
lowering
velocity vz the energy
along B which of the
is not system.
affected Inby addition to this motion,
B. The trajectory there is an
of a charged
nrary velocity
space vz along aB helix.
is, in general, which is not affected by B. The trajectory of a charged
cle in space is, in general, a helix.
Finite E
Finite E
2we allow
Finitean E
electricgenerated
field by Fig.
tothebecharged
present, 4.8.
particle the Larmor
motion
is opposite to theorbits
will bein
externally a magnetic
found
imposed toPlasma
field. be thefield
particles, therefore, tend to reduce the magnetic field, and plasmas are diamagnetic.
two motions: the usual circular Larmor gyration plus ina the
drift of the guiding
e allow an electric fieldIn Fig. to
2.1, be present,
the right-hand rulethe
with motion will be found
the thumb pointed B directiontowould
be thegive

ow motions:
wo F
We may choose
we allowtheinite E
an usual E
electric
to
ions a lie in
clockwise
field to
thuscircular
lowering
the
be
Larmor
the
x–z
gyration.
energy
Ionsplane
present,
ofgyration
so
the In
the system.
that
gyrate counterclockwise
motion
plus
E y ¼
will
a drift
addition
0.
be
to thisof
As
to generate anbefore,
opposing B,the
found
the
motion, there to
guiding is anbe the
ponent of velocity is unrelated to the transverse components and can be
Weof may If now
two motions:
choose Ethewe allow
arbitrary
usual
toparticle
lie
separately. The equationinofspace an
velocity
in electric
circular
the vx–z
motion
z alongLarmorfield
B which is
plane
is now
is, in general, to
so
a helix. be
notthat
gyrationpresent,
affected
E by
y ¼
plus the
B. 0.
Thea As motion
trajectory
driftbefore, will
ofof athe
charged
be
guiding
the found to be the sum of two
er. We
nent of may choose
velocity is E to
unrelated lie in
to the
the x–z plane
transverse so that
components
motions: the usual circular Larmor gyration plusy a drift of the guiding E ¼ 0.
andAs canbefore,
be the center. We may choose
mponent of
parately. The velocity
E toequation
lie in the is unrelated
ofx–zmotion
dv planeisso tonow the transverse components
that Ey = 0. As before, the z component and can beof velocity is unrelated
m ¼
ed separately. The equation of motion is now
2.2.2 Finite Eq ð E þ v � B Þ ð2:8Þ
to the transverse dv dt components and can be treated separately. The equation of motion is now
now we ¼
If m qðanEelectric
allow þv� fieldBtoÞ be present, the motion will be found toð2:8Þ be the
dv
z component is sum ofdttwommotions: the usual circular Larmor
¼ qð E þ v � B Þ ...(4.28)
gyration plus a drift of the guiding
ð2:8Þ
center. We may dt choose E to lie in the x–z plane so that Ey ¼ 0. As before, the
z component of velocity is unrelated to the transverse components and can be
omponent is q
dvzThe equation
whose z component
treated separately.
¼ is Ez
of motion is now
se z component is
dvzdt q m m dv ¼ qð E þ v � B Þ ð2:8Þ
dt
¼ Ez
dv mz q
dt

whose z component is ¼ Ez
or dt m
dvz q
qEz ¼ Ez
vz ¼ t þ vz0 ...(4.29)
dt m
ð2:9Þ
or qE m
22 z 2 Single-Particle Motions
This is vaz ¼ m
þ vz0 acceleration
t qE
straightforward z qEz 2 along B. The
Single-Particle
ð2:9Þ
transverse
Motions components of Eq.
a straightforward acceleration vz ¼ along B.
t þ vz0 m
v z ¼The t þtransverse
v z0 components ð2:9Þ of
ð2:9Þ
8) are (4.28) are m
dvtransverseq
straightforward acceleration dvx along q B. The transverse components of
This is a straightforward acceleration along B. The x
Eq. (2.8) are ¼ Ecomponents
x � ωc v y
of

areis a straightforward acceleration ¼ Ealong x � ωcB. dt m

v y The transverse components of ð2:10Þ
dt m dv y
(2.8) are ...(4.30) ð2:10Þ
dv y ¼ 0 � ωc vx
¼ 0 � ωc vx dt
dt

rentiating, we have
Differentiating,have
Differentiating,
(for constantwe E)
we have (for constant
(for constant E) E)

€vx ¼ �ω2c vx
€vx ¼ �ω2c vx  
q   q  
2 Ex
€v ¼ �ωEx Ex � ωc v y ¼ �ωc þ vy
€v ¼ �ωc Ex � ωc v y ¼ y�ω2c c þ mvy B
y m B
We can write this as
an write this as Self-Instructional Material 85
   d 2   Ex  
Ex

d2 Ex E 2
þ2 v y þ B ¼ �ωc vð2:11Þ
y þ ð2:11Þ
x
vy þ ¼ �ω2c v y dt B
dt2 B B

so that
at Eq. (2.11) is reduced Eq.previous
to the (2.11) iscase
reduced to theifprevious
(Eq. (2.2)) casev (Eq.
we replace (2.2)) if we replace vy by
y by
v + (E /B). Equations (2.4a) and (2.4b)
Ex/B). Equations (2.4a)y and x(2.4b) are therefore replaced by are therefore replaced by
 €vx €v¼x ¼ 2 (for constant E)
Differentiating, we 2have
�ω�ωc vxc vx
 
€vx¼q�ω
2
q c vx

2 2ExEx
€v y €v¼y ¼
�ω�ωc c ExE �� ωcω
vy v ¼ ¼
�ω�ω þþvy vy 
m m x q c y c c
BB
2 Ex
€v ¼ �ω
y c E � ω v ¼ �ω
x c y þv c y
m B
WeWe
cancan
write thisthis
write as as
ElectrodynamicsWe
and can write We
thiscan
as write this
2 
22
 as  
2 Single-Particle Motions

Plasma Physics 2
d d ExE 2 2 ExdvEx x¼ q E� ω v
2 2 2 y vdy þ
x
v þ ¼ �ω
¼x �ω
E v þ
c c y v2y þ dt E mx ...(4.31)
x c y ð2:11Þ
ð2:11Þ
dt dt 2
B v
B y þ ¼ �ω c B
v y
dvBþ ð2:11Þ
ð2:10Þ
dt B y
¼B
0 � ωc vx
dt

so sothat
NOTES
thatEq.Eq.
so(2.11) is is
(2.11) reduced
reduced to to
thetheprevious
toprevious case case(Eq.
(for(Eq.(2.2))E) if we
(2.2)) if if
we replace v vby
wereplace by
so that Eq.is(4.31) is reduced to the previous case (Eq. (4.22)) if ywevyyreplace vy by vy + (Ex/B).
Differentiating, we have constant
that Eq. (2.11) reduced the previous case (Eq. (2.2)) replace by
vy v+y(E /B).
+ x(E vyEquations
x/B).+Equations (2.4a)
(2.4a)
(Ex/B). Equations andand(2.4b)
(2.4a) andare
(2.4b) aretherefore
(2.4b) therefore
are �ωreplaced
€vx ¼therefore
2
v replaced by
replacedby by
Equations (4.24a) and (4.24b) are therefore replaced by
c x
q  
2 Ex
iωc tiωc t iω€vcyt ¼ �ωc mEx � ωc v y ¼ �ωc B þ v y
vx v¼x ¼v⊥vex⊥¼ e v⊥ e
We can write this asExE Ex ð2:12Þ
ð2:12Þ
ð2:12Þ
v y v¼y ¼
�iv y⊥¼
v�iv e⊥iω�iv t c t eiωc t �
ec iω�⊥�
x
 ...(4.34)
  
B dB2 v Bþ Ex ¼ �ω2 v þ Ex ð2:11Þ
y c y
dt2 B B
The Larmor Thesame
is motionLarmor
is the motion
same is the
as before, same
but as isbefore,
isthere but there
superimposed visgc
a drift superimposed
vgcthe a drift vgc of the
The Larmor
The Larmormotion
motion the
is the same as as
before,
before, but
so that Eq. there
but
(2.11) there superimposed
the previous casea(Eq.
is tosuperimposed
is reduced drift
a (2.2))
drift if vof
we ofofthe
gcreplace
the
vy by
guiding guiding guiding
center
guiding
center incenter
in in
center the �y�y
the
the �yindirection
direction
directionthe
vy +–y
(for
(for direction
(for Ex >(2.4a)
Exx/B).
(E
E>Equations
0)
> 0)(Fig. (for
(Fig. E2.2).
0) (Fig.
and
2.2). >2.2).
0)are(Fig.
x(2.4b) 4.9).
therefore replaced by
To obtain a general formula forx v , we can solve Eq. (2.8) in vector form.
omitTo
theobtain afor
general formula for vvgcxthis
, we can solve Eq. (4.28) in vector form. We may
gc
ToToobtain
obtaina general
a generalformula
formula vgcv,gcwe
for , we cancan solve
solve Eq.
¼ ⊥ e (2.8)
vEq.iω t
(2.8) in in vector
vector
c
form.
form.
We may m dv/dt term in Eq. (2.8), since term gives
Ex only the circular ð2:12Þ
WeWe
may omit
may the
omit m
the dv/dt
omit
m the m
term
dv/dt dv/dt
in
term Eq.
term
in (2.8),
Eq. in Eq.
(2.8),since
since this
(4.28), term
since
thisvy ¼term
motion at ωc, which we already know about. Then Eq. (2.8) becomes gives
this
�iv � only
term
iω t
⊥ egives
B
the
gives
only circular
only
thec
the
circular circular motion at ωc,
motion at ω , which
motion atcωc, whichwe
whichwealready
wealreadyknow
already know
knowabout.
about.
about.
The Larmor
ThenThen
motionThen
Eq.Eq.
Eq.
is the same
(2.8) becomes
(4.28) becomes
(2.8)butbecomes
as before, there is superimposed a drift vgc of the
þ in
guidingEcenter
2.2 Uniform E and B Fields ��y
v the ¼ 0 (for Ex > 0) (Fig. 2.2).
B direction ð2:13Þ 23
To obtain a general formula for vgc, we can solve Eq. (2.8) in vector form.
E EþWeþvmayv�omit
Bthe¼
� Bm¼ 0 term in Eq. (2.8), since this term givesð2:13Þ
0dv/dt ...(4.35)
onlyð2:13Þ
the circular
motion at ωc, which we already know about. Then Eq. (2.8) becomes
Taking
Taking the cross the crosswith
product product
B, wewith have B, we have
E þ v �B¼0 ð2:13Þ
E � B ¼ B � ðv � BÞ ¼ vB2 � Bðv � BÞ  ð2:14Þ ...(4.36)

The transverse components of this equation are

2.2 Uniform E and B Fields v⊥gc ¼ E � B=B2 � vE 23 ð2:15Þ

2.2 Uniform E and B Fields 23

Taking theWe cross product

define this to be vB,E, we
with the have
electric field drift of the guiding center. In magnitude,
Taking the cross product with B, we have
this drift is
E � B ¼ B � ðv � BÞ ¼ vB2 2� Bðv � BÞ ð2:14Þ
E � B ¼ B Fig. � 2.2
ðv Particle
� Bdrifts
Þ ¼in crossed � Bandðvmagnetic
vB electric � BÞfields ð2:14Þ
Fig. 4.9. Particle drifts EðV=m in crossed
Þ m electric and magnetic fields
The transverse components of this equation vE ¼ are ð2:16Þ
The transverse components
Fig. 2.2 Particle of thiselectric
drifts in crossed equation
and areBðtesla
magnetic Þ sec
fields
The transverse components of this equation are
v⊥gc ¼ E � B=B2 2� vE ð2:15Þ
Fig. 2.22.2Particle
Fig. Itdrifts
drifts
Particle crossed
isinimportant
crossed
in to
electric⊥gcand¼
vnote
electric
E �v B=B
that
magnetic
and E isfields
magnetic
�v
fields E 
independent of q, m, and v⊥. The ð2:15Þ
reason is ...(4.37)
obvious
We define this to beWe from the following physical
vEdrift picture. In the first half-cycle of the ion’s orbit
be vEitEdefine this to field
be ,drift
the of electric field drift of the
v , the electric the guiding center. Inguiding
magnitude, center. In magnitude, this
We defineinthis Fig.to2.2, ,gains
the electric
energy field
from the of the guiding
electric field and center.
increasesIn magnitude,
in v⊥ and, hence,
this drift is drift is
this drift isin rL. In the second half-cycle, it loses energy and decreases in rL. This difference
in rL on the left and right sides of the orbit causes the drift vE. A negative electron
EðV=mÞ m
gyrates in the oppositevEdirection ¼ EðV=m but Þalso m gains  energy in the opposite direction; it
ð2:16Þ ...(4.38)
v
ends up drifting in the sameBdirection E ¼ ðteslaÞ sec as an ion. For particles of the ð2:16Þ
same velocity
BðteslaÞ sec
but different mass, the lighter one will have smaller rL and hence drift less per
It is important to note that vE is independent of q, m, and v. The reason is obvious
cycle. However,
It is important to note that its gyration frequency isofalso
vE is independent q, larger,
m, andand v⊥. the
Thetwo effects
reason is exactly
obvious from from
It is important
cancel.
the Twothenote
to
following following
that of
particles
physical
vEphysical
is same picture.
independent
thepicture. mass
In thebut In the
q, m,
ofdifferent
first firstand
half-cycle half-cycle
energy
Theofreason
v⊥. would
of the ion’s the
have ion’s
orbit
is orbit in Fig. 4.9, it
the same
obvious fromThe the slower
gains following
energy physical
fromwillthe picture.
electric In
rL the
field and first half-cycle
increases gaininless vof the ion’s
.vand, fromorbit
hence, Eininr a. half-
In the second half-
in Fig. 2.2,ωitc. gains energy one from have
the smaller
electric field andand henceincreases in energy
⊥ and, hence, L
in Fig. 2.2, it gains energy from the electric field and increases in v⊥ and, hence,
cycle.
in rL. In the secondcycle,half-cycle,
it loses energy
However, for less and energy
decreases
energetic
it loses particles rL. This difference
andindecreases
the fractional change rL onL the left and right sides of
in rL. Thisindifference
in r for a given
in r . In the second half-cycle, it loses energy andeffects
decreases rL. This difference
in (Problem
in rLLon thechange theand
left andin right
energy
orbitright
causes
is larger,
sides theofdrift
of the and
orbitthese
vE. Acauses
causestwo
negative the cancel
electron
drift v E gyrates in the
. A negative 2.4).
opposite direction but also
electron
in rL on the left sides the orbit the drift v . A negative electron
gyrates in theThe three-dimensional
opposite direction butorbit also ingainsspace is therefore
energy in the aopposite
E slanted helix with it
direction; changing
thegains
gyrates inpitch opposite
(Fig. energy
2.3). in the but
direction opposite
also gainsdirection;energy it ends
in theupopposite
drifting direction;
in the same it direction as an ion.
ends up drifting in the same direction as an ion. For particles of the same velocity
ends up drifting
but different mass, For particles
in the same
the lighter of theonesame
direction
willvelocity
as an ion.
have smaller but different
For
rL and mass,
particles
hencethe
of the lighter
same
drift one will have smaller rL
velocity
less per
but different and mass, the lighter one will have smaller r and hence drift lessis per
cycle. However, itshence gyrationdrift frequency
less per cycle. is also However,
larger, and its gyration
L
the two frequency
effects exactly also larger, and the two
cycle. However, its gyration frequency is also larger, and the two effects exactly
cancel. Two particles of the same mass but different energy would have the same
cancel. Two
86 Self-Instructional Materialparticles of the same mass but different energy would have the same
ωc. The slower one will have smaller rL and hence gain less energy from E in a half-
ωc . The slower one will have smaller rL and hence gain less energy from E in a half-
cycle. However, for less energetic particles the fractional change in r for a given
cycle. However, for less energetic particles the fractional change in rLL for a given
change in energy is larger, and these two effects cancel (Problem 2.4).
change in energy is larger, and these two effects cancel (Problem 2.4).
The three-dimensional orbit in space is therefore a slanted helix with changing
The three-dimensional orbit in space is therefore a slanted helix with changing
pitch (Fig. 2.3).
pitch (Fig. 2.3).
 this drift is

EðV=mÞ m
vE ¼ ð2:16Þ
BðteslaÞ sec

It is important to note that vE is independent of q, m, and v⊥. The reason is

obvious from the following physical picture. In the first half-cycle of the ion’s orbit
in Fig. 2.2, it gains energy from the electric field and increases in v⊥ and, hence,
in rL. In the second half-cycle, it loses energy and decreases in rL. This difference
in rL on the left and right sides of the orbit causes the drift vE. A negative electron
effects exactly cancel.
gyrates inTwo particles
the opposite of but
direction thealsosame
gainsmass
energy but
in thedifferent energyit would have the
opposite direction; Single-Particle Motions
ends up drifting in the same direction as an ion. For particles of the same velocity
same ωc. The slower one will
but different mass, have
the lighter one willrLhave
smaller andsmaller
hence rL gain lessdrift
and hence energy
less perfrom E in a half-
cycle. However, its gyration frequency is also larger, and the two effects exactly
cycle. However,cancel.
for less Two energetic particles
particles of the same massthe fractional
but different energychange in the
would have rLsame
for a given change
in energy is larger, and these two effects cancel.
ω c . The slower one will have smaller r L and hence gain less energy from E in a half-
cycle. However, for less energetic particles the fractional change in rL for a given NOTES
The three-dimensional orbit in space is therefore a slanted helix with changing pitch
change in energy is larger, and these two effects cancel (Problem 2.4).
The three-dimensional orbit in space is therefore a slanted helix with changing
(Fig. 4.10). pitch (Fig. 2.3).

2 2Single-Particle
Single-Particle Motions
Motions
2 Single-Particle Motions
.3Gravitational
Gravitational Field
Field Fig. 2.3
Fig. 4.10. The actual orbit of a gyrating particle in space
The actual orbit of a gyrating particle in space

Gravitational Field
eregoing
foregoing
G
result
result cancan be be
ravitational
applied
applied toFother
to other forces by replacing qE in the equation
ieldforces by replacing qE in the equation
motion (2.8)
by by a general force F. The
F.toThe guiding center drift caused by isF then
is then
ion (2.8)
regoing result a can
general force
be applied other guiding
forces center drift
by replacing caused
qE in by theFequation
The foregoing result can be applied to other forces by replacing qE in the equation of motion
ion (2.8) by a general force F. The guiding center drift caused by F is then
(4.28) by a general force 1 FF.
1�FTheB� B guiding center drift caused by F is then
v f v¼f ¼ q 2 B2 ð2:17Þ
ð2:17Þ
1q F B�B
vf ¼ ...(4.39) ð2:17Þ
q B2
icular, if FifisF the
particular, is the forceforce of gravity
of gravity mg,mg, there there
is aisdrift
a drift
In particular, if F is the force of gravity mg, there is a drift
icular, if F is the force of gravity mg, there is a drift
mg � B
vg ¼ vg m ¼g � B 2 ...(4.40) ð2:18Þ
ð2:18Þ
mq gqB�2B B
vg ¼ 2
ð2:18Þ
This isv similar to isq Bdrift vE in that
theperpendicular the force and B, but it
ssimilar
is similar to the
to the drift drift
vE in in that
E that it isitperpendicular to itboth
to both
is perpendicular
thethe forceforce
andand
to both
B,
B, but but
it it
ers
in in one
one differsrespect.
important
important in respect.
one important
TheThe vrespect.
drift The drift
vg changes sign vwith
g changesthe sign with
particle’s the particle’s charge. Under
charge.
similar to the drift vE in that itdrift g changes sign
is perpendicular with
to both theforce
the particle’s
and B, charge.
but it
der a
aingravitational a gravitational
gravitational
one important force,force,
respect.ionsTheforce,
ions and
anddrift ions vgand
electrons
electrons electrons
drift
changes
drift
in in drift
with in
opposite
opposite
sign the opposite directions,
directions,
directions,
particle’s so so there
there
charge. so there is a net current
net current density
density in
in the the plasma given by
tacurrent density
gravitational in
force, the ionsplasma
plasma given bydrift in opposite directions, so there
given
and electrons by
t current density in the plasma given by g � B
j ¼j ¼ nð M nðþ Mm þÞ m g Þ� B  ð2:19Þ
ð2:19Þ ...(4.41)
gB �2B B2
The physical j ¼ nreasonðM þ m Þ this2 drift (Fig. 4.11) is again the
for ð2:19Þ
change in Larmor radius as
ehysical
physical Bagain the change in Larmor radius
reason for this drift (Fig. 2.4) is again the change in Larmor radius as as
reason for this drift (Fig. 2.4) is
particle the particle
gains and loses gains and loses
energy in the energy in the gravitational
gravitational field. Now field. Now the electrons gyrate in the
rticle
hysical gains
reasonand forlosesthis driftenergy
(Fig.in2.4) the isgravitational
again the change field. Now
in Larmorthethe electrons
electrons
radius as
ate in in the
thegains opposite
opposite
opposite sense
sensesense tototothe
the the ions,
ions, ions,butbutthe force
thethe ononthem
force on themis in the is same
in thedirection,
same so the drift is in the
rticle and loses energy in the butgravitationalforce field.them Nowis the in the same
electrons
ection, so the drift
opposite is in the
indirection. opposite direction. The magnitude
vgmagnitude of v is usually
on,
in theso the drift
opposite issense theThe
thetoopposite ions, magnitude
direction.
but the The of
force ison usually
them negligible,
is ving is
of the but when the lines of force are
g usually
same
ligible (Problem 2.6), but when the lines of force are curved, there is effective
an effective
ible (Problem
on, so the drift curved, is inthere
2.6), but the is
when an effective
the
opposite lines of gravitational
force
direction. are curved,
The magnitude force due
there oftovgcentrifugal
is anis usually force. This force, which
vitational
ational force
force due due tobutto centrifugal
centrifugal force.force.
This This force,
force, which which is is not
not negligible,
negligible, is is
ible (Problem
ependent of ismass;
not negligible,
2.6),
this
when
is why iswe
the independent
lines
did
of
not
force of mass;
stress
are
the this
curved,
m is why weofdid
there
dependence
is an effective
Eq. stress the m dependence of
not(2.18).
ndent of
ational mass;
force duethis to is why we did
centrifugal not This
force. the m which
stressforce, dependence is not of Eq. (2.18).
negligible, is
ntrifugal
fugal force Eq.
forceis (4.28).
is the
the basis Centrifugal
basis of of
a forceinstability
a plasma
plasma isinstability
the basis calledof a plasma
called the the instability called the “gravitational”
“gravitational”
“gravitational”
ndent of mass; this is why we did not stress the m dependence of Eq. (2.18).
ability, which has nothing tohasdo nothing
with realreal togravity.
lity, which
fugal forceinstability,
has
is thenothing basiswhich
toofdo a with
plasma do withcalled
gravity.
instability real gravity.
the “gravitational”
lity, which has nothing to do with real gravity.
Self-Instructional Material 87
 the particle gains and loses energy in the gravitational field. Now the electrons
gyrate in the opposite sense to the ions, but the force on them is in the same
direction, so the drift is in the opposite direction. The magnitude of vg is usually
negligible (Problem 2.6), but when the lines of force are curved, there is an effective
gravitational force due to centrifugal force. This force, which is not negligible, is
independent of mass; this is why we did not stress the m dependence of Eq. (2.18).
Centrifugal force is the basis of a plasma instability called the “gravitational”
instability, which has nothing to do with real gravity.

Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics

NOTES

Fig.Fig.
4.11. The drift of a gyrating particle in a gravitational field
2.4 The drift of a gyrating particle in a gravitational field

Problems
4.1. Compute rL for the following cases if v|| is negligible:
(a) A 10-keV electron in the earth’s magnetic field of 5 × 10–5 T.
(b) A solar wind proton with streaming velocity 300 km/s, B = 5 × 10–9 T.
(c)   A 1-keV He+ ion in the solar atmosphere near a sunspot, where B = 5 × 10–2 T.
(d) A 3.5-MeV He++ ash particle in an 8-T DT fusion reactor.
4.2. In the TFTR (Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor) at Princeton, the plasma was heated by
injection of 200-keV neutral deuterium atoms, which, after entering the magnetic
field, are converted to 200-keV D ions (A = 2) by charge exchange. These ions are
confined only if rL << a, where a = 0.6 m is the minor radius of the toroidal plasma.
Compute the maximum Larmor radius in a 5-T field to see if this is satisfied.
4.3. An ion engine (see Fig. 4.6) has a 1-T magnetic field, and a hydrogen plasma is
to be shot out at an E × B velocity of 1000 km/s. How much internal electric field
must be present in the plasma?
4.4. Show that vE is the same for two ions of equal mass and charge but different
energies, by using the following physical picture (see Fig. 4.9). Approximate
the right half of the orbit by a semicircle corresponding to the ion energy after
acceleration by the E field, and the left half by a semicircle corresponding to the
energy after deceleration. You may assume that E is weak, so that the fractional
change in v is small.
4.5. Suppose electrons obey the Boltzmann relation of in a cylindrically symmetric
plasma column in which n(r) varies with a scale length λ; that is, ∂n/∂r’ -n/λ.
(a) Using E = –φ, find the radial electric field for given λ.
(b) For electrons, show that finite Larmor radius effects are large if vE is as large
as vth. Specifically, show that rL = 2λ if vE = vth.
(c) Is (b) also true for ions?
Hint: Do not use Poisson’s equation.
4.6. Suppose that a so-called Q-machine has a uniform field of 0.2 T and a cylindrical
plasma with KTe = KTi = 0.2 eV. The density profile is found experimentally to be
of the form
n = n0exp [exp(–r2 /a2 ) – 1]
Assume the density obeys the electron Boltzmann relation n = n0 exp (eφ/KTe).
(a) Calculate the maximum vE if a = 1 cm.

88 Self-Instructional Material
 (b) Compare this with vg due to the earth’s gravitational field. Single-Particle Motions

(c) To what value can B be lowered before the ions of potassium (A = 39, Z = 1)
26 have a Larmor radius equal to a? 2 Single-Particle Motions
4.7. An unneutralized electron beam has density ne =141014 m–3 and radius a = 1 cm and
2.7. An unneutralized electron beam has density ne ¼ 10 m�3 and radius a ¼ 1 cm NOTES
flowsand
along
flowsa 2-T
alongmagnetic
a 2-T magnetic If B isIf in
field. field. B the
is in+z
thedirection E is
andand
+z direction thetheelectrostatic
E is
field electrostatic
due to the beam’s
field duecharge, calculate
to the beam’s the calculate
charge, magnitude the and and of the E ×
direction
magnitude
B drift at r = a.
direction of the E � B drift at r ¼ a (See Fig. P2.7).

Fig. P2.7 Fig. 4.12

4.10 NONUNIFORM B FIELD

2.3 Nonuniform B Field
Now that the concept of a guiding center drift is firmly established, we can discuss the
motion of particles in inhomogeneous
Now that the concept of a guidingfields—E
center drift and B fields
is firmly whichwevary
established, in space or time.
can discuss
the motion of particles in inhomogeneous fields—E and B fields which vary in
For uniformspace
fields we were
or time. able to
For uniform obtain
fields exact
we were ableexpressions forexpressions
to obtain exact the guiding center drifts.
for the
As soon asguiding
we introduce inhomogeneity,
center drifts. the problem
As soon as we introduce becomes
inhomogeneity, too complicated
the problem becomes to solve
too complicated to solve exactly. To get an approximate answer, it is customary to
exactly. To expand
get aninapproximate
the small ratioanswer, it is
rL/L, where customary
L is to expand
the scale length in the small ratio rL/L,
of the inhomogeneity.
where L is This
the scale
type oflength
theory, of theorbit
called inhomogeneity.
theory, can becomeThisextremely
type of theory,
involved.called
We shallorbit theory,
examine only the simplest cases, where only one inhomogeneity occurs at a time.
can become extremely involved. We shall examine only the simplest cases, where only one
inhomogeneity occurs at a time.
2.3.1 ∇B⊥B: Grad-B Drift
B B: Grad-B Drift
1
Here the lines
Hereofthe
force
linesare
of straight,
force arebut their but
straight, density
their increases, say, insay,
density increases, y direction
the in the (Fig.
y direction (Fig. 2.5). We can anticipate the result by using our simple physical
4.13). We can anticipate
picture. the in
The gradient result by using
jBj causes our simple
the Larmor radius tophysical picture.
be larger at Theofgradient in
the bottom
|B| causes the Larmor radius to be larger at the bottom of the orbit than at the
the orbit than at the top, and this should lead to a drift, in opposite directions for top, and this
ions
and electrons, perpendicular to both B and ∇B. The drift velocity should obviously
should leadbetoproportional
a drift, in to
opposite
rL/L anddirections
to v⊥. for ions and electrons, perpendicular to both B
L/L and to v.
and B. The drift velocity should obviously � averaged overtoargyration.
beB,proportional
of the F -x = 0;
Consider the Lorentz force F ¼ qv Clearly,
Fx ¼ 0; since the particle spends as much time moving up as down. We wish

(2.4a), F - ; in an
Consider the Lorentz
to calculate F y ; in anforce F = qvfashion,
approximate × B, averaged over
by using the a gyration.
undisturbed orbitClearly,
since the particle
particlespends
to find as themuch timeThe
average. moving up as orbit
undisturbed down. is We wish
given to calculate
by Eqs.
y
approximate fashion, by using
2.3 Nonuniform B Field
1
the undisturbed orbit of the particle to find the27
average.
The magnetic field lines are often called “lines of force.” They are not lines of force. The
misnomer is perpetuated here to prepare the student for the treacheries of his profession.

Fig. 2.5 The drift of a gyrating particle in a nonuniform magnetic field

Fig. 4.13. The drift of a gyrating particle in a nonuniform magnetic field
(2.4b), and (2.7) for a uniform B field. Taking the real part of Eqs. (2.4a) and
(2.4b), we have
Self-Instructional Material 89
 
∂B
F y ¼ �qvx Bz ð yÞ ¼ �qv⊥ ð cos ωc tÞ B0 � r L ð cos ωc tÞ ð2:20Þ
∂y

where we have made a Taylor expansion of B field about the point x0 ¼ 0, y0 ¼ 0 and
have used Eq. (2.7):

B ¼ B0 þ ðr � ∇ÞB þ � � � ð2:21Þ
 Fig. 2.5 The drift of a gyrating particle in a nonuniform magnetic field
Fig. 2.5 The
Fig.drift
2.5 ofThe
a gyrating
drift of aparticle
gyratinginparticle
a nonuniform magneticmagnetic
in a nonuniform field field
(2.4b),
Fig. 2.5 and (2.7)offor
The drift a uniform
a gyrating B field.
particle Taking the real part of Eqs. (2.4a) and
Fig. drift inofaanonuniform magnetic in afield
(2.4b),
(2.4b),and (2.7)
(2.4b),
we haveand for a 2.5
(2.7)
The
uniform B field.
for a uniform
gyrating particle
BTaking the real
field. Taking
nonuniform magnetic field
part
the realofpartEqs.of(2.4a) and and
Eqs. (2.4a)
(2.4b), we have
(2.4b),
(2.4b), and (2.7) for we have a uniform B field.
(2.4b),
The and (2.7)
undisturbed for isaTaking
orbit

uniform
given
theBreal
by Eqs.
partTaking
field. of Eqs. (2.4a) and
∂B (4.24b),
(4.24a), the and
real part of Eqs. (2.4a) and
Electrodynamics and
(2.4b), we have x Bz ð yÞ ¼ �qv⊥ ð cos ωc tÞ B0 � rL ð cos ωc tÞ    ð2:20Þ (4.27) for a uniform B
Plasma Physics F y ¼ �qv(2.4b), we have ∂B
∂y tÞ have ∂B
F y ¼field.
�qvFxTaking
yB¼ zðy Þ ¼the
�qv xB zreal
�qv ðpart
ð yÞ⊥ ¼ �qv
cos ofω⊥cEqs.
ðtÞcos B(4.24a)
0ω�c tÞr LB and
� rω
ð 0cos (4.24b),
Lð Þ ωcwe
c tcos  ð2:20Þð2:20Þ
∂y∂B  ∂y 
where weFhave y ¼ �qv made ð yÞ ¼ �qv
x BazTaylor ⊥ ð cosof
expansion ωB c tÞfield � r L ðthe
B0 about ωc tÞx0 ¼ 0, y0 ¼ 0 and
cospoint ð2:20Þ ∂B
we have ...(4.43)
F y ¼ �qvx Bz ð yÞ ¼ �qv⊥ ð cos ωc t∂y Þ B0 � r L ð cos ωc tÞ ð2:20Þ
have we
where where
used Eq. made
have (2.7): made aexpansion
a Taylor Taylor expansionof B field B fieldthe
ofabout about
point thexpoint x ¼ 0, y0 ¼ 0 and
0 ¼ 0, y00 ¼ 0 and ∂y
NOTES have used Eq. (2.7):
have usedweEq. (2.7):
where wea have x = 0, y = 0 and have
where have made Taylor Bmade
¼ Ba0 Taylor
expansion þ ðrof �∇ expansion
BÞB field � � of the
þ �about B field
pointaboutx0 ¼ the point
0 ¼ 0 and
0, yð2:21Þ
where we have made a Taylor expansion of B field about the0point x00 ¼ 0, y0 ¼ 0 and
have used Eq. (2.7):
used Eq. (4.27): B ¼ðr B þ
ÞBðÞrþ � ∇ÞB þ � � � ð2:21Þð2:21Þ
have used BBz ¼ ¼B0B
Eq. þ0þ
(2.7):yð∂B�z ∇ 0=∂y þ� � �
ð∂Bz =∂yÞ þ � � �
Bz B¼ ¼ B0 BBþz0 ¼
yþð∂BBð0r þ ∇yÞB
z�=∂y Þ þ � � � ...(4.43) ð2:21Þ
This expansion of course requires rL/L � 1, whereBL ¼ is the B0scale
þ ðrlength� ∇ÞBofþ∂Bz/∂y.
��� 2 ð2:21Þ
The firstThis
termexpansion
of Eq. (2.20) Bz ¼ B
of course
averages 0þ
requires ð∂B
to yzero rL/L z =∂y
in � Þþ
1, � � � and
where
a gyration, L is the
the average
scale length
of cosof ∂Bz/∂y.
This expansion of course requires rL/L � 1, where Bz ¼ L isB0the þ scale
yð∂Blength =∂ytheÞ of ∂Bz/∂y.
þaverage
��� 2
ωct is ½,The first term of Eq. (2.20) averages to zero
so that in a gyration, zand of
2 cos
The
Thisfirst term
ωct isof½,of
expansion Eq.This
so thatexpansion
(2.20)
course averages
requires ofrLcourse
to � 1,requires
/L zero in LrLis
a gyration,
where /Lthe
<<and1, where
scalethelength L is of
average theof cos length of ∂Bz/∂y. The
scale
∂Bz/∂y.
ωThe ½, so
ct is first that
first
of term ofexpansion
Eq. averages
(4.43) averages zerotoin zero cos2 length
ωct is ½,
Þin a rgyration, and the average of ofso that
2
term Eq.
This (2.20) F y ¼ �qv of tocourse 1
⊥ r L ð∂B=∂y
a gyration,
requires L/L and� 1,the Lð2:22Þ
average
where isofthecos
scale ∂Bz/∂y.
2 1
ωct is ½, so that The first term of Eq. F y ¼(2.20) �qv
1 ⊥ averages
r L ð ∂B=∂y to zero in a gyration, and the average of cos2
Þ ð2:22Þ
¼ �qv⊥ r L ð∂B=∂yÞ ...(4.44)
F y that 2 ð2:22Þ
The guiding centerωdrift ½, so
ct isvelocity is then 2 1
The guiding ¼ �qv⊥isr Lthen
F y velocity ð∂B=∂yÞ ð2:22Þ
Thecenter
guidingdrift center drift velocity
2 is then 1
The guiding center drift velocity is
1 F � B 1 Fy then v⊥FryL¼1 ∂B �qvx^⊥ r L ð∂B=∂yð2:23Þ Þ ð2:22Þ
vgc ¼ ¼
2 1 Fq� B x^ ¼1� F v r 2
∂B
The guiding center drift velocity q B
vgc�¼B is then jB j ¼
y B
x^ ¼ �
2 ∂y ⊥ L 1
x^ ....(4.45) ð2:23Þ
1F q 1BF 2 y
^ q jBjv⊥ r L 1 ∂B B ^2 ∂y
vgc ¼
The guiding ¼ drift
2 center
x ¼ �
velocity x ð2:23Þ
where we have used where q1 have
Eq. (2.17).
we FB� Since
Busedthe Bchoice
q1jEq.Fj y (4.40). of the B⊥ yris
vSince 2 then
axis∂y
L 1the∂Bwas arbitrary,
choice of thethis
y can was arbitrary, this can
axis
where we
be generalized to have ¼ Eq. (2.17).
vgc used ¼ Sincex^ the ¼� choice of2 the yx^axis was arbitrary, ð2:23Þ
this can
be generalized qto B 2 q jBj 1 F �BB ∂y 1 F v r ∂B
where we be generalized
have used Eq. to (2.17). Since the choice of the y axis was arbitrary, this1 can y ⊥ L
vgc ¼ ¼ x^ ¼ � x^ ð2:23Þ
bewhere
generalized Eq. (2.17). B� q ∇BB2 ...(4.46) q jBj B 2 ∂y
we havetoused v∇BSince¼ � the
1
v⊥ rchoice of the y axis was arbitrary, this can
ð2:24Þ
2 L
1B2 B � ∇B
be generalized to v∇B ¼ � v⊥ r L ð2:24Þ
where we have used 2� ∇BSince B2 the choice of the y axis was arbitrary, this can
1 Eq. B (2.17).
This has allv∇B
be generalized the¼dependences
to�2v⊥from rL we expected from the physical ð2:24Þ picture; only the factor
This has all the dependences we expected B the
B�2physical
∇B picture; only the factor
½ (arising This ½has (arising the from
allaveraging) the
vwas
dependences averaging)
¼we �
1
v r wasNote
expected not
from predicted.
the physicalNote that the
picture; only±ð2:24Þ
stands for the sign of the
the factor
from the ∇B not predicted.
2 ⊥ L 2 that the � stands for the sign
charge,
½ (arising andthe lightface Bforstands B
forpredicted.
|B|. The Note
quantity vBB� isstands
called forthethegrad-B
sign drift; it is in
28 of the
This hascharge,
all the and
from
lightface
dependences
averaging)
Bwe stands
expected
was jBj.not
from The thequantity 2
physical
Single-Particle
that the
v∇Bpicture;
1 is called
�the
only ∇B
Motions
grad-B
the factor
28 drift; it of is theinopposite
oppositedirections
charge, and lightface
directions for Bions
for stands
ions and for
andelectrons
jBj. The¼and
v∇B
electrons 2�andv⊥ rcauses
causes
quantity Lv∇Ba iscurrent
Single-Particle called
a transverse
current
Motionsthe grad-B ð2:24Þ
to B. An exact
½This
(arising
has from
all the the averaging) we
dependences wasexpected
not predicted. from Note
the that the
physical
2 � stands
picture; B 2
forthe
only thefactor
sign
2.3.2oftransverse drift;toB:B. it Curvature
is in
An
calculation exactopposite
ofcalculation
vBBstandsdirections
would of v∇Bforwould ions require
andexact
electrons
using and
the causes
exact orbit, a current
½
Curved
the charge,
(arising from andthe lightface
averaging)
Drift forrequire
wascalculation
not jBj. The
predicted.
using the
quantity
Note thatv∇B
the
orbit, including
is�called
stands the grad-Bthe drift, in the averaging
including transverse
the drift, to
in B.
the An exact
averaging process. of v∇B would require usingfor thethe signorbit,
exact
2.3.2
drift; Curved
of theitcharge, inprocess.
isincluding B:
opposite ThisCurvature
directions
has all Drift
forfor
theaveraging ions
dependences and
Thewe electrons
expectedvand iscauses a current
and the lightface
drift, inBthestands jBj. process. quantity ∇B from the the
called physical
grad-B picture; only the factor
transverse
Here we assume
drift; to
it is the B.
in linesAn
opposite exact
½of(arising calculation
force tofrom
directions be curved
the of v with
∇B and
foraveraging)
ions would require
a constant
was notradius
electrons using the
andofcauses
predicted. exact
curvature
Note orbit,
a that
currentthe � stands for the sign
including
Rc, Here
and we
wetake the
assume
transverse jBjtoC tourved
drift,
the
B. be
An inconstant
lines
of the
exactB:charge,
C(Fig.
forceurvature
theofaveraging toand
calculation beprocess.
2.6). Such
curved
of vD
lightface
rift
awith
field
∇B would
does
B astands
constantnot
forobey
require radius
jBj. Maxwell’s
usingThe of curvature
the exact orbit,
quantity v∇B is called the grad-B
Rc,including
equationsandinwea take
vacuum, jBj
theHeredrift,we
toso inassume
be
drift;in constant is the
practice
theitaveragingin lines
the
(Fig. of force
grad-B
2.6).
process.
opposite drift
Such to be curved
awill
directionsfield for with
always
does ions aand
be
not constant
added
obey to theradius and
Maxwell’s
electrons causes R
of curvature a c,current
and
effect derivedinhere.
equations A
a vacuum,
we takeguiding so center
in practice
|B| to be constant
transverse drift arises
the
to B. An(Fig. grad-B
exact from
4.14). the
drift centrifugal
will always
Such a field
calculation of vdoesforce
be felt
added
not obey by
to the
Maxwell’s
using equations
the exactinorbit,
a
∇B would
2
require
the effect
particlesderived
as they here.
move Aincluding
guiding
along thecenter field driftinarises
lines inthetheir from
thermalthe centrifugal
motion. If vforce
denotes felt by
vacuum, so in practice the grad-B drift will always be added
the drift, averaging process. k to the effect derived here. A
the the particles
average as they
square of move
the componentalong the field of randomlines in velocity
their thermal alongmotion. v2k denotes
B, theIfaverage
guiding center drift arises from the centrifugal force felt by the particles as they move along
centrifugal
the averageforcesquareis of the component of random velocity along B, the average
the field lines in their thermal motion. If v||2 denotes the average square of the component
centrifugal force is
of random velocitymvalong 2
k
B, theRaverage centrifugal force is
2 c
Fcf ¼ r^ 2¼ mvk ð2:25Þ
Rc mvk R 2 Rc
Fcf ¼ r ¼ mvk 2 ...(4.47)
^ c2
ð2:25Þ
Rc Rc
According to Eq. (2.17), this gives rise to a drift
According to Eq. (2.17), Accordingthis gives to Eq. rise(4.40),
to a drift this gives rise to a drift
2
1 Fc f � B mvk Rc � B
vR ¼ ¼ 2 ...(4.48) ð2:26Þ
q 1BF2c f � BqB2mvkRR2c c � B
vR ¼ ¼ ð2:26Þ
q B2 qB2 R2c
90 Self-Instructional
The drift vR isMaterial
called the curvature drift.
We
The must
drift vnow compute
R is called the grad-Bdrift.
the curvature drift which accompanies this when the
decrease jBj with
Weofmust nowradius is taken
compute the into account.
grad-B drift In a vacuum,
which ∇ � when
we have this
accompanies B ¼ 0. the
In the of jBjcoordinates
cylindrical
decrease with radiusofisFig. ∇�
2.6,into
taken B has only
account. z component,
In aavacuum, ∇B
since
we have � has
B ¼ 0.
θ component
onlyInathe and ∇B onlyofan
cylindrical coordinates Fig. 2.6, ∇ � B has
r component. Weonly
thenahave
z component, since B has
only a θ component and ∇B only an r component. We then have
 Here we assume the lines of force to be curved with a constant radius of curvature
Rc, and we take jBj to be constant (Fig. 2.6). Such a field does not obey Maxwell’s
equations in a vacuum, so in practice the grad-B drift will always be added to the
effect derived here. A guiding center drift arises from the centrifugal force felt by
the particles as they move along the field lines in their thermal motion. If v2k denotes
the average square of the component of random velocity along B, the average
centrifugal force is

mv2k Rc
Fcf ¼ r^ ¼ mv2 ð2:25Þ
The drift vR is called theRccurvature
Rc drift.
k 2 Single-Particle Motions

We must
According now this
to Eq. (2.17), compute to agrad-B
gives risethe drift drift which accompanies this when the decrease
2.3 Nonuniform B Field 29
of |B| with radius is taken into account. 2 In a vacuum, we have  × B = 0. In the cylindrical
1 Fc f � B mv k Rc � B
vR ¼  ×2 B has
coordinates of Fig. 4.14, qB2 R2ca z component, since B has only a29θ component
¼ only ð2:26Þ
2.3 Nonuniform B Field
1∂
q B
1 NOTES
and B only ð∇ � anBrÞzcomponent.
¼ ðrBWe θÞ ¼ then
0 have Bθ / ð2:27Þ
r ∂r drift.
The drift vR is called the curvature r
We must now compute the grad-B 1 ∂ drift which accompanies this1when the
Thus
decrease of jBj ð
with∇ �
radiusB isÞ z ¼
taken ðrBθ ÞIn¼a vacuum,
into account. 0 B / ∇ �...(4.49)
weθ have B ¼ 0. ð2:27Þ
r ∂r r
Thus coordinates of Fig. 2.6, ∇ � B has only a z component, since B has
In the cylindrical
only a θ component and ∇B only an r component. We then have
Thus 1 ∇jBj Rc
jBj / R j Bj
¼� 2  ð2:28Þ ...(4.50)
2.3 Nonuniform B Field c Rc 29
Fig. 2.6 A curved 1 ∇jBj Rc
magnetic field jBj / ¼� 2 ð2:28Þ
Using Eq. (2.24), we have Rc jBj Rc
2.3 Nonuniform B Field
2.3 Nonuniformð∇
B Field 1∂ 1 29
� BÞ z ¼ ðrBθ Þ ¼ 0 Bθ / ð2:27Þ 29
Using Eq. 1 v⊥ r L we haveRc
(2.24), ∂rRc � B 1 m
2
1 rv⊥ R c � B r
2.3v∇B ¼� B � jBj 2 ¼ � ¼ v2 ð2:29Þ 29
Nonuniform 2 B2.3 B2 Field
Rc 1B ∂ 2 ωc R2 B 2 q ⊥ 1R2 B2
Nonuniform Field c∂ 29
ð∇ � BÞ ¼ R� ðBrB Þ¼ 1 20 ðrBBÞθ ¼/0
c 1 ð2:27Þ
Thus 1 v⊥ r L z ð∇ Þ θ¼ v R � B m BR /
� B ð2:27Þ
B � jBrj ∂r ¼ r 1v2⊥ 2 2r
c 1 c θ 1 θ c
v ¼� 12 ¼
z
∂in�a2curved r ⊥∂r 2 ð2:29Þ
Adding this to∇BvR, we2have Bð2∇the total R drift ω vacuum 2field: R B
� BÞz ¼ c 1ðrBθ Þ ¼∇0jB1cj ∂ Bθ R/q c R B c 1ð2:27Þ
Thus Thus jBj r/∂rð∇ � BÞz ¼ r ∂r ¼ð� rBθ Þc r¼ 0
2
Bθ /
r ð2:28Þ ð2:27Þ
Adding this to vR, vweþhave m R R� B j B j R
v∇B the ¼ 1total2drift inv2 aþcurved v⊥c vacuum field: ð2:30Þ
c c 1 2 c
Thus R
q ∇2 jBj1k 2 R ∇ j B j R
Thus jBj / R c B ¼� 2 c ð2:28Þ
Using Eq. (2.24), we have Rc jBmj R/ jBjR � B  RcjBj ¼� 2
R
ð2:28Þ
vR j Bþj v/ ∇B ¼
1 c∇ j c
B j 2 Rc 2
v1k þ v⊥∇ Bj
1 c ð2:30Þ
that Rif22one jbends
q meansR2cjjB B 2 ¼� Rc ð2:28Þ
t is unfortunate that these drifts add.RThis B jj / ¼ �a magnetic ð2:28Þ
Using Eq. (2.24), Using we
Eq. 1have
v⊥ r L we
(2.24), have Rc c
1 v⊥ RR
2
c c�cB plasma, jB1jm 2 the �B
RRcparticles
2
field into a torus v∇B ¼ � for the purpose of confining
B � jBj Fig. a
¼ � A curvedthermonuclear ¼ v⊥field 2 2 c ð2:29Þ
2 no 2 2 4.14. 2 ωctheRtemperatures 2 magnetic 2 q and
will Using
drift out
It is unfortunate of the torus that B matter
theseRdrifts how R one
add. juggles B R B
magnetic
Eq. (2.24), ⊥ rwe
1 vUsing L haveEq. vj⊥ rcL ¼we
(2.24),
c
1havev⊥RThis
2
Rc �means B v2 1R c that
m 2 ifR one bends a magnetic
Bc �1Bm 2 Rc ð2:29Þ
c
fields.fieldv∇B ¼ a�torus Bthe� 1purpose
jB � c 1 ¼⊥ cv� �B
into Using
2 B v for
∇B Eq. we have
2 ¼ � R 2 B of� confining
j B j
2 ωc 2 R B ¼ 2�a thermonuclear
2 q 2 R¼ ⊥ 2 plasma,
B 2 v
⊥
the2 particles ð2:29Þ
Adding
For
will driftthis
a Maxwellian out to vdistribution,
of 1the Rv,⊥torus
we
r L have 2 BEqs. 2cthe
no matter Rc total(1.7)
how Rone
1drift
and in
vc2⊥ (1.10)
R c a
juggles
2 B
c �curved
ωindicate
c the 1Rm B
cvacuum
thatRc v2�and
temperaturesc
q
field:
B 1 R
v
and 2 are
⊥ c B 2
magnetic
v∇B ¼ � B � jBj 1 2v¼ ⊥ r� L R2c ¼ 1 v2⊥v2⊥Rc �2k B2 21 m Rc � B
2ð2:29Þ
each fields.
equal to KT/m, 2 B2vv⊥∇B
since ¼ �Rc two2 degrees
involves B2 � ω c jBjR of B ¼
freedom. � 2 qEquations R B ¼(2.3) vand
⊥ 2 2 
ð2:29Þ
...(4.51)
Adding thisAdding to vR, we this have
to the the total 2 drift
we haveBcurved-field
vR, average in
themtotal a curved
drift
2
c vacuum
Rc in a curved 2 ω c field:2
cB
c
Rvacuum 2 q
field: 1 R2 c B
1.6) then allow us to
For a Maxwellian distribution, write R � Bdrift as 1 2
that vk and 2v⊥ are
vR þ v∇BEqs. ¼ (1.7)2and (1.10)
v2k þ indicate
c
v2 ð2:30Þ
Adding this to v R , we have the total drift q in R 
a 2
curved
B 
vacuum 2 ⊥ field:
each equal toAdding KT/m,
Adding sincethis vto involves
v , mwe R �
havetwo B degrees
the total of
drift freedom.
 in a curvedEquations
 vacuum (2.3) and
field:
this þtovv∇B R, we have the total drift v2inB a curved 1 vacuum field:
⊥ 2 c c 1
vRwrite ¼R v
vm
r2kLR þ c� ð2:30Þ
(1.6) then allow us to vRþ ∇B ¼ the �vaverage
R
th
q þRvy2c^∇B B 2¼
curved-field
¼ � vth22y^ ⊥ 2 drift v2k as
 þ v2⊥ ð2:30aÞ ð2:30Þ
Rc ωmc Rc � BR qc R B
2 c m1 R2 � B 
2

It is unfortunate that vthese R þ v∇B drifts ¼ add.2 This vmeansþ v cthat if 2one 1bends ð2:30Þ
a magnetic
q vR R2c B
v þ2v∇B k¼ r L2 ⊥2 2...(4.52) vk þ v2⊥ ð2:30Þ
where field into a
^y here is thethat
It is unfortunate torus for
direction
thesethe purpose
vRþR∇B
of
drifts of
�¼B.�This
c add.
confining
th
This means y^ ¼ �
shows a q
thermonuclear
R
that vvifthRþ∇B B
^one bends
cy depends plasma,
2
a the
on theð2:30aÞ
magnetic particles
It out
is unfortunate that matterthese drifts c ωcone
Rdrifts add.juggles This Rc means that if one bends a magnetic
fieldwill
charge of drift
into the
a torus species Itofisbut
for unfortunate
the
the torus
not
purpose onno itsofthat
mass. these
confining how a add. This
thermonuclear means
the that ifthe
temperatures
plasma, one bends a magnetic field
and magnetic
particles
It is unfortunate field into that a torus these fordrifts
the purpose add. This of confining
means that a thermonuclear
if one bends aplasma, magnetic the particles
willfields.
drift out into ofathe torus isforunfortunate
torus thethe
no purpose
matter how of confining
one juggles a thermonuclear
the
add.temperatures plasma,and the
magneticparticles will a drift out
where
field into ^ywill
ahere
torus isItfor
drift out
the of
direction
the purpose torus that
ofof no c
these
matter
�
Rconfining B. drifts
how
This
a one
shows
thermonuclear
This
juggles that means
the
vplasma,
Rþ∇B
that
temperatures
depends
the
if one on
particles
2 and
bends
and magnetic
the magnetic
fields. Forof the torusthe no matter how one juggles the temperatures and magnetic k fields.
field into a torus for the purpose of confining a thermonuclear 1 2 the particles
plasma,
charge
will driftof a Maxwellian
fields.
theof
out species torus distribution,
butnonot matteron its how Eqs.
mass. (1.7)
one juggles and (1.10)
the temperatures indicate that v
and magnetic v
2 ⊥ are
For a Maxwellian
each equal to will
KT/m, drift
distribution,out of the
Eqs.
since v⊥distribution, torus
(1.7)
involves two no and matter(1.10)
degrees how one
indicate
of freedom.juggles
that v 2theand temperatures
1 2
v are and magnetic
fields. For
For a a Maxwellian
Maxwellian distribution, Eqs.
Eqs. (4.7)
(1.7) and
and (1.10) kEquations
indicate that⊥ v (2.3)
2that 2 and and
1 2
v are
areeach
2.3.3
each(1.6)
∇BjjB:
equal thento KT/m,
allow
Magnetic
fields.
us
since to v
Mirrors
write
involves the average
two degrees curved-field
of freedom. drift as
Equations (2.3) and
k 2 ⊥
KT/m,
2
For aequal each to
Maxwellian
equal asince
⊥
todistribution,
KT/m, vsince
 involves
Eqs. two and
(1.7)
v⊥distribution,
involves degrees
two(1.10) of(1.7)
degrees freedom.
indicate Equations
that
of freedom. vk and 2v
1
(4.23)
2
Equations thatand
⊥ are (2.3) (4.6)
v2k andand1 then
2
(1.6) then allow us to For
write Maxwellian
the average curved-field Eqs.
drift as and (1.10) indicate 2v⊥ are
each equalallow us
(1.6)to then
KT/m, to write
allow
since the
us
v ⊥average
to write
involves curved-field
thetwo average
degrees drift two
of as indegrees
curved-field
freedom. drift
Equationsas (2.3) and
Now 2.3.3
we consider
(1.6) then ∇BjjB:
allow
a magnetic
each
us
equal
Magnetic
to write
field
to
the
which
KT/m, Mirrors
average ¼
is pointed
since
� curved-field ^
primarily
vv⊥2th involves
¼ �
rL asthe z direction
drift ^
of freedom. and Equations (2.3) and
whose magnitude varies (1.6) then in the vzRþ
allow ∇B
direction.
us tovthwrite2 Letthe
R ωcthe
y rvL2field Rbe
average v y
axisymmetric,
th
curved-field drift as with ð2:30aÞ
v ¼ � ^
y c¼ � v y^ c rL ð2:30aÞ
Bθ ¼ 0 and ∂/∂θ ¼ 0. Since the Rþ ∇B linesv of force ¼ �converge th thy^ ¼and  � diverge,vth y^ there is ...(4.53)
ð2:30aÞ
herey^ is
RRþ cω ∇B
vc2th is pointed R Rω crL R
Now we
necessarily consider a magnetic
a component Br (Fig.v ∇B ¼ field
2.7). which
We
�R � B. wish to
y^ This c
show
¼ � shows c primarily
v 2
that
vth th this
y^ that v L c in
gives the
r z direction
rise to a and
ð2:30aÞon the
where where
whose ^ymagnitude here the isdirection
varies theRþ direction
in of ofRccRωvccRþ
z direction. × B. This
¼R � cshows y^that vth y^depends
¼ �axisymmetric, depends on the charge of
ð2:30aÞ
orce
where which
^
y here canistrap the adirection
particle inof athe
Rmagnetic
� B. Thisfield. ∇BLet
shows
theR
that
field
ω v
c c Rþ∇B
be Rþ∇B
R
dependsc on the
with
charge
Bθ ¼ 0 the of the ∂/∂θ
andspecies species
^y here but
¼ 0.not but not on
c its mass. Rcforce � B. This vRþ∇B there
not on
where the its
isSince themass.
direction linesof of converge showsand thatdiverge, depends is on the
charge
where of the^y chargespecies
here but on its mass.
R � B. v
necessarily a iscomponent
ofthethe direction
species B of
but
(Fig. not
c 2.7). on WeThis
its mass.
wish
where ^y herer is the direction of Rc � B. This shows that vRþ∇B depends
shows to that
show that
Rþ∇B thisdepends
gives on
rise the
to a on the
charge of
force which can the species trap but
a not
particle on its
in amass.
magnetic field.
charge of the species but not on its mass. Self-Instructional Material 91

2.3.3 ∇BjjB: Magnetic

2.3.3∇BjjB: Mirrors
2.3.3 Magnetic Mirrors
∇BjjB: Magnetic Mirrors
2.3.3 ∇BjjB: Magnetic Mirrors
2.3.3 ∇BjjB: Magnetic Mirrors
NowNow we consider
we consider a magnetic
a magnetic field field which
which is pointed
is pointed primarily
primarily inprimarily the z direction
the zindirection and and
Now we
whose magnitude consider
variesa magnetic
inz the field which
z direction. is pointed in the z direction
withand
whose
Nowmagnitude
wewhose varies
consider in the
a magnetic
magnitude direction.
field
varies which
in the iszLet theLet
pointed
direction.
thebefield
field
primarily
Let the
be axisymmetric,
axisymmetric,
the z be
infield with
direction and
axisymmetric,
B ¼ 0 and ∂/∂θNow¼we 0.consider
Since the a magnetic
lines offield which
force is pointedand
converge primarily
diverge,in the
there iswith and
z direction
 3030
30 2 2 2Single-Particle
Single-Particle
Single-Particle Motions
Motions
Motions

30 2 Single-Particle Motions
30 2 Single-Particle Motions
Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics
DB||B: Magnetic Mirrors
Now we consider a magnetic field which is pointed primarily in the z direction and whose
Fig. 2.7 Drift of amagnitude
particle in avaries in the
magnetic z direction.
mirror field Let the field be axisymmetric, with Bθ = 0 and ∂/∂θ = 0.
Since the lines of force converge and diverge, there is necessarily a component Br (Fig. 4.27).
NOTES
We wish to show that this gives rise to a force which can trap a particle in a magnetic field.
We can obtain Br from ∇ · B ¼ 0:
We can obtain Br from  . B = 0:
30 a magnetic mirror1∂ ∂Bz 2ð2:31Þ
Single-Particle Motions
Fig. 2.7 Drift of a particle
in ðrBr Þ field
þ ¼0 ...(4.54)
Fig.2.7
Fig. 2.7 Drift
Driftofofa aparticle
particle r ∂r mirror
inina amagnetic
magnetic mirrorfield∂z
field

If ∂BFig.
Fig.2.7
z/∂z is Drift
Driftof
2.7given atofraa¼
particle
0 and in
particle in aa magnetic
does mirror
not varymirror
magnetic field
with r, we have approximately
muchfield
We can obtain Br from ∇ · B ¼ 0:
Wecan
We obtainBB
canobtain from∇∇· B
r rfrom · B¼ð¼0:r
0: h i
∂Bz 1 2 ∂Bz
We can obtain rBBrr¼from 1�∂ ∇ r ·B¼ dr 0:∂B
’� z r
We can obtain Br from ∂∂0ð∇
1r1∂r rB∂z· rBÞ ¼ þ 0: ∂B
∂z∂B zz
2¼ 0 ∂z r¼0 ð2:31Þ
ð2:32Þ
hðrB
1 ∂r∂Bz
ð i
rB r Þr Þþ þ ¼ ¼ 0 0 ð2:31Þ
ð2:31Þ
Br ¼ � r r∂r r ∂z 1 ∂ ∂z ∂z ∂B ∂B z
z
rB rrÞÞ þþwith r,¼¼we ð2:31Þ
2 00 have approximately ð2:31Þ
If ∂Bz/∂z is given at r ¼ 0 and does notr¼0 varyðrB much
r ∂r ∂z
∂z
IfIf∂B∂Bzz/∂z
/∂z isis given
given atatr ¼
r ¼0 0 and
and does
does
ðFig. notnot varyvary much
much with
with r,r,wewe have
have approximately
approximately
The variation of jBj with Fig.r2.7causesDrift
r a a4.15.
ofgrad-B Drift of ahparticle i centers in a magnetic
about themirror axis offield
∂Bz drift 1of2guiding
particle in a magnetic mirror field
IfIf∂B∂B
symmetry, zbut /∂z
/∂z is
is given
given
z there is rBnor ¼ at
at rr ¼ð
¼ ð
00
� rgrad-B
radial rr and
and does
dr
drift,’� not
not vary
vary
r h∂z
because ∂Bmuch
zmuchwith
h∂B/∂θ with r, r,
we
i i ¼ 0. The components we have
have approximately
approximately
If ∂B /∂z is
z¼¼�� r r given
0 ∂B ∂B
∂z at z r z = 0 and 21 does
1 2 2 ∂Bnot
∂B r¼0vary much with r, we have approximately
of the Lorentz force rB are
rB r can hobtain Bdr
ððr dr ’’� ∇� r r¼ 0: z z
ð2:32Þ
r We i ∂z from · 2B ∂z∂z h h i i
1 0 0∂Bz∂z
r
r ∂B 2
∂Bzzdr ’ �11r¼0 r¼0
Br ¼ � rB rhrhr∂z¼
rB ¼i i� � rr dr ’ � rr22 ∂B∂Bz z
∂z∂z r¼0
ð2:32Þ
ð2:32Þ

2
1 1 ∂B∂B r¼0
00
∂z
∂z 1 ∂ 2 2 ∂B z r¼0...(4.55)
BBr r¼¼�� r r ∂z∂z
z z
h i r ∂r ðrBr Þ þ ∂z ¼ 0 ð2:32Þ
ð2:31Þ
ð2:32Þ
22 r¼01r¼0h∂Bz i
¼ 1
� rr drift ∂Bz of guiding centers about the axis of
The variation of jBj with r causes BBrra¼ grad-B
� 2 ∂z r¼0
∂z0 and
symmetry, but
there is If
no ∂B
radial
z/∂z is given
grad-B 2at
drift,r ¼ r¼0 does∂B/∂θ
because not vary ¼much
0. The with r, we
components have approximately
ð2:33Þ
The variationofofjBj
Thevariation jBjwithwithr rcauses
causesa agrad-B grad-Bdrift drift ofofguiding
guidingcenters centers about
about theaxis
the axisofof
of the Lorentz
symmetry,
symmetry, but
but
The there isare
force
there
variation The
isno
ofno variation
jBjradial
radialwith r of
grad-B
grad-B |B| drift,
causes with
drift,
a rbecause
grad-Bcauses
because
ð r a grad-B drift of
drift ∂B/∂θ
∂B/∂θ
∂Bofof ¼
guiding ¼ 0.0. h guiding
The
The
centersi centers
components
components
about thetheaboutofthe axis of
axis
The variation of jBj with r causes a rB grad-B
r ¼ � driftr drift,
z guiding 1
’ � r 2 ∂B/∂θ
drbecause centers
∂Bz about axis of
ofofthe symmetry,
theLorentz
Lorentz symmetry,
force
force but
are
are but there is no
there is no radial grad-B drift, radial grad-B 0 because
∂z ∂B/∂θ
2 ¼ 0.
∂z = 0. The components
r¼0The components of the
symmetry, but there is no radial grad-B drift, because ∂B/∂θ ¼ 0. The components ð2:32Þ
Lorentzforce
of the Lorentz forceare are 1
h i
of the Lorentz force are Br ¼ � r ∂B ∂z
z
2
Two terms vanish if Bθ ¼ 0, and terms 1 and 2 give r¼0 rise to the usual Larmor
gyration. Term 3 vanishes on the axis; when it does not vanish, this azimuthal
ð2:33Þ
The variation of jBj with r causes a grad-B drift of guiding centers about the axis of
force causes a drift insymmetry,
the radial direction. This drift merely makes the guiding
but there is no radial grad-B drift, because ∂B/∂θ ¼ 0. The components
centers follow
the lines of Lorentz
of the force. Term 4 is the one ...(4.56)
force are we are interested in. Using ð2:33Þ
ð2:33Þ

Eq. (2.32), we obtain ð2:33Þ
ð2:33Þ
Fz ¼
1
qv r ð∂Bz =∂
Two terms vanish if Bθ ¼ 0, and 2 θ 1 and
terms 2z Þgive rise to the usual Larmor ð2:34Þ
gyration. Term 3 vanishes on the axis; when it does not vanish, this azimuthal ð2:33Þ
Two terms vanish if Bθ = 0, and terms 1 and 2 give rise to the usual Larmor gyration.
Two
Two terms
forceterms
causes vanish
vanish
a driftififB
in Bthe
θ θ¼¼ 0,0,
radial and
and terms
terms
direction.
if Bθon¼the
1 1 and
and
This 2 2 give
give
drift rise
rise
merely to
to the
the
makes usual
usual
the Larmor
Larmor
guiding
Two terms Termvanish
3 vanishes 0, axis;
and when
termsit1does andnot2 vanish,
give risethistoazimuthal
the usual force causes a drift in
Larmor
gyration.
gyration.
centers Two Term
Term
follow 3vanishes
3the vanishes
lines on onBthe
of vanishes
force. theTerm
axis;
axis; when
4when theititone
isaxis; 1does
does not
weitnot
are vanish,
vanish,
interested this
this azimuthal
toin.azimuthal
Using
terms
gyration. the vanish if
radial3 direction.
Term θ ¼ This
0,
on and
driftterms
the merelywhen and
makes 2does
thegivenotrise
guiding centers
vanish, the usual
follow
this Larmor
the lines of force.
azimuthal
force
force causes
causes
Eq. (2.32), a
we a
gyration. drift
drift
obtain
force causes ininthethe
Terma 3drift radial
radial direction.
direction.
in the radial This
This
on thedirection. drift
drift merely
merely
Thisit drift makes
makes
doesmerely the
the guiding
guiding
makesthis the azimuthal
guiding
vanishes axis; when not vanish,
Term 4 is the one we are interested in. Using Eq. (4.56), we obtain
centersfollow
centers follow
force the
the
centers lines
lines
follow
causes ofofforce.
the
Two
a drift force.
lines
terms
in theof Term
Termforce.
vanish if44BTerm
isθis¼thethe4and
0, oneone weweone
is terms
the arearewe
1drift
and interested
interested
2 are in.
in.
giveinterested
rise Using
to Using
thein. Using
usual Larmor
1radial direction. This merely makes the guiding
Eq.(2.32),
Eq. (2.32),wewe obtain
obtain

Eq. (2.32),
centers follow gyration.
we the
obtain F ¼
Term qv
3
linesz of 2force. θ r ð ∂B
vanishes
Term z =∂
on Þthe axis;
z4 ...(4.57) when it does not ð2:34Þ
vanish,
is the one we are interested in. Using this azimuthal
force causes a drift in the radial direction. This drift merely makes the guiding
Eq. (2.32), we We obtain
mustfollow
centers now average
1 linesover
1the one gyration.
Term 4 isFor the simplicity,
one we areconsider
interesteda in.
particle
Usingwhose
1of force.
FF ¼¼obtain
z zwe qvqv
Fθzrθð¼ð∂B
r∂B qv zθ=∂
z =∂ r z Þ z =∂z Þ
zðÞ∂B ð2:34Þð2:34Þ
ð2:34Þ
guiding center lies on
Eq. (2.32), 2 2the axis.2 Then vθ is a constant during a gyration; depending on the
1
sign of q, v is .v Since Fzr ¼ = r ,qv the ð∂B1z =∂force
θ raverage z Þ is ð2:34Þ
θ  2L Fz ¼ qvθ r ð∂Bz =∂z Þ ð2:34Þ
2
92 Self-Instructional Material
 rm Bmust
uniform Field
theB now Field of
sign q, vθ is � vone r ¼ rFor is 31a particle
31 whose
We average over ⊥. Since
gyration. L, the average force
simplicity, consider
ust
We now
guiding average
center
must average
now over
lies one
onover gyration.
the gyration.
axis. ThenFor For simplicity,
vθ For
is a constant consider
during a particle
aagyration; whose
depending
whose on
st now 2.3average
over
Nonuniformone one
B Field gyration. simplicity,
simplicity, consider
consider a particle
particle whose 31
gthe
w center
average
sign
tcenter
now
uiding lies
of
average
center on
over
q, v
liesthe
oneis
over
on axis.
one
the Then
gyration.
� v .
axis. Sincev1θ isrsimplicity,
For
gyration.
Then av¼constant
For r
is ∂B
a, the during
consider
average
simplicity,
constant aconsider
duringvgyration;
2a particledepending
force∂B
a is a
gyration;whose mv
particle
2 on
∂B
whose
depending on
lies on the θ axis. ⊥
FvzThen vθqv is aθrconstant
L z during
1
q a⊥ gyration;
z
¼ �depending
1 ⊥ zon
ne of q, of
vθtheis v� vis⊥�.Then
Since r¼¼� arrvconstant
,¼the ⊥ average ¼force� is ð2:35Þ
ner liesq,on axis. θ ris¼ L during aforce
gyration; depending on
ofsign
center vlies q,
ison
�
θ We mustθ the
v ⊥ . v
axis.
Since
⊥
now. Since
Thenaverage
L
r
2L ,is r
the a
L , the ∂z
constant
averageaverage during
2 force ω
a
is is∂z
gyration;
θ over one gyration. For simplicity, consider a particle whose
c B
depending
2 ∂zon
vθ q,
, of is v� vis⊥.�Since r ¼ r1L,r the average force isv2 ∂B
L, ∂B ⊥ ∂Baz gyration; depending on
2
θ guiding v⊥. Sincecenter ¼ ron
lies the
the average
zaxis.
2 Then 1 force ⊥θ is mv
v is
a zconstant 1 mv during
F1 z ¼ � ∂B qv z⊥∂B r L 1 v
¼ ⊥ �∂B v 2q
z ∂B 1
2
¼
⊥ ∂B
mv� 2 z ∂B ð2:35Þ
WeFzdefine ¼ F�
the sign1 the
qv�
of rq,
L2 ∂B
⊥1magnetic
v is z∂z
¼�moment
�v 1.qSincev1 of∂B
2 the
2r⊥¼ ¼ωr �,z ∂z
gyrating
the 1 mv 2
average ∂B
1 particle
⊥ B
2 force z to∂z
isð2:35Þ
be
F 1 ¼ �z qv ¼
2 ∂Bzr ∂zqv θ
⊥ 1r z
L ¼v � ∂B 2 ⊥
2 ¼ � ⊥ q
qωz2c2 ∂z
z
1 mv
c ¼ �
¼ �∂BBz 22 ∂z
L2 2 ⊥ z ð2:35Þ
ð2:35Þ
Fz ¼ �z qv⊥1r2L ⊥2 L¼∂B �z q∂z⊥ 12 vω
∂z ⊥¼ ∂B
c �
ω∂zc z ∂z⊥ 12mv B B ∂zz∂z
⊥ ∂B ð2:35Þ
Fz 2¼ � qv∂z ⊥ Lr 2 ¼ �
ωc 2of∂zthe gyrating
q 2 ¼ �
B particle∂z ð2:35Þ Single-Particle Motions
We
fine define
the the magnetic
magnetic 2
moment ∂z
moment
of the 1
gyrating ∂B
∂z
ωc particle
μ � z 1 mv to212 Bv2⊥ ∂B
be=B to zbe 1 mv2⊥ ∂Bz ...(4.58)
∂z ð2:36Þ
We define the magnetic momentF z ¼ � qv
of 2gyrating
the gyrating
⊥ r L ¼ �
particle
2 ⊥ q to be∂z ¼ �2 B ∂z ð2:35Þ
fine the magnetic moment of
e magnetic moment of the gyrating particle to be the ∂z
particle 2to be ω c
ne the magnetic moment of the1gyrating μ21�
1 particle
mv2 =B to be
so that We define the μ� magnetic
mv =B moment
2 of⊥the of the gyrating particleð2:36Þ to be ð2:36Þ
We define the magnetic 1 μ� 2μ1 � 2 mv⊥ =B
moment
⊥ 2 gyrating particle to be ð2:36Þ
μ � mv⊥ =B 2 mv 2⊥ =B ð2:36Þ ð2:36Þ NOTES
12
2 μ � mv2⊥ =B ....(4.59) ð2:36Þ
Fz ¼ �μ μ �ð∂B mv2⊥ =BÞ ð2:37Þ
so that 2 1 z =∂z
o that ð2:36Þ
2
so that example ðz∂B
Fof ¼ �μ ∂BðÞz∂B =∂zz Þ=∂zÞ ð2:37Þð2:37Þ
This is a specific Fz ¼ F�μ¼ �μ
thezð=∂z force on a diamagnetic particle, ð2:37Þ which in general
so that z
can be written

Fz ¼ �μ Fz ð¼ ∂B�μ z =∂z ð∂B Þ z =∂zÞ
...(4.60)
ð2:37Þ ð2:37Þ
Thisa specific
is a example
specific
his is a specific example of of
example the force
Fz theof¼ �μ theon
force ð∂B
a
force diamagnetic
onz =∂z on Þa
a diamagnetic particle,
diamagnetic particle,which
particle,whichin general
which
inð2:37Þ in general
general
This is a specific example of F the¼ �μ
force ð ∂B
on a Þ
diamagnetic ð2:37Þ
in generalwhich inð2:38Þ
particle, general can
=∂z
� μ ∇inkwhich
an awritten
can
cific bebe
specific written
example
written example of the of forcetheon force onFak ¼
a diamagnetic �μ∂B=∂s¼
diamagnetic z
particle,particle, which z Bgeneral
nspecific example
awritten be writtenof the force on a diamagnetic particle, which in general
writtenwhere ds is a line
This is a specific Fk ¼ element
example
F�μ∂B=∂s¼
F ¼along of�the
�μ∂B=∂s¼ B.μNote ∇force
�k Bμ � ∇
that
on
μ∇ a diamagnetic
...(4.61)
k Bdefinition (2.36) ð2:38Þ
particle,
ð2:38Þ which in general
is theð2:38Þ
k ¼k �μ∂B=∂s¼ k B the same as the
can F be written μ ∇
usual definition k ¼ �μ∂B=∂s¼
Fk ¼ �μ∂B=∂s¼ � μ ∇k B
for the magnetic� k Bmoment of a current ð2:38Þ
loop with A
ð2:38Þ and current
area
ds is a
here dsI:ds
where line a¼where
isμis element
aIA.
line line Inds is
Fkacase
along
the
element
element line
¼ B.
along element
Note
�μ∂B=∂s¼
ofB.a Note
along that
B. Note
singly along
the
that� μB.
charged
that ∇Note
definition
the B ion,
the thatI the
(2.36)
definition
kdefinition
is
is(2.36)definition
the
generated
μ∇ is theis(4.62)
(2.36) same as
by the
ð2:38Þ
the
same is the
a same theassame
charge
as ethe as the usual
coming
efinition for the magnetic moment of aF k ¼ �μ∂B=∂s¼
current loop with �area AkB and current ð2:38Þ
line element along B. Note that the definition (2.36) is the same as the
2 2
Acurrent 2
usual
sual
ds a definition
is definition
around
line element ω
definition
for for
c/2π for
the
thealong the
magnetic
times B. amagnetic
magnetic moment
second:
Note thatmoment
moment I¼ ofeω
the of of
adefinition
ccurrent
/2π. aThecurrent
a current loop loop
area
(2.36) loop
with Aiswithwith
area
isthe πrsame
area¼ πv
Aarea
and Aas ⊥and
and c . ThusI: μ = IA. In
current
=ωcurrent
the
IA.on ¼In
μisμfor the
the case
magnetic of a singly
moment chargedofcharged ion, Iion,
a current is
loop generated
I with area byAa and charge current eLcoming
I: a¼
sefinition IA.IA.
line In the
In the
element
forwhere
the casecase of
along
magnetic a
of singly
a
B. singly
Note
moment charged
that the
ofalong ion, is
definition
a currentIB.is
I
generated
is
loop generated
(2.36)
2 with
byis
area a
thebycharge
2 A and
a
same chargeeascoming
currentthee coming
ωc/2π
the ωtimes
case ofthe case
asingly
athe dsofis
second: aaIsingly
charged line
¼ eω charged
element
c/2π.
Iion, I isThe ion,
2area
generated
πv A generated
Note
isbyπr athat ¼πrthe
2charge
by
πv
2 ⊥ =ω
ae2charge
2definition
πv 22. =ω
coming Thus e(2.36)
22
coming2
is around
the same ωcas
/2πthe
times a
ound cω/2π times aa singly
second: ¼ Ieω /2π. The eω area A v e πr
¼ mv πv
finition for Lis c¼ A . Thus
around
A. In the /2π
ccase
usual ofmagnetic
times
definitiona second: moment
charged
for the ¼ of
ceω
ion,
magnetic ca/2π.
⊥current
I is The loop
area
generated
moment
c 1 of
⊥ with
A a is
byL area
1a
current charge
⊥⊥ and
loop c⊥e =ωcurrent
coming
with . Thus
area A and current
π times a case second:
second: I¼ Isingly
=eω eωc/2π./2π.The The μ area
area A
¼ AIis isisπr 2
L ¼
¼ πv⊥2=ω¼c . Thus
2 2 L
Thus : c
A. ωcIn /2πthe times I: μ aof ¼ aIA.
second: Inπv I c¼
the 2 charged
eω2cc/2π.
case
eω of1aion, The
v 2ω2
ec area
singly 2π
2 1
generated
A2is2 πr
charged
mv 2Lc by
ωion, ¼I πv ais 2B 2 e coming
2 charge
=ωc . Thus
generated
⊥ by a charge e coming
⊥ πv eω 2 c ⊥ 1¼ v¼ eeω 2 ⊥1 :mv 2 2 2
ωc/2π timesaround a second: μω2c¼ /2π Iμ ¼timeseω ⊥πv
a ¼
/2π.second:
c 2 ⊥2 ¼ eω
The c area
I ⊥ 1 vA ⊥ eis
/2π. πr
c ¼ L: ⊥:⊥ 1⊥ mv
The ¼ πv
area =ω
A
2
is . Thus
πr 2
¼ πv2⊥ =ω2c . Thus
πv⊥ eωωc2c¼ μ
2¼ ω ¼2π
1 2v ⊥ e ω1 mv ¼
22 ω2c:
c
2 2 ¼
⊥ B 22 B2
c L
As μthe ¼ particle πvmoves eωc cω2π 2 ¼2π
c 1 v
into e 1ωmv
regions of stronger B or weaker B, its Larmor radius
ωμ2c ¼2π 2⊥ 2 ω c¼ 22⊥ B ¼ c ⊥
2 :
changes, but μ πv
remains
ω 2 eω invariant. v ω eπv 2
To eωmv prove
B⊥of v 2
⊥ e its
this, 1 mv⊥ the
consider 2
component of the
c 2πmoves
⊥ c 12 ⊥ c ⊥or weaker 12 c 1
the particle
AsAsthe moves
particle As μ
moves the
into
¼ particle
regions
into regionsof
¼ μ into
stronger
of¼ regions
¼
stronger or¼ : weaker B,
stronger ¼ or
B, weaker
Larmor
its Larmor B, itsradius
: radius Larmor radius changes,
s, but equation
the
μ particle
remains of invariant.
motion
moves ωc of
2 along
into
2π
To B:2 ω
regions
prove c of
this,ωcstronger
2 2 2πB
consider 2or
theωweaker 2
c component BB, itsofLarmor the radius
rticle
hanges, moves
but but
μ intoμ remains
remains regions invariant.To
invariant. stronger Toproveprovethis,
or weaker B,
this, consider
consider the
its Larmor the component
radius
component ofofthe the equation of motion
changes,
heμ of
on particle
motion
remains butmoves μ remains
along
invariant. intoToregions
B: invariant.
prove of
this, To
stronger prove
consider orthethis,
weaker consider
component B, its the Larmor
of component
the radius of the
quation of motion
heequation
s, particle
but μalongofalong
remains As B:
motion
moves
along
the along
into
invariant.
B: moves into regions
particle
regionsB:To of provestronger this, dvor k weaker
consider ∂BB, its
of stronger orLarmor
weakerradius B, theits Larmor radius
motion B:
changes, but μ remains invariant.
m To
�μ the
¼ prove this,
component
consider
of
the component
ð2:39Þ
of the
n, but μ remains
of motion along invariant.
B: dv
Tok prove dv�μ ∂B dtconsider ∂s
this,...(4.62)
∂B the component of the
equation of motion m along¼ k
B:
dv ¼k�μ ∂B ð2:39Þ ð2:39Þ
n of motion along B: dvk dtm∂B m and∂sits
dt ¼ �μ ∂s ð2:39Þ
Multiplying bymvkdton¼the �μ left
dvk ∂s dt ∂B equivalent
∂s ds/dt on ð2:39Þ
the right, we have
lying by vkby onvthe Multiplying
left and its mdvby v on
|| ¼ �μ∂B the left
ds/dt and dv its equivalent ∂Bwe have ds/dt on theð2:39Þ we have
right,
Multiplying k on the leftm andequivalent
dtkits equivalent ∂s m onkthe
ds/dt
 ¼ on right,
�μ the right, we have ð2:39Þ
Multiplying
by vk on the left by vand k onits the left
equivalent dt dvk¼its
and �μdequivalent
ds/dt on
∂s1 the 2 dtright,ds/dt we ∂B
on ∂s
have ds right, dB
the we ð2:39Þ
have
dvk dvd mv  ¼ ∂Bmv k ¼ �μ ¼ �μ ...(4.63) ð2:40Þ
ying by vk on the left and 1 dk  2dt dt 2ds/dt ds∂B¼on dBright,
∂sdB dtwe have dt
mv  ¼ k its mv equivalent
1 ¼ �μ ds
2�μ the Single-Particle Motions
ð2:40Þ
Multiplying
k mv by¼v2k on dthe k 2
mv1kleft �μdt
¼and its dB equivalent¼dt�μ ds/dtdB on the right, ð2:40Þwe have
vk dv dt
dleft dtdtdv 2 ∂B ds 2 ∂s ∂son∂B dttheds
ying bymv onk the k1 and 2 itsk dtequivalent ds/dt
¼ mv ¼¼ �μ ¼ ¼ �μ�μ 2 right,
¼ dt
�μ weð2:40Þ
Single-Particle haveMotions
32
Hereddt k
dB/dtdv
 Here
dtis
mv dB/dt
k the
k
2 ddt k is the
variation
1 dt
variation
 ∂s
2 ddv1k
mv
2 ofdtk B∂B of B
as ds
 as seen
seen
dt∂s by by
dtdB the particle;
the particle; dt 2 B B itself itself ð2:40Þ
is constant.
Single-Particle The particle’s
Motions
is constant.
1 1 d ∂B ds dB
dB/dt is mv
Thetheparticle’s
variation ¼of ddtB mv
asmv asbe
kseen ¼ so �μ
by the the2k¼¼
particle; �μ B have itselfitself is¼ð2:41Þ
constant. ð2:40Þ
1
ere dB/dt energy
is mv
kdv must
2
kkþenergy be
mv conserved,
2
¼B
12ofmust we
mv
¼
2
k∂Bþ
conserved, have
μBmv
ds so¼ 0we �μ
dBdt ∂sB dt �μ ð2:40Þ
rticle’s dt
energy mv 2the
d  dt
must
variation
¼
be
⊥
2 conserved, mv 2dt k 2seen
¼ dt
so d�μwe dt
by
∂s
have 2dt ¼
particle;
�μ
is constant.
dt
ð2:40Þ
is the
Here
he variation
dB/dt
particle’s is kthe
energy
1
of mv B 2 as
variation
must
1
seen 2
þ d2mv1⊥ ¼2 1 ∂s
be of
k by
conserved, B the as 1
particle;
seen
so we
mvk dt2
þ μBd ¼
by
have B the 
itself is
particle;
0 constant.B  itselfð2:41Þis constant.
dt k dt
dt 2mv2⊥so 1 dt
s energy
The particle’s must dtbe
2conserved,
energy must
2 so mv
be we þ
k have
conserved, ¼ havemv2k þ μB ¼ 0 ...(4.64)
we ð2:41Þ
B/dt
(2.40) isthis the variation
becomes
Here dB/dt is dt of B as
2 seen
the variation of B as seen by
2 the particle; B itself is
dt by the particle; B itself is constant.
2 constant.
B/dt ticle’s
Eq. is energy
(2.40) thethis
Thevariation
must
particle’s
becomes B as seen
beofconserved,
energy must soby the
haveparticle;
weconserved,
be so we B have itself is constant.
ticle’sWith energy Eq.must With
(2.40) beEq. (4.63)
dBbecomes
conserved,
this this
d so we havebecomes
�μ þ ðμBÞ ¼ 0
dt dBdt d
�μ þ ðμBÞ ¼ 0
dt dt �μ dB þ d ðμBÞ ¼ 0
so that dt dt
t
so that dμ=dt ¼ 0 ...(4.65) ð2:42Þ
The invariancedμ=dt of m is ¼ the0basis for one of the primary schemes ð2:42Þfor plasma confinement:
nvariance of μ is the basis for one of the dμ=dt primary ¼ schemes
0 for plasma ð2:42Þ
the magnetic the magnetic mirror. As a particle moves from a weak-field region to to a strong-field region in
ent:
e invariance of μmirror. is the As basis a particle
for onemoves of thefrom primary a weak-fieldschemesregion for plasma
field region
nement: the
The in the
magnetic course
invariance ofofitsμ
mirror. thermal
As the motion,
isa particle basis movesforit seesfrom
one anofaincreasing
weak-field
the primary B,region
andschemesto for plasma
its v⊥ must increase incourse
order of to its
keep μ constant. Since its total energy must Self-Instructional Material 93
ng-field region in the thermal motion,
confinement: the magnetic mirror. As a particle moves from a weak-field region to it sees an increasing B, and
onstant, v⊥k must
ore itsavstrong-fieldmust increase
necessarily in orderdecrease. If Bμ is high enough in
itsthe “throat” ofmust
region in thetocourse keep constant.
of its thermal Sincemotion, total itenergy
sees an increasing B, and
r, v eventually
n constant, vk must becomes zero; and the particle
If B is is “reflected” back to the
k
therefore its vnecessarily
⊥ must decrease.
increase in order to high
keep enough
μ constant. in theSince “throat” its of energy must
total
dirror,
region.v k
It is,
eventually of course,
becomes the force
zero; andF k which
the particlecauses is the reflection.
“reflected” back The to the
rm field remain of a constant,
simple vk must necessarily decrease. B is highbetween
If mirrors enough in the “throat” of
-field region. It is, of pair course, of coils the force formsFtwo magnetic
k which causes the reflection. The
plasmafield the mirror,
can of v
be atrapped k eventually
(Fig. 2.8).becomes This zero;
effect and the particle ions“reflected”
is back to the
niform simple pair of coils forms twoworks magnetic on both mirrors and
between
weak-field region. It is, of course, the force Fk which causes the reflection. The
h a plasma can be trapped (Fig. 2.8). This effect works on both ions and
 so that 32 2 Single-Particle Motions

d 1 2 1 2
 d 1 2 
dμ=dt ¼ dt0 2 mvk þ 2 mv⊥ ¼ mvk þ μB ¼ 0 ð2:42Þð2:41Þ
dt 2

With Eq. (2.40) this becomes

The invariance of μ is the basis for one of the primary schemes for plasma
dB d
confinement: the magnetic mirror. As a particle moves �μ fromþ ðμBÞ ¼ 0
dt dt a weak-field region to
a strong-field region in the courseso of that
its thermal motion, it sees an increasing B, and
Electrodynamics its v⊥the
thereforeand must course of its thermaltomotion,
increase in order keep μ itconstant.sees an increasing
Since its total B, and energy must its v must increase
therefore 
Plasma Physics B total dμ=dt ¼ 0
ofð2:42Þ
remain constant, in vorder
k musttonecessarily
keep μ constant. decrease.SinceIfits is high enough
energy mustinremain the “throat” constant, v| must necessarily
the mirror, vk eventually becomesThe zero; and ofthe
invariance μ isparticle
the basis foris one
“reflected”
of the primaryback schemes toforthe plasma
decrease. If B is high enough
confinement: in the “throat”
the magnetic mirror. As a of themoves
particle mirror,from v| eventually
a weak-field regionbecomes
to zero; and
weak-field region. It is, of course, the force F
a strong-field region in the which causes the reflection.
k course of its thermal motion, it sees an increasing B, andThe
nonuniform the of
field particle is “reflected”
a simple pair back
of itscoils
therefore v⊥ must toincrease
forms the weak-field
two to keep μregion.
in ordermagnetic mirrors
constant. It is,itsof
Since course,
between
total energy mustthe force F| which
NOTES
which a plasma causes
can bethe trapped
reflection. The nonuniform field works
of a simple pair ions of coils
remain constant, vk must necessarily decrease. If B is high enough in the “throat” of
the(Fig.
mirror, v2.8). This effect on both andforms two magnetic
k eventually becomes zero; and the particle is “reflected” back to the

electrons. mirrors between which a plasma can be trapped. This effect works on bothThe
weak-field region. It is, of course, the force F k which causes the reflection. ions and electrons.
nonuniform field of a simple pair of coils forms two magnetic mirrors between
The trapping is not perfect, however.
The trappingwhich is not For
perfect,
a plasma instance,
can behowever. a
trapped (Fig. Forparticle
2.8). instance,with
This effect works v ¼
a ⊥particle 0 will
on both ions withandv = 0 will have

have no magnetic moment and will not feel any force along B. A particle with small
electrons.
no magnetic moment Theand willis not
trapping notperfect,
feel however.
any force along aB.
For instance, A particle
particle 0 will small v = v at
with v⊥ ¼ with
 ||
v⊥ =vk at the midplane (B ¼ B0) will have also escape
no magnetic moment if the maximum
and will fieldalong
not feel any force BmB.isA particle
not large with small
the midplane (B =v⊥B =v0k)atwill also (B
the midplane escape
¼ B0) will ifalso
theescape
maximum
if the maximum fieldfieldBBmmis not
is not large enough. For
large
enough. For given B0 and Bm, which particles willB escape? A particle with v⊥ ¼ v⊥0
given B0 and Bm, enough.
whichForparticles
given B0 0and will escape?
m, which Awill
particles particle
escape? A with
particle vwith
= vv⊥0¼ vand
⊥0 v|| = v||0 at the
and vk ¼ vk0 at the midplane willandhave
vk ¼ vk0 ¼ midplane
v⊥at the v⊥ andwillvkhave ¼ 0v⊥ at¼ vits andturning
v ¼ 0 at
0
point.
its turning Let
point. Let
midplane will have v = v' and v = 0 at its turning point. Let the field be B' there. Then
⊥ k
0
the field be B0 there. Then the invariance  be B there.
the field
of μThen || the invariance of μ yields
yields
the invariance of μ yields 1 1
mv2 =B ¼ mv =B
2 0 0
ð2:43Þ
⊥0 0 ⊥
2 2
1 1 02 0
mv2⊥0 =B0 ¼ mv requires
⊥ =B ð2:43Þ
...(4.66)
2 Conservation of energy
2
Conservation of energy requires
Conservation of energy requires

2.3 Nonuniform B Field 33

2.3 Nonuniform B Field 33
2.3 Nonuniform B Field v0 2 ¼ v2 þ v2 � v2 ð2:44Þ 33
⊥ Fig.
⊥0 4.16.
Fig. 2.8 k0
A plasma trapped between magnetic mirrors
A plasma 0trapped between magnetic mirrors
02
2
v⊥ ¼ v⊥0 þ v2k0 � v20 ð2:44Þ
02
Combining Eqs. (2.43) and (2.44), wev⊥find 2 2 2
¼ v⊥0 þ vk0 � v0 ð2:44Þ
...(4.69)
Combining Eqs. (2.43) and2(2.44),2 we find
Combining Eqs. (2.43) Combining
Band
0 v⊥0 Eqs.
(2.44), v⊥0(4.61) and (4.62), we find
0 ¼ 02
¼ we 2 2
find
� sin22 θ ð2:45Þ
B v⊥B0 v0v⊥0 v⊥0 2
0 ¼ 2 0 2 ¼2 2 � sin θ ...(4.67) ð2:45Þ
Fig. 2.8 A plasma trapped between v⊥0
B0 Bmagnetic v vmirrors
⊥0v0 2
0 ¼ ¼ 2 � sin θ
⊥ ð2:45Þ
where θ is the pitch angle of the Borbit vin
0 2 the weak-field
v0 region. Particles with
smaller θwhere whereofθhigheris the pitch
⊥
If angle
θ isintooof the orbitB inexceeds
0 the weak-field ; andregion. Particles with smaller
will mirror
θ is the in regions
pitch angle of theB.orbit thesmall,
weak-field region. BmParticles with
θ will mirror in regions of
0 higher B. If θ is too small,
B by B exceeds B andand the particle does
;
the particle does
θ isθnot
smaller
where mirror
will
the mirror
pitch atangle
all. Replacing
in regions
of the oforbit higher in Bthe
B.m in θEq.is (2.45),
Ifweak-field too small, we see
region. that
0 the Bwith
B0 exceeds
Particles m; m
smallest θ ofparticle
the
smaller aθconfined
will doesnotparticle
mirror mirror
not inmirror at given
is
regionsall. Replacing
at all.
of byReplacing
higher B0Ifby
B. Bθ0 Bby in
ism tooBmEq.in (4.67),
small, we see
B0 exceeds
Eq. (2.45), wethat Bmthe
see ;that
andsmallest
the θ of a confined
particle θdoes
thesmallest of aparticle
confined
not mirror is given
2
at all.byReplacing
particle is given by B0 by Bm in Eq. (2.45), we see that the
sin θ ¼ B =B
smallest θ of a confined particle is given by m ...(4.68)
m 0 m � 1=R ð2:46Þ
2
where Rmsin is theθm mirror
¼ B0 =Bratio. m � 1=R Equation
m (4.68) defines theð2:46Þ boundary of a region in
where Rm is the mirror ratio. Equation 2 (2.46) defines the boundary of a region in
sin θm ¼ B0 =Bm � 1=R m ð2:46Þ
velocity where
space in velocity of aspace in the shape a loss of cone
a cone, called a loss cone lying
(Fig. 4.16). Particles lying within
Rmthe shape
is the mirror cone,
ratio. called
Equation (2.46) (Fig.
defines 2.9). Particles
the boundary of a region in
withinwhere
the loss the loss cone are anot confined.
calledConsequently, a mirror-confined is plasma is never isotropic.
Rmcone
velocity theare
isspace innot
theconfined.
mirror shape of Consequently,
ratio. Equation cone, (2.46) aa loss
mirror-confined
defines cone (Fig.
the boundary plasma
2.9). ofParticles
a region lying
in
never isotropic. Noteloss
withinspace
velocity the inNote
that cone
the that
theshapearethe
loss ofloss
cone
not iscone is independent
independent
aconfined.
cone, calledConsequently,
a loss orofm.qa(Fig.
of q cone m. 2.9).
ormirror-confined
Without Without collisions,
collisions,
Particles lyingboth
plasma is ions and electrons
both ions and
neverthe
within electrons
isotropic. are
loss cone are equally
Note equally
arethat well
notthe well confined.
confined.
loss cone
confined. WhenWhen collisions
collisions
is independenta of
Consequently, occur, particles
occur,
mirror-confined particles
q or m. Without are lost when
collisions,
plasma is they change their
are lostnever
when they
bothisotropic. change
ions andNote pitch their
electronsangle
that pitch
are
the inlossangle
a collision
equallyconewellin a collision
and confined.
is independent and
are scattered When are
of q or scattered
into m.the
collisions into
lossoccur,
Without the
cone. Generally, electrons are lost
particles
collisions,
loss cone.
both Generally,
areions
lost and
when electrons
more easily
they change
electrons are lost
because
their pitch
are equally more
well easily
theyanglehave in
confined. because
a higher
a When they
collision
collision have a
and frequency.
collisions higher
are occur,
scattered into the
particles
collision frequency.
areloss
lostcone.
when Generally,
they changeelectrons their pitch areanglelost more easily because
in a collision they haveinto
and are scattered a higher
the
Thelossmagnetic
cone. mirror
collision wasThe
frequency.
Generally, first magnetic
proposed
electrons are by
mirror
lostEnrico
was first proposed
more Fermi easily as a mechanism
because
by Enrico
they have
Fermi as a mechanism for the
for the
a higher
acceleration Theoffrequency.
cosmic
magnetic acceleration
rays. was
mirror of first
cosmic
Protons rays. Protons
bouncing
proposed by between
Enrico bouncing between
magnetic
Fermi magneticfor
mirrors
as a mechanism mirrors
the approaching each
collision
approaching each other
acceleration
The magnetic of at
mirrorcosmichigh velocity
rays.
was first could
Protons
proposed gain energy
by bouncing
Enrico Fermibetweenat aeach
as bounceformirrors
magnetic
mechanism the
94(Fig.
Self-Instructional
2.10). How
approaching Material
such mirrors
each othercould at arise
high is another
velocity
acceleration of cosmic rays. Protons bouncing between magnetic mirrors story.
could A
gain further
energyexample
at eachof bounce
the mirror effect
(Fig.
approaching 2.10).iseach
the other
How confinementat highof
such mirrors couldparticles
velocity arisecould in another
is thegain Vanstory. Allen
energy A belts.
further
at each The
example
bounce of
magnetic field
the 2.10).
(Fig. of
mirrorHowthe earth,
effectsuch being
is mirrors strong
the confinement at the
could ariseofisparticlespoles and
another story. weak
in theAVan at the
furtherequator,
Allen belts. of
example The
forms thea natural
magnetic mirror
mirror effect with
field of is therather
the earth, large R .
being strong
confinement m at the in
of particles polesthe and VanweakAllenat belts.
the equator,
The
forms a field
magnetic natural of mirror
the earth, withbeing
ratherstrong large Ratm.the poles and weak at the equator,
Fig. 2.9forms cone mirror with rather large Rm.
a natural
The loss
Fig. 2.9 The loss cone
 m
velocity space in the shape of a cone, called a loss cone (Fig. 2.9). Particles lying
within the loss cone are not confined. Consequently, a mirror-confined plasma is
never isotropic. Note that the loss cone is independent of q or m. Without collisions,
both ions and electrons are equally well confined. When collisions occur, particles
are lost when they change their pitch angle in a collision and are scattered into the
loss cone. Generally, electrons are lost more easily because they have a higher
collision frequency.
The magnetic mirror was first proposed by Enrico Fermi as a mechanism for the
acceleration of cosmic rays. Protons bouncing between magnetic mirrors
other at high velocity
approaching each othercould gain
at high energy
velocity at each
could gain bounce
energy at(Fig.
each 4.17).
bounce How such mirrors could Single-Particle Motions
(Fig. 2.10). How such mirrors could arise is another story. A further example of
arise
theismirror
another
effectstory.
is theAconfinement
further example of in
of particles thethemirror effect
Van Allen is the
belts. The confinement of particles
in the Van Allen
magnetic field of belts. The
the earth, magnetic
being strong atfield of the
the poles and earth,
weak atbeing strong at the poles and weak
the equator,
forms a natural mirror with rather large Rm.
at the equator, forms a natural mirror with rather large Rm.
Fig. 2.9 The loss cone
NOTES

Fig. 4.17. The loss cone

Problems
4.8. Suppose the earth’s magnetic field is 3 × 10–5 T at the equator and falls off as 1/
r3, as for a perfect dipole. Let there be an isotropic population of 1-eV protons
and 30-keV electrons, each with density n = 107 m–3 at r = 5 earth radii in the
equatorial plane.
(a) Compute the ion and electron B drift velocities.
(b) Does an electron drift eastward or westward?
(c) How long does it take an electron to encircle the earth?
(d) Compute the ring current density in A/m2.
Note: The curvature drift is not negligible and will affect the numerical answer,
but neglect it anyway.
4.9. An electron lies at rest in the magnetic field of an infinite straight wire carrying a
current I. At t = 0, the wire is suddenly charged to a positive potential  without
affecting I. The electron gains energy from the electric field and begins to drift.
(a) Draw a diagram showing the orbit of the electron and the relative directions
of I, B, vE, vB, and vR.
(b) Calculate the magnitudes of these drifts at a radius of 1 cm if I = 500 A,  =
460 V, and the radius of the wire is 1 mm. Assume that  is held at 0 V on
the vacuum chamber walls 10 cm away.
Hint: A good intuitive picture of the motion is needed in addition to the formulas
given in the text.
4.10. A 20-keV deuteron in a large mirror fusion device has a pitch angle θ of 45o at
the midplane, where B = 0.7 T. Compute its Larmor radius.

Self-Instructional Material 95
 field and begins to drift.
(a) Draw a diagram showing the orbit of the electron and the relative
directions of I, B, vE, v∇B, and vR.
(b) Calculate the magnitudes of these drifts at a radius of 1 cm if I ¼ 500 A,
ϕ ¼ 460 V, and the radius of the wire is 1 mm. Assume that ϕ is held at
0 V on the vacuum chamber walls 10 cm away.
Hint: A good intuitive picture of the motion is needed in addition to the
formulas given in the text.
2.10. A 20-keV deuteron in a large mirror fusion device has a pitch angle θ of 45�
Electrodynamics and 4.11. A plasma with an isotropic velocity distribution is placed in a magnetic mirror
at the midplane, where B ¼ 0.7 T. Compute its Larmor radius.
Plasma Physics
trap with mirror ratio
2.11. A plasma with an Rmisotropic
= 4. There aredistribution
velocity no collisions,
is placedsointhe particles in the loss
a magnetic
mirror trap with mirror ratio Rm ¼ 4. There are no collisions, so the particles
cone simply
in theescape,
loss cone and
simplythe rest and
escape, remain trapped.
the rest WhatWhat
remain trapped. fraction is istrapped?
fraction
trapped?
4.12. A cosmic ray proton is trapped between two moving magnetic mirrors with Rm
NOTES 2.12. A cosmic ray proton is trapped between two moving magnetic mirrors with
= 5 and initially
Rm ¼ 5 andhas W =has1WkeV
initially ¼ 1 keV vv=⊥ ¼v||vkatat the
andand midplane.
the midplane. EachEach
mirrormirror moves
moves toward the midplane with a velocity vm ¼ 10 km/s (Fig. 2.10).
toward the midplane with a velocity vm = 10 km/s (Fig. 4.18).

2.4 Nonuniform E Field

2.4 Nonuniform E Field 35 35

2.4 Nonuniform E Field 35

(a) Using
2.4 Nonuniform the Using
E(a)
Field loss cone formula
the loss coneand the invariance
formula of μ, find of
and the invariance theμ,energy35to energy to
find the
which thewhichprotonthe will be accelerated
proton before it escapes.
will be accelerated before it escapes.
(b) (a)
HowUsing
long the
will loss
it cone
take to formula
reach and
that invariance of μ, find the energy to
the rays
energy?
(b)
(a) Usingwhich Howcone
the loss longformula
the proton
will it take
Fig. 2.10
Fig.
the4.18.
to
Acceleration
will beand
reach
of
accelerated
cosmic
Acceleration
that energy?
beforeofit μ,
invariance of cosmic
find
escapes. rays to
the energy
1.
whichTreat
the
(b) How longthe mirrors
proton
1. Treat will
will the as
be
itUsing
take flat pistons
accelerated
mirrors as flat
to reach and
before
that show
pistons it
energy? that the
escapes.
and show velocity gained at gained at
that the velocity
(a) the loss cone formula and the invariance of μ, find the energy to which
(b) Howeachlongbounce it is
willeach take2vmto. reach
bounce is 2vthat
m.
energy?
1. Treat the
2. Compute the numberthe proton
mirrors as flat will be accelerated
pistons and show before
that theit velocity
escapes. gained at
the2.mirrors
1. Treateach Compute as theofpistons
flat
bounces
number ofnecessary.
and bounces
show necessary.
that the velocity gained at
bounce
(b) is
timeHow 2v .
itmlong
3. Compute
each 3. the
bounce Compute
is 2v .
Tthe timewill
takes to ittakes
take to
T ittraverse toLtraverse
reach thatL energy?
that many times.
that manyFactor-of-
times. Factor-of-
2. Compute
two accuracy the
willmnumber of bounces necessary.
suffice.
two accuracy will suffice.
2. Compute
3. Compute the 1.
the number time ofT Treat
bouncesthe mirrors
it takes necessary.
to traverseas flat pistons
L that manyand show
times. that the velocity gained at
Factor-of-
3. Compute the time Twill
two accuracy each to
it takes bounce
suffice. traverse is 2v . many times. Factor-of-
L mthat
two accuracy will 2. suffice.
Compute the number of bounces necessary.
2.4 Nonuniform E Field E Field
2.4 Nonuniform
3. Compute the time T it takes to traverse L that many times. Factor-of-
2.4 Nonuniform E Field two accuracy will suffice.
Now we
2.4 let the we
Nonuniform
Now magnetic field
E Field
let the be uniform
magnetic field beand the electric
uniform and thefield be nonuniform.
electric For
field be nonuniform. For
simplicity,simplicity,
we assume weEassume to be inE the to bex direction
in the x and directionto vary andsinusoidally in the
to vary sinusoidally in the
Now we let
x directionx (Fig.
Now simplicity,
4.11 NONUNIFORM
the magnetic
2.11):
direction
we let the magnetic (Fig. field
field
2.11):
be uniform E
and FIELD
the electric field be nonuniform. For
we assume E beto uniform
be in theand the electric
x direction andfield
to be
vary nonuniform.
sinusoidallyForin the
simplicity, Now2.11):
we assume
x direction (Fig. we E let
to thebe magnetic
inEthe field
� Ex0 ðdirection
cos
E� be uniform
kxEÞ^ x0 ðand
cos kx
toand
x the electric field be
vary
Þ^
sinusoidally in nonuniform.
the
ð2:47Þ For simplicity,
ð2:47Þ
x direction (Fig. 2.11):
we assume E to be in the x direction and to vary sinusoidally in the x direction (Fig. 4.19):
This field This
distribution has a wavelength E � λE0¼ð cos 2π/kkxand Þ^x the result of a sinusoidal ð2:47Þ
field distribution Ehas � Ea0wavelength λ ¼ is 2π/k and is the result of a sinusoidal
distribution of charges, ð cos kxÞ^ x ...(4.69) ð2:47Þ
distribution of which
charges, wewhichneed not we needspecify. not Inspecify.
practice, In such a charge
practice, such a charge
This field distribution
This has
field a distribution
wavelength λ ¼motion.
has a 2π/k and
wavelength is equation
the
λ =result
2π/k of
anda sinusoidal
is the is result
distribution can arise
distribution incan a plasma
arise in during
a plasma a wave
during a wave Themotion. The of motion
equation of motionofisa sinusoidal
This distribution
field distribution
of charges, which we λneed
has a wavelength ¼ 2π/k not and specify.is theInresult of a sinusoidal
practice, such a charge
distribution distribution of charges,
of charges, which we needInnotpractice, specify. such
In practice, such a charge distribution
distribution can arisewhich we need
inmaðplasma
dv=dt Þm¼ ð qnot
during ½Eðxaspecify.
dv=dt wave
Þþv
Þ ¼ �½Emotion.
q Bðx� Þþv � TheB � equationa of
charge
motion isð2:48Þ
ð2:48Þ
can arise
distribution can arise in a plasma
in a plasma during during
a wave a wave
motion. motion. The The equation
equation of motion
of motion is is
whose transverse
components aremðdv=dtÞ ¼ q½EðxÞþv � B� ...(4.70) ð2:48Þ
whose transverse m components
ð dv=dt Þ ¼ q are
½ E ð x Þþv � B � ð2:48Þ
whose transverse components are
whose transverse components qB are
q qB
whose transverse components v _ x ¼ are v vy_ xþ¼ qB Ex ðvxyÞþ q Ev_xyðx¼Þ � v_ vy x¼ � qB vx ...(4.71) ð2:49Þ ð2:49Þ
m mm m m m
qB q qB
x ¼
v_qB vqy þ 2 Ex ðxÞ E_ x v_ y qB ¼ �E_ vx ð2:49Þ
v y€vmx ¼E �ω m€vvx � ωv_cy ¼ 2 ...(4.72) xm ð2:50Þ
v_ x ¼ þ x ðxcÞ x ¼ �ω v �
x
Bc _ m B � ω v
c x ð2:49Þ ð2:50Þ
m m
E x
Here Ex(x) is the €vx ¼ �ω2c vfield
electric x� E_ xωatc the position of the particle. To evaluate this, we need
ð2:50Þ
€
v ¼ �ω 2
v � ω B ð2:50Þ
to know the particle’s orbit,
x c x whichB we are trying to solve for in the first place. If the electric
c

field is weak, we may, as an approximation, use the undisturbed orbit to evaluate Ex(x). The
orbit in the absence of the E field was given in Eq. (4.27):
96 Self-Instructional Material
 y ¼ �ωcof
€vdistribution � ωc
v ycharges, ð2:51Þ
which we need not specify. In practice, such a charge
B during a wave motion. The equation of motion is
distribution can arise in a plasma

mðdv=dtÞ ¼ q½EðxÞþv � B� ð2:48Þ

Ex(x) is the 36
electric field at the position of the particle. To evaluate2this, we
Single-Particle Motions
to know the particle’s 36 orbit,whose whichtransverse wecomponents are trying areto solve for in the first place. 2 Single-Particle Motions
electric field is weak, we may, as an approximation, qB q use the undisturbed
2 Single-Particle qB orbit
Motions
v_ x ¼ v y2þ Ex ðxÞ 2 Exv_ðyx¼ Þ � vx ð2:49Þ
aluate Ex(x). The orbit 36 in the absence of €v ythe ¼ �ω E
m field v m � was ω given in
E mEq.
ð x Þ (2.7): ð2:51Þ Motions
2 Single-Particle
c y 2 c 2 x
€v y ¼ �ω2c v y �BEω _ xc ð2:51Þ
36 Ex€vðxx¼Þ �ωc vx � ωc B B 2 Single-Particle ð2:50Þ Motions
Single-Particle Motions
x€v y¼¼x0�ω 2
þ crvLy sin � ωωcc t ...(4.74)
2 ð2:52Þð2:51Þ
36 Here Ex (x) is the electric field at the B
position of 2the particle. x ðxTo Þ evaluate
22 ESingle-Particle Motions
this, we
Here Ex(x) is the electric field at the €v y ¼position �ωc v y of �ω the c particle. To evaluate this, we ð2:51Þ
Eqs. (2.51) need and to (2.47),
know the we particle’s
now have orbit, which we are trying E ð x Þ to solve B for in the first place.
re Ex(x) isIf the need to know field isatthe theparticle’s ¼orbit, 2 which ωwe 2 xare
To trying to solve for in theð2:51Þ first place.
the electric
electric field weak, position
we€v ymay, of�ω asthe
2 may,
v yparticle.
can �E
approximation,
2 an xcðxÞB
evaluate use the this, we
undisturbed orbit
ed to know If the electric field is €
vweak, ¼ �ω we v � ω as approximation, use the undisturbed
ð2:51Þevaluateorbit
to the particle’s
evaluate Here
Ex(x). orbit,
ExThe (x) which isorbittheyin we
electrictheareabsencectrying
field
y toof
at solve
c the the
B of Efor
position field in the of the
was first
given place.
particle.in Eq.To(2.7): this, we
to
he electric field€v yis¼weak, evaluate
need
�ω 2
vwe
to E � may,
know (x).
x ω as 2 E The
0
the an
cos orbit
particle’s
k ð x in
approximation, þ the orbit,
r absence
sin which
w uset Þ thewe the are E
undisturbed field
trying was
ð2:53Þto given
orbit
solve in
for Eq.
in the(2.7):
first place. NOTES
Here Ex(x) is the c y electric c field at the 0 L
position cof the particle. To evaluate this, we
evaluate Ex(x). The orbit in the absence B of the x0Ewe þfield was ωcgiven in Eq.
Here needEx(x) to know is If thethethe
electric
electric particle’s
fieldatisthe
field orbit,
weak,
x¼ position
which x ¼ wermay,
x
sin
L of
are
þ
as
the
r
ant approximation,
particle.
trying
sin ω toc tsolve To (2.7):
evaluate use the undisturbed
for in thethis, firstð2:52Þ
we
place.ð2:52Þ
orbit
to evaluate Exorbit,
(x). The orbitwe in are 0
thetrying L
absence of thefor E field was given in Eq. (2.7):
ipatingneed theIf to
theknow
result,electric wethelook particle’s
field isx weak,
for ¼ x0 þwe
a solution rwe
which
may,
which ωas tisanthe sum oftoasolve
approximation, gyration use the in the
ωc first place.
undisturbed
atð2:52Þ orbit
From Eqs. (2.51) and (2.47), L sin now chave
If
steady driftthe electric
vE.From
to evaluate SinceE field x(x).
we
Eqs. is
are (2.51)weak,
Theinterested we
orbit
and (2.47),may,
ininthe as
finding an
absence
we now approximation,
of
an expression
have the E field use
for was the
vE, we undisturbed
giventakein Eq. (2.7): orbit
to evaluate Ex(x). The orbit inover the aabsence of ¼E
xthe x0 fieldþ r L was sin ω ct
given in Eq. (2.7): ð2:52Þ
he gyratory motion
om Eqs. (2.51) and (2.47),Fig.we by averaging now have cycle. Equation (2.50)
2 Single-Particle Motions then gives
Fig. 4.19. 2.11 DriftDrift of aof 2y a xgyrating Einþ0 a particle cint rafield nonuniform
and we haveelectric field
¼ ωx2c 0averages rnonuniform
sin xω0have ð2:52Þ
gyrating particle electric
0. In Eq. (2.53), the oscillating
From Eqs. ¼ �ω€vand
term
€v y(2.51) cxv¼
clearly
y� (2.47), we cos LE
now k0 ðto zero,
þ L sin wc tÞ ð2:53Þ
€v y ¼ �ω 2
x0c vþy r� BL ω sin 2
c
ω c t
cos k ð x 0 þ r L sin w c t Þ ð2:52Þ ð2:53Þ
2 2 E0 E x ð x Þ B
From Eqs. €v y ¼(2.51) �ω€vc2yvand ¼� ωc2cEv0y �
(2.47),2 weωcnow
cos 2k ðx 0 þ have L sin wc tÞ
r...(4.73) ð2:53Þ
From €v y ¼ (2.51)
Anticipating
Eqs. 0 ¼ �ω theand cresult, ��ω
vyy(2.47), ωwe c we Blook cos now kðhave
for xa0Bþ 2 r L sin ω
solution 2cE
which tÞ0 is the sum ð2:51Þ
ð2:54Þ
of a gyration at ωc
Anticipating
From drift Eqs.v(4.73) the result, B
and (4.69), €v y ¼
we look �ω
wefor c v ya�
now ωc
solution
have cos
which kðx0isþthe r Lsumsin wofc tÞa gyration at ωð2:53Þ c
and a steady E. Since we are interested E in finding B an expression for vE, we take
ticipating thethe and
result, a steady
we look drift
at€vfor v . Since 2 we are
2 0interested in finding an expression for
ωc then ð2:53Þ v , we take
Ex(x)the
ending isout
the electric field y ¼aposition
the solution v y �ofwhich ωthe iscosthekðsum
particle. x0To þof r LaEquation
evaluate gyration
wc tthis, atwe
E�ω sin Þ (2.50) E
cosine, gyratory
wethehave motion by averaging
2 c by 2E 0c B over a cycle. gives
d atosteady
knowvthe drift v
out .
particle’s Since gyratory
we
Anticipating
orbit,€
v are¼
y which �ω motion
interested
the we v result,�
y arec we ωin averaging
finding
trying cos
look k
an
to forð x over
þ
expression
solve 0 a solutionr
for asin
L in the cycle.
wfor t
whichÞv ...(4.75)
Equation
, we
c first place. take (2.50)
ð2:53Þ
is the sum of a gyration then givesat ωc
x ¼ 0.E In Eq. (2.53), the coscillating Bterm €vterm y clearly averagesEto zero, and we have
e the v ¼ 0. In Eq. (2.53), the oscillating €
v clearly averages expression for vEhave
to zero, and we
cos kgyratory
electric field
þ r Lis
ðx0Anticipating motion
x
sin weak, ωand
Anticipating Þby
c tthe
a¼steady
we averaging
may,
cos
result, the ðkx drift
as
we 0 Þ cos
result,
vover
anlook E. ðSince
approximation,
we kr aL sin
look
for
cycle.
weωcare
for
a solution tÞEquation
a
interested
use
solution which
y
which
(2.50)
the undisturbed in finding
is theissum
then orbit
the
an
sum
gives
of a of a gyration
gyration
, we take
at ωatc ω and
¼ 0. InAnticipating
valuate Eq.
E (x).(2.53),
The the
out
orbit
thedriftoscillating
the
in
result, the gyratory
absence
we term motion€
v
of y clearly
the E
by E
fieldaverages
averaging was to
given over zero, in a and
cycle.
Eq. we
ð2:55Þ
(2.7): have
Equation (2.50)
ωtake thenc gives
0look for 2 a interested
solution 0 which
ðxis0ωþ thean r Lsum of taÞ gyration atwe
xand a steady forvvE, ,we
a steady vdrift v .¼
€v. EySince Since ¼
we we�ω are are � 02ωÞ 2csin ðin
vinterested in E finding
k0sin
finding an expression
sin ω
expression for ð2:54Þ
take
c
and wethe
out
� sin yðkx cos
kr t Þ c
x ¼vE0.
2
an€vkyexpression
In Eq.€vwe c
y(2.53), ¼the �ωoscillating term xclearly
0 þ r L averages Eto zero, have
L c
andout a steady
the gyratory drift .ESince motion ¼are
by 0averaging
interested c vy B in ω
�
over finding
c a cycle. cos ðEquation sinfor ωcvtEÞ, we
(2.50) thentake givesð2:54Þ
gyratory motion by
x 2 ¼ averaging
x 0 þ 2 rE L 0 sinover ω a
c t cycle. EquationB (4.72) then gives
ð2:52Þ v = 0. In Eq. (4.75),
out vthe ¼ gyratory
xtreat
l suffice toExpanding €vthe
0. y In ¼small 0 ¼motion
Eq. �ω
(2.53),
Larmor c v ythe
by ωoscillating
�radius averaging
c cos kkr over
ðterm
x0 � þ €vra1. Theωand
cycle.
sin
yL clearly c tEquation
Þaverages (2.50)zero,then
to ð2:54Þ x gives
and we have
vx ¼ the 0. In oscillating
Eq. the
(2.53), term
cosine, the €v weclearly
oscillatinghave B case, averages
term L to
€
v zero,
2clearly
Taylor
2 E0 we have
averages
expansions
Expanding thenow cosine,y €v y ¼have 0 ¼ �ω y c v y � ωc cos kðx0 þ r L sin ωc tÞhave
to zero, and we ð2:54Þ
m Eqs. (2.51) and (2.47), we havewe E0 B
panding the cosine, 1 2 2
cos
kweðx0haveþcos €vr Lyε¼ ¼01ω¼
sin � Þ¼
c t�ω ε vcos þy � � ð�E �ω0c0 Þ cos
kx cos ðkrkLðxsin 0 þωrcLtÞsin ωc tÞ ...(4.76) ð2:54Þ
cos k ð x þ r sin 22 ωcc tÞ ¼ 2 cos B ð kx Þ cos ð kr sin ω t Þ
ð2:56Þ ð2:55Þ
€
v
Expanding y ¼ 00 ¼ �ω
L
theEcosine, v
0 c y wec have
� ω cos k ð
0 x 0 þ r L sin
L ω c tÞ c ð2:54Þ
ð2:55Þ
cos kðx0 þ r€vLExpanding
2 the cosine,
¼ �ω
y sin ωc tcÞsinv¼ y� ε cos ¼ω2cεðkx þ 0�cos Þ�we � khave
cos ððxkr þBsin rL� ωsin sin ðtÞkx0 Þ sin ðkr L sin
c tÞwc� ð2:53Þωc tÞ
0 sin ðkr L sin ωc tÞ
0L sin ð kx Þ
Expanding the cosine, weBhave ð2:55Þ
coswe kðxhave 0 þ r L sin ωc tÞ ¼ cos ðkx0 Þ cos ðkr L sin ωc tÞ
Expanding
It will the cosine,
suffice to treat the small �Larmor sin ðkxradius 0 Þ sin ðcase, kr L sin kr ω � c t Þ1. The Taylor expansions ð2:55Þ
us to write
cipating the result, we L
kr � 1.atThe ω Taylor expansions
Itcoswill xlook
kðsuffice forto treata solution the small
0 þ r L sin ωc tÞ ¼ cos ðkx0 Þ cos ðkr L sin
which Larmor is theradius sum of case,
� aωsin gyration
c tÞ ðLkx0 Þ sin ðckr L sin ωc tÞ
a steady drift v E.
tocos ðthe
kSincex0 þ we r L are sin ωc tÞ ¼
interested 1 cos
in ðfinding
kx0 Þ cos an
L�
ð1kr
expression
2 sin ωcTaylortÞ for vexpansions
E, we take ð2:55Þ ...(4.77)
will suffice treat small Larmor radius 2 2case, 2 1kr� 1. The
L
cos ε ¼ ε þ � � � ω1.c tω
ωcIttÞwill ðsuffice
cos kx0to Þ treat the k rsmall Larmor 1ðradius case, � kr L<< Thec tÞ Taylor expansions
k ðxgyratory
0 þ r L sinmotion � by 1 �over � sin
ωεc tEquation ð1kxkx Þ0sin ðLkr L sin ð2:55Þ
the It willaveragingsuffice to treat 2 the a sin
L cycle.
cos
small � ¼2 �
Larmor
sin
ð sin
�
kx εsin
radius
Þ þðÞkr
02(2.50)
kr
sin
� then
�case, sin krωLgives�
t Þ 1. The Taylor ð2:56Þ expansions
02 L c ð2:56Þ
¼ 0. In Eq. (2.53), the oscillating cos ε term
¼ 1 � €v ysin
1clearly
ε ε2 þ ¼ �ε�averages
þ � � � � to zero, and we have
It will suffice to treat the small 2Larmor sin εEq.radius ¼ ε(2.54) case,
þ � � � gives kr � 1. The Taylor expansions
� � ð2:56Þ
L
1 2
ast term vanishes
It will suffice uponto treataveraging the small over Larmor time, radius and cos case,ε ¼kr1L� �2 1. ε The þ � Taylor expansions
allow€v yus to0 write 2sin ε ¼ 2ε þ E 0 ��� ...(4.78) ð2:56Þ
¼ ¼ �ω c yv � ω cos k ð x 0 þ r 1 sin
L 2 c ω t Þ ð2:54Þ
allow us to write
E0 allow us to write
c
B cos ε
Ex1ðx� ¼ 1 � sin εε ¼ þ ε �þ �  �� � �
0 Þ 1 ε 22 þ1� �2� 2
11�2 2k r L 2  ð2:56Þ
1 2 2 ε¼
ow us vy ¼ to �write ð cos kx0 Þ 1 � 4 k r L cos ¼� 2þ ð2:57Þ
 kx Þkr ð2:56Þ
B
cos
anding the cosine,cos k ð x 0
we þ r L sin ω c t Þ � ð cos sin kx ε 0 Þ
B
¼ ε
1 � � �k � 4r 1sin ωc t � ð sin 0 L sin ωc t
khave
allow ðx0 us þ to sinωsin
r L write c tÞ ε �¼ð cos ε þ kx� � 0�Þ2 1
L 2 2 2
 � 2 k r L sin ωc t � ð sin kx0 Þkr L sin ωc t
1
cos k ðx0 þallow r L sinusωto � ð cos kx0 Þ 1 � k2 r 2L sin 2 ωc t �ð sin kx0 ÞkrL sin ωc t
c tÞwrite
cos kðxThe 0 þ r
last sin ω t
L termc vanishes uponÞ ¼ cos ð kx Þ cos
0 averaging 2 ðkr L sinover ωc tÞtime, and1 Eq. (2.54) 2 gives
allow us The toThe write last
last cos term
term k ðxvanishes 0vanishes
þ r L sinupon upon averaging
� ð cos kx0over
ωc tÞ averaging Þ 1 time,
over � k2and
time, 2 L
r 2 sin
and Eq. ω(4.75)
Eq.ð2:55Þ c t �gives
(2.54) sin kx0 ÞkrL sin ωc t
ðgives
� sin ð kx  Þ sin ð kr sin ω t Þ
e last term
Varying E Fieldvanishes
cos k ðx0 upon þ rL E averaging
sin ωc tÞ � over ð cos  time, kx 10 Þ 0and 1�  1Eq. k2 r(2.54)2L
sin 2 ω c
givesc t �1 ð37sin kx  0 ÞkrL sin ωc t
0  2 21 22 2 LE2x ðx0 Þ 2 2  ð2:57Þ
cos k ðx0 þ r¼
v yThe �last
L sin ωcterm tðÞcos�E0ðvanishes
kx cos0 Þ kx 10� Þ upon 1 1k ¼
k�r Laveraging r2L 2�
sin ω
over c t E � ð
1
time,
x x �
ð
0 Þ
sin k
and kxr 0
L 1 ...(4.79)
Þkr
Eq. sin
2L(2.54)
2 ωcgives
t
ill suffice to treat the small vy  B¼ Larmor � ðradius cos  0 Þ 1 kr
kxcase, 4 �L �
2 k r1.L The ¼BTaylor
�  expansions 4 1 � k rL ð2:57Þ
sual Ev � B E
drift 0 isterm modified by B
1the 2 inhomogeneity Ex ðxover 0 Þ to read
4 1 and B 4
y ¼�
The last ð cos the
Thus vanishes
kx0 Þusual 1 �E k× B upon 2 averaging
r Ldrift ¼�  1by time, 2 2 Eq. (2.54) gives
� thek inhomogeneity
rL ð2:57Þ
The lastBterm vanishes upon 4 averagingE0 1 2is modified over B time, 1 and 4 Eq. (2.54)Ex ðxgives0Þ
to read 
1
cos v yε�¼ ¼ � 1 � ðεcos � þ kx� 0� Þ� 1 � k2 r 2L ¼ � 1 � k2 r2 ð2:57Þ
E E� B 1B  22 2  4 E ðx Þ  B ð2:56Þ  4 L
vvyE ¼ ¼ � 2 ð cos 0 1 � Þk 1r L�...(4.80) 1
k 2 2
r ¼E�
x
 1ð2:58Þ
0
� k
1 2 2
ð2:57Þ
E0 BB sin ε ¼ εkx þ 04 � � �1
24 2 L x ðx0 ÞB 1 24 2 L
r
v y ¼ � ð cos kx0 Þ 1 � k r L ¼ � 1 � k rL ð2:57Þ
Theisphysical B 4 BAn ion with 4
wcalusreason
to write for this easy toreason see. An for this ion iswith easyits to see.
guiding center its at guiding
a center at a maximum
of E actually spends a
of E actually spends a good deal of its time in regions of weaker E. Its good deal of its time in regions of weaker E. Its average drift, therefore,
 
ift,ktherefore, is less
is less than E/B E/B evaluated at 1the guiding 2 center. In aInlinearly varying E field, the ion would
os ðx0 þ r L sin ωc tÞthan � ð cos kxevaluated at 2the 2 guiding
0 Þ 1 � k r L sin ωc t � ð sin kx0 Þkr L sin ωc t
center. a linearly
field, the ion would be in a stronger field on one side of the orbit and in a 2
Self-Instructional Material 97
er by the same amount on the other side; the correction to vE then cancels
lastitterm
this vanishes
is clear that the upon averaging
correction termover depends time,on and theEq. second(2.54)derivative gives of
e sinusoidal distribution we assumed, the second derivative is always
E0E. For an arbitrary   ExE, ðx0we Þ  need1 only 
with respect to 1 2variation2 of 2 2 replace ik
v y ¼ � ð cos kx0 Þ 1 � k r L ¼ � 1 � k rL ð2:57Þ
write Eq. (2.58) B as 4 B 4

� �E � B
1
 E � aB � �
maximum
The physical of E actually
reason for this vE ¼ spends
is easy togoodsee. deal
1An2 of
1 � k r L with 2 its
ion timeitsinguiding
regions centerof weaker
ð2:58Þat aE. Its
2 4
maximum average of Edrift, therefore,
actually spends is less
a good Bthandeal E/B of evaluated
its timeatinthe guiding
regions of center.
weakerInE.a Its linearly
varying E
average drift, therefore, is less than E/B evaluated at the guiding center. In a linearly in a
field, the ion would be in a stronger field on one side of the orbit and
The physical
varying field reason
E weaker
field, for
thebyion this
sameisbe
thewould easy
amountin a to onsee.
strongerthe Another
fieldion onwith
side; onetheits guiding
correction
side of the orbitcenter
to vEand atinacancels
then a
maximum of
out. From
field weaker E actually
by this spends
it is clear
the same amount a
that ongood
thethe deal
correction of
other side; its
termtime in
thedepends regions
correction on theof weaker
to vsecond
then E. Its
derivative
cancels of
E
average E.drift,
For therefore,
the is
sinusoidal less than E/B
distribution evaluated
we at
assumed,
out. From this it is clear that the correction term depends on the second derivative of the guiding
the center.
second In a
derivative linearlyis always
varying
E. For Ethe
field,
negative the ion
with
sinusoidal would
respect tobe
distribution E.in For awe stronger
an assumed,
arbitrary fieldvariation
on one
the secondside
of E,of we
the need
derivative orbitis and
only in a
replace
always ik
Electrodynamics
field weaker ∇ by
by Physics and
the
andrespect be
same
write Eq. in a stronger
amount
(2.58) on field
the on
other one
side;sidethe of the orbit
correction
as arbitrary variation of E, we need Eonly replace ik and
to v in a
then field weaker
cancels by the same amount on
negative
Plasma with to E. For an
out.
by From
∇ andthis writeit isEq. the
clear other
that
(2.58) theside;
as the correction
correction term dependsto vE then on thecancels
second out.derivative
From thisof it is clear that the correction
E. For the sinusoidal term depends onwe
distribution �
theassumed, the�second
second1 derivative of E. For the
derivative sinusoidal
is always distribution we assumed, the
2 2 E�B
negative with respectsecond to E. For an v�E ¼ 1 þ
arbitrary r
variation ∇ of E, we need only replace ik ð2:59Þ
derivative is always � E � B Bwith
1 2 42 negative
L 2 respect to E. For an arbitrary variation of E, we
by ∇ andNOTES write Eq. (2.58) as v ¼ 1 þ
need only replace ik 4by  and write r ∇ ð2:59Þ
B2 Eq. (4.80) as
E L

The second term is called the�finite-Larmor-radius � effect. What is the significance of

1 2 2 E � B ...(4.81)
this correction?
The second term is called the Since r ¼ 1 þ rL ∇
is much
vELfinite-Larmor-radius larger for ions
effect.
2
than What for is
electrons,
the significancevEð2:59Þ
is nooflonger
4 B
independent
this correction? of species.
Since rL is much If a density
larger for clump
ions occurs
than forinelectrons,
a plasma,van electric field can
E is no longer
cause the
independent ofions and electrons
species. IfThe
a density to separate,
clump generating
occurs in a anotheran
plasma, electric
electric field.
fieldIf can
there is a
The second term is called the second term is called effect.
finite-Larmor-radius the finite-Larmor-radius
What is the effect.
significance What
ofa one,is the significance of this
feedback mechanism that causes the second
cause the ions and electrons to separate, generating another electric field. If there is electric field to enhance the first
this correction? correction?
Since rthat L is causes
much Since
larger r is much
L for ions larger
than for for ions
electrons, than for
vE is electrons, v is no longer independent
feedbackE grows indefinitely,
mechanism and the the plasma
second is electric
unstable. Such
field to an thenofirst
instability,
enhance longer
one,Ea drift
called
independent
E grows instability, willofbe
of species.
indefinitely,
species.
Ifdiscussed
and athe
density If ain
plasma
density
clump
aislater clump
occurs
chapter.
unstable.
occurs
in aThe
Such
in a plasma,
plasma,
angrad-B andrift, an
electric
instability, of electric
fielda can
course,
called
field
is
drift alsocana cause the ions and
cause the ions
finite-Larmor-radius
instability, will electrons
andbeelectrons
discussed to to aseparate,
separate,
effect
in and chapter.
later also generating
generating causes
The another
another
charges
grad-B electric
electric
to separate.
drift, field.
offield. If
If there
course, is there
is aais a tofeedback mechanism
According
also
feedback mechanism
Eq. (2.24), however,
finite-Larmor-radius that
that causes
effectcauses ∇Bthe
vand the second
isalso second
proportional
causes electric
electrictofield
charges krL,to
field enhance
to enhance
towhereas
separate. theAccording
the first one, Eterm
the first
correction one, togrows inindefinitely, and the
EEq.grows Eq.indefinitely,
(2.58) is and
plasma the
v∇B is
proportional plasma
is unstable. to
proportional is
k 2 unstable.
Such
r 2
. The Such
ankrinstability, an
nonuniform-E-fieldinstability,
called called
a drift instability,
effect, a drift
term inwill be
therefore, is discussed in a later
(2.24), however, L to L, whereas the correction
instability, will be discussed in a later chapter. The grad-B drift, of course, is also a
important
Eq. (2.58) chapter. The
at relatively
is proportional k grad-B
tolarge 2
rLk,
2
. Theor drift,
small ofscale
course,
nonuniform-E-field is also
lengths athe
finite-Larmor-radius
ofeffect, inhomogeneity.
therefore, is For effect and also causes
finite-Larmor-radius
this reason, drifteffect and also
instabilities belong causesto a charges
more generalto separate.
class called According to
microinstabilities.
important at relatively chargeslargeto k,separate.
or small According
scale lengths to Eq.of(4.46), however, vB isFor
the inhomogeneity. proportional to krL, whereas
Eq. (2.24), however, v∇B is proportional to krL, whereas the correction term in
this reason, drift instabilities
the correction belong to a more general class called microinstabilities.
2 2
k r L . Theis nonuniform-E-field effect,
Eq. (2.58) is proportional to k2r2Lterm . Theinnonuniform-E-field
Eq. (4.80) is proportional effect,totherefore,
important at relatively therefore,
large k,isor important
small scale at relatively
lengthslarge of the k, or small scale lengths
inhomogeneity. For of the inhomogeneity. For
2.5 drift
this reason, Time-Varyingthis reason,
instabilities belong drift
E toinstabilities
Field a more general belong class tocalled
a moremicroinstabilities.
general class called microinstabilities.
2.5 Time-Varying E Field
Let us now take4.12 TIME-VARYING
E and B to be uniform in space E but
FIELD
varying in time. First, consider
Let usthe case in E
which E to
alone varies sinusoidally invarying
time, and let it First,
lie along the x axis:
2.5 now take
Time-Varying Let BusE
and be uniform
Field
now in B
take E and space
to bebut
uniform in time.
in space but varyingconsider
in time. First, consider the case
the case in which E alone varies sinusoidally in time, and let it lie along the x axis:
in which E alone varies E¼ sinusoidally the x axis:
E0 eiωt x^ in time, and let it lie along ð2:60Þ
Let us now take E and B to be uniform E ¼inEspaceiωt but varying in time. First, consider
^ ð2:60Þ
0e x
the case in which
_ E alone varies sinusoidally in ...(4.82)
time, and let it lie along the x axis:
Since E x ¼ iωEx , we can write Eq. (2.50) as
Since Ex = iωEx, we can write Eq. (4.72) as
38 E_ x ¼ iωEx , we can write Eq. (2.50) iωt
Since as ! 2 Single-Particle Motions
E ¼ E0 e x^ e ð2:60Þ
2 iω
! Ex
€vx ¼ �ωc vx � ð2:61Þ
iω E e xωc B
38Since E_ x ¼ iωEx , we can write€vxEq. 2
(2.50)
¼ �ωc vx � as iω e
E x ...(4.83)
2 Single-Particle Motions
ð2:61Þ
Let us define e
v p � ω�c B
Let us define ω!c B
Let us define iωeE ex ð2:62Þ
2
€vx ¼ �ωc vx �iωE eExx ð2:61Þ
ev p �e v�
E �ωc B ωc BB
Let us define ð2:62Þ
ex
E
...(4.84
where the tilde has been addedevmerely
E �
B to emphasize that the drift is oscillating. The
upper (lower) sign, as usual, denotes positive (negative) q. Now Eqs. (2.50) and
where the tilde has been added merely to emphasize that the drift is oscillating. The upper
(2.51)
where the become
tilde has been added
(lower) merely
sign, to denotes
as usual, emphasize that (negative)
positive the drift isq.oscillating. The and (4.73) become
Now Eqs. (4.72)
upper (lower) sign, as usual, denotes positive�(negative) � q. Now Eqs. (2.50) and
2
(2.51) become €vx ¼ �ωc vx � e vp
� � ð2:63Þ
€v y ¼2 ��ω2c v y �� e v E ...(4.85)
€vx ¼ �ωc vx � e vp
By analogy �
with 2Eq. (4.34), � a solution which is theð2:63Þ
By analogy with Eq. (2.12), €v y ¼
we�ω �e v E we try
tryc av ysolution
sum of a drift and a gyratory
which is the sum of a drift and a
motion:
gyratory motion:
By analogy with Eq. (2.12), we try a solution which is the sum of a drift and a
98 Self-Instructional Material
gyratory motion: vx ¼ v⊥ eiωc t þ e vp
iωc t
ð2:64Þ
vx ¼vvy⊥¼ eiω�iv
ct
þ⊥evep þ e vE
ð2:64Þ
v y ¼ �iv⊥ eiωc t þ e vE
If we now differentiate twice with respect to time, we find
� we find
If we now differentiate twice with respect to time, �
 €vx ¼ �ω
� �ω 2vx �� e
vev p2 v � ev ð2:63Þ
€vx 2¼ c€ y v¼
vce
� x�
�ω cp� y E ð2:63Þ
€v y ¼ �ω c v y � v
� E � ð2:63Þ
€v ¼ �ω2 2v � e
€v y ¼ �ω
y v
c c v yy � e vEE
logy with ByEq.analogy
(2.12),with we Eq. try a(2.12),solution wewhich
try a solution
is the sum whichof aisdrift
the and
sum aof a drift and a
yygymotion:
analogy gyratory motion:
with (2.12),
Eq. (2.12),
with Eq. we we trytrya asolution solution which which isisthe thesum sumof of a drift and and
a drift a a
ratory
motion: motion: iωc t
vx ¼ v⊥ eiωc t þ e vvpx ¼ v⊥ e þ e vp
ð2:64Þ
iω t �iv⊥ eiωc t þ e ð2:64Þ
v ¼ v
iω c tev yc ¼ þ e
v v E Single-Particle Motions
v y ¼ �iv x e ⊥ þe vE p
vx ¼ ⊥v⊥ eiωc t þ e
v
iωc t p
ð2:64Þ
If we now differentiate
v y ¼
twice
�iv ⊥
with
e
iωcrespect
þ e
v E
t findto...(4.86) time, we find ð2:64Þ
ow differentiate twice withvrespect
y ¼ �iv to e
time,
⊥ we þ e
v E
� � � 2 �
we now differentiate twice 2with respect €v 2¼ �ω to2 ctime,
2
v þ we
ω find
� ω 2
e
v p we find
If wevxnow
€ ¼ �ω differentiate
c vx þ ωctwice
x � ω with v p respect
e x
�
c to time,
� ð2:65Þ NOTES
w differentiate twice with 2
respect�€v 2¼ �ω
y � ω2c2v
to
� time,
2� we
� 2 find2 v E
y þ 2 ωc � ω e
ð2:65Þ
€v y ¼ �ω €vx ¼ v þ 2 ω
c y�ωc vxc þ ωc � ev E ω e vp
2
2 vy þ ω
� � 2 �
�
2 � ω22 eE 2...(4.87)
2
ð2:65Þ
This is not
not the same as Eq. (2.63) the €
v ¼
same €v y �ω¼
as �ω
Eq. v þ
(2.63)
x unless cω2x � ω2 . cIf we now make
c ωunlessc� ωω � e
v ω . If we now
p c the assumption make the assumption
2 �c 2 � ð2:65Þto
that Esovaries slowly, 2so that 2 Eq. ω � ω2c , is then 2Eq. (2.64)
2 << ω2is. the approximate solution
varies slowly,
is is notEq.
the (2.63).
that ω
This is€
2
vnot
y�¼
same as Eq. (2.63)2 unless
ω�ω
the c same
, then c vas y Eq.
þ ω
(4.85)
(2.64)
2
ω �
� ω
unless
the
2 e
vω
approximate
E
c ω . If we now cmake the assumptionIf we now
solution make
to the assumption E
63). varies slowly, so that ω << ω 2 , then Eq. c(4.86) is the approximate solution to that Eq. (4.85).
2 2 c the guiding center motion has two components. The
at E varies
ation (2.64)slowly,
Equation us so
tellsEquationthat that
(2.64)
the ωguiding
tells �usωthat , then motion
ccenter Eq. (2.64) has is twothecomponents.
approximateThe solution to
ot the same
. (2.63).
onent, as Eq.to(2.63)
y component,
perpendicular
(4.86)
B and unless
perpendicular tells
E, is the
us
toω that
2
B and
usual
the
�EE, guiding
2
ω�cisB. the
If
drift,wecenter
usualnow
except
motion
E �make has
B drift,
that the
vE nowexcept that vE nowThe y
twoassumption
components.
component, perpendicular to B andcenter E, isThe
ω.(2.64)the usual E × twoB drift, aexcept that vThe now oscillates
Equation
ries
es oscillates
slowly,
slowly (2.64)
so that
at the slowly
tells ω
frequencyus2thatat
�ω. the frequency
ω2cThe
the ,guiding
then Eq.
x component, motionaxisnew
component,
has
the newthe drift
components.
approximate
drift along along
E
solution the
to
slowly
direction at
of the frequency ω. The × component, a new drift along the direction
by v∂/∂t, of E, is called
component,
on theE,polarization
perpendicular
). of E, generalize
is called is called
to B and the E,polarization
drift. isBy usualdrift.
thereplacing E �iωB Byby replacing
drift, weiωcan
except
∂/∂t, that E now
we can
cillates the polarization
slowly Eq.
the (2.62)
at define drift.and
frequency By define
replacing
ω. The the iω by ∂/∂t, wedrift
xpolarization
component, can a generalize
new driftEq.
as (4.84)the
along and define the
ize Eq. (2.62) and the polarization drift as
on (2.64) tells
rection of polarization
us
E, is calleddrift
that the guiding center motion
theaspolarization drift. By replacing iω by ∂/∂t, we can
has two components. The
nent,
neralize perpendicular
Eq. (2.62) andtodefine B and theE,1polarization
isd the usual 1E d�EB drift, except that vE now
¼ �
Ev p ¼ �drift as
...(4.88) ð2:66Þ
slowly at the frequency v p ω.ωc BThe dt x component, ωc B dt a newð2:66Þ drift along the
of E, is called the polarization drift. 1 dE By replacing iω by ∂/∂t, we can
p ¼ �
vdirections að2:66Þ
vep Eq. Since
is in (2.62) v
oppositeandSince
p is invp is in for
define
directions opposite opposite
theions directions
polarization c B for
for
and ωelectrons, ionsions
dt drift and and
there electrons,
aselectrons, thereisisa polarization
there
is a polarization polarization current;
current;
for Z
; for Z ¼ 1, this is = for
1, Z
this¼ 1,
is this is
nce vp is in opposite � directions�¼ nene �for ions 1 �and ddE Ene electrons, there dE is ρa dE polarization
j v ¼ v � � v ¼ ðρMdE þ m Þ ¼  ð2:67Þ
ð2:66Þ ...(4.89)
rrent; for jZp¼¼1,nethis vi pis� ve p ¼p 2 ðM þ mÞ eB¼2 2
p i p e p
dt Bð2:67Þ
2 dt
eB ω B dt
c dt B dt
ρjwhere ρmass
is
� Bthe
2.6 Time-Varying
wheredensity.
is ¼
thene Field mass density.
� ne dE ρ dE
39
ρ is the mass p vi p density.
� ve p ¼ 2 ðM þ mÞ ¼ 2 ð2:67Þ
is in opposite directions for ions dt
eB and electrons, dt is a polarization
Bthere
Fig. 2.12 The polarization
drift

for Z ¼ 1, this is
here ρ is the mass density.
� � ne dE ρ dE
j p ¼ ne vi p � ve p ¼ 2 ðM þ mÞ ¼ 2 ð2:67Þ
eB dt B dt

s the mass density. Fig.current

The physical reason for the polarization 4.12. The(Fig.polarization
is simple 2.12). Consider drift
an ion at rest in a magnetic field. If a field E is suddenly applied, the first thing the
ion does is to move in the direction of E. Only after picking up a velocity v does the
The physical reason for the polarization current is simple (Fig. 4.34). Consider an ion
ion feel a Lorentz force ev � B and begin to move downward in Fig. (2.12). If
E is now kept constant, there is no further vp drift but only a vE drift. However,
at rest in a magnetic field. If a field E is suddenly applied, the first thing the ion does is to
if E is reversed, there is again a momentary drift, this time to the left. Thus vp is a

move in the direction of E. Only after picking up a velocity v does the ion feel a Lorentz
startup drift due to inertia and occurs only in the first half-cycle of each gyration
during which E changes. Consequently, vp goes to zero with ω/ωc.

force ev × B and begin to move downward in Fig. (4.34). If E is now kept constant, there is
The polarization effect in a plasma is similar to that in a solid dielectric, where
D ¼ ε0 E þ P. The dipoles in a plasma are ions and electrons separated by a distance
no further v drift but only a v drift. However, if E is reversed, there is again a momentary
rL. But since ions and electrons can move around to preserve quasineutrality, the
applicationp of a steady E field does not result
E in a polarization field P. However, if
drift, this time to the left. Thus vp is a startup drift due to inertia and occurs only in the first
E oscillates, an oscillating current jp results from the lag due to the ion inertia.

half-cycle of each gyration during which E changes. Consequently, vp goes to zero with ω/ωc.
The polarization effect in a plasma is similar to that in a solid dielectric, where D = ε0
2.6 Time-Varying B Field

E + P.Finally,
Thewedipoles in a plasma
allow the magnetic are
field to vary ionsSince
in time. and Lorentz force isseparated by a distance r . But since
the electrons
always perpendicular to v, a magnetic field itself cannot impart energy to a charged L
ions and electrons
particle. can move
However, associated with B isaround
an electric to
fieldpreserve
given by quasineutrality, the application of a steady E
∇�E¼ � B_ ð2:68Þ

and this can accelerate the particles. We can no longer assume the fields to be Self-Instructional Material 99
completely uniform. Let v⊥ ¼ dl/dt be the transverse velocity, l being the element of
path along a particle trajectory (with vk neglected). Taking the scalar product of the
equation of motion (2.8) with v⊥, we have

d 1 2  dl
mv ¼ qE � v⊥ ¼ qE � ð2:69Þ
dt 2 ⊥ dt
 The polarization
D ¼ ε0 E þeffect
P. Theindipoles
a plasma
in aisplasma
similarare
toions
that and
in aelectrons
solid dielectric, where
separated by a distance
D ¼ ε0 E rþ
L . P. The
But dipoles
since ions in a
andplasma are
electrons ions
can and
moveelectrons
around separated
to preserveby a distance
quasineutrality, the
rL. But since ions and electrons can move around to preserve quasineutrality, the
application of a steady E field does not result in a polarization field P. However, if
application of a steadyanEoscillating
E oscillates, field does current
not result in a polarization
jp results from the lagfield P.to
due However, if
the ion inertia.
E oscillates, an oscillating current jp results from the lag due to the ion inertia.

Electrodynamics and field does not result

2.6 Time-Varying in a polarization field P. However, if E oscillates, an oscillating current
B Field
Plasma Physics
2.6 jp results
Time-Varying B from the lag due to the ion inertia.
Field
Finally, we allow the magnetic field to vary in time. Since the Lorentz force is
Finally, we allow
always 4.13 TIME-VARYING
the magnetic
perpendicular to field to vary in
v, a magnetic field B itself
time. FIELD Sincecannot theimpart Lorentz energyforcetoisa charged
alwaysNOTES
perpendicular to v, a magnetic field itself cannot impart energy to a charged
particle. However,
Finally, we associated
allow thewith magnetic B is anfield electric
to vary field in given
time. by Since the Lorentz force is always
particle. However, associated with B is an electric field given by
perpendicular to v, a magnetic field itself_ cannot impart energy to a charged particle. However,
∇�E¼ � B ð2:68Þ
∇�E¼ � B_ ...(4.90) ð2:68Þ
and this can associated
accelerate withthe B isparticles.
an electricWe fieldcan given nobylongerand thisassume can accelerate
the fields the particles.
to be We can no
and this can accelerate
completely the
uniform. particles.
Let v ¼ We
dl/dt can
be no
the longer
transverse assumevelocity, the lfields
being
Let vMotions to
the be
element of
longer assume the  = dl/dt be the transverse velocity,
40 ⊥ fields to be completely 2 uniform.
Single-Particle
completely
40 uniform.
path alonglabeing Let v
particle ¼ dl/dt be the transverse velocity,
⊥ trajectory (with vk neglected). Taking the scalar product of the 2l being the
Single-Particle element Motionsof
the element of path along a particle trajectory (with v|| neglected). Taking the scalar
path along a particle
equation of trajectory
motion (2.8) (with with vk vneglected).
⊥, we have
Taking the scalar product of the
The change in one gyration
equation of motion product
40 iswith
(2.8) of the
obtained
v equation
, we of motionover
by integrating
have (4.28) one with v, we have 2 Single-Particle Motions
period:
The change in one gyration is obtained ⊥ byintegrating over one period:

d ð 2π=ω dl Single-Particle
40 40 �  �  1 c2 2 Single-Particle Motions
1d mv1�2 in2¼
Theδchange one � mvð⊥2π=ω¼isdlqE
gyration � v⊥dl¼byqE
obtained � 2 ...(4.91)
integrating over one
Motions
period:ð2:69Þ
1 ⊥dt2 ¼2 qE qE � v⊥� dt dt dl� dt
c
2 δ⊥ mv mv 0 ¼
¼qE qE � dt ð2:69Þ
The change dt
in 2
one ⊥
gyration is obtained
� by � dt ð
integrating over one period:
The change in one Thegyration
change isinobtained
2 one gyration0 by is dtobtainedover
1 integrating
2π=ω
by integrating
c onedl period:over one period:
If the field changes slowly, we can replace the time mv2⊥ð ¼by a lineqEintegral
δ integral � dt over
� replace �� ð2� 2π=ωc 2π=ω c 0
dl a line dt integral over
If the field orbit:
the unperturbed changes slowly, we can 1 δ2 1 mv the2 time
¼
integraldlqE �
by
the unperturbed orbit: δ mv⊥ 2 ¼ ⊥ qE � dt dt dt
...(4.92)
�If the field � changesþ 2 slowly, ð we0 can replace 0 dt the time integral by a line integral over
1
the
δ changes unperturbed
�2 � þ
orbit: ð∇�E ð
2 δ If 1the
If the If the
field mv⊥changes
field ¼field
slowly, qE changes
slowly,� dlcan qslowly,
¼wereplacecan weÞ time
replace can
� dSthereplace
time integral the timeby integral
line by
aintegral a line over
integral integral over the
the unperturbed mv 2
⊥
orbit: ¼we qE � dl s¼ð q�the
� ð∇�Eþ Þintegral
� dS ðby a line ð2:70Þ
over
the unperturbed unperturbed 2
orbit: orbit: 1 sð
�
δ¼ �q
þ �
2
mv2⊥þ B_ ¼ � dSðqE � dl ð ¼ q ð∇�EÞ � dSð2:70Þ
� � 2
1 ¼ S �q B_ � dS sð ð2:70Þ
δ mvδ2⊥ 2 mv
1
¼ ⊥ qE¼� dlqE ¼ �qSdl ð¼∇�E q ðÞ∇�E � dS Þ � _dS
2 sð ¼ �q B � dS
Here S is the surface enclosed by the Larmor orbit and has saðdirection given
S by the ð2:70Þð2:70Þ
Here S is the surface
enclosed by the Larmor orbit and has _ ....(4.93)
right-hand rule when the fingers point in the direction ¼ of ¼
�qv. BSince _�q � dS the plasma isby the
a direction
B � dS given
right-hand
diamagnetic, werule havewhen Here
B · dS theS is the
< fingers surface
0 for ions point enclosed
andin >0 the for by
directionthe Larmor
electrons. S of v. Sorbit
Then SinceEq. and has
the(2.70) a direction
plasma is given by the
becomesdiamagnetic,Here we have
S surface
is theHere
right-hand · dSS <
B surface is 0the
rule forsurface
when
enclosed the
ionsbyand enclosed
fingers
the>0 point
Larmor by the
for in Larmor
the
electrons.
orbit and orbit
direction
Then
has and
Eq. has
of
a direction v. a direction
Since
(2.70)
given the thegivenisby the
byplasma
Here S is the enclosed by the Larmor orbit and has a direction given by the
becomes right-hand rule rule
diamagnetic,
right-hand when when
we thehave the
fingersBfingers
· dSpoint<point
0 forin thedirection
ions direction
and >0offor ofv.v.electrons.
Since the plasma
theThen Eq.isisdiamagnetic,
(2.70)
right-hand rule
� diamagnetic,
�becomes when the fingers point in the indirection the of v. Since Since
the plasma plasma
is
_
wewe have _B • B dS· dS < 0B <for ions
v< 0 and for >0 for electrons.2πBforThen Eq. (4.93) becomes
2 2
1 we 2have ·0dS m ions 1
mvand >0 electrons. Then Eq. (2.70)
diamagnetic,
δ mv�2⊥1 ¼ �have
�q Bπr L ¼ �qπ B_for⊥ ionsv2 and ¼m2 >0 ⊥for 1 � electrons.
mv 2
2π B_ Then
ð2:71Þ Eq. (2.70)
becomes 2 becomes
δ mv2⊥ ¼ �qBπr _ �12 ¼ �qπ �ωc �qB B_ ⊥ 2 B¼ 2 ω⊥cv2⊥� m 2ð2:71Þ_
2 mv⊥ 2πB ...(4.94)
1
2 δ Lmv2⊥ ¼ �q ωcBπr_ �qB¼ �qπBB_
L ω c ¼ � ð2:71Þ
The quantity 2πB=ω _ c ¼ B= _ �f1c is �just 1� the 2
2�
change _ δB 2 during v 2 one
m
_ v 2
⊥ m
period
ω �qB
1 c 2of
mv
1
mv 2
_
gyration.
2π B
⊥
B B_ ωc
2π
_ δquantity
2
_ δc ¼ mv 2 mv
¼⊥ �q2πB/ω¼_ the
Bπr �q2 Bπr
¼= �qπ L ¼ _δB
Bis �qπ⊥ B
¼ 2 ¼⊥ � � ð2:71Þ ð2:71Þ
Thus The quantity 2πB=ω The
2 B= ⊥f2c is just
_ L change
c _ B/f c ωjust
during
�qB theω change
oneBperiod
�qB δB B during
ω one
of gyration.
ω period of gyration.
The quantity 2πB=ωc ¼ B= f c is justc the change δB during c c c
one period of gyration.
Thus Thus � �
Thus
The quantity _ 1_ c ¼
B=ω _ f c is just the change δB during one period of gyration.
B=
The quantity 2πB=ω_ 2π cδ¼ B= mvf�2⊥c1is ¼ justμ�δB the change δB during one period ð2:72Þ of gyration.
� �
Thus Thus 2 δ mv2⊥ ¼ μ δBδ ...(4.95) 1 2
mv⊥ ¼ μ δB ð2:72Þ ð2:72Þ
2 � �
2
Since the left-hand side is δ(μB), we have the � desired �1 result
2
1 δ2 is mv δ(μB), μ have
δB the desired result ð2:72Þð2:72Þ
Since the left-handSince sideSincethe
the left-hand
is δ(μB),
left-hand we side δ side
have mvδ(μB),
2 isthe
¼ ⊥we
⊥ 2desired μ δB¼ we
result
have the desired result
δμ ¼ 0 ...(4.96) ð2:73Þ
Since Since the left-hand
the left-hand side isside δ(μB), is δμδ(μB),
we¼have 0we the have the desired
desired result ð2:73Þ
δμ ¼result 0 ð2:73Þ
The magnetic moment is invariant in slowly varying magnetic fields.
The magnetic moment is invariant in slowly varying magnetic 0 fields.
¼ 0δμ ¼
δμvarying ð2:73Þð2:73Þ
The magnetic moment
The As
is the B
invariant
magnetic field
As the B field varies in strength, the Larmor orbits expandmoment varies
in slowly
is in strength,
invariant the
in Larmor
magnetic
slowly orbits
fields.expand
varying
and contract, magnetic
and the andfields.
contract, and the particles
particlesAs theand
lose B field varies
lose As
gainmagnetic
The and
transverse in
the strength,
B field
gain
moment transverse
energy. the
isvaries Larmor
This in strength,
energy.
invariant inorbits
exchange This
slowly the expand
exchangeLarmor
ofvarying
energy and
ofmagneticcontract,
orbits
energy
between expand
between and
the
fields. the
andthecontract,
particlesand andthe
the field
particles The magnetic
lose and moment
particles
gain is
lose
transverse invariant
and gain
energy. in slowly
transverse
This varying
energy.
exchange magnetic
This
of energy fields.
exchange between of energy
the between the
particles and the Asfield
theAs isfield
Bis described
described
the Bvaries very
field variesvery simply
simply
in strength, by Eq.
byLarmor the(4.96).
Eq. (2.73).
Larmor TheThe
orbitsinvariance
invariance of
expandcontract,
andof μ and us
μ allows
contract, to prove
and the easily the
allowsparticles andparticles
us to particles
prove the particles
field
easily the andingain
isfollowing
lose described
and thestrength,
field
very
well-known
transverse
the
issimply
described by Eq.
theorem:
energy.
orbits
very expand
simply
(2.73).
This exchangeThe byand Eq. (2.73).
invariance
of energy The the
μinvariance
ofbetween of μ
following
lose and gain
allows us well-known
to transverse
prove easilytheorem:
energy.
the This exchange
following well-known of energytheorem: between the the
allows us to prove easily the through
following well-known theorem:
The
particles magnetic
particles
and the and flux
the
field isfield
described
The
a Larmor
is described very simply
magnetic
orbit
very
flux
is constant.
simply
by
through Eq.by Eq. (2.73).
(2.73). The The invariance
invariance of μ of μ
The flux Ф is given The
allows by magnetic
usBS,to prove
with flux
Seasily
¼ through
πr 2
the Thus a
following Larmor orbit
well-known isa Larmor
constant.
theorem: orbit is constant.
100 Self-Instructional
allowsMaterial
us to prove easily the following well-known theorem:
The flux Ф is given The byfluxBS, Фwithis given L
S ¼through by
πr 2BS, with S ¼ πr 2L Thus
The The
magnetic magneticflux fluxL Thus
through
a Larmor a Larmor orbit isorbit is constant.
constant.
The flux TheФflux 2 Ф is given
isv⊥given
2
byv⊥BS,
2
mbywith BS,
2πm Swith¼ 2mv
1 2
πrS2 ¼Thus πr2πm2
L2 Thus
2 2 v2⊥ L⊥ 1¼ v2⊥ m μ 2πm 12mv⊥ ð2:74Þ
2 2
Φ ¼ Bπ ¼ vBπ2
Φv ¼ m 2πm mv 2πm 2πm
ω 2
Φ ¼ cBπ 2 ¼ Bπ ⊥ q 2 B 2 ⊥ ¼ qBπ 2 B¼ Bπ ⊥q 2 ¼ ¼ μ ð2:74Þ
2 2 q2 B¼ 2 12 q μ
2
22 ¼ ω 2 2 2 2 B q 2ð2:74Þ
ωc Φ v¼⊥ Bπq B⊥ v¼⊥ m v v2 m 2πm mv 2πm
Bπq¼⊥2 2πm B¼2mv⊥ q2 2πm
2 2 2 2
c 1 ⊥
Φ ¼ Bπ ¼ Bπ 2 ¼ B 2 μ q2
¼ μ ð2:74Þð2:74Þ
Therefore, Ф is constantTherefore, if μ is constant. ω 2 ω 2
c q B 2 2 q B q
2
2 q
B q
Ф is constant if μ is constant.
c
This propertyФisis used
Therefore, constant
This
μ is constant.
in aifproperty
method of used
is plasma in aheating methodknown of plasma as adiabatic
heating known as adiabatic
 δμ ¼ 0 ð2:73Þ

The magnetic moment is invariant in slowly varying magnetic fields.

As the B field varies in strength, the Larmor orbits expand and contract, and the
particles lose and gain transverse energy. This exchange of energy between the
particles and the field is described very simply by Eq. (2.73). The invariance of μ
allows us to prove easily the following well-known theorem:
The magnetic flux through
The magnetic a Larmor
flux through a orbit
Larmoris constant.
orbit is constant. Single-Particle Motions
The flux Ф is given by BS, with S ¼ πrL Thus
2
The flux Ф is given by BS, with S = πr2L Thus
Summary
mmary
2.7 of Guiding
of Guiding
Summary Center
Center
of Guiding Drifts
Drifts
Center Drifts 41 41 41
2.7 Summary
.72.7Summary
Summary ofofof
Guiding
GuidingCenter
Center Driftsv2⊥
Drifts v2⊥ m2 2πm 12mv2⊥ 2πm ...(4.97)
4141

Guiding Center Drifts
Φ ¼ Bπ ¼ Bπ ¼ ¼ μ
41
ð2:74Þ
ω2c qB2 2 q 2 B q 2
NOTES
Therefore, Ф is constant if μ is constant.
Therefore, Ф is constant if μ is constant.
This This property
property is used
is used in ina amethod
method of of plasma
plasmaheating
heatingknown
known as adiabatic compression.
as adiabatic
Figure 4.13Figure
compression. shows 2.13
a schematic
shows aofschematic
how this isofdone.
how A plasma
this is injected
is done. intoisthe region
A plasma
between
injected intothe
themirrors
region Abetween
2.7 Summaryand B. the
Coils
of Guiding A
mirrors
Center andABand
Drifts are B.
then pulsed
Coils to increase
A and B are then and
41 hence v2.
B pulsed

2.13
Fig.
Fig. Two-stage
Two-stage
2.13
2.13 adiabatic
adiabatic
Two-stage
Two-stage compression
compression
adiabatic
adiabatic of a of
compression
compression a of
plasma
plasma a plasma
Fig.
ig. 2.13Two-stage
2.13 Two-stage adiabatic
adiabatic compression
compression ofofof
aaplasma
aplasma
plasma

B and 2 v2 . The 2heated

ocrease
ase B and
increase hencehence
B and vhence
. The
⊥ v 2 .2 Theheated plasma
heated plasma cancan
plasma then then
canbethenbe transferred
transferred
be to the
transferred to the
regionregion
to the region
ooto increase
increase
increase BBB and
andandhence
⊥hence
hence vv2⊥⊥⊥vFig.
.⊥.The
The
. The heated
heated
heated plasma
plasma
plasma can
can can then
then
then bebe
be transferred
transferred
transferred tototothe
thethe region
region
region
DC–D by a further
a further pulse
pulse inpulse in A,
A, increasing
increasing
A, the
the mirror mirrorratio ratio there.
there. The The
coils coils C
C coils
and DC
and D
are are
by a further in increasing the mirror ratio there. The and aDD are
2.13 Two-stage adiabatic compression of a plasma
C–D
C–D C–D by
byby a further
a further
a further pulse
pulse
pulse in
in in A,
A,A, Fig. 4.13 Two-stage
increasing
increasing
increasing the
thethe mirror
mirror
mirror adiabatic
ratio
ratio
ratio there.
there.
there. compression
The
TheThe coils
coils
coils C
CC ofand
and
and plasma
D D are
areare
pulsed
lsed
hen
hen to to
pulsed
pulsed further
further
to
to compress
compress
further
further and
compress
compress and
heat heat
and
and the the
heat
heat plasma.
plasma.
the
the Early
plasma.
plasma. Early magnetic
magnetic
Early
Early mirror
magnetic
magnetic mirror
fusion
mirror
mirrorfusionfusion
fusion
then pulsed to further
hen pulsed to further compress compress and
andB and heat
heathence the plasma.
thev2⊥plasma. Early
Early magnetic
magnetic mirror
mirror fusion
fusion
ces
devices
devices employed
employed
devices employed
employed
employed The
thisthis
type type
this
this heated
of
this
heating.
type
typetype ofplasma
ofto heating.
increase
of of canAdiabatic
Adiabatic
Adiabatic
heating.
heating. then be
. The
compression
Adiabatic transferred
heated
compression plasma
has has
compression
compression to then
can
also the
also
been
has
has region
be
also
also used
been
beenC–D
transferred
been used to
used
usedbyregion
the a further pulse in
evices employed this type C–D of by aheating.
heating. Adiabatic
Adiabatic
further pulse compression
compression
in A, increasing has
the mirror ratio has also
also
there. been
The been Cused
coilsused and D are
essfully
fully on
uccessfully
successfully on
successfully
uccessfully A,
toroidal
onincreasing
toroidal
onon
on toroidalplasmas
plasmas
toroidal
toroidal
toroidal the
and
plasmas
plasmas
then
plasmasplasmasmirror
and
is
pulsedanis
and
and
and to
andratio
an
isisisanthere.
essential
essential
is an
further
an anessentialThe
element
essential
compress
essential
essential andcoils
element of
element
element
heat C plasma.
of
the
element
element and
of
ofofofD are magnetic
laser-driven
laser-driven then pulsed
fusion
laser-driven
laser-driven
Early
laser-driven
laser-driven
fusionfusion
fusion
mirror
fusion
fusion to further compress
fusion
mes
sschemes
using
chemes using either
either
using
using magnetic
magnetic
either
andeither
heat
either the or
magnetic
plasma.
magnetic or
devices inertial
inertialor
orEarly
employed
inertialconfinement.
confinement.
inertial confinement.
magnetic
this type of
confinement.mirror fusion devices employed this type of heating.
heating. Adiabatic compression has also been used
schemes
chemes using
using either magnetic
magnetic or
successfully or inertial
inertial
on confinement.
confinement.
toroidal plasmas and is an essential element of laser-driven fusion
Adiabatic compression schemes using haseither
alsomagnetic
been used successfully
or inertial confinement. on toroidal plasmas and is an essential
element of laser-driven fusion schemes using either magnetic or inertial confinement.
2.7
2.7Summary
Summary
2.7 Summary
Summaryof Guiding
of Guiding
Summary of Center
Center
Guiding
ofofGuiding
Guiding
Guiding Drifts
Drifts
Center
Center
Center Drifts
Drifts
Drifts
.7 Summary of
4.14 SUMMARY Center
OF
2.7 Summary Drifts
GUIDING
of Guiding
CENTER DRIFTS
Center Drifts

1F � B
General 1F force1�FBF1� :F B� B vf ¼ ð2:17Þ
General
General General
force
GeneralforceF :
forceF force
: F : Fv : v
¼ ¼
v ¼ 1 1F 1F�F�� 
B BB q B2ð2:17Þ ð2:17Þ
ð2:17Þ ...(4.98)
General
General force
General force F :force F F: : f f v f
v
qv f qB¼f ¼
2
f B¼ 2
qq q B 2
22
ð2:17Þ
ð2:17Þ
ð2:17Þ
q B B 2B E�B
Electric field : vE ¼ ð2:15Þ
E �EB�E B � B B2
Electric Electric : field
: : vE ¼ EEE ��2� BBB
¼2...(4.99)
Electric field
Electricfield
: field vE ¼ vEEv2 ¼ ð2:15Þ
ð2:15Þ ð2:15Þ
Electric
Electric
Electric field
field
field : : : Gravitational vvB
E ¼ E¼Bfield B 22 v ¼m g�B
ð2:15Þ
ð2:15Þ
ð2:15Þ
BBB g q B2
:2 ð2:18Þ

m gm�gB m�ggBg� ��B  

Gravitational
Gravitational fieldfield
Gravitational
Gravitational
Gravitational : field:Nonuniform
field ::g :¼
vfield vg: ¼ Ev
v g:gv ¼¼ mmm g2 � vE2B
BB
¼ 1...(4.100)
1 2 E�B
þ r 2L ∇ð2:18Þ ð2:18Þ
ð2:18Þ
ð2:18Þð2:59Þ
Gravitational
Gravitational field : field qvg q¼ ¼
2
g qB B 2 2
B 4 ð2:18Þ
B2 ð2:18Þ
qq q BB2B
Nonuniform B field      E�B  E�B
121 22 11 E�B 22 2 E�B
Nonuniform
Nonuniform E :
Nonuniform E : E : v ¼v ¼1
v þ ¼1 þr
E EE ::vEE ¼ L1 þL1 r2L ∇ 1 ∇ r
þ ∇ r1 2 ∇222 22E�B
2 E�B ð2:59Þ ð2:59Þ
ð2:59Þ
Nonuniform
Nonuniform
Nonuniform
Nonuniform EEE:: : v v¼E
Grad �E B drift :
¼
4 1 4þ1 þ 44r B
L∇
r L ∇ B B122 2 B � ∇B ð2:59Þ
ð2:59Þ
ð2:59Þ ...(4.101)
4 4L v ∇B ¼ �B
B 2B
2 v ⊥ r L
B 2
ð2:24Þ

mv2k Rc � B
uniform
form B field
B field
Nonuniform
Nonuniform Nonuniform B field
B field
Nonuniform
Nonuniform BBB field
field
field Curvature drift : vR ¼
q R2c B2
ð2:26Þ

1 1 B 11 �B∇B �B∇B � ∇B∇B

Grad
Grad �drift
�Grad
B B� :BGrad
drift
B : ::–B vdrift
drift ∇Bv¼ :
∇B v�¼
∇B �
v¼ v�
⊥ r�L⊥1rv 1v⊥ rrLBB ���
B ∇B ∇B...(4.102)
ð2:24Þ
ð2:24Þ ð2:24Þ
Grad
Grad � � Bdrift
drift
Grad � B drift : : v v
∇B
v∇B2∇B ¼ ¼
2 � L
⊥v2
¼ � 22v2⊥Br⊥L BL B r
L 2 22 ð2:24Þ
ð2:24Þ
ð2:24Þ
2 B2B2
2
B
mv2kmv cmv
Rkmv R
�
mv
2
2ck2B�
2RcB� B
Curvature
Curvature drift :
drift : drift
Curvature : vR ¼R v ¼v ¼ mvk2k2RkRcRc� c�� BBB ð2:26Þ
ð2:26Þ ð2:26Þ
Curvature
Curvature
Curvature drift
Curvature
drift
drift R¼
: : : drift : vqvRRRv¼qR ¼2 qBR 2 2 2 ...(4.103) ð2:26Þ
ð2:26Þ
ð2:26Þ
cqq qc BR 2B 22
RRR cBB
2 2
c
c
2B c

Self-Instructional Material 101

 42 an integral over a closed path. Adiabatic invariants play
2 an important role
Single-Particle
Here
in p and q are the generalized momentum
plasma
Motions
physics; they allow us to obtain simple answers in� many instances � selves in the motion. If a slow change is ma
involving
m 2 each 1 Rc � B
complicated motions.
Curved There
vacuum are :threevadiabatic
field R�þ v∇B ¼ vk þ v2⊥ corresponding
invariants,
�
not quite
to periodic,
ð2:30Þ the constant of the motion
a different type of periodic motion. m 2 1 2 q R c � B
2 R2c B2adiabatic invariant. By slow þ here we mea
Curved vacuum field : vR þ v∇B ¼ vk þ v⊥ ð2:30Þ
q 2 R2c B2 motion, so that the integral pdq is well defi
1 dE
Polarization drift : vp ¼ � an integral
ð2:66Þ
over a closed path. Adiabatic inva
42 42 1 dE ω2c B Single-Particle
dt 2 Motions
Single-Particle Motions
Polarization
2.8.1 The vp ¼ � μ
drift : Invariant,
First Adiabatic ð2:66Þ
physics; they allow us to obtain simple a
ωc B dt
Electrodynamics and complicated motions. There are three adiab
Plasma PhysicsWe Curved m� 2 1 2 �mR�c � B 1 a�different � Btype of periodic motion.
Rcð2:30Þ
vacuum
2.8haveAdiabatic
already met field
Curved
the
Curved vR þ
: vacuum
quantity
Invariants
vacuum v∇B
field : ¼: qvR vþk þ
field v∇Bv¼ 2
v2 k 2þ v⊥2
...(4.104)
ð2:30Þ
2 ⊥
q Rc B 2 RB2 2
2.8 Adiabatic Invariants μ ¼ mv2⊥ =2B
c

It is well known in classical mechanics that whenever1 dE a system 1 dE has a periodic

NOTES Polarization
Polarizationþ drift drift
: : v pdrift
¼ �: ...(4.105) 2.8.1 ð2:66Þ
and have
It is well known proved
inthe its mechanics
classical
Polarization
invariance inthat
spatially and temporally
whenever a period
system
v
ωc B dtp ¼
varying
has
�
aω BB fields.
periodicdt TheThe Firstð2:66Þ
Adiabatic Invarian
motion, þ
action integral pdq taken over a is a constant
c
periodic motion involved, of course, is the Larmor gyration. If we take p to be
of the motion.
motion, the Here
angular q are pdq
actionp integral
momentum
and the taken
r and over
dq toamomentum
period
4.15 ADIABATIC INVARIANTS
mv⊥generalized be is a and
constant
the coordinate dθ,ofthetheaction
coordinate motion.
whichWe have already
integral
repeat them-met the quantity
becomes
Here p 2.8 q Adiabatic
and selves in2.8
are the the
generalized Invariants
motion. Ifmomentum
a slow change and iscoordinate
made in the which system,repeat so them-
that the motion is
It is well Adiabatic
knownþ constant Invariants
in classical mechanics that whenever a and
system has called
a periodic an motion, the
μ ¼ mv2⊥ =
selves in thenot quite
motion. If aþ slow the
periodic, change is made of the in motion
the system, does
mv⊥
not
so2 that change
the
m motion is then
is
not quite adiabatic
periodic, action
the integral
p dq ¼ofBy
invariant.
constant pdq
mv
the rtaken
slow
⊥motion ¼ over
L dθhere 2πrwe
does anot
L mv period
mean ¼ 2πslow
⊥ change is aand constant
¼is4πthenof
compared μ thewith motion.
ð2:75Þ
the period of its invariance in spatially
It is well known It is in well classical
known þ
þ
mechanics
in classical that whenever
mechanics ωcthat a systemjqj called
whenever hasand
a aan have proved
periodic
system has a periodic
adiabatic invariant. þ compared with the periodperiodic
motion, soBy that slow here we mean
þthep integral q isslow
pdqgeneralized
well defined even though it is strictlyof nomotion longer involved, of course, is the
motion,Thusthe motion, the action integral pdq taken over a period is a constant of the them-
μ isaction
a Here
constant integral and
of the are
pdq
motion the
taken
as longover as a
q/m momentum
period
is not is a and
constant
changed. coordinate
We of
have the which
motion.
proved
angular repeat
momentum mv⊥selves
motion. r and dq to be th
motion, so that the integral
in theover
the integral
an invariance motion. pdq
ofaμclosed onlyis well
If a slowwith defined
path.change
the implicit
Adiabatic even
is made though
assumption
invariants it
in the system, is
play strictly
ω/ωan c� so no
1,that longer
where
important the motion
ω is in
role is not quite periodic,
a plasma
p and qHere
Herefrequency are the generalized momentum becomes
themotion.
constant
pallow
characterizing and
of
qusare
the
the
thetomotion
rate generalized
of change
does ofand
not B coordinate
momentum
asimportant
change seen and by isand
the which
particle.
then
repeat
coordinate
called A an them- repeat them-
which
proofadiabatic
an integral
selves
physics;
over in athe
closedthey path. IfAdiabatic
a slow
obtain
invariants
change is
simple
madeplay in
answers
anthe system,
in many
role
so ininstances
that plasma
the motion
involving þ invariant. þ By
exists, selves
however,
complicated in
that
motions. μ
the motion.
is invariant
There If
are a
evenslow
three when ω
change
adiabatic � ω is
c . made
In in
theorists’
invariants, the system,
language,
each μ
so
corresponding isthatisthetomotion is
physics;notthey
quite allowslow us
periodic, here
all
to the we
obtain mean
constant slow
simple of thecompared
answers
motion
in ω/ωof
inwith
does many thethis
not period
instances
change of
and motion,thenso
involving
ischange thatisan
called the integral
dq ¼ an
p called pdq
mv ⊥ ris
L dθ ¼ 2πr L mv
complicated ainvariant
different
motions.
“to
nottype
There
quiteorders
ofare in an expansion
periodic,
periodic
three
the constant
motion.
adiabatic c.”the
invariants,
What motion
each
means
does in
not
corresponding
practice is and
to
that then
adiabatic invariant.
μ remains much more
adiabatic Byinvariant.
slow
nearly here Bywe
constant mean
than B slow
does compared
during oneslow with
period ofthe period
gyration. ofthe period of
a different type ofwell periodic defined motion.even þ though it slow here
isþstrictly we
no mean
longer an integral compared over awith
closed path. Adiabatic
Thus μ is a constant of the motion as long as
motion, so invariants
that the integral
motion, play
so that an theimportantis wellrole
pdqintegral in plasma
defined
pdq well physics;
is even though
defined iteven they allow
is strictly
though theus
noit tois obtain
longerstrictlysimple
invariance answers
ofnoμ longer
only with the implicit
an integral overin many instances
aintegral
closed over involving
path.aAdiabatic complicated
invariants motions.
play There
an important are three in plasmarole in plasmaeach
frequencyadiabatic invariants,
characterizing the rate of change
2.8.1 an
The First Adiabatic closed path. Invariant,Adiabatic μ invariants play role anexists,
important however, that μ is invariant even whe
physics; they corresponding
allow usthey
physics; to allow
to aobtain
differentussimpletype
to of periodic
answers
obtain simple in motion.
many
answers instances
in many involving
instances involving
2.8.1 complicated
The Firstmotions. Adiabatic There Invariant,
are three μ
adiabatic invariants,
invariant “to all orders in an expansion in ω/ω
complicated motions. There are three adiabaticeach corresponding
invariants, to
each corresponding
μ remains much more nearly to constant than B
We have
a different T he
type alreadyF
of irst met
periodic A diabatic
the quantity
motion.
a different type of periodic motion. I nvariant , m
We have already met the quantity
We have already met the quantity μ ¼ mv2⊥ =2B
μ ¼ mv2⊥ =2B
2.8.1 and haveThe2.8.1 First Adiabatic
proved its invariance
The First in spatiallyμ
Invariant,
Adiabatic and temporally
Invariant, μ varying B fields. The
and have proved its invariance in spatially and temporally varying B fields. ThetakeBpfields.
periodic and have
motion proved
involved, its invariance
of course, in
is spatially
the Larmor and temporally
gyration. If varying
we to be The periodic
periodicWe angular
motion motion
momentum
involved, involved,
ofthe mvof
course, ⊥ris course,
the dq
and is to
Larmor thebe Larmor gyration.
the coordinate
gyration. If we take Ifdθ,wepthe take p to beintegral
to action
be angular momentum
have already We met
have quantity
already met the quantity
becomes
angular momentum mvr and
mv ⊥ dq to be the coordinate dθ, the action integral becomes
r and dq to be the coordinate dθ, the action integral
becomes þ þ μ ¼ mv2⊥ =2B μ ¼ mv2 =2B2
⊥ mv m
þ þ p dq ¼ mv⊥ r L dθ ¼ 2πrL mv2 ⊥ ¼ 2π ⊥ ¼ 4π μ ...(4.106) ð2:75Þ
and havep proved its invariance in spatially mv⊥temporally
and mωcvarying jqBj fields. The
¼ have
dq and mv⊥ r Lproved dθ ¼ 2πr mv⊥ ¼ 2π in spatially
its Linvariance ¼ 4π and μ temporally ð2:75Þvarying B fields. The
ωc jqj p Ifto we
periodic motion a Thus
Thus μ isperiodic involved,
constant μmotion of
isofa the course,
constant
involved,
motion is
ofasthe the
oflong Larmor
motion
course,as q/m is gyration.
as thelong
is not as
Larmor q/mgyration.
If
changed. we is take
not
We changed.
have be take
proved We have
p to proved
be
angular
the momentum
the invariance
angular
invariance ofmv μ r
of
⊥only
momentum and only dq
with mv to
with
the r bethe
andthe
implicit dq coordinate
implicit to assumption
be
assumption the dθ, ω/ωthe
coordinateω/ω action
� <<
1, dθ,1,integral
where where
the ωaction
isω is
a a frequency
integral
Thus μ is a constant of the motion as long as q/m is not changed. We have ⊥ c proved
c
becomes
the invariancefrequency μ becomes
of characterizing
characterizing
only with the the implicit
rate
the of ratechange
of change
assumption of B as of
ω/ω B cas
seen � by 1,thewhere
seen particle.
by isA proof
theωparticle. a Aexists,
proofhowever, that
exists,μhowever,
frequency characterizing isþinvariant thethat þeven
rate μof
þischange
invariant
when ωþof even
Bωcas . Inwhen
seen byω�
theorists’ the ωcparticle.
. In theorists’ A proof
μ 2is language,“toμ all is orders in an
invariant “to all orders in an expansion in ω/ω .” mv2⊥language,
What this m mv
means in
invariant
practice m is that
exists, however, that μ
expansion is invariant
p dq ¼ in ω/ω mv⊥.” even when
dθ¼¼this
pr Ldq 2πr ω � ω
mv⊥c in . In theorists’
¼¼practice
2π ¼ language,
4π2π μ ¼ 4π
⊥ μ is ð2:75Þ
c What
mvmeans
⊥ r L dθ
L c
2πrω L mvis ⊥ that
¼ jμqremains
j period much more
μ nearly constant
ð2:75Þ
invariant “toμall remains
ordersmuch more nearly
in an expansion in constant
ω/ωc.” What thanthis B doesmeans during
c in practiceone ωcis thatof gyration.
jqj
than B does during one period of gyration.
μ remains
Thusmuch μ is more nearlyofconstant
a constant thanasB long doesas during
q/masisone notperiod of gyration.
Thus It isμ justis athe as
motion
constant
important of the to motion
know when long changed.
as
an adiabatic
We changed.
q/m is invariant
not have proved
doesWe not have
exist proved
as to know
the invariance of μ only with the implicit
the invariance of μ only with the implicit assumption assumption ω/ω c � 1, ω/ωc ω
where �is 1, awhere ω is a
frequency when it does. Adiabatic invariance of Bμ is as violated when ω is not small compared with ω .
characterizing
frequency characterizing the rate of change
the rate of of change seen of by B the asparticle.
seen by A theproofparticle. A proof c
exists, however,We give three examples
μ is invariant
thathowever, of this. when ωeven � ωc.when μ islanguage, μ is
exists, that μeven is invariant In theorists’
ω � ωc. language,In theorists’
invariant “to all (A) Magnetic
orders
invariant in an Pumping:
expansion
“to all orders in ω/ω
If the
in an expansion c strength
.” What this
in ω/ω of B c.”in
means a mirror
What in this confinement
practice is that
means in practice system is is
thatvaried
μ remains much μ remainsmoresinusoidally,
nearly
much constant
more than B does during one period
the particles’ v would oscillate; but there would be no gain of energy
nearly constant than B does during of gyration.
one period of gyration.
in the long run. However, if the particles make collisions, the invariance of μ is
violated, and the plasma can be heated. In particular, a particle making a collision

102 Self-Instructional Material

 2.8 Adiabatic Invariants 43

It is just as important to know when an adiabatic invariant does not exist as to

know when it does. Adiabatic invariance of μ is violated when ω is not small
during the compression phase can transfer part of its gyration energy into vk energy,
compared with ωc. We give three examples of this.
Single-Particle Motions
and this is not taken out again in the expansion phase.
(A) Magnetic Pumping. If the strength of B in a mirror confinement system is
(B) Cyclotron
varied Heating: Now
sinusoidally, imaginevthat
the particles’ the B
⊥ would field isbut
oscillate; oscillated
there wouldat the frequency ωc.
be no
gain of energy in the long run. However, if the particles make collisions, the
The induced
invarianceelectric
of μ is field willand
violated, then
the rotate
plasmaincan
phase with some
be heated. of the aparticles and
In particular,
2 Single-Particle Motions NOTES
accelerate their Larmor motion continuously. The condition ω <<of ω
particle making a collision during the compression phase can transfer part its is violated,
c
gyration energy into vk energy, and this is not taken out again in the expansion
μ is not conserved,
phase. m � and the
� plasma
R �B can be heated.
1 c
Curved vacuum field : v þv ∇B ¼ v2 þ v2 ð2:30Þ
(C) Magnetic Cusps:
(B)R Cyclotron q kIf the
Heating. 2 ⊥current
Now R2 B2in
imagine thatone
the Boffield
theiscoils in aatsimple
oscillated magnetic mirror
the frequency
ωc. The induced electric fieldc will then rotate in phase with some of the
system is reversed,
particles a magnetic
and accelerate their cusp
Larmoris motion
formedcontinuously.
(Fig. 4.14).The This configuration has,
condition
1 dE
in drift
Polarization addition
ω �: c tov pthe
ω is ¼� usual mirrors, a spindle-cusp
violated, μ is not conserved, and ð2:66Þ mirror extending over 360o in
the plasma can be heated.
(C) Magnetic Cusps. Ifωthe c Bcurrent
dt in one of the coils in a simple magnetic mirror
azimuth.
systemA isplasma
reversed,confined
a magnetic in cusp
a cusp device
is formed is supposed
(Fig. to have better stability
2.14). This configuration
properties
has, in than that
addition to in
thean ordinary
usual mirrors, mirror. Unfortunately,
a spindle-cusp the over
mirror extending loss-cone
360� losses are
in azimuth. A plasma confined in a cusp device is supposed to have better
Adiabatic Invariants largerstability
because of the additional loss region; and the particle motion is nonadiabatic.
properties than that in an ordinary mirror. Unfortunately, the loss-cone
the Barefield
Sincelosses vanishes
larger because ofatthethe center loss
additional of symmetry,
region; and the ωcparticle
is zero there;
motion is and μ is not
ell known in classical mechanics that whenever
Since the aB system has a the center of symmetry, ωc is zero
atperiodic
þ preserved. The local Larmor radius near the center is larger than the device. Because
nonadiabatic. field vanishes
there; and μ is not preserved. The local Larmor radius near the center is larger
the action integral pdq of this,
thanthe
taken theadiabatic
over a period
device. invariant
of this,μthe
is a constant
Because does thenot
ofadiabatic guarantee
motion. that not
invariant μ does particles outside a loss
guarantee
cone will
that stay
particlesoutside
outside after
a losspassing
and q are the generalized momentum and coordinate which repeat them-cone through
will stay the
outside nonadiabatic region.
after passing through the Fortunately,
nonadiabatic region. Fortunately, there is in this case another invariant: the
there canonical
n the motion. If a slow change isisinmade
thisangular
case
in theanother
system,invariant:
momentum sop that thethe canonical
motion is angular momentum pθ = mrvθ
θ ¼ mrvθ � erAθ. This ensures that there will be
e periodic, the constant of theamotion does not change and indefinitely
is then called anthey make a collision.
– erAθ. This ensures that there will be a population of particles trapped indefinitely
population of particles trapped until
ic invariant. By slow
þ here we mean slow compared with the period of
until they make a collision.
so that the integral pdq is well defined even though it is strictly no longer
ral over a closed path. Adiabatic invariants play an important role in plasma
; they allow us to obtain simple answers in many instances involving
cated motions. There are three adiabatic invariants, each corresponding to
ent type of periodic motion.

The First Adiabatic Invariant, μ

2 Single-Particle Motions
e already met the quantity

The Second Adiabatic

μ 2.14
¼ mvInvariant,
2
Jin a cusped magnetic field
⊥ =2Bconfinement
Fig. Plasma
Fig. 4.14. Plasma confinement in a cusped magnetic field
ve proved its invariance in spatially and temporally varying B fields. The
c amotion
particle Ttrapped
he Sof
involved, between
econd
course, A twoLarmor Invariant
magnetic
is diabatic
the If we, It
mirrors:
gyration. Jtakebounces
p to be between
therefore
momentumhas mv⊥a rperiodic
þand dq motion
to be at
the the “bounce
coordinate dθ, frequency.”
the action A constant of
integral
s Consider a particle trapped between two magnetic mirrors: It bounces between them and
on is given by mvk ds, where ds is an element of path length (of the
þ therefore
þ has a periodic motion at 2the “bounce frequency.” A constant of this motion is given
mv m
p dqby
center) along mv⊥||ds,
¼ a mv
fieldr Lline. 2πrds
dθwhere
¼ However,
L mv 2π ⊥the
is⊥an¼ element
since of4π
¼ path length
guiding (of
μ center the guiding
drifts
ð2:75Þ acrosscenter) along a field line.
ωc jqj
s, the motion is not exactly periodic, and the constant of the motion
However, since the guiding center drifts across field lines, the motion is not exactly periodic,
isana constant
adiabaticof invariant.
the motion as This
longisascalled
q/m is the longitudinal
not changed. We have proved J and is
invariant
and the constant of the motion becomes an adiabatic invariant. This is called the longitudinal
ariance of μ onlybetween
or a half-cycle with the the
implicit assumption
two turning ω/ωc(Fig.
points where ω is a
� 1, 2.15):
invariant
cy characterizing J and
the rate is defined
of change of Bfor
asaseen
half-cycle betweenAthe
by the particle. two turning points (Fig. 4.15):
proof
however, that μ is invariant even when ð b ω � ωc. In theorists’ language, μ is
expansionJin¼ω/ωc.”
nt “to all orders in an vjjWhat ...(4.108)
ds this means in practice is that ð2:76Þ
ns much more nearly constant than Ba does during one period of gyration.

prove that J is invariant in a static, nonuniform B field; the result is also Self-Instructional Material 103
slowly time-varying B field.
e embarking on this somewhat lengthy proof, let us consider an example of
of problem in which a theorem on the invariance of J would be useful. As
already seen, the earth’s magnetic field mirror-traps charged particles,
owly drift in longitude around the earth (Problem 2.8; see Fig. 2.16). If the
field were perfectly symmetric, the particle would eventually drift back to
 guiding center) along a field line.
44 However, since the guiding center drifts across
2 Single-Particle Motions
field lines, the motion is not exactly periodic, and the constant of the motion
becomes an adiabatic invariant. 2.8.2
This isThe Second
called the Adiabatic Invariant,
longitudinal J J and is
invariant
defined for a half-cycle between the two turning points (Fig. 2.15):
Consider a particle trapped between two magnetic mirrors: It bounces between
them and ðtherefore has a periodic
þ motion at the “bounce frequency.” A constant of
b
¼ isvjjgiven
thisJmotion ds by mvk ds, where ds is an element ð2:76Þ
of path length (of the
a
guiding center) along a field line. However, since the guiding center drifts across
Electrodynamics and We shallfield
prove the Jmotion
lines,that is invariant in a static,
is not exactly nonuniform
periodic, B field;
and the constant themotion
of the result is also true
Plasma Physics
We shall prove thatfor slowly time-varying B field.
J isa invariant
becomes
in a an adiabatic
static, invariant. B
nonuniform This is called
field; the the longitudinal
result is also invariant J and is
defined for a half-cycle between the two turning points (Fig. 2.15):
true for a slowly time-varying B field.
Before embarking on this somewhat lengthy ðb proof, let us consider an example of the
Before embarking on this somewhat lengthy proof, let us consider an example of
of problemtype of problem in which
on theainvariance
theorem on ofJthe invariance
J¼would of J As
vjj ds be useful. would be useful. ð2:76Þ As we have
NOTES
the type in which a theorem a
we have already seen,already
the seen,
earth’sthemagnetic
earth’s magnetic field mirror-traps
field mirror-traps chargedcharged particles, particles, which slowly drift
which slowly drift ininlongitude around
We the
shall earth
prove that (Problem
J is invariant 2.8;
in a see
longitude around the earth. If the magnetic field were perfectlyFig.
static, 2.16).
nonuniform If
B the
field; thesymmetric,
result is also the particle
true for a slowly
magnetic field were perfectly symmetric, time-varying
the particle wouldB field.
eventually drift back to
would eventually drift
Before back toonthe
embarking thissame linelengthy
somewhat of force. However,
proof, theanactual
let us consider examplefield
of is distorted
the same line of force. However,thethe typeactual fieldiniswhich
of problem distorted by on
a theorem such effects asof the
the invariance J would be useful. As
by such
solar wind. In that case, willeffects as the
a particle
we have ever
solarseen,
alreadycome
wind.back In to
thatthe
the earth’s
case,
same
magnetic
willline
field
a mirror-traps
particle
of force? ever come back to the same
charged particles,
which slowlyanddrift
is inequal
longitude 2
1around the earth (Problem 2.8; see Fig. 2.16). 1 If 2the
Since the particle’s line
energy is conserved
of force? Since field
the particle’s to 2 mv⊥
energy isat the turning
conserved andpoint,
iseventually mv toat the turning
equal todrift back
the invariance of μ indicates that
magnetic
jBj
were
remains
perfectly
the
symmetric,
same at
the particle would
the turning point. 2
the same line of force. However, the actual field is distorted by such effects as the
point, the invariance of μ indicates that |B| remains the same at the turning point.
solar wind. In that case, will a particle ever come back to the same line of force?
Since the particle’s energy is conserved and is equal to 12 mv2⊥ at the turning point,
Fig. 2.15 A particle
the invariance of μ indicates that jBj remains the same at the turning point.
bouncing between turning
points a and b in a magnetic
Fig. 2.15 A particle
field
bouncing between turning
points a and b in a magnetic
field

Fig. 4.15. A particle bouncing between turning points a and b in a magnetic field

2.8 Adiabatic Invariants Fig.Fig.4.16. Motion of a charged particle in the earth’s magnetic field
2.16 Motion of a charged particle in the earth’s magnetic field 45

Fig. 2.16 Motion of a charged particle in the earth’s magnetic field

Fig. 2.17 Proof of the
invariance of J

Fig. 4.17. Proof of the invariance of J

However, upon drifting back to the same longitude, a particle may find itself on
another line of force However,
at a different altitude.
upon This
drifting cannot
back happen
to the J is conserved.
sameiflongitude, J
a particle may find itself on another
determines the length of the line of force between turning points, and no two lines
have the same line
lengthofbetween
force atpoints
a different altitude.
with the same jBj. This cannot happen
Consequently, if J is conserved. J determines the
the particle
length
returns to the same lineofofthe lineeven
force of force between
in a slightly turning points,
asymmetric field. and no two lines have the same length
To prove thebetween
invariance of J, we first consider the invariance
points with the same |B|. Consequently, kδs, particle
of vthe where δsreturns
is to the same line of force
a segment of the path along B (Fig. 2.17). Because of guiding center drifts, a
even
particle on s will findin a slightly
itself asymmetric
on another field.
line of force δs0 after a time Δt. The length of
0
To planes
δs is defined by passing prove perpendicular
the invariance to B J, we first
ofthrough consider
the end the
points of δs.invariance
The of v||δs, where δs is a
length of δs is obviously proportional to the radius of curvature:
segment of the path along B (Fig. 4.17). Because of guiding center drifts, a particle on s
δs δsline of force δs' after a time Δt. The length of δs' is defined by
will find itself on another 0

¼ 0
Rc Rc
104 Self-Instructional Material
so that
0 0
δs � δs Rc � Rc
¼ ð2:77Þ
Δtδs ΔtRc

The “radial” component of vgc is just

minesthe
mines returns
the length
length to the of thesame line
line line of
of forceof
force force between
between even turning inturning
a slightly points,
points, asymmetric
and and nono twotwo field.
lineslines the particle
the length have
of the the same
line of length
force between
between points
turning with points, the same
and jBj.
no Consequently,
two lines
thesame To
same length prove
length the
between invariance
points with of J, we first consider
jBj. the invariance of vkδs, where δs is
he
me length returns
between
between
to points
the same pointsline
with
with
the ofthe thesame
force
same
sameeven
jBj.
jBj.inConsequently,
aConsequently,
Consequently, slightly asymmetric the
thethe particle
particle
particle
field.
ns
s totothe a segment
the same
same To of
lineprove the
of force
force path even along
evenininaaslightly
the invariance B (Fig.
J, weasymmetric
slightly
of 2.17).
asymmetric
first consider Because field.field.
the invariance ofcenter
of guiding drifts,δsais
vkδs, where
he same
proveparticle line of force
on s willof even in a slightly asymmetric field. δsof 0
δs, δsΔt.
prove the invariance
the invariance
a segment ofoffind
J,
J,theweweitself firston
first
path another
consider
consider
along B the line
the
(Fig. of
invariance
invariance
2.17). forceBecause of vkafter
vkδs, ofawhere
where time
guiding is The length
δs center
is drifts,of a
ementthe invariance
δs
of0
is
the defined
path J, we
ofalong
by passing
B first (Fig. consider
planes 2.17). the
perpendicular
Becauseinvariance of to of
B
guiding vkδs,
through center where the δs ispoints
end
drifts, a of δs. Theof
ment of theparticle path along on s will B find (Fig.itself 2.17). on another Because lineofofguiding force δs center 0
after a time drifts,Δt.a The length
of the path
swill along
0 δs B (Fig. 2.17). Because δs of
0 guiding center
Δt. drifts, a
eleon
onslength
willδs find
of
find itself
isitself
defined on
is obviously
onby another
another
passing line
proportional
line ofofforce
planes force to after
perpendicular the
0
0 δs after ato
a time
radius time Bof The
curvature:
Δt.
through The length
thelength
end ofpoints
of of δs. The
sdefined
will find by itself
passing on another
planes line
perpendicular
δs is obviously of force to δs
B after
through a time
the endΔt. The
points length
of δs. of
The
efined by passing length ofplanes perpendicular proportional to B through to the theradius end of
pointscurvature:of δs. The
h ofbyδspassing
ed planesproportional
perpendicular to B through the
δsofofcurvature:
δsthe
0
end points of δs. The
of δs isis obviously
obviously
passing planes proportional perpendicular
to the
to theradius to
radiusB through ¼ curvature: end points of δs. The length of δs is obviously Single-Particle Motions
s is obviously proportional to the radius of curvature:
Rc δs Rc δs
0 0

proportional to the radius δs of δscurvature:

0
0 ¼ 0
δs ¼0 δs 0
Rc Rc
so that δs Rcδs¼Rc 0
¼Rc 0 R
so that Rc Rc c NOTES
at 0
δs � 0δs Rc �0 Rc
0

so that δs �¼ δs ΔtR R � Rc ð2:77Þ

δs 0 � δs Rc 0Δtδs ¼ cc
0 0
� Rc ð2:77Þ
δsΔtδs � δs¼0 RΔtR � Δtδs
R ΔtRc ð2:77Þ
c c c
component  ...(4.109)
0
The “radial” δs � δs ofRvc¼ �isRjust c ð2:77Þ
The “radial”Δtδs Δtδs
component ΔtR ¼ gc ΔtR
of vgc is cjust ð2:77Þ
radial” component of vgc is just c
The “radial” component of vRgcc is just 0
Rc �0 Rc
adial” component of vgc is just
” component of vgc is just R 0vgc � ¼
R R � Rc ð2:78Þ
Rc � vRgc Rc c� c ¼ Δtc ð2:78Þ
vgc �
c
¼ 0 ...(4.110)
Rc Δt ð2:78Þ
R
Rc c 0 R cΔt � R c
From Eqs. (2.24) and c � Rc¼we
vRgc(2.26), � Rhave c ð2:78Þ
From From Eqs. v(2.24) gc � (4.102)
Eqs. and R
¼ (2.26),
c and (4.103), Δt
we havewe have ð2:78Þ
Eqs. (2.24) and (2.26), we Rhave c Δt
2
Eqs. (2.24) and (2.26), we have 1 B �B∇B � ∇B
mvmv k R 2c � B
v ¼ v ∇B þ v ¼ � v ⊥ 1r 2 þ k Rc � B ...(4.111) ð2:79Þ
R ∇B
gc vgc ¼1 v∇B þBv� R ¼2 � mv L
(2.24) and (2.26), we have v⊥ rkLR c �2B þq ð2:79Þ
2 2 2
vgc ¼ v∇B þ vR ¼ � v⊥ r L þ 2 B B q R B 2 2
Rc B
ð2:79Þ
c
2 2 2
2
1 BB� ∇B 2 qmvk RRc cB� B
2
v gc ¼ v ∇B
Theterm
þ
last no
v R
term
¼ �
nohas
v B
⊥ r�
no component
L ∇B 2 mv Rþk .RUsing
calong
�Rc. B Using Eqs.
ð2:79Þ
(4.110) and we
(4.111),
canwe can
vThe last
The term has component along R2cEqs. (2.78) and and(2.79), wecan
last has 1 2component Bþ along Rqcc. Using B2 Eqs. (2.78) (2.79),
gc ¼ v∇B þ vR ¼ � v⊥ r L 2 2 2 and (2.79), we can
ð2:79Þ
ast term write has Eq.no component
(2.77)
write Eq. (2.77) as
(4.109)asas 2 along R c .
B Using Eqs.q (2.78)
R c B
Eq. (2.77)46 as
st term has no component along Rc. Using Eqs. (2.78) 2 2
and (2.79),2 we Single-Particle
can Motions
rm has 46 no component along 1 d R1 d
. Using R
Eqs.c R (2.78)
1 m v m andv (2.79), 2 we RSingle-Particle
cR can Motions
Eq. (2.77) as 1 d c 1 ⊥ ⊥
ðB � ∇BÞ � ....(4.112)
c
3 c 3 ðB � ∇BÞ �2 2
c
Rcδs ¼1δsm v¼ gc v2⊥�vgc2� ¼2 2¼ 2 R ð2:80Þ
ð2:80Þ
2.77) as δs ¼ vδs � dt δs 1dt
¼ 2 1R
ð B �R 2 ∇B qÞ1 B
� q B
2 R R
ð2:80Þ
jj þ μB 2� W
gcW �2 c c c c
δs dt 1 Rc 22 mv jj þ B 222 mv⊥1 ¼ 22 mv jj þ W ⊥ Motions ð2:81Þ
2 1q 3 2
46 1 d Wthe�rateR mv c jj þ1 mmv v⊥⊥ ¼ mvjj þRμB cR
c�
Single-Particle
jj þ W ⊥We
Wparticle. ð2:81Þ
dthe This δsofis ¼change
vR 2 � 12ofmof change
¼δsvofasδsseen
22 of δs
ðseen
Bby as
� the
2 ∇Bseen
R by2
Þc � particle. theSingle-Particle must
Motions
ð2:80Þ now get the
of rate of
This 461isThis δs is the
rate
dt rate ofgcc change
2⊥ q as
3 by the
particle. 2 We We must2must now now get
get
Single-Particle the
the rateof
rate
Motions
change δs ¼
vvk of v
ofvvgc �
asas ¼ R ð B B � ∇B Þ � R ð2:80Þ
R1seen by 2by qthe 3particle. The parallel and perpendicular
s the rate of change δs seen c by the particle. We must cnow get the rate of energies areare
defined by
changeδsThus
change
vdtof can
ofas
kbe W
be
�as
kkseen
written
2seen
cmv
2by
theþ the
1particle.
Bmv particle.
2
¼
1The
mv The R2cparallel
2parallel
þ μB � and
W and perpendicular
perpendicular
þ W energies
energies
ð2:81Þ are
ge of vThus as seen
k can by the
1 written
particle. 1
2þ mv2 2¼ mv2 þjj The parallel
1 ⊥ 2 and perpendicular
jj jj energies ⊥ are
k
defined W �by mv2 as
defined
by 1 jj 2 μB1We �W 2 jj þ W ð2:81Þ
byrate of change 2of δsjjW
⊥
edthe �2 1 mv
seen by2 the
⊥
þ2vjjparticle.
mv½⊥ð2=m
¼ ¼ Þmv ðWjjmust �þμB μBnow Þ�� 1=2W get the rate
jj þ W ⊥
of ð2:81Þ
ð2:82Þ
jj
erate of
vk change
ofThus asvkseen can be ofby δs
written
theas seen
particle. by 2 the
Thev jj
particle.
¼ 2
parallel
½ ð 2=m We
Þ and
ð W 2
must
� μB
perpendicularnow
Þ �1=2 get the rate
energies of...(4.113)
are ð2:82Þ
dvuskbyvask can
seenbebywritten
HerevkW
the particle. The parallel and perpendicular energies are
Thusand v|μwritten
can
are be written and only B varies.
constant, Therefore,
Thus can be 1=2
Here W and μ are constant,vjjand ¼ ½only ð2=mBÞðvaries. W� μB Therefore,
Þ � ð2:82Þ
1=2
vjj ¼ ½ð2=m Þ ð W � μB _Þ � ...(4.114) _ _ ð2:82Þ
v_ jj vjj ¼1 ½ð2=m μB ÞðW � μB 1 μÞB � 1=2 μB ð2:82Þ
Here W and μHere are W constant, v_ jj and only ¼
1 �μBB_ varies. Therefore, ¼
1 μ� B_ 2 ¼μB� _ ð2:83Þ
μB� B varies.
re W and μ are constant,and andμvonly are¼vconstant, and
�
jj 2 W �¼only ¼ W� jj Therefore, mvk 2
ð2:83Þ
B varies.
2 W � μB Therefore, 2 W jj mvk 2
Here W and μ are constant, jj and only B varies. Therefore,
v_ jj 1 μ B _ 1 μ B_ μ B _
Since B was v_ assumed ¼� μ B_static, B˙1isμ¼B_not � zero μ ¼B _ only
� because of the guiding ð2:83Þ center
Sincemotion:B was assumed jj 1
¼ �vjj static, v_ jj 2 W B˙¼ �
1 is� μB μB_ zero
not ¼2 W �only jj 1 μB mv2k ...(4.115)
_because μ B_ the ð2:83Þ
of guiding center
motion: v jj 2 W �¼ μB � 2 W jj ¼ �mv2 ¼ �
k ð2:83Þ
vjj 2 W � μB 2W mv2k of the guiding center motion:
Since B was assumed static, B˙
˙ is not zero only because is not zero jjonly because
Since B was assumed static, BdB dr mv2 Rc of
2 ofjj the � Bthe guiding center
B was assumed static, B˙ B_dB
nce motion: is ¼not dr zero
� ¼only
˙dtvis not v gc � ∇B¼
because mv jj R c � B guiding :∇B center ð2:84Þ
tion: Since B was assumedB _ ¼ static, � dr ¼ B gc � ∇B¼ zero only q because
R 2
c B
:∇B 2 of the guiding center
...(4.116) ð2:84Þ
motion: dr dt q R2c B2
2
dB dr mvjj Rc � B
Now we have
Now wedB B_ have
¼dr � ¼ vgc �mv ∇B¼ 2
jj R cq � B 2 2 :∇B ð2:84Þ
Now we have B_ ¼ � _dr ¼ vdB gc � ∇B¼
dt dr mv R
:∇Bc
jj BRc � B ð2:84Þ
dr v_dtB ¼ μ ðR � �¼BvÞqgc� ∇B � ∇B¼R2c B2 m v2 2ðB2 �:∇B ∇BÞ � Rc ð2:84Þ
jj dr dt
c 1q Rc B
⊥
Now we have v_ ¼
μ ð �R � B Þ � ∇B ¼ m � v 2
ð B � ∇B Þ � R ...(4.117)ð2:85Þ
jj
¼v� jj
c
q R2c B2 ¼ �1 2⊥ q B 2 2R2c B2c ð2:85Þ
w we have v q Rc B2 2 2 q B Rc B
Now we have jj
Thev_ fractional v_ jj μ ð R � B
c in v δs is Þ � ∇B 1 m v 2
⊥ ð B � ∇B Þ � Rc
μ ¼Rchange
ð � � B Þ � ∇B k m¼v� 2
ð B � ∇B Þ � R ð2:85Þ
The fractional jj
¼ �vchange
c
jj v_ jj qin vμ kð Rδs
R
2
c Bis¼
c
2
� �
B Þ
1
� ∇B ⊥2 q B
1 m v 2 R B
ð B
2
c
c
�
2
∇B Þ � R ð2:85Þ
c
2 ⊥
vjj q R¼2 B �2 1R2 B d 2� q B�¼ �12Rdδs
2
cB
2
1 dv ð2:85Þ Self-Instructional Material 105
vjj c q � c �vjj δs 1 ¼ q B þ dv Rjj2c B2 ð2:86Þ
The fractional change in vk δs isvjj δsvjjdtδs ¼ 1 d dδs 1 jj
δsþdt vjj dt ð2:86Þ
e fractional change in vk δs is vjj δs dt δs dt vjj dt
The fractional change in vk �δs is �
From Eqs. (2.80) and 1 d see1that dδsthese 1 dvjj
1 d � (2.85), � vjj δs we
1 dδs¼ 1 dv þjj two terms cancel, so that ð2:86Þ
From Eqs. (2.80) and (2.85), vjjvδs dtwe see thatδs
jj δs 1 ¼ d � þ�these dt1 dδs two vjj termsdt1 dvcancel, jj
soð2:86Þ
that
vjj δs dt δs vdt jj δs ¼ dt þ
vjj constant ð2:86Þ
vjj δs dt vjj δs ¼δs dt vjj dt ð2:87Þ
From Eqs. (2.80) and (2.85), we see jjthat these two terms cancel, so that v δs ¼ constant ð2:87Þ
 c

NowNow
weNow
have
we we
have
have

R� c∇B v2m�vð∇B
v_ jj v_ jj μv_ðRcμ� 2
¼ � ¼jj�¼ � ðRμBcðÞ� B�Þ �B
¼∇B 1 m v1⊥ mðB
� ∇B
Þ� 1⊥
2 �Þ ∇B
B ðB� �
RcÞ∇B
� RÞ c� Rc ð2:85Þ
2 2 ¼ �¼ �
vjj vjj qv q RcqB R B 2 2 q B2 q 2Bq RBc B R B 2 2
2 2 2
⊥
2 2 2 2
ð2:85Þ
ð2:85Þ
jj c cR B c R B c

The fractional
TheThe change
fractional in
change
fractional change δsvis
vk in k δs
in vk isδs is
Electrodynamics and The fractional change in v||δs is
Plasma Physics 1 d1� 1d ��d � �1 dδs dvjj1 dvjjdv
v δs ¼ δs 11dδs
� 1þdδs 1 jj ð2:86Þ
vjj δs vdtδsjjdt vjj δsvδs ¼ ¼
jj dtδs dt
v þdt
v þ dt ð2:86Þ
...(4.118)
ð2:86Þ
jj vjj δs dt δs dt jj vjj dt
jj

NOTES
From Eqs.
From (2.80)
Eqs.
From and
(2.80)
Eqs. From
(2.85),
and
(2.80) Eqs.
we
(2.85),
and (4.112)
see
we
(2.85),that andthat
these
see see
we that (4.117),
two
these twowe
terms
these see that
cancel,
terms
two these
so
cancel,
terms sotwo
that
cancel, soterms
thatthat cancel, so that

vjj δs v¼jj δs
constant
v¼
δsconstant
¼ constant ð2:87Þ
...(4.119) ð2:87Þ
ð2:87Þ
jj

This This
is not This isasnotsaying
exactlythattheJsame that J is constant,
as sayinghowever. however. In taking the integral
is exactly
This not
is not the
exactly same
exactly the the
same same as saying
as saying thatisthat
constant,
J isJconstant,
is constant, In taking
however.
however. Inthe
In taking the the
taking
integral of vkδs
integral of vbetween
integral v||δsbetween
of δs
kδsvkbetween
of between
the turning
the the thepoints,
turning turning
turning points,
itpoints,
points, may beititthat
it may may
be the
may beturning
that
be that thepoints
the the
that turningturning points
onpoints
points
turning
0
δson δson0 δs
on δs'0 do not coincide
do not
do coincide
not with
coincide
do not coincide the
with thewith
with intersections
intersections
the intersections of
the intersections theof perpendicular
of the perpendicular
the perpendicular
of the perpendicular planes (Fig.
planes (Fig. 4.17).
planes 2.17).
planesHowever,
(Fig. 2.17).any error in J arising
(Fig. 2.17).
However,
However,any error
any
However, from in
error J
any error arising
in J
in from
arising such
from
J arising from a
such discrepancy
a discrepancy
such a discrepancyis negligible
is because
negligible
isthe
negligible because
becausev is nearly zero.
near near
the near
turning
the the points,
turning vsuch
points,
turning
a discrepancy
k is vnearly
points,k is iszero.
vknearly zero.
nearly
is negligible
Consequently,
Consequently,
zero.
because
we
Consequently, have
we we
near
proved
have
turning points,
proved
have proved
||
Consequently, we have proved
ðb ðb ð
b
J ¼ J ¼vJjj ds ¼ v¼jj dsvconstant
¼ constant ...(4.120) ð2:88Þ ð2:88Þ
2.8 AdiabaticaInvariants jj ds ¼ constant ð2:88Þ 47
a a

An example
An An example Anthe
the
from
of example
of theofviolation
example violation
each of
of the
violation violation
J invariance
of other Jof
invariance
nearJ invariance
the is Jgiven
of
is given
bounce invariance
by
is a plasma isaheating
given
by abyplasma
frequency.
given byscheme
a plasma
heating
Those
plasma scheme
particles
heating heating
that
scheme havescheme called
the right
transit-time
calledcalled magnetic
transit-time
transit-time pumping.
magnetic
transit-time
bounce magnetic
magnetic Suppose
pumping.
frequency pumping.
willSuppose
pumping. an
always oscillating
Suppose an current
an oscillating
see an
an approaching is
oscillating applied
currentcurrent to
is
is applied
mirror and applied
to to the gain
totherefore
will coilsvof a
called Suppose oscillating current is applied k.
the coils of coils
the the a mirror
coils system
mirror so
J issystem
of aofmirror system that
notsystem
a mirror the
so that
so that
conserved mirrors
the
so that this alternately
in mirrors
the casealternately
mirrors
the mirrorsbecause approach
alternately approach
the and
approach
alternately change withdraw
and
approachand
of Bwithdraw
withdraw
occurs
and from
on
withdraw eachscale
a time othernot
near
the bounce frequency. Those particles that have the right bounce frequency will always see
long compared with the bounce time.
an approaching mirror and will therefore gain v||. J is not conserved in this case because the
change of B occurs on a time scale not long compared with the bounce time.

The2.8.3
ThirdThe Third Adiabatic
Adiabatic InvariantInvariant,
,Ф Ф
Referring again to Fig. 4.16, we see that the slow drift of a guiding center around the earth
Referring again to Fig. 2.16, we see that the slow drift of a guiding center around the
constitutes a third type
earth constitutes of periodic
a third type ofmotion. Themotion.
periodic adiabatic invariant
The adiabatic connected
invariantwith this turns
connected
out with
to be this
the total
turnsmagnetic
out to befluxtheФtotal
enclosed by the
magnetic drift
flux Фsurface.
enclosed It is
byalmost obvious
the drift that,
surface. is B
It as
varies, the particle
almost obviouswillthat,stay
as Bonvaries,
a surface
thesuch that will
particle the total
stay number
on a surfaceof lines of that
such forcetheenclosed
total
remains constant. This invariant, Ф, has few applications because most fluctuationsfew
number of lines of force enclosed remains constant. This invariant, Ф, has of B
applications because most fluctuations of B occur on a time scale
occur on a time scale short compared with the drift period. As an example of the violation short compared
with the drift period. As an example of the violation of Ф invariance, we can cite
of Ф invariance, we can cite some recent work on the excitation of hydromagnetic waves
some recent work on the excitation of hydromagnetic waves in the ionosphere.
in the ionosphere.
These waves haveThese waves
a long havecomparable
period a long periodtocomparable
the drift timeto of
theadrift timearound
particle of a particle
the
around
earth.theThe
earth. The particles
particles can therefore
can therefore encounter
encounter the wave theinwave in thephase
the same sameeachphasetime
each
timearound.
around.IfIfthe
thephase
phase is is right,
right, the
the wave
wavecan
canbebeexcited
excitedbybythetheconversion
conversion of of
particle drift
particle
energy
drifttoenergy
wave energy.
to wave energy.
Problems
Problems
2.13. Derive the result of Problem 2.12b directly by using the invariance of J.
4.13. Derive the result of Problem 4.34b directly by using the invariance of J.
ð
(a) Let v|ds
(a) Let vk ds’v|L
vk and differentiate
L and with
differentiate respect
with to time
respect to time
(b) From this, get an expression for T in terms of dL/dt. Set dL/dt ¼ �2vm to
(b) From this, get an expression for T in terms of dL/dt. Set dL/dt = –2vm to obtain
obtain the answer.
the answer.
2.14. In plasma heating by adiabatic compressio the invariance of μ requires that
KT⊥ increase as B increases. The magnetic field, however, cannot accelerate
106 Self-Instructional Material
particles because the Lorentz force qv � B is always perpendicular to the
velocity. How do the particles gain energy?
2.15. The polarization drift vp can also be derived from energy conservation. If E is
oscillating, the E � B drift also oscillates; and there is an energy 12mv2E
associated with the guiding center motion. Since energy can be gained from
an E field only by motion along E, there must be a drift vp in the E direction.
1 2
2.13.
2.13.Derive
Derivethetheresult
resultofofProblem
Problem2.12b
2.12bdirectly
directlybybyusing
usingthe invarianceofofJ.J.
theinvariance
ðð
(a) Let vkvds
(a) Let k ds’’vkvLk Land
anddifferentiate
differentiatewith
withrespect
respecttototime
time
(b)
(b) From
Fromthis,
this,get
getananexpression forTTininterms
expressionfor termsofofdL/dt.
dL/dt.Set dL/dt¼¼�2v
SetdL/dt �2v toto
mm
obtain
obtainthe
theanswer.
answer.
4.14. In plasma heating by adiabatic compressio the invariance of μ requires that KT 
Single-Particle Motions
2.14.
2.14.InInplasma
plasmaheatingheatingbybyadiabatic
adiabaticcompressio
compressiothe invarianceofofμ μrequires
theinvariance requiresthat that
increase as B increases. The magnetic field, however, cannot accelerate particles
KTKT increaseasasBBincreases.
⊥⊥increase increases.The Themagnetic
magneticfield,
field,however,
however,cannot cannotaccelerate
accelerate
because the Lorentz force qv × B is always perpendicular to the velocity. How
particles the Lorentz force qv � B
particles because the Lorentz force qv � B is always perpendiculartotothe
because is always perpendicular the
velocity. do
How the do
particles
the gain energy?
particles gain energy?
velocity. How do the particles gain energy? NOTES
2.15.
2.15.The
The 4.15. The polarization
polarization
polarization drift drift
driftvpvpcan valso
canalsop can
bebe also be derived
derived
derived from from
fromenergy
energyenergy conservation.
conservation.
conservation. IfIfEIf
EisEis
oscillating, is oscillating,
theEE��Bthe
the E
Bdrift ×B driftoscillates;
also also oscillates;
andand
and there
there isisisanan energy
energy 2mv
anenergy 1 22
oscillating, drift also oscillates; there 2mv
1
EE
associated
associated associated
with
withthe with
the the guiding
guiding
guiding center
centercenter
motion.motion.
motion. Since
Since
Since energycan
energy
energy can
canbe be gained
begained
gained from
from
froman
ananEEfield Eonly
field field
onlybyonly by motion
bymotion
motion along
along E,E,E,
along there
there
there mustbe
must
must be driftvppvpin
beaaadrift
drift ininthe
the EEdirection.
the Edirection.
direction.By
22
ByByequating equating
equating the the
therate rate
rate ofofof changeofof
change
change of2 mv
1 1
2 mv
with
E Ewith
withthetherate
rate ofofof
rate energy
energy
energygaingain
gain vp.E,
fromfrom
from
vpv·pE,
· E,findfind
find thetherequired
the required
requiredvaluevalue
value vpv. pv.p.
ofofof
2.16. A hydrogen
2.16. A 4.16.
hydrogen plasma
plasma
A hydrogen
is heated
is heated
plasma
bybyapplying
is heated byapplying a radiofrequency
applyingaa radiofrequency
radiofrequency9 9wave
wave
wavewithwith
withE
EEperpendicular
perpendicular to toB B and
and with
with an an angular
angular frequency
frequency ω 9ω¼ ¼ 1010 rad/s.
rad/s. The
The
perpendicular to B and with an angular frequency ω = 10 rad/s. The confining
confining
confiningmagneticmagneticfield fieldisis1 1T.T.IsIsthe themotion
motionofof(a) (a)the theelectrons
electronsand and
magnetic field is 1 T. Is the motion of (a) the electrons and (b) the ions in response
(b)
(b)thetheions
ionsininresponse
responsetotothis thiswave
waveadiabatic?
adiabatic?
to this wave adiabatic?
48 A 1-keV proton with v = 0 in a uniform magnetic 2field
4.17. B = 0.1 TMotions
Single-Particle is accelerated
||
as B is slowly increased to 1 T. It then makes an elastic collision with a heavy
2.17. A 1-keV proton with vk ¼ 0 in a uniform magnetic field B ¼ 0.1 T is accel-
particle and
erated as B changes
is slowly direction so1that
increased to = vmakes
T. Itvthen ||. The B-field is collision
an elastic then slowly
withdecreased
a
back to 0.1
heavy T. What
particle and is the proton’s
changes energy
direction now?
so that v⊥ ¼ vk The B-field is then
slowly decreased back to 0.1 T. What is the proton’s energy now?
4.18.
2.18.AA collisionless
collisionlesshydrogen
hydrogenplasma
plasmaisisconfined
confinedinina atorus
torusinin
which external
which externalwindings
provide
windingsa magnetic field B lying
provide a magnetic field almost
B lying entirely in the in
almost entirely  direction. The plasma
the ϕ direction
(Fig. P2.18). The plasma is initially Maxwellian at KT ¼ 1 keV. At
is initially Maxwellian at KT = 1 keV. At t = 0, B is gradually increased t ¼ 0, B is from 1
gradually increased from 1 T to 3 T in 100 μs, and the plasma is compressed.
T to 3 T in 100 μs, and the plasma is compressed.
(a) Show that the magnetic moment μ remains invariant for both ions and
(a) Showelectrons.
that the magnetic moment μ remains invariant for both ions and electrons.
(b) Calculate the temperatures T and T after compression.
(b) Calculate the temperatures T ⊥and T|| kafter compression.

Fig. P2.18 Fig. 4.18

4.19.
2.19.AAuniform
uniformplasma
plasma is createdininaatoroidal
is created toroidal chamber
chamber with
with squaresquare
crosscross section, as
section,
as shown. The magnetic field is provided by a current I along the axis
shown. The magnetic field is provided by a current I along the axis of symmetry. of
symmetry. The dimensions are a ¼ 1 cm, R ¼ 10 cm. The plasma is Maxwel-
The
liandimensions
at KT ¼ 100are = 1has
eV and cm,density
R = 10n cm.
¼ 10The
19 plasma
m�3 . ThereisisMaxwellian at KT = 100
no electric field.
19 –3
eV and has density n = 10 m . There is no electric field.

Self-Instructional Material 107

 Fig. P2.18

2.19. A uniform plasma is created in a toroidal chamber with square cross section,
as shown. The magnetic field is provided by a current I along the axis of
symmetry. The dimensions are a ¼ 1 cm, R ¼ 10 cm. The plasma is Maxwel-
lian at KT ¼ 100 eV and has density n ¼ 1019 m�3. There is no electric field.

Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics

NOTES

2.8 Adiabatic Invariants 49

Fig. P2.19 Fig. 4.19
(a) (a)
Draw typical
Draw orbitsorbits
typical for ions
forand electrons
ions with v|| = with
and electrons 0 drifting
vk ¼in
0 the nonuniform
drifting in the
B field.
nonuniform B field.
(b) (b) Calculate
Calculate the rate
the rate of charge
of charge accumulation
accumulation (in coulombs
(in coulombs per per second)
second) on
on the
the entire top plate of the chamber due to the combined
entire top plate of the chamber due to the combined vB and vR ∇B v and vR
drifts. The
drifts.field
magnetic The atmagnetic field
the center at the
of the centerisof1 the
chamber chamber
T, and is 1make
you may T, and you
a large
may make a large aspect ratio (R � a) approximation
aspect ratio (R >> a) approximation where necessary. where necessary.
4.20.
2.20.Suppose
Suppose thethe
magnetic
magnetic field along
field the the
along axisaxis
of aof
magnetic
a magneticmirror is given
mirror by Bzby
is given =
2 2
B 2
B0(lz+ α z0 ).
¼ B 2
(l + α z ).
(a)(a) IfIfan electronatatzz=¼00has
anelectron hasaavelocity
velocitygiven
given by
by v2 ¼ 3v2jj ¼ 1:5v2⊥ ,, at at what
what
value of z is the electron reflected?
value of z is the electron reflected?
(b)(b) Write
Write thethe
equation of motion
equation of motionof theofguiding centercenter
the guiding for the for
direction parallel
the direction
toparallel
the field. to the field.
(c) Show that the the
(c) Show that motion
motion is sinusoidal,
is sinusoidal, andand calculate
calculate its frequency.
its frequency.
(d) Calculate the longitudinal invariant J corresponding to this motion.
(d) Calculate the longitudinal invariant J corresponding to this motion.
4.21. AnAn
2.21. infinite
infinite straight
straight wirewire carries
carries a constant
a constant I in theI+z
currentcurrent indirection.
the +z direction.
At t = 0,
t ¼
an electron of small gyroradius is at z = 0 and r = r0 with v0 = vand
At 0, an electron of small gyroradius is at z ¼ 0 . ( ¼ r0|| refer
r and with
||0
to vthe ¼ vk0· (⊥relative
⊥0 direction and k refer
to thetomagnetic
the direction relative to the magnetic field.)
field.)
(a)(a) Calculate
Calculatethethe magnitude
magnitude andand
direction of the
direction of resulting guiding
the resulting center
guiding drift
center
velocity.
drift velocity.
(b)(b) Suppose
Supposethat thatthe
thecurrent
currentincreases
increasesslowly
slowlyinin time
time inin such
such aa wayway that
that aa
constant electric field in the �z direction is induced. Indicate on a
constant electric field in the ±z direction is induced. Indicate on a diagram
diagram the relative directions of I, B, E, and vE.
the relative directions of I, B, E, and v .
(c) Do v⊥ and vk increase, decrease, orE remain the same as the current
v and v|| increase,
(c) Doincreases? Why? decrease, or remain the same as the current increases?
Why?

4.16 SUMMARY
Stellar interiors and atmospheres, gaseous nebulas, and entire galaxies can be seen because
they are in the plasma state. On earth, however, our atmosphere limits our experience with
plasmas to a few examples: the flash of a lightning bolt, the soft glow of the Aurora Borealis,

108 Self-Instructional Material

the light of a fluorescent tube, or the pixels of a plasma TV. We live in a small part of the Single-Particle Motions
universe where plasmas do not occur naturally; otherwise, we would not be alive.
The Coulomb force between A and B diminishes as 1/r2. However, for a given solid
angle (that is, Δr/r = constant), the volume of plasma in B that can affect A increases as r3.
NOTES
Therefore, elements of plasma exert a force on one another even at large distances. It is this
long-ranged Coulomb force that gives the plasma a large repertoire of possible motions and
enriches the field of study known as plasma physics. In fact, the most interesting results
concern so-called “collisionless” plasmas, in which the long-range electromagnetic forces
are so much larger than the forces due to ordinary local collisions that the latter can be
neglected altogether. By “collective behaviour” we mean motions that depend not only on
local conditions but on the state of the plasma in remote regions as well.
The phenomenon of Debye shielding also occurs—in modified form—in single-
species systems, such as the electron streams in klystrons and magnetrons or the proton
beam in a cyclotron. In such cases, any local bunching of particles causes a large unshielded
electric field unless the density is extremely low (which it often is). An externally imposed
potential—from a wire probe, for instance—would be shielded out by an adjustment of the
density near the electrode. Single-species systems, or unneutralized plasmas, are not strictly
plasmas; but the mathematical tools of plasma physics can be used to study such systems.
Stellar interiors and atmospheres are hot enough to be in the plasma state. The
temperature at the core of the sun, for instance, is estimated to be 2 keV; thermonuclear
reactions occurring at this temperature are responsible for the sun’s radiation. The solar
corona is a tenuous plasma with temperatures up to 200 eV. The interstellar medium contains
ionized hydrogen with n  106 m–3 (1 per cc). Various plasma theories have been used to
explain the acceleration of cosmic rays. Although the stars in a galaxy are not charged, they
behave like particles in a plasma; and plasma kinetic theory has been used to predict the
development of galaxies. Radio astronomy has uncovered numerous sources of radiation
that most likely originate from plasmas. Quantum mechanical effects (uncertainty principle),
however, give the plasma an effective temperature high enough to make ND respectably
large. Certain liquids, such as solutions of sodium in ammonia, have been found to behave
like plasmas also.

4.17 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the definition of Plasma?
2. Write the concept of temperature.
3. Describe the debye Shielding/
4. What is the Plasma Parameter?
5. Explain the criteria for plasmas.
6. Describe the applications of plasma physics.
7. What is the uniform E and B fields?
8. Write the nonuniform B field.

Self-Instructional Material 109

 Electrodynamics and 9. Explain the nonuniform E field.
Plasma Physics
10. Describe the time varying E field.
11. What is the time varying B field?
NOTES 12. Explain the summary of guiding center drifts.
13. What is Adiabatic Invariants?

4.18 FURTHER READINGS

zzClassical electrodynamics by J.D. Jackson (John Wiley &Sons)
zzClassical electricity and magnetism by Panofsky and Philips (Indian Book, New
Delhi)
zzIntroduction to Electrodynamics by Griffiths.
zzElement of Electromagnetics by Mathew N.O. and Sadiku (Oxford Univ.
Press)
zzClassical theory of Electrodynamics by Landau-Lifshitz (Pergaman press, New
York)
zzElectrodynamics of continuous media by Landau&Lifshitz (Pergaman Press,
New York)

110 Self-Instructional Material

 CHAPTER – 5 The Pinch Effect

THE PINCH EFFECT NOTES

STRUCTURE
5.1 Learning Objectives
5.2 Introduction
5.3 The Equilibrium Pinch
5.4 The Bennett Pinch
5.5 Dynamic Model of the Pinch
5.6 Instabilities in a Pinched Plasma Column
5.7 The Sausage Instability
5.8 The Kink Instability
5.9 Convex Field Configurations
5.10 Summary
5.11 Review Questions
5.12 Further Readings

5.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying the chapter, students will be able to:
zzTo understand the Equilibrium Pinch
zzTo discuss the Sausage Instability
zzTo explain the Dynamic Model of the Pinch

5.2 INTRODUCTION
In view of the importance of plasma confinement by a magnetic field in controlled
thermonuclear research, as well as in other applications, we present in this chapter a detailed
treatment of plasma confinement for the special case in which the confinement is produced
by an azimuthal (q) self-magnetic field, due to an axial current in the plasma generated by
an appropriately applied electric field.

J = Jz(r) z^ and a resulting azimuthal magnetic induction B = Bq (r) Q^ as depicted in Fig. 5.1
Consider an infinite cylindrical column of conducting fluid with an axial current density

The J × B force, acting on the plasma, forces the column to contract radially. This radial
constriction of the plasma column is known as the pinch effect. In this case the isobaric
surfaces, for which p = constant, are concentric cylinders.

Self-Instructional Material 111

 Electrodynamics and As the plasma is compressed radially, the plasma number density and the temperature
Plasma Physics
increase. The plasma kinetic pressure counteracts to hinder the constriction of the plasma
column, whereas the magnetic force acts to confine the plasma. When these counteracting
forces are balanced, a steady-state condition results in which the plasma is mainly confined
NOTES
within a certain radius R, which remains constant in time. This situation is commonly
referred to as the equilibrium pinch. When the self­magnetic pressure exceeds the plasma
kinetic pressure, the column radius changes with time, resulting in a situation known as the
dynamic pinch. In what follows we investigate first the equilibrium pinch and afterwards
the dynamic pinch.

Fig. 5.1. Pinch configuration in which a magnetoplasma is con­fined by azimuthal

magnetic fields generated by axial currents flowing along the plasma column.

5.3 THE EQUILIBRIUM PINCH

For simplicity, the current density, the magnetic field, and the plasma kinetic pressure are
assumed to depend only on the distance from the cylin­der axis. For steady-state conditions,
none of the variables changes with time. The various parameters of the equilibrium pinch
are schematically shown in Fig. 5.2. Since the system is cylindrically symmetric, only the
radial component of must be considered and we have

...(5.1)

Inside a cylinder of general radius r, the total enclosed current lz(r) is

...(5.2)

Note that the variable r inside the integrand is a dummy variable. From (5.2) we obtain

...(5.3)

Ampere's law in integral form relates Bq(r) to the total enclosed current giving for the
magnetic induction

...(5.4)

112 Self-Instructional Material

 The Pinch Effect

NOTES

Fig. 5.2. Schematic diagram illustrating the various parame­ters relevant

to the study of the equilibrium longitudinal pinch configuration.

A number of results can be obtained even without specifying the precise form of Jz(r).
If the conducting fluid lies almost entirely inside r = R, then the magnetic induction Bq(r)
outside the plasma is
...(5.5)
where

...(5.6)

which is the total current flowing inside the cylindrical plasma column. The substitution of
Bq(r) and Jz (r), from (5.4) and (5.3), respectively, into (5.1), gives

...(5.7)

which can be written as

...(5.8)
If we now integrate this equation from r = 0 to r = R, and simplify the left-hand side
by an integration by parts, we obtain

...(5.9)

where I0 = Iz(R) is the total current flowing through the entire cross section of the
plasma column and, obviously, Iz(0) = 0. Considering the plasma column to be confined to
the range 0  r < R, it follows that p(r) is zero for r  R and finite for 0  r < R, so that the
Self-Instructional Material 113
 Electrodynamics and first term in the left-hand side of (5.9) vanishes. Therefore, we find that
Plasma Physics
...(5.10)

NOTES If the partial pressures of the electrons and ions are governed by the ideal gas law,
pe(r) = n(r) k Te  ...(5.11)
pi(r) = n(r) k Ti...(5.12)
assuming that the electron and ion temperatures, Te and Ti, respectively, are constants
throughout the plasma column, we have
p(r) = pe(r) + pi(r) = n(r) k (Te + Ti)  ...(5.13)
Therefore, (5.10) becomes

...(5.14)

which can be rewritten as

...(5.15)
where
...(5.16)

is the number of particles per unit length of the plasma column.

Equation (5.15) is known as the Bennett relation. It gives the total current that must be
discharged through the plasma column in order to confine a plasma at a specified temperature
and a given number of particles ( Nl) per unit length. The current required for the confinement
of hot plasmas is usually very large. As an example, suppose that Nl = 1019 m–1 and that the
plasma temperature is such that (Te + Ti) = 108 K. Since m0 = 4p × 10–7 H/m and k = 1.38
× 10–23 J /K, it follows that the required current I0 is of the order of one million amperes.
To obtain the radial distribution of p(r) in terms of Bq(r), it is conve­nient to start from
(5.1) and proceed in a different way. First, we note that from Maxwell equation D × B = m0J
we have, in cylindrical coordinates, with only radial dependence,

...(5.17)

from which we get

..(5.18)

Substitution of this result for Jz(r) into (5.1), yields

...(5.19)

We now integrate this equation from r = 0 to a general radius r,

114 Self-Instructional Material

 The Pinch Effect
...(5.20)

In particular, since for r = R we have p(R) = 0,

NOTES
...(5.21)

and substituting this result into (5.20),

...(5.22)
–
The average pressure p inside the cylinder can be related to the total current I0 and the
column radius R without knowing the detailed radial dependence. The average of the kinetic
pressure inside the column is defined by

...(5.23)

Simplifying this expression by an integration by parts, yields

...(5.24)

since the integrated term is zero, because p(R) = 0. Replacing dp(r)/dr, using (5.19),
we get
...(5.25)

This result shows that the average kinetic pressure in the equilibrium plasma column
is balanced by the magnetic pressure at the boundary.
From (5.2), (5.4), and (5.22) we can deduce the radial distribution for Iz(r), Bq(r), and
p(r) if we know the radial dependence of Jz(r). So far, the radial dependence of Jz(r) has
not been discussed. In what follows, we will consider two simple possibilities, in order to
illustrate the use of the equations just derived.
As a simple example consider the case in which the current density Jz(r) is constant
for r < R. Taking Jz = I0/pR2 in (5.4), we obtain for r < R,

...(5.26)

Substituting this result into (5.22) we obtain a parabolic dependence for the pressure
versus radius,

 ...(5.27)

–
Note that, in this case, the axial pressure p(0) is twice the average pressure p given in
(5.25). The radial dependence of the various quantities for this example is shown in Fig. 5.3.
Self-Instructional Material 115
 Electrodynamics and Another radial distribution of Jz(r) that is also of interest in the investigation of the
Plasma Physics
equilibrium pinch is the one in which the current den­sity is confined to a very thin layer on
the surface of the column. This model is appropriate for a highly conducting fluid.

NOTES

Fig. 5.3. Radial dependence of the azimuthal magnetic induction Bq(r) and plasma
pressure p(r) in a cylindrical plasma column with a constant current density Jz(r).
The radius of the column is R.

In a perfectly conducting plasma, the current cannot penetrate the plasma and exists
only on the column surface. This surface current density can be conveniently represented
by a Dirac delta function at r = R. In this case there is no magnetic field inside the plasma
and Bq (r) exists only for r > R. From (5.5) the magnetic induction is given by
...(5.28)

where 10 is the total axial current. Therefore, from (5.20) we have

...(5.29)

Fig. 5.4. Radial dependence of the azimuthal magnetic induction Bq(r) and plasma
pressure p(r) in a cylindrical plasma column with a surface current density Jz(r). The
radius of the column is R.

so that the plasma kinetic pressure is constant inside the cylindrical col­umn and equal to
the average value given in (5.25). The radial dependence of the various quantities for this

116 Self-Instructional Material

model is sketched in Fig. 5.4. Thus, for a perfectly conducting plasma column, the magnetic The Pinch Effect
induction vanishes inside the column and falls off as 1/r outside the column. The plasma
kinetic pressure is constant inside the column and vanishes outside it.
The pinch effect, in this special case, can be thought of as due to an abrupt buildup of
NOTES
the magnetic pressure B/2/-lo in the region external to the plasma column.

5.4 THE BENNETT PINCH

W. H. Bennett, the discoverer of the pinch effect, investigated a special model of the
equilibrium longitudinal pinch in which the radial distribution of the various quantities are
such that the drift velocity of the plasma particles is constant throughout the column cross
section. As an instructive application of the previous equations for the equilibrium pinch
configuration, we investigate this particular model in what follows. In view of the fact that
the ion mass is much larger than the electron mass, the drift velocity of the ions is much
smaller than that of the electrons and therefore can be neglected on a first approximation.
Thus, we consider the current density to be given by
...(5.30)
Since the applied electric field is in the z direction, we have J(r) = Jz (r) z^ and ue =
–uezz^, where uez is positive and constant, independent of r. Therefore,
Jz(r) = e n(r) uez  ...(5.31)
Substitution of this equation for Jz (r), and (5.13) for p(r), into the hydrostatic equation
of motion (5.1), yields

...(5.32)

If we multiply this equation by r/[n(r) k(Te + Ti)] and differentiate it with respect to r,
we obtain

...(5.33)

From (5.17) and (5.32), we have

 ...(5.34)

and using this result in (5.34),

...(5.35)

The solution of this nonlinear differential equation gives the radial dependence of the
number density n(r). Bennett obtained the solution of this nonlinear equation subjected to the
boundary condition that n(r) is symmetric about the z axis, where r = 0, and is a smoothly
varying function of r, so that

Self-Instructional Material 117

 Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics ...(5.36)

The solution of (5.36), subjected to the boundary condition (5.37), is known as the
Bennett distribution and is given by
NOTES
...(5.37)
where n0 = n(0), which is the number density on the axis, and

...(5.38)

Fig. 5.5. The Bennett distribution for the particle number density n(r) in an
equilibrium pinched plasma column.

which has dimensions of length. This radial dependence of the number density is sketched
in Fig. 5.5. From (5.33) and (5.13) we see that the radial dependence of Jz(r) and p(r) is the
same as that of n(r). It can be used to determine Bq(r) according to (5.4).
The Bennett distribution (3.8) shows that particles are present up to infinity but, since
n(r) falls off very rapidly with increasing values of r, we can consider, for all practical
purposes, that the plasma is essentially con­ fined symmetrically in a small cylindrical
region about the z axis. Using (5.37) we obtain the number of particles Nt(R) per unit length
contained in a cylindrical column of radius R,

...(5.39)

Evaluating the integral yields

 ...(5.40)

Since particles are present up to infinity, the total number of particles per unit length
can be obtained from (5.40) by taking the limit as R ® oo, which gives

118 Self-Instructional Material

 The Pinch Effect
...(5.41)

If we let a denote the fraction of the number of particles per unit length that is contained
in a cylinder of radius R, that is,
NOTES
...(5.42)

and use (5.41), we obtain, after some rearrangement,

...(5.43)

Therefore, if 90% of the plasma particles are confined within the cylindrical plasma
column of radius R, that is a = 0.9, we must have
...(5.44)

Thus, even though the particles extend up to infinity, the major portion of them lies in a
small neighbourhood around the z axis. Note that, since (n0b)1/2 has dimensions of an inverse
length, we can think of (nob)1/2 R as a normalized radius of the cylindrical plasma column.
If we assume arbitrarily that a plasma is confined within a cylindrical surface of radius R if
90% of the particles are within this cylindrical column, then this radius must satisfy (5.44).

5.5 DYNAMIC MODEL OF THE PINCH

The simple theory of the equilibrium pinch, considered previously, is valid when the plasma
column radius is constant in time or when it is varying very slowly compared to the time
required for the plasma to attain a constant temperature. In actual practice, however, static
or quasi-static situations do not arise and it is necessary to consider the dynamic behaviour
of the pinch effect. Initially, when the current starts flowing down the plasma column, the
kinetic pressure is generally too small to resist the force due to the external magnetic pressure,
so that the radius of the plasma cylinder is forced inwards and the plasma column is pinched.
The essential dynamic features of the time-varying pinch are illus­trated by the following
simple model. Suppose that a fully ionized plasma fills the interior region (0 < r < R0) of a
hollow dielectric cylinder of radius R0 and length L. A voltage difference V is applied between
the ends of the cylinder, so that a current I flows in the plasma. This current produces an
azimuthal magnetic induction Bq(r) that causes the plasma to pinch inwards. The plasma
is assumed to be perfectly conducting, so that all the current flows on the surface and there
is no magnetic flux in­ side the plasma. Also, the plasma kinetic pressure is neglected. Let
R(t) be the plasma column radius at time t (see Fig. 5.6). The magnitude of the azimuthal
magnetic induction just adjacent to the current sheath at radius R(t) is given by

...(5.45)

where I(t) is the total axial current at the instant t. In particular for t = 0 we have R = R0 and
this equation gives the initial value Bq(R0) of the magnetic induction. The magnetic pressure

Self-Instructional Material 119

 Electrodynamics and Pm(R) produced by this magnetic induction, acting on the current sheath radially inwards,
Plasma Physics
is given by

...(5.46)
NOTES
The force per unit length of the current sheath, acting radially inwards, in obtained
from (5.46) as

...(5.47)

To set up the equation of motion, relating I(t) to the instantaneous radius R(t) of the
pinch discharge, we must make some assumption about the plasma. We shall consider the
so-called snowplow model, in which the current sheath is imagined to carry along with it all
the material that it hits as it moves inward. If Pm is the original mass density of the plasma,
then the mass per unit length carried by the interface as it moves in, at time t, when the radius
of the current sheath is R, is given by
...(5.48)

Fig. 5.7 illustrates the cross-sectional area swept by the current sheath as it moves
inward. From Newton's second law, the magnetic pressure force and the rate of change of
momentum are related by

Fig. 5.6 Plasma column of infinite conductivity, inside a hollow cylindrical

dielectric, with a current sheath on its surface.

or, using (5.47) and (5.48),

 ...(5.49)

If the functional dependence of the pinch current I(t) is known, (5.49) permits the
evaluation of the pinch discharge radius as a function of time.
A standard inductive relation between the applied voltage, the cur­rent, and the
dimensions (inductance) of the plasma column can be ob­tained using Faraday's law of

120 Self-Instructional Material

induction. For this purpose consider the closed loop shown in Fig. 5.8, in which the inner arm The Pinch Effect
lies on the interface and moves inward with it. Applying Faraday's law to this dotted loop,

...(5.50)
NOTES
and noting that the only contribution to the line integral of E comes from the side of
the loop lying in the conducting wall, we obtain

...(5.51)
Using (5.45), and performing the integral, yields

...(5.52)

Fig. 5.7. Area swept by the current sheath as it moves

inward from the radius R0 to R(t).

If we denote the applied electric field V/L by E0 f (t), where the function f (t) is assumed
known and is normalized so that the peak value of the applied electric field is E0, (5.52)
becomes

...(5.53)

This equation can be used to eliminate I(t) from the equation of motion (5.49), resulting
in the following equation for the rate of change of R( ):

...(5.54)

It is convenient to introduce the following dimensionless variables

...(5.55)

...(5.56)

and recast (5.54) in normalized form as

...(5.57)

This equation cannot be solved without knowing the function f (t).

Self-Instructional Material 121

 Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics

NOTES

Fig. 5.8. Schematic representation of a closed loop for application of Faraday's law,
with the inner side lying on the interface and moving inwards with it.

However, some idea of the results can be obtained, without solving this equation, by
noting that x changes significantly for time periods such that t = 1. Thus, from (5.56), the
scaling law for the radial velocity of the pinch is, approximately,

...(5.58)

The typical experimental conditions involved in a small-scale pinch column of hydrogen

or deuterium plasma are initial mass densities of the order of 10-8 g / cm3 and applied electric
fields of the order of 103 volts/em, which give a velocity v0 of the order of 107 cm/s. For
these conditions, in a tube of 10 em radius, the current measured is of the order of 105 or
106 amperes.
It is instructive to consider a particular case in which the pinch current varies in time
according to
...(5.59)
Then, from (5.49) we obtain directly
...(5.60)

Fig. 5.9. Normalized radius x = R/ R0 of the dynamic pinch col­umn as a

function of the normalized time T, according to (5.60).

122 Self-Instructional Material

 with x as given by (5.55), and The Pinch Effect

...(5.61)

Equation (5.50) has to be solved numerically to determine x(T). The resulting relation NOTES
between the normalized radius of the dynamic pinch and the normalized time is sketched
in Fig. 5.9. This simplified model indicates that the plasma column radius goes to zero in a
time slightly greater than T. This is a consequence of neglecting the kinetic pressure of the
plasma. The above discussion, therefore, is valid only for very short time periods after the
onset of the current flow.
An important phenomenon that usually occurs in the dynamic pinch has not been
considered in this analysis. As the current sheath moves radially inwards, compressing the
plasma, the behaviour just discussed is modified. A radial wave motion is usually set up
by the pinch, and this wave travels faster than the current sheath. These waves, travelling
in­wards, get reflected off the axis and move outwards, striking the interface and retarding
the inward motion of the current sheath or even reversing it. This phenomenon is known
as bouncing. This sequence of events takes place periodically and the amplitude of each
succeeding bounce becomes smaller. The plasma column radius presumably reaches an
equilibrium state at some radius less than R0. Fig. 5.10 illustrates the general behaviour
expected for the column radius R as a function of time.

Fig. 5.10. Normalized radius of the plasma column as a function of the

normalized time, illustrating the phenomenon of bouncing.

5.6 INSTABILITIES IN A PINCHED PLASMA COLUMN

Although it is possible to achieve an equilibrium state for plasma confinement with the pinch
effect, this equilibrium state is not stable. A small departure from the cylindrical geometry
of the equilibrium state results in the growth of the original perturbations with time and in
the disintegration of the plasma column. The growth of instabilities is the reason why it is
difficult to sustain reasonably long-lived pinched plasmas in the laboratory.
A detailed mathematical treatment of these instabilities is beyond the scope of this
text. For simplicity, in the following discussion of instabilities we shall consider a perfectly
diamagnetic plasma column confined by a static magnetic field. Since the plasma is perfectly
Self-Instructional Material 123
 Electrodynamics and diamagnetic, there is no magnetic field, and consequently no magnetic pressure, inside the
Plasma Physics
plasma column. The plasma kinetic pressure is assumed to be uniform inside the plasma
and vanishes outside it. In the equilibrium state, the magnetic pressure at the plasma surface
Pmo must be equal to the kinetic pressure pm0 of the plasma,
NOTES
...(5.62)

where B0 is the magnitude of the magnetic flux density at the plasma sur­face. This situation
of a sharp plasma boundary is an idealized one and is difficult to create in the laboratory,
since the plasma particles diffuse through the magnetic field lines in a diffusion time of the
order of m0s0 L2, in view of the finite plasma conductivity s0, as discussed.

Fig. 5.11. Unstable equilibrium configuration of a cylindrical plasma column. The

azimuthal B field decreases radially out­wards.

In the cylindrical pinch column, the confining magnetic field lines have a curvature such
that they are concave towards the plasma and the field strength decreases with increasing
distance from the center of curvature of the field lines (see Fig. 5.11). According to Ampere's
law, this azimuthal magnetic field is inversely proportional to the radial distance r from the
column axis.

5.7 THE SAUSAGE INSTABILITY

Suppose that the equilibrium state of the pinched plasma column, shown in Fig. 5.11, is
disturbed by a wave-like perturbation, with the crests and troughs on the surface of the plasma
column and cylindrically symmetric about the column axis, as indicated schematically in
Fig. 5.12. We shall consider that the plasma is constricted in some locations and expanded
at others, in such a way that its volume does not change. Consequently, the uniform kinetic
pressure of the plasma is left unchanged. However, in view of the 1/ r radial dependence
of the azimuthal magnetic field, the magnitude of this field at the surface of the disturbed
plasma column will vary from place to place on the surface. At the locations where the radius
has decreased, in relation to the equilibrium value, the magnetic pressure at the constricted
plasma surface will be larger than the plasma kinetic pressure, and will force the plasma
surface radially in­wards, thus enhancing the constriction.
At the locations where the radius has become larger than the equilibrium value, the
plasma kinetic pressure will be larger than the magnetic pressure at the expanded plasma
surface and will force the surface radially outwards, increasing the local expansion of

124 Self-Instructional Material

the plasma. Therefore, the troughs will become deeper and the crests higher. The initial The Pinch Effect
perturbation gives rise to forces that tend to further increase the initial disturbance, so that
the initial equilibrium state is unstable. When the constrictions reach the axis, the column
appears like a string of sausages and, for this reason, this type of instability has become
NOTES
known as the sausage instability.

Fig. 5.12. The sausage instability

The sausage instability can be inhibited by a longitudinal magnetic field applied inside
the plasma column. This longitudinal magnetic field can be produced by passing a current
through a solenoidal coil wound around the column. Because of the plasma high electric
conductivity, the longitudinal field lines are frozen in the plasma. When the sausage distortion
starts to grow, the longitudinal magnetic field lines are compressed at the constrictions,
causing an increase in the total pressure inside the plasma that opposes the increased magnetic
pressure of the azimuthal field at the constricted surface, and forces the constriction to expand.
At the locations where the column radius has increased, the longitudinal field lines move
apart with the plasma expansion, thus decreasing the total in­ternal pressure, with the result
that the net pressure forces the plasma surface radially inwards. This situation is illustrated
schematically in Fig. 5.13.
We shall next determine what must be the magnitude Bz of the longitudinal magnetic flux
density, as compared to the magnitude of the azimuthal Be field, in order that the longitudinal
field be able to stabilize plasma column against the setting of the sausage instability.

Fig. 5.13. A longitudinal magnetic flux density Bz can be

used to inhibit the sausage instability.

If the radius r of the column, at the constriction, is decreased by an amount dr, and
considering that the magnetic flux (m = Bzpr2) through the cross-sectional area of the
column remains constant during compression, then we have
...(5.63)

Self-Instructional Material 125

 Electrodynamics and Hence, the longitudinal magnetic flux density is increased by the amount
Plasma Physics
...(5.64)

Consequently, the corresponding internal magnetic pressure increases by

NOTES
...(5.65)

or, using (5.64),

...(5.66)

Considering now the azimuthal magnetic flux density Bq, it is easily seen from Ampere's
law that external to the column we have
r Bq(r) = constant  ...(5.67)
so that the azimuthal magnetic flux density, at the constricted surface,

Fig. 5.14. The kink instability

increases by the amount

...(5.68)

Hence, the corresponding increase in the external magnetic pressure is

...(5.69)

Therefore, in order that the plasma column be stable against the sausage distortion, we
must have dpz > dpq, or, using (5.66) and (5.67),
...(5.70)

5.8 THE KINK INSTABILITY

Another type of instability of the pinched plasma column is the so­called kink instability.
The kink distortion consists of a perturbation in the form of a bend or kink in the column,
but with the disturbed column maintaining its uniform circular cross section, as shown in
Fig. 5.14. Usually there may be several kinks along the column length. In the neighborhood
of the column, where the kink has developed, the magnetic field lines are brought closer
together on the concave side, and separated on the convex side, so that the external magnetic
126 Self-Instructional Material
pressure is increased on the concave side and decreased on the convex side. Therefore, the The Pinch Effect
changes in the external magnetic pressure are in such a way as to accentuate the distortion
still further. This type of distortion is therefore unstable.

NOTES

Fig. 5.15. The increased tension of a longitudinal magnetic field, applied

inside the column, inhibits the kink instability.

The kink instability can be hindered by the application of a longitudinal magnetic field
within the plasma column, as in the case of the sausage instability. In the kink distortion,
the longitudinal magnetic field lines frozen inside the plasma column are stretched and the
increased tension acting along the longitudinal magnetic field lines opposes the external
forces. The net result is the stabilization of the column (see Fig. 5.15).
In actual practice, however, the plasma is not perfectly diamagnetic and other fields
may also be present. The calculation of the stability of the pinched plasma column is not,
in general, a simple task.

5.9 CONVEX FIELD CONFIGURATIONS

In the linear pinch configuration, the azimuthal magnetic field confining the plasma column
is produced by a longitudinal current flowing along the column. The configuration of this
field is such that the magnetic flux lines are concave towards the plasma. Configurations of
this type are unstable, as we have seen with the sausage and the kink instabilities.

Fig. 5.16. Plasma confinement by a cuspid magnetic field, produced by four

current-carrying wires.

Self-Instructional Material 127

 Electrodynamics and Configurations for which the field lines are convex towards the plasma lead to a stable
Plasma Physics
equilibrium, since the magnetic field strength increases in a direction away from the plasma.
If the plasma surface is perturbed by a wave-like disturbance, the magnetic pressure at the
crests will be larger than the internal kinetic pressure and the plasma is forced to return
NOTES to its equilibrium configuration (assuming that the kinetic pressure is not affected by the
perturbations). At the troughs, the internal kinetic pressure will be larger than the magnetic
pressure acting on the plasma surface and will force the plasma to expand. Therefore, for
plasma confinement, it is desirable to use a magnetic field configuration in which the magnetic
flux lines are everywhere convex towards the plasma. An example of this type of configuration
is the cusp field, which can be produced by an ar­ ray of four current-carrying wires, as
shown in Fig. 5.16. The presence of sharp edges and cusps at the plasma boundary, however,
can lead to escape of the plasma particles. Although edges and cusps are characteristics of
these configurations, modifications of the cusp field geometry are commonly employed for
confinement of high-temperature plasmas.
Higher order cusp fields can be produced by lining up several pairs of current-carrying
wires as, for example, in the picket-fence field geometry illustrated in Fig. 517.

Fig. 5.17. Picket-fence field configuration for magnetic confine­ment of a plasma.

5.10 SUMMARY
Plasma is compressed radially, the plasma number density and the temperature increase.
The plasma kinetic pressure counteracts to hinder the constriction of the plasma column,
whereas the magnetic force acts to confine the plasma. When these counteracting forces are
balanced, a steady-state condition results in which the plasma is mainly confined within a
certain radius R, which remains constant in time. This situation is commonly referred to as
the equilibrium pinch. When the self­magnetic pressure exceeds the plasma kinetic pressure,
the column radius changes with time, resulting in a situation known as the dynamic pinch.
W. H. Bennett, the discoverer of the pinch effect, investigated a special model of the
equilibrium longitudinal pinch in which the radial distribution of the various quantities are
such that the drift velocity of the plasma particles is constant throughout the column cross
section. As an instructive application of the previous equations for the equilibrium pinch
configuration, we investigate this particular model in what follows. In view of the fact that
the ion mass is much larger than the electron mass, the drift velocity of the ions is much

128 Self-Instructional Material

smaller than that of the electrons and therefore can be neglected on a first approximation. The Pinch Effect

Theory of the equilibrium pinch, considered previously, is valid when the plasma
column radius is constant in time or when it is varying very slowly compared to the time
required for the plasma to attain a constant temperature. In actual practice, however, static
NOTES
or quasi-static situations do not arise and it is necessary to consider the dynamic behaviour
of the pinch effect. A radial wave motion is usually set up by the pinch, and this wave travels
faster than the current sheath. These waves, travelling in­wards, get reflected off the axis and
move outwards, striking the interface and retarding the inward motion of the current sheath
or even reversing it. This phenomenon is known as bouncing. This sequence of events takes
place periodically and the amplitude of each succeeding bounce becomes smaller.

5.11 REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the Equilibrium Pinch>
2. Describe the Bennett Pinch.
3. What is the Dynamic Model of the Pinch?
4. Explain the Instabilities in a Pinched Plasma Column.
5. What is the Sausage Instability?
6. Describe the Kink Instability.
7. Explain the Convex Field Configurations.

5.12 FURTHER READINGS

zzClassical electrodynamics by J.D. Jackson (John Wiley &Sons)
zzClassical electricity and magnetism by Panofsky and Philips (Indian Book, New
Delhi)
zzIntroduction to Electrodynamics by Griffiths.
zzElement of Electromagnetics by Mathew N.O. and Sadiku (Oxford Univ.
Press)
zzClassical theory of Electrodynamics by Landau-Lifshitz (Pergaman press, New
York)
zzElectrodynamics of continuous media by Landau&Lifshitz (Pergaman Press,
New York)

Self-Instructional Material 129

 Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics CHAPTER – 6
NOTES SINGLE-PARTICLE MOTIONS
STRUCTURE
6.1 Learning Objectives
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Collision Operator
6.4 Two-Body Elastic Collisions
6.5 Boltzmann Collision Operator
6.6 Collisional Conservation Laws
6.7 Boltzmann H-Theorem
6.8 Two-Body Coulomb Collisions
6.9 Rutherford Scattering Cross-Section
6.10 Landau Collision Operator
6.11 Coulomb Logarithm
6.12 Rosenbluth Potentials
6.13 Collision Times
6.14 Moments of Distribution Function
6.15 Moments of Collision Operator
6.16 Fluid Equations
6.17 Chapman-Enskog Closure
6.18 Normalization of Neutral Gas Equations
6.19 Braginskii Equations
6.20 Normalization of Braginskii Equations
6.21 Cold-Plasma Equations
6.22 MHD Equations
6.23 Drift Equations
6.24 Closure in Collisionless Magnetized Plasmas
6.25 Langmuir Sheaths
6.26 Plane Waves in Homogeneous Plasmas
6.27 Cold-Plasma Dielectric Permittivity
6.28 Cold-Plasma Dispersion Relation
6.29 Wave Polarization
6.30 Cutoff and Resonance

130 Self-Instructional Material

 Single-Particle Motions
6.31 Waves in Unmagnetized Plasmas
6.32 Low-Frequency Wave Propagation
6.33 Parallel Wave Propagation
NOTES
6.34 WKB Solutions
5 Cutoffs
6 Resonances
6.37 Resonant Layers
6.38 Pulse Propagation
6.39 Ray Tracing
6.40 Ionospheric Radio Wave Propagation
1 Summary
6.42 Review Questions
6.43 Further Readings

6.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying the chapter, students will be able to:
zzTo understand the Collision Operator & Two-Body Elastic Collisions
zzTo describe the Parallel Wave Propagationm WKB Solutions, Cutoffs &
Resonances
zzTo study on MHD Equations & Drift Equations
zzTo understand the Langmuir Sheaths & Plane Waves in Homogeneous
Plasmas
zzTo Explain the Wave Polarization & Cutoff and Resonance

6.2 INTRODUCTION
As was discussed in collisions do not play as central a role in plasmas as they do in
conventional neutral gases. Indeed, relatively hot, diffuse plasmas are essentially collision
less. Probably the most significant effect of collisions is that they act to relax particle
distribution functions toward Maxwellian distributions. The aim of this chapter is to develop
a theory of collisions that is applicable to a weakly coupled plasma. The fact that the plasma
in question is weakly coupled means that it is a good approximation to treat the collisions as
occasional binary events. As we shall see, the long-range nature of the Coulomb force renders
the theory of collisions in a plasma somewhat more complicated than the corresponding
theory for a neutral gas (where the inter-particle forces are invariably short-range in nature).

Self-Instructional Material 131

 force renders the theory
the corresponding offor
theory collisions in gas
a neutral a plasma somewhat
(where more complicated
the inter-particle forces arethan
invari-
the corresponding theory for
ably short-range in nature). a neutral gas (where the inter-particle forces are invari-
ably short-range in nature).

3.2 andCollision
Electrodynamics Operator
6.3 COLLISION OPERATOR
3.2 Collision
Plasma Physics Operator
Plasma physics can be regarded formally as a closure of Maxwell’s equations by
Plasma
Plasma physics can physics can be
be regarded regarded
formally as formally
a closure asof aMaxwell’s
closure ofequations
Maxwell’sbyequations by means of
means of constitutive
constitutive relations:
relations: that
that is, expressions specifying the charge density,
density, ρ, and the current
means of constitutive relations: that is, is, expressions
expressions specifying
specifying the the charge
charge density,
and the
ρ, and the current density,j,j,ininterms
currentdensity, termsofofthethe electric
electric andand magnetic
magnetic fields, E and
EBand B B and Waelbroeck
ρ,
NOTES density, j, in terms of theSuch electric and magnetic fields,fields,
E and (Hazeltine
(Hazeltine and Waelbroeck 2004). Such relations can be expressed in terms of the the
(Hazeltine and Waelbroeck 2004). relations can be expressed in terms of
microscopic2004).
microscopic
Such relations
distribution
distribution functions,can
functions,
be
F sF, sfor
expressed
, for each
each
in terms
plasma
plasma
of the microscopic distribution functions,
species:
species:
Fs, for each plasma species:
 
ρ ρ== e se s F sF
(r,s (r,
v, t) d3 v, ...(6.1)
v,dt)3 v, (3.1)(3.1)
s s
 
j j== e se s v FvsF
(r,s (r,
v, t) d3...(6.2)
v,dt)3v. v. (3.2)(3.2)
s s

s Here, F (r, v, t) is the exact microscopic phase-space density of plasma species s (with
Here, (r,v,v,t)t)isisthe
Here, FFss(r, theexact
exactmicroscopic
microscopic phase-space
phase-space density
densityof plasma species
of plasma s s
species
48
48 48(with charge charge
e and e
mass
s andm mass
) mspoint
near ) near(r,
point
v) (r,
at v)Plasma
Plasma
time at
t time
Plasma t Physics:
Physics:
(Reif (Reif
1965). An
Physics: 1965).
An The
Introduction
An
The distribution function Fs is
Introduction
Introduction
distribution
(with charge es s and mass m s s ) near point (r, v) at time t (Reif 1965). The distribution
48 functionFFssisnormalized
function
densityisnormalized
normalized such
such
suchthat
thatits
that velocity
itsits
velocity integral
velocityintegral
Plasma is
is equal
integral equal
Physics: AntoIntroduction
to
is equal the
the particle
particle
to the number
number
particle numberdensity in coordinate
density
density in in
in coordinate coordinate
coordinate
space. space.Inspace.
space.
In other
other In In other
words,
other
words, words,words,
 words,
 
density in coordinate space. In other 47 47
F (r, 3v, t)3d 3 v = n s (r, t), (3.3)
 F s (r,
F v,
s st)
(r, d
v, v
t) d= vn s=(r, n t),
s (r, t), ...(6.3) (3.3) (3.3)
F s (r, v, t) d3v = n s (r, t), (3.3)
where where
wheren s (r,n t)
s
n is
(r,
s (r,
t) t)
theis is
the the
where ns(r, (per
number number
number t) is(per
the(per
unit unitunit
volume)
number volume)
volume)(per of unitof of
species-s species-s
species-s
volume) particles particles
particles
of nearnear
species-s near
point rpoint
point
particles r atpoint r at time t.
at rnear
at
time time t.
t. t)t.is the number (per unit volume) of species-s particles near point r at
where n stime
(r, If we could determine Fs(r,ofv,the t) electromagnetic
If we If
wewe
If could could
determine
could determine
determine eacheach Feach F v,
s (r,
F st)(r,
s (r, v,inv, t)each
t)terms
in in terms
termsof the of electromagnetic
in terms of the fields
the electromagnetic fields
electromagnetic
thenthen
fields then fields then
time t.
Equations Equations
(3.1) and (6.1)would
(3.2) and us (6.2)
give uswould
us
thethe give us
desired the desired
constitutive constitutive
relations. In In relations.
thethe In fact, the time
fact,
IfEquations
could(3.1)
weEquations and
(3.1)
determine (3.2)
and each would
(3.2) (r,give
F swould v, t)give the
in terms desired theconstitutive
ofdesired constitutive
electromagnetic relations. fieldsInthen
relations. fact, the
fact,
timetime
Equations
time
evolution
(3.1)
evolution
and of
evolution evolution
(3.2)the of
thethe
various
ofwould of
various theus
various various
distribution
distribution
give distribution
the desired distribution
functions functions
functions functions
is is
is determined
constitutive
determined
determined
relations. is
bydetermined
by
particle
byfact,
In
particle by
conser-
particle
the particle conservation in
conser-
conser-
vation in phase-space,
phase-space, which
which requires
requires that that (Reif
(Reif 1965)1965).
time vation
evolution in phase-space,
vation in the
of phase-space,
various which which requires
distribution requires thatthat
functions (Reif is1965)
(Reif 1965)
determined by particle conser-
vation in phase-space, which requires thats ∂F
∂F (Reif 1965)∂F s∂F∂F s
∂F
s ∂F s s +
∂F s∂F + vs∂t+· v+ ·v ·+ ∂r a s+· a s a· s ·= ∂v s
0,= = 0, 0, ..(6.4) (3.4)(3.4) (3.4)
∂F s ∂t ∂t∂F s ∂r ∂r∂F s ∂v ∂v
where +v· + as · = 0, (3.4)
where where
where ∂t ∂r ∂v
e
e s =e s s (E + v × B)
where a s =a s a=s (E +(Ev + × vB)× ...(6.5)
B) (3.5)(3.5) (3.5)
e s m s m sm s
a s acceleration
= (E + v under × B) the influence of the E and(3.5)
is the is
thethe
is species-s species-s
species-s particle particle
isacceleration
particle theaccelerationm s under
species-s particle
under the acceleration
influence
the influence of the of E
under theand E and
the BB
B fields.
influence fields.
fields.of the E and B fields.
Equation Equation
Equation (3.4) (3.4)
is
(3.4) easy
is is to
easy easy
derive
to to derive
because
derive because
because it is it
exact,
it is is exact,
taking
exact, taking
takinginto into
account
into account
accountall all
length-
all length-
length-
is the species-s particle acceleration Equation under
(6.4) istheeasy influence
to derive the E and
ofbecause it is Bexact,
fields.taking into account all length- scales
scales scales
from from
the the microscopic to tothethe macroscopic. Note, in particular, that therenois is
nono
Equationscales from
(3.4) is microscopic
the to derivetobecause
easymicroscopic the macroscopic.is exact, Note,
macroscopic.
it taking Note,ininto
particular,
inaccount
particular, that there
that
all length- is
there
statistical
statistical from
averaging the microscopic
involved in in to (3.4).
Equation the (3.4). macroscopic.
(3.4). It followsNote, thatin theparticular,
microscopic that there
dis- is no statistical
scales from theaveraging
statistical averaging
microscopic involvedto thein
involved EquationEquation
macroscopic. Note, It infollows
Itparticular,
follows that the
thatmicroscopic
that the is no dis-dis-
microscopic
there
tributiontribution
tributionfunction, function,
function,averaging
Fs, F issinF , is
,essentiallyessentially
sisinvolved
essentially ain Equation
sum a sum a of sum Dirac of
of(6.4).
DiracDirac delta-functions,
Itdelta-functions,
follows
delta-functions, thateach theeach each
microscopic
following following distribution function,
statistical averaging involved Equation (3.4). It follows that the microscopic dis-following
the thethe
detailed detailed
detailed trajectory trajectory
trajectory of aof of
single
a a single
singleparticle. particle.
particle. Consequently, Consequently,
Consequently, the the electromagnetic
electromagnetic
the electromagnetic fields fields
fields
tribution function, F s , is s, is essentially
essentially a suma sum of of Dirac Dirac delta-functions,
delta-functions, eacheach following the detailed trajectory of
following
appearingappearing
appearing in in
in Equation Equation
Equation (3.4) (3.4)(3.4)
are are are
extremely extremely
extremely spiky spikyspiky
on on
microscopic
on microscopic
microscopic scales. scales.
In
scales. fact, In fact,
solv-
Inappearing
fact, solv-
solv-
the detailed trajectory of a
a single single particle.
particle. Consequently,
Consequently, the
the classical electromagnetic
electromagnetic fieldsfields in equation (6.4) are
ing ing ing
Equation Equation
(3.4)(3.4) (3.4)
is equivalentis equivalent
to solving to solving
the the
classical electromagnetic
electromagnetic many-body many-body
appearing inEquation
Equation (3.4)
extremely
is
are equivalent
extremely tospiky
spiky on microscopic
solving on the classical
microscopic electromagnetic
scales. In fact, solv-many-body
scales. In fact, solving equation (6.4) is equivalent to solving
problem, problem,
which which is a completely hopeless task.
ing Equation problem, (3.4) is isequivalent
which a is
completely
a completely hopeless
to solving thetask.
hopeless task.
classical electromagnetic many-body
problem,Awhich AA
much much
ismore
much the
more more classical
useful
a completely
useful
useful equation electromagnetic
equation
equation
hopeless becan
cantask.
can bebe
extracted many-body
extracted
extracted fromfrom problem,
from
Equation Equation
Equation (3.4)whichby
(3.4) isbyaby
(3.4) completely
ensemble ensemble hopeless task.
ensemble
averaging (Reif 1965). The average distribution function,
Aaveraging
muchaveraging
more (Reif 1965).
(Reif
useful AThe
1965).
equation much average
The be distribution
canaverage
more distribution
useful
extracted equation
fromfunction,
function,
can be(3.4)
Equation extracted from Equation (6.4) by ensemble
by ensemble
averaging (Reif 1965).averaging The average (Reifdistribution
1965). function,
�F sThe��F ≡�F average
s �f ss≡,� ≡f s ,f s , distribution function, (3.6)(3.6) (3.6)
�F s � ≡ f s , ...(6.6) (3.6)experimen-
is is
is smooth smooth
smooth onon
on microscopic microscopic
microscopic lengthscales,
lengthscales,
lengthscales, and and isand is is
closely closely
closely related related
related to to
to actual actual
experimen-
actual experimen-
is smooth taltal measurements.
tal measurements.
measurements.
on microscopic Here, is
Here,Here,
smooth
angle
lengthscales,
angle
brackets
angle and
brackets
onbrackets
microscopic
denote
is denote
closely
denote anan
anlengthscales,
ensemble
related
ensemble
ensemble and
to average.
actual
average.
isexperimen-
average. closely
Similarly,Similarly,
related
Similarly, to the
the the actual experimental
ensemble-averaged
ensemble-averaged
ensemble-averaged measurements. electromagnetic
electromagnetic
electromagnetic Here, fields fieldsfields
are
angleanbrackets also
are are alsoalso
smooth. smooth.
smooth.
denote Unfortunately,
Unfortunately,
Unfortunately,
an ensemble the
average. ex-
the theex-ex-
tal measurements. Here, angle brackets denote ensemble average. Similarly, the Similarly, the ensemble-
traction traction
tractionof an of of anensemble-averaged
ensemble-averaged
ensemble-averaged
an equation equation
equation from from from
Equation Equation
Equation (3.4)(3.4) (3.4)
is is is mathematically
mathematically
mathematically
ensemble-averaged electromagnetic fields are also smooth. Unfortunately, the ex-
132traction challenging,
challenging,
challenging,
Self-Instructional and and
Material andinvariably
invariably invariably involves involves
involves some some some
level level
of
level ofapproximation.
approximation.
approximation.
of(3.4) TheThe Theproblem
problem problem
of an ensemble-averaged equation from Equation is mathematically
is that,
challenging,
is
is that,that,
because
andbecause
because
the the
invariably
the
exact exactexact
involves
electromagnetic
electromagnetic
electromagnetic
some level fields offields
fields
depend depend
depend
approximation. on particleon particle
Thetrajectories,
on particle trajectories,
problem E EE
trajectories,
is that, Band
andbecause
and BB
are not
are arestatistically
thenot
not
exact
statistically
statistically independent
electromagnetic
independent
independent of Fofsdepend
fields .of FInsF . In
. other
sIn other
on
other
words, words,
words,
particle
as
astrajectories, a consequence
aasconsequence E of of
a consequence of
correlations
correlations between between
the the
distribution distribution function and the electromagnetic fields on mi-
and B arecorrelations
not statistically between the distribution
independent of function
F s .function
In other and and the
words,electromagnetic
the electromagnetic
as a consequence fields on mi-
fields
of on mi-
croscopic lengthscales, the ensemble average of the nonlinear acceleration term in
correlations between the distribution function and the electromagnetic fields on mi- in in
croscopic
croscopic lengthscales,
lengthscales, the ensemble
the ensemble average average of the
of nonlinear
the nonlinear acceleration
acceleration term term
Equation Equation
Equation (3.4)(3.4) (3.4)
is such istheis such
that
such that
that average of the nonlinear acceleration term in
croscopic lengthscales, ensemble
Equation (3.4) is such that     ∂F 
∂F s∂F s s ∂ f s ∂ f∂s f s
blem, which is a completely hopeless task.
A much
A much moremore useful
useful equation
equation can can be extracted
be extracted fromfrom Equation
Equation (3.4)(3.4) by ensemble
by ensemble
averaging (Reif 1965). The average distribution function,
aging (Reif 1965). The average distribution function,
�F s ��F , fs ,
≡ s �f s≡ (3.6)(3.6)
is smooth
mooth on microscopic
on microscopic lengthscales,
lengthscales, and and is closely
is closely related related to actual
to actual experimen-
experimen-
measurements. Here, angle brackets denote an ensemble average. Similarly, the the
tal measurements. Here, angle brackets denote an ensemble average. Similarly,
ensemble-averaged
emble-averaged electromagnetic
electromagnetic fields fields are also
are also smooth. Unfortunately, the ex-
averaged electromagnetic fields aresmooth.
also smooth. Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, the ex- the ex- traction of an Single-Particle Motions
traction of an ensemble-averaged
tion of an ensemble-averaged equation
equation from from
Equation Equation (3.4) (3.4)
is is mathematically
mathematically
challenging, ensemble-averaged equation from Equation (6.4) is mathematically problemchallenging, and
lenging, and and invariably
invariably involves
involves somesome levellevel of approximation.
of approximation. The The problem
is that, invariably
because the exact involves some level of
electromagnetic fields approximation.
depend The problem
on particle is that,Ebecause the exact
trajectories,
hat, because the exact electromagnetic fields depend on particle trajectories, E
and B are electromagnetic
not statistically fields
independent depend on
of Fparticle
B are not statistically independent of F s . Ins other words, as a consequence of . In trajectories,
other words, E asanda B are not
consequence statistically
of independent
correlations ofbetween the distribution as afunction NOTES
elations between Fs. the In other words, function
distribution and and
consequence theof electromagnetic
correlations fields
the electromagnetic fields
between on mi-
the
on mi- distribution function
croscopic lengthscales,
and the electromagnetic
copic lengthscales, the ensemble
the ensemble average
fields
average on
of the of nonlinear
the nonlinear
microscopic acceleration
lengthscales,
acceleration term
in in average of the
the ensemble
term
Equation
ation (3.4) is (3.4) is such that
such thatacceleration term in Equation (6.4) is such that
nonlinear
   
∂F ∂F s
a s ·s  �a� �a ∂s �f s· ∂ f s .
a s · ∂v s ∂v . ∂v · ...(6.7) (3.7)(3.7)
ons ∂v 49
Itconvenient
is convenient to writeto write
It is convenient to write
ons
C s is an operator that accounts
ons  for the
 correlations. Because the most impor- 49
49
rrelations result from closea∂F ∂F
encounters s f
between
∂ ∂ f sparticles, ...(6.8) C is known as the
Collisions as · s ·s = �a � ·
s
�a s �correlations.
= the · s − C
−∂vC s ( f Because
),s ( f ), s
(3.8)(3.8) 49
C
on is an
operatoroperator
(for that
species accounts
s). It for
∂v
is not generally
C s is an operator that accounts for the correlations. Because the most impor-
s ∂v ∂v a linear operator, the most
and impor-
usually
rrelations
es
rrelations whereresult
the distributionC s from
where
result isC
from anisclose
functions operator
close encounters
of both
an operator
encounters thatbetween
that accounts
collidingaccounts
between for
speciesparticles,
thefor (the
particles, the C
correlations. ss is
is known
subscript
Ccorrelations.Because
known as
in the the
the most
ar-
asBecause
the theimpor-
most important
s
on
on operator
C stant
t ofoperator (for
correlations
is omitted
(for species
for
species this s).
result Itfrom
reason).
s). It is
is not
not generally
close
Hence, encounters
generally the a linearbetween
ensemble-averaged
a linear operator,
operator, and
particles, usually
version
and C s is
usually of known as the
correlations result from close encounters between particles, Cs is known as the collision
es
onthe
es the distribution
(3.4)collision
is written
distribution functions(for
operator
functions of species
of both colliding
both colliding species
s). It isspecies not generally(the subscript
(the subscript
a linearin inoperator,
the ar-
the ar- and usually
tt of C is operator
omitted for (forthis species
reason). s).Hence,
It is ofnotthe generally
ensemble-averaged a linear operator,
version and usually involves the
involves
of C s is omitted
s the
∂ f s for ∂this distribution
f s reason).
es functions both
Hence, the∂ ensemble-averaged
fs colliding species version of
(the subscript
of in the ar-
on
on (3.4) is distribution
is written
(3.4)gumentwritten of+Cvs ·is functions
omitted
+ of +
(E
for bothv ×colliding
this B) ·
reason). species
= C s ( f (the
Hence, subscript in(3.9)
), ensemble-averaged
the the argument
version Cs is omitted
of of
∂t ∂r m s ∂v
for
Equation∂ ffthis
ss (3.4) reason).
is s Hence,
∂ fwritten ee ss the ensemble-averaged∂ fs version of Equation (6.4) is written
E and B are∂now + ·· ∂ f s +
vvunderstood to(E
(Ebe+ the
v
v × smooth,
B)
B) ·· ∂ f s ensemble-averaged
= C
C ss (( ff ),
), electro-
(3.9)
tic fields. Of ∂t course,
∂t
+
in∂r
∂ra
+
∂ f sm
weaklym
+
ss coupled
×
∂ f s plasma,
e s ∂v ∂v
=
the dominant ∂ f s collisions(3.9) are
+v· + (E + v × B) · = C s ( f ), ...(6.9) (3.9)
E
articleand B
E andCoulomb are
B are nownow understood
collisions.
understood ∂t to
Equation be
to be the∂rthe
(3.9) m
smooth,
is generally
s
smooth, ensemble-averaged ∂v
known as theelectro-
ensemble-averaged electro-
kinetic
tic
tic fields.
on. where
fields. Of course,
E and
where
Of course, E and Bin aaBweakly
in are nownow
are
weakly coupled
understood
understood
coupled plasma,
to be
plasma, to be the
thethe dominant
smooth,smooth,
dominant collisions
ensemble-averaged are
ensemble-averaged
collisions are electro-
electromagnetic
article Coulomb
magnetic collisions.
fields. Of Equation
course, in a(3.9)
weakly is generally
coupled known
plasma, as
the the kinetic
dominant
article Coulomb fields.collisions.
Of course,Equation in a weakly (3.9)coupled
is generally plasma, known the as the kinetic
dominant collisions areare
collisions two-particle
on.
on. two-particle Coulomb collisions. Equation (3.9) is generally known as the kinetic
Coulomb collisions. Equation (6.9) is generally known as the kinetic equation.
equation.

6.4 TWO-BODY ELASTIC COLLISIONS

Two-Body Elastic Collisions
specializing toBefore specializing to two-body Coulomb collisions, it is convenient to develop a general
two-body Coulomb collisions, it is convenient to develop a
Two-Body Elastic Collisions
lTwo-Body Elastic
theory of theory
two-body Collisions
of two-body
elastic elastic collisions.
collisions. ConsiderConsider ancollision
an elastic elastic collision
between between a particle of type
3.3 Two-Body
specializing Elastic
to two-body Coulomb Collisions
collisions, it is convenient to develop a
cle of type 1 and
specializing a particle of
to two-body type 2.
type
Coulomb 2. LetLetthe themass
collisions, mass and
it and
is instantaneous
instantaneous
convenient velocityaof the former particle be
velocity
to develop
ll theory of
theoryBefore
former two-body
particle
of m specializing
two-bodybe m elastic
and
elastic vto collisions.
, two-body Consider
respectively.
collisions. Coulomb
Consider Likewise, an
an elastic
collisions,
let
elastic the collision
massit is and
collision between
convenient
instan-
between to develop a
1 andavparticle
1, respectively. Likewise, let the mass and instantaneous velocity of the latter particle
1 1
cle of type
type
s velocity
cle of 1 and
general
of
1 and
the theory
latter of
particle
a particle of type
two-body
of type
be m2. 2.2 Let
elastic
and
Let the
v
the 2 , mass
collisions.
respectively.
mass and
and instantaneous
Consider The
instantaneous an elastic
velocity velocity
of collision
velocitythe between
former
of massa be mbe
particle
particle
is given 2 and
of
by mtype and
2 , 1respectively.
v
and , respectively.
a particle The of velocity
Likewise,
type 2. of let
Let thethe center
the mass
mass of
and mass
and is given byvelocity
instan-
instantaneous
former particle be m1 and v1 , respectively. Likewise, let the mass and instan-
1 1
ss velocity of
of the
of the former latter particle
latterparticle m
be1 m v 2 +and mv21v vv, 222respectively.
,, respectively.
...(6.10) The
The velocity of the
velocity the U =bebemm
particle 1 1and
2 and .respectively. Likewise, let the
velocity of mass
the and instan-
(3.10)
of mass is given
of masstaneous by
is givenvelocity
by m
of the latter1particle + m 2 be m2 and v2 , respectively. The velocity of the
ver, conservation of momentum m v
v11 +
m11 implies +m v
v22 . U is a constant
m22 that
center of mass Moreover, is given
U conservation
U = m + m of momentum
= by
. impliesof theu motion.
that is(3.10)
a constant of the motion. The
(3.10)
lative velocity is defined m 11 + m22 m1 v1 + m2 v2
relative velocity is defined U = . (3.10)
ver,
ver, conservation
conservation of of momentum
momentum u = implies
v1 − v2 . that
implies that U Um1is
is+aamconstant
constant
2 of
of the
the motion.
(3.11)
motion.
lative velocity
Moreover, is v defined
is conservation u = v1 of − vmomentum
2.  implies that U is a constant of the motion. ...(6.11)
nlative velocity
express v1 and defined
2 in terms of U and u as follows:
The relative velocity isu udefined
=v v11 − −v v . (3.11)
(3.11)
= μ1222 .
We can express
v v
U and v u, inu terms v − of
v u and u as follows: (3.12) (3.11)
and vv22 in
express vv11 and of U and u
nn express = + .
in terms
terms of U and um1as
as follows:
1 1 2 = 1 2
follows:
We can express v1 and v2 in terms 12 of U and u as follows:
μ12
μ
vv112 ==U U+ − m1 u,
+ u. ...(6.12)
u, (3.12)
(3.12)
(3.13)
m21 v1 = U + μ12 u, (3.12)
μ
μ 12 m1
v = U − 12
v22 = U −m1mm2u. ...(6.13) u. (3.13)
(3.13)
μ12 = m22 v2 = U − μ12 u. (3.14) (3.13)
m1 + m 2 m2
m1 m
reducedHere,mass. The total kinetic μ
μ12 = m1 of
energy
12 = m + m
m22the system is written (3.14)
(3.14)
Self-Instructional Material 133
m 11 + m22 m1 m 2
1 1 1 μ12 = 2 1 (3.14)
reduced
reduced mass.K = The
mass. The v12 + kinetic
m1 total
total m2 v22energy
kinetic = (mof
energy 1+
of the
the msystem
2) U
system m1 +is 2μ12 u .
mwritten
is written
2
(3.15)
2 2 2 2
is the reduced
11 is the mass.11 The total1
1 kinetic energy of1 the system
1collision. is written
he kineticKenergy 22 same before
22 and after an elastic
22 22
.. Hence,(3.15) given
K= = 2m m11 vv11 + +2m m122 vv22 = = 2 (m (m1
11 ++ m
m 22 )) U
U1
+
+ 2
μ
μ 12
12
u
u 1 (3.15)
is constant, we2 deduceKthat 2= themmagnitude 2
1 v1 +
2 m2ofv the 2 relative
(m12+velocity,
m2 ) U +u, isμalso
2 2the
12 u . (3.15)
2 =
he
beforekinetic
he kinetic energy
andenergy
after such is the same
is thea same
collision.before
2 before and
Thus,
and after
2 after
it is an an
only elastic collision.
2 the direction
elastic collision.ofHence, Hence, given
2 relative
the given
is constant,
Now,
y vector,
is we
thededuce
rather
constant, we kinetic
than
deduce itsthat
energy the
the is
length,
that magnitude
that
magnitude same of
thechanges before
of the
the relative
during andanafter
relative velocity,
elastican elastic
velocity, u,
u, is
collision. also
also the
collision.
is the Hence, given
 The relative velocity is defined
The relative velocity
u= is vdefined
1 − v2 . (3.11)
u = v1 − v2 . (3.11)
We can express v1 and v2 in terms of U and u as follows:
We can express v1 and v2 inμ terms of U and u as follows:
12
v1 = U + u, μ12 (3.12)
m1 v1 = U + u, (3.12)
μ12 m1
v2 = U − u. μ12 (3.13)
m2 v2 = U − u. (3.13)
Electrodynamics and Here, m2
Here,
Plasma Physics Here, m1 m 2
μ12 = ...(6.14) (3.14)
m1 + m2 μ12 = m1 m2 (3.14)
is the reduced mass. The m1 + m2
is total kinetic mass.
the reduced energyThe
of the totalsystem
kineticisenergy
written of the system is written
is the reduced mass. The total kinetic energy of the system is written
NOTES 1 1 1 1
K = m1 v12 + m2 v221 = (m 1 + m2 ) U +
2
μ12 u2 . (3.15)
2 2 K = m12v12 + 1 m2 v22 = 1 2(m1 + m2 ) U 2 + 1 μ12 u2 . ...(6.15) (3.15)
Now, the kinetic energy is the same before 2 and after 2 an elastic 2 collision. Hence,2 given
that U is constant,Now, the
we deduce
Now, kinetic energy
thatkinetic
the is the same
the magnitude
energy isofthe before
the andvelocity,
relative
same beforeafter
andanafter
elastic collision.
u, isanalso Hence,Hence,
the collision.
elastic given given
same before and that U is constant,
after
that usuch
we deduce
a collision.
is constant, Thus, that
we deduce itthatis the
only
the
magnitude
the direction
magnitude
of theofrelative velocity, u, is also the
the relative
of the relative velocity, u, is also the same
same before and after such a collision. Thus,
velocity vector, rather than its length, that changes during an elastic collision. it is only the direction of the relative
before and
velocity afterrather
vector, such athan
collision.
its length, Thus,that
it ischanges
only theduring
direction of the relative
an elastic velocity vector,
collision.
50 50 rather than its length, that changes duringPlasma Physics:
Plasma
an elastic An Introduction
Physics:
collision. An Introduction

50 Plasma Physics: An Introduction

6.5 BOLTZMANN COLLISION OPERATOR
3.4 Boltzmann Collision
3.4 Boltzmann Operator
Collision Operator
Let σ(v1, v2; v'1, v'1) be the cross-section for a scattering process by which particles of
�
Let σ(vLet v
3.4types
1 , σ(v ,vv�2and
2 ; vBoltzmann
11,1 2); vbe�12, the� cross-section for a scattering process by which particles
v(located
2 ) beCollision
theatcross-section
position Operator
vector forraatscattering time t) are process
incident bywith which particlesv and v ,
velocities 1 2
of typesof1types and 21 (located
and 2 (located at position at position vector rvector at time r att) time are incidentt) are incident with velocitieswith velocities
respectively, � and � are scattered to velocities v' �and v' �,� respectively (Reif 1965). Assuming
v1 and vvLet12 ,and
σ(vv12,, vrespectively,
respectively, 2 ; v1 , v 2 ) be
and arethe
and cross-section
scattered are scattered to velocities for a scattering
to velocities 1v and v v212 ,process v�2 , by
respectively
and which
respectively(Reifparticles
(Reif
1
of
1965). 1965).
Assumingthat
types the 1
Assuming scattering
and 2
that thethat (located process
scattering at
the scattering is
position reversible
processprocess vector
is reversible in r time
at
is reversible timeand
in timein space
t) are
and (which
incident
timespace and(which iswithcertainly
space (which velocities
is the
is case for
� �
certainly v1the
certainlyand
two-body
casev2the,forrespectively,
Coulomb
two-body
case for two-body and areCoulomb
collisions),
Coulomb scattered
the cross-section
collisions), to velocities
the cross-section
collisions), thevthe
for 1 and inverse
cross-section v2 , the
for respectively
process
for themust
inverse (Reif
inverse be the same
1965).
processprocess
must as that Assuming
bemustthe
forsame be
thethe that
assame
forward the
that for as scattering
process the forward
that for
(Reif process
the 1965). process
forward is reversible
(Reif
other 1965).
Inprocess in time
(Reif 1965).
words, and
In otherInwords,space other words,is
(which
certainly the case for �two-body � �
Coulomb
�
collisions),� �
the
�
cross-section
�
for the inverse
σ(v 1 , v σ(v
2 ; v 1 ,, vv 2); v
= 1 v
σ(v
,
process must be the same as that for the forward process (Reif 1965). In other words,
1 2 2 )1 ,
= v σ(v
2 ; v 11 ,, vv 22).
; v ...(6.16)
1 , v 2 ). (3.16) (3.16)
The rateThe rate The
at which rate at
at particles
which which
with the
particles σ(vparticles
with original
� the with
, v� ; voriginal, v )the
velocities original
= velocities
σ(v v1, and velocities
v� 2 are
1 v2 ; v11, v2 ). 2 1
v vareand
� scattered
and v2 are
into
scattered thescattered
into
(3.16)the into the
� � � �� � � � 1 2� � 1 2�
range vrange
1 to v1v+ 1 to
dvv1to
v' andv'dvv+12 dv'
� to vvand
and 2 +todv v is+ dv2 dv' is is
range 1+ 1 2 v2'22to v2' +
The rate at1which1 particles with the original 2velocities v1 and v2 are scattered into the
range v�1 tou vf�11 (r, + dv22 ;isv11,,vv22); dv1v, v1 2d) dv2v. 1 d v2 . ...(6.17)
� � 3� � � 3 3� � 3 �
+ dv vu1�,f1t)and
(r,f2v(r,v1 ,2 �vt)2to,f2t)v(r, � 21, ,t)v�σ(v
2 v
σ(v (3.17) (3.17)
1
Here, uHere, Here,
v2|v|.1 Moreover, − vf21|.(r,Moreover,
−u v=2u|.|vf1Moreover, v1 ,f1t)(r,and f 2(r, vv2 ,,f t)t)(r,are
and �ft) (r, 3 �vthe t)ensemble-averaged
2,3 v � are the ensemble-averaged
= |v1u−=
1 (r, v 1 , t) f2 (r, v2v,1t), 1ft)σ(v(r,
and � v ,the
1 ,1v22 ; v1 , 2v2 )2 d v1 d
ensemble-averaged
are
2. (3.17)
distribution distribution
distributionfunctions functions
for
functions particlesfor for of
particles particles
types 1
of types of types
and 2,1 and 1 and
respectively. 2, respectively.
2, respectively. In writing In writing
the
In writing pre-the pre- the previous
Here, expression,
vious expression,
vious u = we |v1 − have v2we Moreover,
|.assumed
have assumedthat f1the
(r,that vdistribution
1 , t)
the and f2 (r,
distribution v2 , t)functions
functions aref1the and ensemble-averaged
f are
and un-
f are un-
expression, we have assumed that the distribution functions f1 and f2 are uncorrelated. 12 2 This
distribution
correlated.
correlated.This assumption functions
This assumption isfor particles
reasonable is reasonable of typesprovided
provided 1that andthe 2,thatrespectively.
mean-free-path
the mean-free-path In writing
is muchisthe much pre-
vious assumption
expression, is reasonable
we have provided that
assumed that the the mean-free-path
distribution is muchf longer
functions f2than the
un-effective
longer than
longer the effective
than the effectiverange ofrangethe inter-particle
of the inter-particle force. (This
force.follows (This follows because, 1 and be-
because, are be-
fore theyfore range
theyof
correlated.
encounter the
This
one
encounter inter-particle
assumption
another,
one another, two force.
iscolliding
two(This
reasonable follows
provided
particles
colliding because, be-
that originate
originate
particles the fore they
atmean-free-path
different encounter
pointsispoints
at different muchone another,
longer
that arethat two
typically than
arecolliding the
separated
typically effective
particles
separated range
by a originate
mean-free-path. of the
by a mean-free-path. inter-particle
at different However, points force.that
However, (This
the typicalarethe follows
typically
correlation
typical because,
separated
correlation be-
by a mean-
length is foreof
length they
similar
is of encounter
magnitude
similar one
magnitudeto another,
the range
to two
the ofrange colliding
the
free-path. However, the typical correlation length is of similar magnitude to the range of theinter-particle
of the particles
inter-particle originate
force.) In at
writing
force.) different
In the
writing pointsthe
previous that are typically
expression, weforce.) separated
have wealso by
implicitly a mean-free-path. However, the typical correlation
previous expression,
inter-particle have
In writing also theassumed
implicitly previous that
assumed the
expression, inter-particle
that the haveforce
weinter-particle re-
force re- assumed
also implicitly
sponsible length is of
for the collisions
sponsible similar
for the collisions magnitude
is sufficiently is sufficientlyto the range
short-range of
short-range the inter-particle
that thethat particle force.)
positionposition
the particle In writing
vectorsvectors the
that
previous the inter-particle
expression, force
weahave responsible for the collisions is sufficiently short-range re- that the
do not dochange appreciably
not change appreciably (on (onalso
macroscopic implicitly
a macroscopic lengthscale) assumed
lengthscale) duringthat the inter-particle
a collision.
during (Bothforce
a collision. (Both
of the previous
of particle
sponsible
the position
for
assumptions
previous theassumptionsvectors
collisions are valid do
is are not
sufficiently
invalidachange
conventional appreciably
in ashort-range
conventional weakly that(on the a macroscopic
coupled
weakly particle plasma,
coupled position lengthscale)
be-
plasma, be- during
vectors
cause the do
cause not
arange change
collision.
the of range the appreciably
(Both of the
inter-particle
of the (on
previous
inter-particle a macroscopic
force assumptions
isforce of order lengthscale)
is of the areDebye
order valid the in during a
a conventional
length,
Debye collision.
which which
length, (Both
is weakly is coupled
assumed oftoplasma,
assumed the
be previous
muchtobe- besmallerassumptions
much than
smaller any are
than valid
macroscopic
any in a
macroscopic conventional
lengthscale.
cause the range of the inter-particle force is of order the Debye length, which is lengthscale. weakly
Moreover, coupled
the
Moreover, mean-plasma,
the mean- be-
free-path cause is
free-path theisrange
much longer
much ofthan
longerthethe inter-particle
than Debye the length—see
Debye force is Section
length—see of order the By
1.7.)
Section Debye analogy
1.7.) length,
By withwhich
analogy with is
assumedassumed to to
be be
much much smaller
smaller than thanany any macroscopic
macroscopic lengthscale.
lengthscale. Moreover,
Moreover,
� the the
mean- mean- free-
Equation (3.17), (3.17),
Equation the ratethe at which
rate at particleswhich particles with thewith original the originalvelocities v1 and v12 and
velocities � are v2 are�
paththe
free-path is is much much longer
longerthan thandvthe Debye tolength. dvBy analogy with Equation (6.17), the rate at
scattered into
scattered range
into thevrange
1 to v1v+ 1 to v11theand
+ dv Debye
v12 and vlength—see
2v+ 2 to v22is+ dv Section
2 is
1.7.) By analogy with
which particles
Equation (3.17), thewith ratetheat original
which particles velocities with v'1� and v'13are
the original scattered
velocities into v1 the
�
v2 arev1 to v1 +
andrange �

scattered u� f1the
into
��
(r,uvrange ,f1t)(r,f2vv(r,�
,tovt)�2v,f12t)(r,σ(v
dvv�2�11, ,t)and
�
vσ(v; vv1�1,,vto v22);vdv231+ v, v1dv
2d) 2d v3is
2v , 1 d 3 v2 , (3.18) (3.18)
dv1 and v2 to v2 + dv2 is 1 11 + 2 2
�
where uwhere = v�1u−� = v�2v. �1Now,
− v�2u.it fis
� Now, easily it� isdemonstrated
easily demonstrated
� from
� � Equations
from Equations 3 (3.12) 3 and (3.12) (3.13)
and (3.13)
1 (r, v1 , t) f2 (r, v2 , t) σ(v1 , v2 ; v1 , v2 ) d v1 d v2 , ...(6.18) (3.18)
that that
where u� = dv3�1v−1 dv3�2dv. 32Now,
134 Self-Instructional Material v=1 dd33vit U2 is d=3easily
ud 3=Udd33demonstrated
U u d=3 ud�3 U = dd33uv��1from d3dv3�2Equations
= v. �1 d3 v�2 . (3.12) (3.19)and(3.19)
(3.13)
that 3
The result
Thedresult u = d 3 u� =follows d 3 u3� followsfrom the from factthe thatfact thethat vectors the vectors u and uu� and differu�only differinonly in
d v1 d3 v2 = d 3 U d 3 u = d 3 U d 3 u� = d 3 v�1 d3 v�2 . (3.19)
direction. Thus, the
direction. Thus, net theratenet of change
rate of change of the distribution
of the distribution function of particles
function of type of type
of particles
3 3 � �
1The withresult
1 with velocities v1d (at
velocities u= v1d (at
position u position
follows
r and time from
r and t)the duefact
time to that to
t) collisions
due thecollisions
vectors uwith
with particles uofdiffer
and particles typeof onlytype in
direction.
2 [i.e., the
2 [i.e., collision Thus,
the collision the
operator—see net rate
operator—see of
Equation change of the
(3.9)] is(3.9)]
Equation distribution
givenisby given by function of particles of type
 1 with  velocities
 v1(at     r and time t) due to collisions with particles of type
position
∂ f12 [i.e., ∂f
≡ C1the12 ( f≡
collision
1 ,Cf212 ) (=f1 , operator—see
f2 ) = u σ(v1 ,uvEquation � � (3.9)]
2 ; v11,,vv22); (vf11, v
σ(v � � � is given
f22 )−( ff1�1 ff22� )−dby 3
f1v2f2d)3dv3�1vd23dv3�2v. �1 d3 v�2 .
 cause the range of the inter-particle force is of order the Debye length, which is
assumed cause to bethe much range smallerof thethan inter-particle
any macroscopic force is of order the
lengthscale. Debye length,
Moreover, the mean- which is
free-path assumed is much to be longermuchthan smaller the Debye than any macroscopic
length—see Section lengthscale. 1.7.) ByMoreover, analogy with the mean-
Equation (3.17), the rate at which particles with the original velocities v1 and v2 are with
free-path is much longer than the Debye length—see Section 1.7.) � By analogy �

scattered Equationinto the(3.17), range the v1 to rate v1 at+ whichdv1 and particles
v2 to v2with + dvthe 2 is
original velocities v�1 and v�2 are
scattered into� the range v1 to v1 + dv1 and v2 to v2 + dv2 is
u f1 (r, v�1 , t) f2 (r, v�2 , t) σ(v�1 , v�2 ; v1 , v2 ) d3 v1 d3 v2 , (3.18)
u� f1 (r, v�1 , t) f2 (r, v�2 , t) σ(v�1 , v�2 ; v1 , v2 ) d3 v1 d3 v2 , (3.18)
where u� = v�1 − v�2 . Now, it is easily demonstrated from Equations (3.12) and (3.13)
where�u' = v' � − v' � . Now, it is easily demonstrated from Equations (6.12) and (6.13) that Single-Particle Motions
that where u = v1 1− v2 .2 Now, it is easily demonstrated from Equations (3.12) and (3.13)
that d3 v1 d3 v2 = d 3 U d 3 u = d 3 U d 3 u� = d 3 v�1 d3 v�2 . ...(6.19) (3.19)
3 3 3� d33v1 d3 v2 = d 3 U d 3 u = d 3 U d 3 u� = d 3 v�1 d3 v��2 . (3.19)
The result The u = d duu follows
d result = 3d �u' follows from thefrom fact the that fact that the uvectors
the vectors and u udiffer and� u' only in only in
differ
3
direction. TheThus, resultthe d unet= rate d uoffollows change from
of of thethe fact that the
distribution function vectors of u and u of
particles differ type only in
direction. Thus, the net rate of change the distribution function of particles of type 1 with NOTES
1 withdirection.
velocities Thus, v1 (atthe net rate
position r andof change time t)ofdue thetodistribution
collisions with function particlesof particles
of typeof type
velocities
2 [i.e.,1the with v (at
velocities
collision1 position r
v1 (at position
operator—see and time
Equation t) due
r and (3.9)] to
time t)isdue collisions
given to by with particles
collisions with particles of type of type 2 [i.e., the
2
collision
 [i.e., the
 operator is given collision operator—see
 by Equation (3.9)] is given by
∂ f1 Collisions
 ≡ C ( f , f ) = uσ(v  , v ; v� , v� ) ( f � f � − f f ) d 3 v d 3 v� d 3 v� . 51
∂ f 1 12 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2
∂t 2
Here, use≡has C12been ( f1 , fmade
2 ) = of Equation u σ(v(3.16), 1 , v2 ; v1as
�
, v�2well
) ( f1�asf2� u−� = f1 u. d3 v2 d3 v�1 df3 v, �2f. . f � ,
f2 )Moreover,
lisions Collisions ∂t 51 (3.20)1 251 1
Collisions 2 51
ons and
...(6.20)f2� are short-hand for f1 (r, v1 , t), f2 (r, v2 , t), f1 (r, v�1, t), 51 and f2 (r, v�2, t), (3.20) respec-
� �
re, use has beenHere, madeuse ofThe Equation (3.16), as wellisasknown u = u.asas Moreover, u f1=, fu. 2 .collision
f1 ,
Here, use hastively. previous expression the Boltzmann f1 , f2 . foperator.
� f1 , f2 . f �By
�
beenuse has
made been
ofbeen made
Equation of(3.16),
Equation as� well
(3.16), as u�as well
=well u. as
Moreover, Moreover, , , f . f ' 1, ,and
sef2has
�
arebeen � made
short-hand Here,
an of � Equation
for
analogous f (r,has v (3.16),
, t),
argument, fmade as
(r, vtheof
well
, t), Equation
net asf u
(r,
rate
v1 ,2� t), v
= �
of u.
, (6.16),
t), Moreover,
change and
v2 , t), f
of (r,
the f
v �as
, f u'
�t), .
distribution
,
(r,2vf12,(r, =f �u. Moreover,
,
respec- function � fof
1
(r, v2, t),1 respec-particles
and f2 areand f2 are short-hand for f1 (r, v1for , t), f1f(r, , t),1f2f(r, , t), f�1and t), vand f2respec-
1 1 2 2 1 � 2 1 2 1 � 2 1
short-hand 2 (r, v 1 (r, v 2 , t),
are short-hand
ly. The previous for
f '2 tively.
are of f1 (r,
short-hand
expression
type v
2 , t),
with
Theexpression for
is f (r,
knownf
velocities
previous1 expression v
(r, , vt),
as ,v f
t),
the (r,
f
(at v
(r,
Boltzmann,
position
is 1the t),
v
known , and
t), rf f 1(r,
(r,
collision
as and v v
time , ,t),t), andrespec-
operator.
t) due f to (r, v
By ,
collisions t), respectively.
with ByThe
particles
1 the Boltzmann collision operator.
1 2 2 1 2 2
tively. The previous is known 1 2 2as 2 Boltzmann 1collision 2operator. 1 By
The previous
analogous argument, expression
anofanalogous
previous typethe1net
expression is known
rate
is argument,
given of
isnet byas
change
known the Boltzmann
asnet of
thethe collision
distribution
Boltzmann collision operator.
function
the operator. By
of particles
an analogous argument, the ratethe of change rate of the
of change of
distribution functionBy
distribution an
offunctionanalogous
particles argument,
of particles
ogous
ype 2 argument,
with thevelocities the  netv rate
(at of change
position r of
and the time distribution
t) due to function
collisions of particles
with particles
of type 2 with ofnettype rate ∂2fof
velocities2 with change vvelocities
2 (at the vdistribution
ofposition 2 (at
  
r position
and time rt)and
function dueof time t) due of
to�particles
collisions to withcollisions
type withwith
2particles particles
velocities v (at
2 with
ype 1 isvelocities
given of bytype v2 (at 2position r( fand time t) due to collisions with � particles � � 3 3 � 3 � 2
of type position
1 is givenr ∂t 1 is given
≡ C by 1 , f2 ) =
by time t) due to collisions with particles of type 1 is given by
and 21 u σ(v 1 , v 2 ; v 1 , v 2 ) ( f 1 f 2 − f1 f 2 ) d v 1 d v 1 d v 2 .
1 is given
 by   1    
 
∂ f2 ≡∂C f221 ( f1 , f2∂ ) f=
2 

u( fσ(v , v=2 ; v�1 , v�2 ) u( fσ(v � �
�1 f2�1− f2�� ), vd�3)v(1 fd�3 fv�3�1 − d3 v3�2 .f2�) d33 v�1 d3 v� d3 v� . ...(6.21)
(3.21)
∂t≡ C ≡ C 21 ( f
Expression
1 , ≡
f 2 )C = 21 1 , f21) u
(3.20) for
� σ(v �the1 , v ; v
Boltzmann
2
� � , v ), (vff2collision
1�; v
f3 1 − 2f31 foperator
�21) 3d2 �v1 fd1can v dbe v further
. 1 simplified
2
( f1 , 1f2 ) = ∂t 1 u σ(v1 , v2 ; v1 , v2 ) ( f1 f2 − f1 f2 ) d v1 d v1 d v2 .
1 21∂t 1 2 1 2 1 2
for elastic collisions because, in this case, the collision cross-section (3.21) σ(v1 , v2(3.21); v�1 , v�2 )
1 (3.21)
Expression (3.20) afor
isExpression the Boltzmann
function only
(3.20) of for
the collision
magnitude
the operator
Boltzmann of the can be further
relative
collision velocity
operator (3.21)
simplified
vector,
can be u, and its
further change in
simplified
Expression (3.20)
Expression for(6.20)
the Boltzmann
for the collision
Boltzmann operator
collision can
operator be further can � be simplified
� further simplified
ression (3.20)
elastic collisions for the
because,
direction Boltzmannasinathis result collision
case, of thecase, operator
collision
collision. can be
cross-section
Furthermore, further simplified, v2 ; v1 , over
the 1cross-section
σ(v integral v2 ) the � final �1 , v2 velocities
� � for
for elastic for elastic because,
collisions collisions in because,
this inthe thiscollision
case, thecross-section
collision σ(v , v
� , v ; v' ; v σ(v
, v ) ; v , v 2)
tic collisions
function elastic
only because,
of �collisions
the in
magnitude�thisbecause,
case, of the
the in this
collision
relative case, the collision
cross-section
velocity vector, cross-section
u,
σ(v and , v ;
its v � σ(v
change
, v )1
in
2 1 , v' 1
2 ) is a function
is a function v
is aonly and
1function v
of the reduces
2 only magnitude to an
of the magnitude integral
of the relative over
of the all solid
relative
velocity angles
velocity
vector,
1 2 for
u, and 1 the
vector, 2 change
1
its change2 in
u, and its1
in change inu.
direction
2 of
ction only
ection as a of the
only
result magnitude
of
Thus, the magnitude
collision.
we canof the
write relative
of the
Furthermore, velocity
relative thevelocityvector,
integral u,
vector,
over and u,
the itsand change
final its in
change
velocities in direction as a result
direction asdirection
a result of as the a result
collision. of the Furthermore,
collision. Furthermore, the integralthe over integral
the final over the final velocities
velocities
n as a� result of
and v2� reduces the
vto ancollision.
integral Furthermore,
overtoallansolid the
angles integral forallthe over changethe final velocities
in direction ofvu. and vu.
v and vof�2 reduces
the collision. Furthermore, the integral over the final velocities 2 reduces to an
� �
1 and vto 2 reduces
an integral over integral
all solid over angles solid
3 �for3 the
angles change
dσ(u,for the
in
χ, φ) change
direction 1 inof direction of u.
v�2 reduces
us, to an
we1 can write Thus,integral we can over all solid σ(v angles
writeangles for the1change , v ; for
v � the
, v � change
) d v d in
v � direction
= of u. dΩ, (3.22)
Thus, we integral
can over
write all solid 1 2 2 in1 direction 2 ofdΩ u. Thus, we can write
we can write
dσ(u, χ, φ)
where
σ(v1 , vΩ2 ; = v�1 ,sin
v�2 )χddχ 3 �dφ.3 Here,
� v1 d � ,v
�
v32 v;=v� �1d,3vχvχ, )dΩ d3 vdσ(u,
��is the � angle
d3dΩ, φ)dσ(u, χ,
v�2χ,=...(6.22)
through whichφ) (3.22)
dΩ, the direction of (3.22) u is de-
3 2 ;� v13, v�21) d dσ(u,
� σ(v � 1, v
σ(v 2 φ)
= 1 dΩ, (3.22)
σ(vflected , v
1 2 1 2 ; v as, v a ) d v
consequence
1 d v 2 = of 1the collision
2 dΩ, (see
dΩ Figure dΩ 3.1), (3.22) and φ is an azimuthal angle
dΩ
ere Ω = sin χ dχ
where Ω =where
dφ.
that
sinwhere Here,
χ determines
Ω
dχ Ω
=dφ. =
sinχsin is
χ χdχ
Here,
thethe angle
χdorientation
dχdφ. φ.Here,
is
through
Here,
the angle χχ isof thewhich
the the
through angle
angle the
plane direction
through
which in which
through thewhich which theu
of
direction the isdirection
vector
the de-
u uis isde-
direction
of ofconfined
u is
of u deflected
is de- dur-
Ωted = assina χconsequence
dχ dφ. Here,
ing theof χ the is
collision.the angle
collision (See through
(see Figure
Section which 3.1),
3.7.) the
and
Moreover,direction
φ is an of
azimuthal
dσ/dΩ u isis de-
a angle
conventional differential
flected as as aaflected
consequence
consequence as a consequence of
of thethecollision
collision of the (see collision
(see Figure(see
Figure 6.1),
3.1), Figure
andandφφis3.1), and
isananazimuthal
azimuthalφ is an azimuthal
angle
angle angle
that determines
tasdetermines
a consequence the
that ofdetermines
the collision
orientation
scattering ofthe the
cross-section (see planeFigure
orientation in 3.1),
(Reif which
1965).
of and
the the is aninazimuthal
φ vector
Hence,
plane we u obtain
which is confined the anglevector dur-u is confined dur-
the orientation
that determines the orientation of the plane of the in plane
whichinthe whichvector theu vector is confined u is confined during the dur-collision. (See
ermines
the collision.the orientation
(Seethe
ing Section of the
collision. 3.7.)plane Moreover,
(See in which
Section dσ/dΩ
3.7.)the vector
 Moreover, u isdσ/dΩ
is a conventional confined dur-
differential
is ascattering
conventional differential
ing the Section
collision. 6.7.)(See Section
Moreover, 3.7.)
dσ/dΩ Moreover,
is a conventionaldσ/dΩ
dσ(u, isdifferential
χ, a conventional
φ) differentialcross-section (Reif
collision.
ttering (Seescattering
cross-section Section (Reif 3.7.) 1965).Moreover,
C
cross-section 12 (Hence,
f 1 , f ) dσ/dΩ
(Reif
2 =we1965). obtain is auHence,conventional we (
obtain fdifferential
� �
f − f 1 f 2 ) d 3
v 2 dΩ. (3.23)
scattering cross-section
1965).(Reif Hence, (Reif
weobtain 1965). Hence, we obtain dΩ 1 2
ng cross-section 1965).
 Hence, we obtain
  χ,φ) � � dσ(u, χ, φ)
dσ(u,
C12 ( f1Note,, f2 ) =  Cdσ(u, (uf ,iffwe dσ(u, ( fχ,1 fu
φ) f f2� ) d3 v(2of
− identities dΩ. (3.23)
C12 ( ffinally, that u=exchange 2the f32 − f1 ff21)particles 1 f21 ) dand
� �3 3 2 in Equation (3.22)
1 , f2 ) =12 1 χ, 2dΩ)φ) � � ( f11�dΩ df2 v−2 fdΩ. ...(6.23)v2 dΩ. (3.23) (3.23)
C12 ( f1 , f2 )then = u → −u, u but u → u,( fχ1 → fdΩ −
2 χ, and f f ) d v dΩ.
1 2 φ →2 φ. Thus, we conclude that (3.23)
dΩ
te, finally, that Note, if we exchange
finally, that theifidentities
we the exchange of particles
theof 1 and of
identities 2 inparticles
Equation (3.22)
1� and 2 in(3.22)
Equation (3.22)
Note, finally, that if we exchange identities v ; v � particles
v �
) 11and v ;2vin � Equation
v ).
nnally,
u →that −u,ifbut wethen
uexchange
Note,
→ uu, → χfinally,
→
−u, theχ, identities
butand
that u
then u → −u, but u → u, χ → χ, and φ → φ. Thus, we conclude that
φ
→if →weu, of
φ.
χ
σ(v
particles
→Thus,
exchange 2 ,
χ, 1we
and 1
the2
φ
,and
conclude
→ 1 2=
identities
φ. inσ(v Equation
Thus, thatof, particles
2
we 1 ,
(3.22)
conclude 2 1 and that 2 in Equation(3.24) (6.22)
→ −u, but uthen → u, χ →
u → − u, but u →χ, and φ → φ. Thus, we conclude
u, χ → χ, and φ� �→� �φ. Thus, we conclude that that
σ(v2 , v1 ; v�2 , v�1 ) =σ(v � σ(v � 1, ,vv;2 ;vv1, ,vv)2 ). � � (3.24)
� σ(v � 2 , v1 ; v2 , v12) =1� σ(v 2� 1 , 1v2 = ; vσ(v�
, v�21)., v2 ; v1 , v2 ). (3.24) (3.24)
σ(v2 , v1 ; v2 , v1 ) = σ(v1 , v2 ; v1 , v2 ). ...(6.24) 1 (3.24)

6.6 3.5
COLLISIONAL CONSERVATION
Collisional Conservation Laws LAWS
Consider Consider
5 Collisional
3.5 3.5Conservation
Collisional
Collisional Laws
 Conservation
Conservation Laws
Laws Laws

Collisional Conservation
3
nsider C12 d v1 = � �
u σ(v1 , v2 ; v1 , v2 ) ( f1� f2� − f1 f2 ) d3 v1 d3 v2 d3 v�1 d3 v�2 , ...(6.25) (3.25)
Consider Consider
er   
    
C12 d3 v  u3σ(v ; v�1 , vEquation
1 , v2from
�
2) u
� �
( fσ(v
�1 f2� −,(3.20).
3�
v)1(df3�vf32� d−3fv3�1 fd3)primed
vf1 �;fv2 )�� ,dvInterchanging vd3�23,v�(3.25)
3 C12 d v1 = 12 dfollows
1 = 3 which C v1 = u� σ(v � 1 , v�2 ; v � 1 , v21) ( f21 3f21− f321 f2 )13d 2�v1 3d1 �v22 d v11 d v22, (3.25)
d33and
v� d3unprimed dummy
v�1 d3 v�2 , (3.25) Self-Instructional Material 135
2 d v1 = u σ(v 1 , v ; v
variables of integration
2 ,
1 2 v ) ( f1 onf − f f ) d v d
2 the right-hand side, 1we obtain
1 2 1 v 2 d v d v 2 , (3.25)
ich follows fromwhichEquation
follows(3.20).from(3.20). Interchanging
   (3.20).
Equation primed and unprimed dummy
Interchanging
which follows from Equation Interchanging primed andprimed unprimed and unprimed
dummy dummy
ollowsoffrom
iables Equation
integration on (3.20).
the 3 Interchanging
right-hand
v side, we �primed
obtain �
v �and unprimed dummy
v v � � 3 � 3 � 3
v 3
variables
variables of C
integrationof d
12 integration =
on 1the right-hand u
on the right-handσ(v ,
side, 1we 2obtain ; side, )
1 2we obtain
, ( f1 2 f − f 1 2 f ) d 1 d v2 d v1 d v2 .
es
 of integrationon theright-hand side, we obtain
3   �  � �   (3.26)
 
C12 d v1 = 3   f�1�; vf21� ), vd23)v� (�1 fd�13fv23�2−d�3fv�31 fd��3) vd323.v� d33 v� d3 v1 d3 v2 .
u vσ(v 1 ,uv� 2 ; v1�, v2�)u(� fσ(v1 f2 �−
3
C d v =C 12 d 1 = σ(v , v ; v , v 1), v
( f2 f − f f ) d v d
1 v 2 d v 1 d v 2 .
C12 d3 v1 = 12 1
u� σ(v�1 , v�2 ; v1 , v2 )1( f12 f2 1− f21� f2� )1d32v�1 d31v�22 d3 v1 1d3 v2 .2 1 2
(3.26) (3.26)
(3.26)
 3.5 Collisional Conservation Laws
Consider
 
C12 d3 v1 = u σ(v1 , v2 ; v�1 , v�2 ) ( f1� f2� − f1 f2 ) d3 v1 d3 v2 d3 v�1 d3 v�2 , (3.25)

Electrodynamics and which

which follows
follows from from Equation Equation (6.20). (3.20). Interchanging
Interchanging primed primed and unprimed
and unprimed dummy dummy
variables
Plasma Physics variables of integration on the right-hand side, we obtain
of integration on the right-hand side, we obtain
 
3
52 C12 d v1 = u� σ(v�1 , v�2 ; v1 , v2 ) ( f1 f2 Plasma d3 v�1 d3 v�2An
− f1� f2� ) Physics: d3 vIntroduction
3
1 d v2 . ...(6.26)
52 52 Plasma Physics: An Introduction Plasma Physics: An Introduction
52 52NOTES Plasma Plasma Physics:
Physics: An Introduction
An Introduction � 1
(3.26)
Hence,
Hence, making making use use of Equation
of Equation (3.16), (6.16), as well
as well as the
as thefact factthat �thatu
u = u, we deduce thatthat
u
= u,
= we
u, wededuce
deduce that
Hence,52 making useHence, of Equation making use of
(3.16), as Equation
well
 asthe (3.16),
fact that as well
Plasma u� =as u,the
Physics: wefact An
deduce thatIntroduction
that
Hence,  making 52 useuse of
 Equation  C (3.16), as well as the �Plasma Physics: An Introduction
Hence, making 
of Equation 3(3.16),
3 d v1 = −
12 v
as well as the u�fact
σ(v fact
v
that
1;, vvthat u �=
v
u� u, =� we u, we �deduce
� deduce thatthat
�2 ; v�1 , v2 )� �( f�1 f2 − f1 f23) d v31 d v32 d
v
3
v
3
v
3 � 3 �
� v31 d � v2
Hence, making use C of d
Equation − (3.16), as u
well as the fact )
that ( f u f − u, f we f ) d
deduce d that d 1 d v2
 
52 C12 d v1 = − 3   
    =
u σ(v1 , v2 ; v�1 , v�2 ) ( f1� f2�Plasma σ(v ,
− f1 f2 )Physics: , 3 3
2 1 d 1vAn 3 3
22d3Introduction
� � � 1d v = � �
3 Hence,
12 1 1 2 v�1� d3 v�2
1 2 1 2

C12Cd12 vd13 v=1 −= − making  use
 
u σ(v of 
u σ(v Equation
, v2 ,;vv21 (3.16), as
;,vv�12,)v(�2f�)1( f2�1� −f2� f− well as the3
1 ff21) fd2 )vd1 d
fact 3 that
3 v 3 d v 3d � v 3 �
v1 d2 v2 d1 v d2 vu = u, we deduce that
C d3 v = −  1 u1σ(v v ; v 3v ) ( f � f � − f � f ) d 3 v d 3 v 1d 3 v� 2d 3 v�
Hence, making 12 use1of Equation (3.16), = − as ,
1 well C
2 12 asd, v
the , fact that u1 � 2= u, we 1 deduce 2 3 1that3 2� 3 � (3.27)
dC 12 d 1v, 1v,2 ;...(6.27)
3 1 2 1 1 2
 = −C12
3
v1d= 
3 −
v , = − Cu12 σ(v v1 , v2 ) ( f1 f2 − f1 f2 ) d3 v1(3.27)
� � �
d v2 d v1 d v2 (3.27)
1
= − − which C12C d123 vimplies
d13u,vσ(v1 , 3 that 3 � (3.27) 3 (3.27)
C12 d3 v1 ==which − =− which
implies C implies
that
d v 1 ,, vthat
� � � �
2 ; v1 , v2 ) ( f1 f2 −f1 f2 ) d v1 d v2 d v1 d v2 (3.27)
3 3 �
which implies that 12
 1 3 
which which implies
implies thatthat  = − C12 d v31 , ...(6.28) C12Cd12
3
3 d v1 = 0.
v1 = 0.
(3.27)
(3.28)(3.28)
which implies that
= − C12 d v1 , C  3 C 12 d 3 3
v 1 = 0. (3.28)
(3.27)
which The implies The that expression
previous 12Cd12 vd1 v
expression 1 0.
states
= = 0. that collisions with particles (3.28)(3.28)
of type 2 give rise to zero
The previous expression previous
states that collisions states
C with d 3that collisions with particles of type 2 give rise to zero
v particles
= 0. of type 2 give rise to zero (3.28)
which implies that net Therate previous
of change expression
of the 12 states
number
C
1
d that=collisions
3 density
v 0. of particles with particles
of type of
at type
1position position2rgive r and
rise to zero
timetime
The
netThe previous
rateprevious expression
of change net
expression
of the ratestates of change
that
states density
number of
collisions
that collisions
 the number
of particleswith density
particles
with particles
12 ofconserve ofof
type 1ofatthe
1 particles
type type 2
positiongive
2 giveofrisetype
r and to 1
rise timeto zero (3.28)
zeroat and
t.net t.
rateIn other
of change words, of the the collisions
number density number of particles of type
type 1.r Now, 1. Now,it itt. In
net
t. In rate
net The
rate
other
previous
of change
of change
words, of
the
expression
Incollisions
the
of other
thenumbernumber states
words, density that
the
density
conserve C12of collisions
collisions
3particles
of
dthat
the = 0.conserve
1particles
vnumber with
of ofof type type 1of
particles
particles the at1particles
atof
number
position typeof
ofposition
type of 1.
type
2r give
particles
andrNow,
and 1 time
rise
time
(3.28)
attoofposition
it rise
zero and time
net rateThe previous
of changeother is easily
expression
of seen
words, seen
the number the from
states
collisions Equations
density collisions
of
conserve (3.20)
particles withand
of (3.21)
particles
typeof 1 of that
at of type
position 2 give
rtype
and time to zero
t.is In other
t. In
easily otherwords,
seen words,
from is
the easily
collisions
the
Equations collisions (3.20)from
conserve
conserve
and Equations thethe
(3.21) number (3.20)
number
that ofthe and number
(3.21)
particles
of particles of
that particles
type type 1. 1. Now,of
Now, it it1. Now, it is easily seen
The t. In
previous net
other ratewords,
expression of change the
states ofthat
collisions thecollisions
numberconserve density
with the of particles
number
particles 3 of type of type
particles 2 3 of
give 1 rise
attypeposition
to 1.zeroNow, r andit time
is easily
is easily seenseenfrom from Equations
from Equations
Equations (3.20) (3.20) and
(6.20) and (3.21)
and (3.21) that
(6.21) that C
that 123 d v1 = C21 3 d v2 . (3.29)
t. In other words, theC collisions
d 3
v C conserved 3 C12 the
v d vnumber 1 = C21 dofvparticles 2. of
(3.29)type 1. Now, it (3.29)
net rateis easily
of change seen of from the Equations
number12density (3.20)
3 3 1 = of and (3.21)
particles
21 3 3 2 . that
of type 1 at position r and time
t. In other is easily
words, seen
Hence,
the from
Hence, Equation
collisions
Equation
C Cd12
Equations
12 vd1(3.28)
(3.28)
conserve Cthe
v=1(3.20) =
also 21C also vd2implies
dnumber
and
implies .v(3.21)
2 . that ...(6.29)
that
that of type 1. (3.29) (3.29)
C12 d v1 = 3C21d3of v2 particles Now, it(3.29)
21
Hence, Equation (3.28) also implies that 3  . 3
is
Hence, easily
Hence, seen
Equation
Equation from(3.28) Equations
(3.28) also also
Hence, implies (3.20)
implies
Equation and
thatthat(6.28) (3.21)C12 dalso thatv1 implies= C21 C v2d.3 v2 = 0.
d 3that (3.29) (3.30)
Hence, Equation (3.28) alsoimplies C321 d3that v = 0. 3 C21 d21 v2 = 0. (3.30) (3.30)
Hence, Equation C
(3.28)12also d v  1implies C
2
3 3 21 that
= d v .
...(6.30)
2 (3.29)
In other words, 21Cd21 vd2 v
Ccollisions 2d0.
= =
also 0.conserve the number of particles (3.30)(3.30)of type 2.
In other words, collisions also 3conserve
InHence, Equation
other words, (3.28) also
collisions also implies
conserve that the Cnumber
21 v 2 of 0. the number
= 3particles of type of2. particles of(3.30) type 2.
Consider  C d v 0.
In other words,
InConsider
other words, collisions Consider
collisions Inalsoother
also conserve
words,
conserve  the collisions
thenumber number also
21 of particles
conserve
of 2 = 
particles ofthe type
ofnumber
type 2. 2. of particles of(3.30) type 2.
3
In
Consider other
Consider words, collisions also conserve
 C21 d 3 the(m
v (m = 0. number
+ 1m + ) m 2 )
of U C U
particles C d 3
12 v d of=v1type
0.= 0.2.(3.30) (3.31)(3.31)
In other words, Consider
(mcollisions+ m ) also U conserve
C 2
d 31v the = 20.number12 of 1
particles of (3.31)
type 2.
Consider 1 2 12
 3 v 3 = 0. 1
Consider This (m 1(m
integral +1 m +2ism ) U CU12Cd12zero,
) 2obviously d1 v1 as = 0.
indicated, asconsequence
a consequence (3.31)(3.31) of the conservation
In other words,
This integral is obviously This
collisions integral
also
zero, is
as (mobviously
conserveindicated,
+ m the ) zero,
number
as U a C as of
d indicated,
consequence 3 particles...(6.31)
v = 0. as
of the
of atype 2.
conservation of(3.31)
the conservation
law law
(3.28),(3.28), as as well
well
1
as (m as +
the
2 the
fact m fact
)
that
12that
U
the C the1
centerd center
3
v of of
0.
mass mass velocity,
velocity, U, U,aisconstant
is a(3.31)
constant of theof the
This
lawThis Consider
integral
integral
(3.28), is
as well obviously
is obviously
as the zero,
factzero, that as indicated,
as indicated,
the 
center 1 as
of mass 2 a
asuse consequence
a velocity,
consequence 12 of
=
U, is of
1 the conservation
the conservation
a constant of the the previous
This integral motion.
istheobviously However,
zero, as making
indicated, as of Equations
aas consequence (3.10) of and
the (3.29),
conservation expres-
law (3.28),
law
motion. (3.28),as
However, well
as wellmotion.
as
makingas This
thefact fact
use(m integral
However,
that 1ofthat
+ the
mthe ismaking
center
2 ) zero,
Equations obviously
centerUinof C usemass
12of
(3.10) zero,
of
3mass
dform vand Equations
velocity,
1 = velocity,0. indicated,
(3.29), U,the(3.10) isas
is aprevious
U, aconstant
aand
constantconsequence
(3.29), ofthe
of(3.31)
expres- the theof the conservation
previous expres- law
law This integral
(3.28), as
sion sion
well can is
as can
bethe be
obviously fact
rewrittenrewritten
that the
infact the as the
center
formindicated, of mass as a
velocity, consequence U, is a of
constantthe conservation
of the
motion. can However, making use of of Equations (3.10) and (3.29), thethe previous expres-
(6.28), as well as Equations
the that the center of  mass velocity, U, isU,a3is a constant of the motion.
sion motion. beHowever,
rewritten making
in thewell form use (3.10) and (3.29), previous expres-
This motion.
integral lawis (3.28),
However,
obviously as makingzero, as as the
use fact
of
indicated, that
Equations  theas center
a (3.10)
consequence of3and mass velocity,
(3.29), of thethe previous
conservation constant
expres- of the
sion can be rewritten
sion can be rewritten in the form
in themaking form use of Equations 1Cv1 C 3 d vand vprevious 3 d vexpression
sion can motion.
as be
However,
However,
 the
rewritten m1fact in
v1 the making use of
m1of vm
Equations
 (6.10)
12
dvelocity, 3= 1− (6.29),
v1d(3.10) = and− (3.29),
U, m
mthe2C
is2 av2constant
2C
21 thed21 previous
v2of . the 2. expres- be (3.32)
can(3.32) rewritten
12 form
law (3.28), well as 3 center
Cthat dthe v 1 = − m 1mass
2 v12 C
2 21 v 2 . (3.32)
sion can inmaking
betherewritten
mform vuse
11 C Cin
3the3 form
vd1 v=1 −= v 3 3
vd2 .v2 .particles
motion. However,
This This
equation
m
1equation v112of
m dv12Equations
states states
C that d 3that
v
− (3.10)
the =
m
the
rate
2m
−
22 C
rate
at
vand
m
at
221
which
Cd21
v
(3.29),
which
C particles
d
the
3
v .
previous
of type of type (3.32)
1due
(3.32)
expres-
gain1 gain momentum
momentum
(3.32) duedue to to
This equation states
sion can be rewrittencollisions that the
in the form rate at
1
with which
1 12
particles particles
1
of of type 2
3type 2 is equal to the rate 2 1 gain
21 momentum
2
at which toparticles
type 2 loselose
of type 2
3
collisions thethe with particlesmwhich1 v1particlesC12 d v12of= − 1mgain21 vthe2C d at . ...(6.32)
v which to to of(3.32)
This Thisequation
collisions withstates
equation states
particles thatthat
of
momentum
rate
type 2atis
rate which
due
at
equal to toofthe
collisions
type

particles ratewith is type
atof equal
which type
particles
to gain
particles of
rate
momentum
21momentum
typeof 2type1. In
due particles
due
2 other
lose
collisions Thiswith
collisions equation
with states
momentum
particles
particles of m that
type
of vwith
1 type
the
1due
2Cis 2 rate
to
equal at
dis3collisions
vequal
1 =
which
to −the
to the particles
with
rate
m vat2particles
2rate which
C
at ofd3type
21which 2of
vparticles 1 gain
type
particles
.words, 1.
of momentum
Incollisions
type
of other
type 2 (3.32)
lose
2 losedue tothe the
words, words, collisions
collisions
momentum due to collisions
conserve 12particles of type 1. In other the
momentum collisions
momentum
Thiswith
duedue
equation
to conserve
collisions
to collisionsThis
particles states ofmomentum.
equation
momentum.
with
that
type
with
the
particles
particles israte
2states equal at which
of that type
of to
type thethe
1. 1.
particles
rate
rate
In atother
other
In which of type
words,
1 gainof
particles
particles
words, thethe collisions
momentum
of type21lose
type
collisions gainduemomentum
to due
conserve momentum.
collisions with Finally,
particles consider
of type 2 is equal to the rate at which particles of type 2 lose
This
conserve momentum
equation
conserve momentum. states
momentum. due
to to
that collisions
collisions
Finally, the rate with
consider at with
which
particles particlesparticles
of of
type oftype 2
 typeis 1. 1
equal In gainother
to the words,
momentum rate atthe due collisions
which to particles of type 2 lose
Finally, consider
momentum due to collisions
2 is equalwith particles  of type 1.3 In other words, the collisions
conserve
collisions with momentum.
particles of type to the rateparticlesat which12 3particles
d =v10. ofother
type words, 2 lose the collisions (3.33)
Finally,
Finally,consider
consider
conserve
momentum
momentum.
due  K C d3 v = 0. K CK12Cdof
to collisions with vtype
1
1.= In 0.
(3.33) (3.33)conserve
momentum Finally,
due to consider
collisions
momentum. with particles  12 3 of1 type 1. In other words, the collisions
Kis CK 12Cd12 vd
3 = 0. (3.33)
Finally, consider 1v = 0. as indicated, as a consequence (3.33) of the conservation
conserve momentum.
This integral is obviously ThisThis integral integral
zero, is
as obviously obviously
indicated, K C zero,
as
1zero,
as
da3 vconsequence indicated, of
1 = 30.
as the a consequence
conservation of(3.33)
the conservation
Finally, consider law Finally,
(3.28), consider
as well as the 12fact that the
vkinetic kinetic energy, K, is the same beforeandand afterafter
This
lawThis integral asiswell
integral
(3.28), law
obviously
is obviously
as the (3.28),zero,
fact asas
zero,
that well
 as
the as
indicated, the fact
indicated,
kinetic as Kas
energy, a Cconsequence
that a12the d is
consequence
K, 1 the= 0.same energy,
of of thebefore K,conservation
is
conservation
the and theaftersame before (3.33)
This integral isasan elastic
obviously collision.
zero, Itas It follows
indicated, from Equations (3.15) and (3.29) thatthat
law
an law (3.28),
(3.28),
elastic as well
as well
collision.
This
an
asIt
integral
elastic
the factfact
the
follows is
collision.
that
from
obviously
thatthe Kkinetic
the
Equations follows
Ckinetic
zero, 12 d3as energy,
v(3.15) =from
energy,
1indicated, 0.as K,
and
aK,
Equations
...(6.33) consequence
is(3.29)
the
as
is the
a
same (3.15)
same
that before
consequence
of
and
before the
and
of
conservation
(3.29)
andafter
(3.33)
the
after
conservation
an an lawcollision.
elastic (3.28), asItwell
follows as the from fact that 
Equations the  1(3.15)
kinetic 2energy,
and (3.29) K, isthat the same
1 before and3 after
elastic collision. It1 follows from Equations 1that (3.15) and 3 (3.29)
v that
1 is 2
This an law (3.28),
elasticiscollision.
integral as
  mItvzero,
obviously well follows
2 as
C12as
the
d33from
fact
indicated,
vis1 obviously m
Equations
21  m
the
vas12
1 C
1
m
vkinetic
a12
1 C 3
12
d2 v1 =dand
(3.15)
consequence
d energy,
1 =
3− (3.29)
−
v2 . of
K, m m
the
22that
the 2 2 v
same C
C21 (3.34)
v2conservation
2 d v2 . v2 . and after (3.34)
3
21 d
before (3.34)
1 This
1 1 12integral =2− 1 zero,
1 2 v22 C as 21indicated, 2 as a consequence of the conservation law
law (3.28),an as elastic
well asThis collision.
2the 
m1factm v111C
equation
2It d
vthat
12C12
follows
the vd13kinetic
states v=1 −=
fromenergy,
that − the 2Equations
mrate 
2m v221K, Cv2
at
2 is
21
(3.15)
Cd21
which
3
the vd23.sameand (3.29)
2 . 3 before
vparticles of
that
and
type(3.34) after
(3.34)
1 gain kinetic energy due
(6.28), 2 as
2 ratem well 1 as 2 the fact 3 that 2 the
−2 at type kinetic energy,
2 K, is the same before and after an elastic
an elastic
This equation statesThis
collision. that equation
Ittofollows
the
collisions 2 follows
states
from1 v1
at which
with
C12
1 Equations
that
particles
vthe
d2particles1 =rate (3.15)
3 ofoftype
which
2and
m2(3.29)
21equal
particles
v12gain
isand
C21that
equal
d2 v2of
kinetic to
. type
3energy
the rate
1 gaindue
at
kinetic
(3.34) energy due
which particles of type
This equation states collision.
to collisions
that
 the It
rate with
at which m 1from
particles v C
particles
12  d
Equations
of vtype1of = type−
2(6.15)is 1 gain m 2 v C
(6.29)
to
kinetic the21 dratev
that
energy2 .at which
due (3.34)of type
particles
to This equation
collisions withstates particles
2
that
1
lose
the
ofkineticrate 2at
type which
2energyis equal 1 particles
due toto 1 the of type
rate
collisions at 2which1 gainparticles
with
2 kinetic energy
particles ofoftypetypedue 1. In
to to This equation
collisions
collisions with with states
2 lose
particles
particles m that
kinetic
of vof 2the
typeCenergyrate
12 2d is
type
3 atdue
vwith
2 =which
1equal
is −particles
equal particles
totocollisions
the
to mthe 2ratev22rate Cofwith
at type
21 which
atd1. v2In
which1. gain
3 particles
particles kinetic
ofwords,
particles typeof of energy
1.
type
(3.34) type due words, the the
In other other words,
2 lose kinetic Thisenergy
equation due to
collisions 1 collisions
states 1 conserve
that energy. of type other the
136 Self-Instructional
2collisions
lose
2 loseto
kinetic
kinetic
Material
collisions
energy withdue2due
collisions
energy particlesconserve
to collisions
to of the
collisions type energy.
with
rate
with isatequal
2 particles which
2 to
particles
particles
of the type
of rate
type 1. 1.
ofattype
In which
other
In
1 gain
other particles
words,
kinetic
words, theof
energy due
thetype
conserve
to energy.
collisions with particles of type 2 is equal to the rate at which particles of type
This
collisions 2 lose
equation
collisions kinetic
conserve states
conserve energy
that
energy.
energy. thedue ratetoatcollisions
which particles with particles of type 1ofgain typekinetic 1. In other energywords, due the
collisions
to collisions 2 lose
with kinetic
conserve
particles energy
energy. due to collisions
of type 2 is equal to the rate at which particles of type with particles of type 1. In other words, the
2 lose kinetic collisions
energyconserve due to collisions energy. with particles of type 1. In other words, the
collisions conserve energy.
 conserve momentum.
Finally, consider 
K C12 d3 v1 = 0. (3.33)
This integral is obviously zero, as indicated, as a consequence of the conservation
law (3.28), as well as the fact that the kinetic energy, K, is the same before and after
an elastic collision. It follows from Equations (3.15) and (3.29) that
  Single-Particle Motions
1 2 3 1 2 3
m1 v1 C12 d v1 = − m2 v2 C21 d v2 . ...(6.34) (3.34)
2 2
This equation states that the rate at which particles of type 1 gain kinetic energy due
Thiswith
Collisions
to collisions equation statesofthat
particles the2rate
type at which
is equal particles
to the rate atofwhich
type 1particles
gain kinetic energy53due to
of type
Collisions
Collisions
Collisions
Collisions 53 53
5353
Collisions
Collisions
collisions
2 lose kinetic with particles
energy due toofcollisions
type 2 is equal to the rateofattype
with particles which1. particles
In other of type 53
words, 2the 5353
lose kinetic NOTES
collisions
energyconserve energy.with particles of type 1. In other words, the collisions conserve energy.
due to collisions

mann3.6 3.6 Boltzmann

3.6
3.6
H-TheoremBoltzmannH-Theorem
Boltzmann H-Theorem
H-Theorem
3.6
6.7
3.6 Boltzmann
Boltzmann
BOLTZMANN
Boltzmann H-Theorem
H-TheoremH-THEOREM
H-Theorem
Equation
Equation
Equation
Equation (3.20)
(3.20)
(3.20)
(3.20) can
can
can
can be
be be
be written
written
written
0) can be written
EquationEquation
Equation
Equation (3.20) (3.20)
(3.20)can be
(6.20) can
can
can bewritten
written
be
be written
written
written

  
 
  
  

  ∂∂∂ ∂ f1    
     
∂ f ∂fff111ff�11 =�==

� � uuu uuσ(vσ(v �,,3v2v
� �
vv2;v222;v�;;;vd)�1�vvv�13,(�1�1,v,,,fv��2�vvv��2)d�2�2)f()))3�(fv(((−
� �
��ff�1�� f�ff�2��−− ff113ff2ff)22)d))d33dd33v333vvv2� 22dd33dd33v333v��vv�� ��1�dd33dd3v333v��vv�.��2�. ...(6.35)
. (3.35)
(3.35)
= u σ(v1 ,1v2∂∂t v
;∂t
∂t
=
∂t ,
1 2= v 2
=
)
= ( f u f −
1 2 u1σ(v1 ,1v
σ(v f 1, σ(v
σ(v
vf
σ(v 2 )
;
1
11,v
1,v
d 1 , ,
2 ; v2 , 1 v 1 ) 2 (2 f
f
1 �1f1.ff2�2f2− −
21f212−2 f1f1(3.35)
f − f
) f
1 d1
f2vf)2 d
2 )ddvv22v12dddvv11v2111d. dv22v2.22 .. (3.35) (3.35)
(3.35)
(3.35)
(3.35)
∂t 2∂t∂t 22222 1 2 1

Consider
Consider
Consider
Consider Consider the
the
the
the quantity
the quantity
quantity
quantity
quantity
quantityConsiderConsider
Consider the the
quantity
the quantity
 quantity    
 3
f1 ln f1 d3 v1 .H...(6.36)
H
HH== f1 lnfff11f1ff111ln
= f1 lnln
dln 3ff11ff11dd33d d333vvv1. ... (3.36)
(3.36)
(3.36)
H= =H HH= == ln ln fv11f1d. dvv11v1..11(3.36) (3.36)
(3.36)(3.36)
(3.36)
m Equation ItIt
ItIt
(3.35)
It follows
follows
follows
follows
Itfollows
It
from
from
from
from
follows
that
follows
from from
Equation
Equation
Equation
Equation
Equation
from
Equation Equation
(3.35)
(3.35)
(3.35)
(3.35)
(3.35)that(6.35)
(3.35) that that
that
that
that that
It follows from  Equation (3.35) that
 dH
 
 ∂ f
f1 dH dHdH = (1 + ln
 ∂∂ff 3
∂3∂ff111f11dd33dd3v33v1vv111
1
∂dH 3 dH=
dH = = (1 (1
(1 ++ ln ∂fff11ff)11)))∂
lnln
(1 + ln f1 ) d= v
dtdt
dt
1 =(1 = + ln
(1 (1+
+f + )
ln ln f 1f)1d ) ∂t1d dv1v1
v∂t
dt dt
1 1 ∂t
∂t dtdt   
  
  
 ∂t ∂t ∂t∂t
      
uufu2uuuσσσ 3(1
(1 3ln
ln f ) (f���ff�1���ff��ff3�2− ��
�−− � ff1ff113ff2ff)22)d ) 3d33v333vvv111dd33dd33v333vvv�222dd33dd33v333v��vv�� ��1�dd33dd3v333v��vv�,��2�, ,, (3.37)
vff12f11�1ff))d111)f((2))3�(ffv((− ,f11df1f22vf)21d))dd3dd(3.37) (3.37)
=� � (1 +++)ln (3.37)
u σ (1 + = ln f1= )==
= ( f1 f2 −
= u σf1(1 )+
σ
σ
σd(1
ln
(1 (1v++1f1+dln
ln(ln 111f11fd 212f22−
f vf2− − ) vv11v21dddvv22v12dddvv11v1211d, d...(6.37) v22v2,22 , (3.37) (3.37)
(3.37)
(3.37)
1 2
where
where σ is
is �short-hand
short-hand for
for σ(v �,,,v vv2;22;v�;;v��vv�,��1�,v,,v��vv�).��2�).). Suppose that we swap the dummy la-
ort-hand wherefor where
where
where
where
whereσ(v
σ is 1σ
σ
σ,σ σ
v
σ is
is
is
2
is
;is
short-hand short-hand
short-hand
short-hand
v v
short-hand
,
short-hand
�
). for Suppose for for
σ(v for
for for σ (v
σ(v
,
1σ(v
σ(v
σ(vv
σ(v ,
that
1 v
;
11,v
1,v
2 1 ,12v
1 ; we2
,vv';v2v12;,). 1v1v'
swap ,1v 2v2).
,2Suppose ).22 ). ).the SupposeSuppose
Suppose
Suppose
Supposedummy
Suppose that that that
we
that
that
thatla-
that we we
swap
we
we we
swap
we swap
swap
swap
swap
swap
the the thethe
dummy
the
the
dummy
the dummy
dummy
dummy
dummy
dummy la-labelsla-
la-
la-
la-1 and
la-
bels
bels
bels
bels 1 1 1
1 and
and
and
and 2.
2.
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2.
2. This
2
This
This
This process
process
process
process leaves
leaves
leaves
leaves
1 2
bothboth both
both 1 2u 1
u u u = =
= |v|v|v
|v 1− − −
− v v v
v | 2| |
|
and and
and
and the
the the
the value
value
value
value of of of
of the
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This process
bels bels
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bels
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1 and and
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2.[assuming Thisu This
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leaves = |vprocess
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isover an an an
an implicit
implicit
implicit
implicit summation
summation
summation
summation over
over over
over different
different
different
different species
species
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in in
ssuming that
unchanged there
unchanged
unchanged
that there is
[assuming an
is [assuming
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that that
there summation there
is
there an is is
implicit
an overan different
implicit implicit summation
different species
summation
summation species over in over
in over
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Equation different
different species (6.36)]. species
in
species inin
According
Equation
Equation
Equation
Equation (3.36)].
(3.36)].
(3.36)].
(3.36)]. According
According
According
According tototo
to Equation
Equation
Equation
Equation (3.24),
(3.24), (3.24),
(3.24), it itit
it also
also also
also leaves
leaves
leaves
leaves the the
the
the scattering
scattering
scattering
scattering cross-
cross-
cross-
cross-
6)]. According
Equation
Equationto
Equation Equation
(3.36)]. (3.36)].
(3.36)]. According (3.24), According ittoalso toto
Equation leaves Equation the (3.24),
(3.24), scattering(3.24),
it also ititalso cross-
alsoleaves
leaves leavesthe scattering thescattering scattering cross- cross-
to Equation
section
section
section
section σ(v
σ(v
σ(v (6.24),
11,v�,,,v2vv2;22;v�;;v��vvAccording
� ���it,, �v
1,v vvalso
� ��� )) unchanged.
) 2))unchanged. leaves
unchanged.
unchanged.
Equation
theHence, scattering
Hence,Hence,
Hence, we we wecross-
we deduce
deduce
deduce
deduce section
that that σ(vthe
that
that 1, v2; v'1, v'2 ) unchanged.
cross-
v2 ; v�1 , vsection
�
) unchanged.
section σ(v
section1σ(v2 1 ,1v1v
σ(v ; 1,v
Hence, v v
2 ;2 ; )v
v2 11 ,we , v
unchanged.
1v2 , � deduce unchanged. thatHence, Hence, we deduce we deducethat that
2 )2 unchanged. Hence, we deduce that
σ(v , 1 , 1 1 2 2
2
    Hence,dH dH
we
dH
dH  deduce


  

  

 that
 


dH dH dH=== = � � uufu2uuuσ σσ σ (1
(1 3(1
(1 ++
+ ln ln3ln
ln f2f2�2fff))d222)f(()))3�(ffv(((−
� ��
f1��1�fff�11��fdff2��2fff3�22− �−− − ))d33dd33v333vvv111dd33dd33v333vvv�222dd33dd33v333v��vv�� ���1dd33dd3v333v��vv�.���2. ..
� ff1ff113ff2ff)22)d (3.38)
(3.38)
(3.38)
(3.38)
u σ (1 + = ln dtdt
dtf 2 =) (
= f f − u σ f 1 (1 σ)
+ σd ln
(1 v
(1 +
+f
1 + d)
ln ln
( vf f − v f − )
.f1df 1 f2vf)21d )dd(3.38)
vv11v21dddvv22v12dddvv11v1211d. dv22v2.22 . (3.38) (3.38)
(3.38)... (6.38)
dt dt 1 2 2 12 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2
dt dt 1 2
Suppose
Suppose
Suppose
Suppose that
that
that
that we we we
we swap
swap
swap primed
primed
primed and
and
and unprimed
unprimed
unprimed dummy
dummy
dummy variables
variables
variables of of integration
ofintegration
integration
integration inin
in Equa-
Equa-
Equa-
we swapSuppose primed
Suppose Suppose
and
Suppose
that unprimed
we
thatthat swap
we weswap
that swap we
swap
primed dummy primed
swap
primedprimed and primed
variables andandunprimed
unprimed
and and
unprimed
unprimed ofunprimed integration
dummy dummy
dummydummy dummy
variablesinvariables
Equa-
variables
variables variables
of integration of
ofofMaking of integration
integration
integration in Equa- in inEqua-
inof in Equation
Equa-
Equa-
tion
tion
tion
tion (3.37).
(3.37).
(3.37).
(3.37). This
This This
This leaves
leaves
leaves
leaves the
the the
the value
value
value
value of
of of
of the the the
the integral
integral
integral
integral unchanged.
unchanged.
unchanged.
unchanged. Making
Making
Making use useuse
use of
of
of Equa-
Equa-
Equa-
Equa-
his leaves the
tion tion value
tion(3.37).
(3.37).
(6.37). (3.37). of
ThisThis
This the Thisleaves
leaves
leaves integral leaves
the thevalue unchanged.
value
the thevalue ofvalue
ofthe the ofintegral
of�integral �theMaking theintegral integral use
unchanged.
unchanged. of
unchanged. Equa-
unchanged. MakingMaking Making
Making useuse of of use use
Equation ofofEqua-
Equa- Equa-
(6.16), as
tion
tion
tion (3.16),
(3.16),
(3.16), as as
as well
well
well as as
as the the
the fact
fact
fact �that
that
that u�uuu� ��=we == u,u,u, we we
we obtain
obtain
obtain
well astion thetion
fact
tion
(3.16),
tion (3.16),
that
(3.16),
as
(3.16),
well as the fact u � as
well as
= as well
u, as
well well we the as
as obtain
as
u'
the
fact
the the
= u, we obtain
fact
fact
that
fact that
u
thatthat uuu, = u,
u, u, we
obtain
we we obtain
obtain
obtain
that
= = =
    
 
 dH dH
dH
dH    
dH dH dH=== =�− −(−−
−f � f � − uufu2uuuσ σσσ
σ (13(1
(1 (1 +++
+ lnln 3ln
ln � �� ��f� ��� �f3� ��� −
ff21���1fff))d11�)f(()))3�(ffv(((− f1�1ff11fdff2�2ff22− − − ))d33dd33v333vvv111dd33dd33v333vvv�222dd33dd33v333v��vv�� ���1dd33dd3v333v��vv�.���2. ..
� ff1ff113ff2ff)22)d (3.39)
(3.39)
(3.39)
(3.39)
u σ (1 = +dtdtln
dt
−
dt = f =
1 )
− 1 2 u σ f 1 (1 σ)
+ d ln
(1 (1v+
+ f
1 1
�d
)
ln ln
( vf 1 1 2 1 1 f 1 2v
−f −
2 )
.
f 1d
1 f 1 f 2vf)21d
2 )(3.39)
ddvv11v21dddvv22v12dddvv11v1211d. dv22v2.22 .(3.39) (3.39)
...6.39)
(3.39)
dt dt dt 1 1 2
Finally,
Finally,
Finally,
Finally, swapping
swapping
swapping
swapping primed
primed
primed
primed and
and
and
and unprimed
unprimed
unprimed
unprimed variables
variables
variables
variables ininin Equation
inEquation
Equation (3.38)
(3.38)
(3.38) yields
yields
yields
ping primed Finally, and Finally,
unprimed
Finally,
swapping
Finally, swapping
swapping swapping
primedvariables
  primed primed
 and

primed
inunprimed
and Equation
and and unprimed
unprimed
unprimed variables(3.38) variables variables yieldsinvariables ininEquation
Equation Equation
Equation in(3.38)
Equation (3.38)
(3.38)
(3.38) yields yields
(6.38)
yieldsyields yields
 dH   
 
   
   
   

dH dH dH
dH
dH
 � � ��
))d33dd33v333vvv111dd33dd33v333vvv�222dd33dd33v333v��vv�� ��1�dd33dd3v333v��vv�.��2�. .. ...(6.40)
u σ (1 = dH ln ==
f
=
=�−
)−(−−
−f � f � − f u u2uuuσ σσσ
σ (13(1
(1 (1v +++
+�dlnln 3ln
ln vf f2���2fff�)d22��)f()))3�(fv(((− f1��1�fff�11��fdff2��2fff3�22−
�−−
v −� ff1ff113ff2ff)22)d (3.40)
(3.40)
(3.40)
(3.40)
+ dt
dt dt
−
dt
=
=2 − 1 2 u σ 1 (1 u σ (1 +2ln 12 )2 (2 f111f212−2 f1 1f2 )21d)(3.40)
f )
+ d ln (1 + f
1 ) ln
( f f − )
. 1df 2v f ddvv11v21dddvv22v12dddvv11v1211d. dv22v2.22 .(3.40) (3.40)
(3.40)
dt dtdt
Theprevious
The
The previous
previous
The
previous previous fourfourequations
four equations
equations
four
equations equations canbe
can
can be be
be
can combined
combined
combined be combined togive
toto give
give
give to give
The The
our equations The can
previous
The befour
previous
previous combinedfour
four fourequations
equations to give
equations can be can
can cancombined
be be combined
combined combined to give to
to togive give

  
  
  
   
   

 dH 
dH
dH 1       ff11ff11ff22ff22  � �� � ��
dH dH dH dHf11 = f= =11111 � �
2= u u2uuuσ σσσfln 31lnlnf2 f13f1�f2f�2� (3�(f((f��ff� 1�ff��ff32−
ln �−− � ff1ff113ff2ff)22)d
− ))d33dd33v333vvv111dd33dd33v333vvv2� 22dd33dd33v333v��vv�� ��1�dd33dd3v333v��vv�.��2�. .. ...(6.41)
(3.41)
(3.41)
(3.41)
(3.41)
u σ ln=dt dtdt
dt � = =
� 4 4(4
4 f 1 2 f − u σf 1 ln
u f σ) d
σ ln v
ln 1 d
f f � f
f(
� v
�
fff 2
�
1f
f � �d f (2 f v
( −1 f
1 1 d f f
11f2 2− f1 f2 ) d
2 1 2 2v f2− )
. 1d f1 2v f 21 )(3.41)
ddvv11v21dddvv22v12dddvv11v2111d. dv22v2.22 .(3.41) (3.41)
(3.41)
dt dtdt f41 f2 4 4 � �
f1 f2 f111f11f222f22� 1 � � 2 � 1

Now,
Now, Now, ln(ff1ff11�fln f22/�(�//fff��ff�11���fff��ff2�)2���)/))isis
fis1' positive f 1' ) is positive
positive when �ff�when
�� � �� f ' f ' − f f is negative, and vice versa. We,
�f2� −− −ff11ff11ff2ff122isisis
isnegative, negative, andvice viceversa. versa.We, We,
/ f1� f2� ) Now, Now,
Now,
is positiveln( f1ln(
Now,
Now, fln(
ln(
when
ln(ln(
2/ f1f 1ff22ff/f221/)f1f1is
/ 1f2− 2fpositive
)2 )is f1isis f2positive
positive iswhen
positive
positive negative, when
when
when
when
when f � � and
f fff1− �1f11�ff2f�2ffvice 2−
2−f−
f21right-hand 2 fis 2f2isisnegative,
1fversa.
1 1fnegative,
2 sidenegative,
1negative,
We, 2
negative, and and and
vice
and
and
andvice vicevice
viceversa.
versa. versa.
versa.
versa.
We, We, We,
We,
We,
therefore,
therefore,
therefore,
therefore,
therefore,
1 deduce
1 deduce
2
deduce
deduce
deduce 1 2
1 that
2
thatthatthat
2
that the
the the
the
the integral integral
integral
integral
integral on 1
on
on the
on
on 2
thethe the
1
theright-hand
1
right-hand
right-hand
right-hand of
side
side
side
side the
of
of of
of previous
the
the
the
the previous
previous
previous
previous expression expression
expression
expression
expression can never
uce that the
therefore,integral
therefore,
therefore, deduce ondeduce the
deduce that that right-hand
the thatintegral the theintegral side
integralon theof the
on on right-hand
the previous
theright-hand right-hand expression
side side ofside the ofof theprevious
previous
the previous expression expression
expression
can
take
can
can never
anever
neverpositive take
take a
value.
aaapositive positive
positive In other value.
value. words, In
Inother other
other words,
words,
a positive can
can never
cancannever
value. In
never
take
never atake
take
other
taketake
positive aawords, positive
positive
positive value. value.
value.
value.
value. In other InIn
InInother other other
words, words,
words,
words, words,
dH dH
dH
dH dH dH dH dH≤≤≤ ≤ 0.0.
0. 0. (3.42)
(3.42)
(3.42)
(3.42)
Self-Instructional Material 137
≤ 0. ≤dt dt dt
dt 0. ≤ ≤ 0. 0. (3.42) (3.42) (3.42)
(3.42)
dt dt dt dt
   
dH 1 f1 f2
= u σ ln � � ( f1� f2� − f1 f2 ) d3 v1 d3 v2 d3 v�1 d3 v�2 . (3.41)
dt 4 54 f1 f2 Plasma Physics: An Introduction
Now, ln( f1 f2 / f1� f2� ) is positive when f1� f2� − f1 f2 is negative, and vice versa. We,
therefore, deduce This
thatresult
the integral is known on theasright-hand the Boltzmann side of the H-theorem. previous expression
can never take a positive In fact, value. the In quantity
other words, H is bounded below (i.e., it cannot take the value minus
54 Plasma Physics: An Introduction
infinity).andHence,
Electrodynamics 54 HdHcannot decrease indefinitely, but must Plasma tend Physics:to a limit An in which
Introduction
54
dH/dt
Plasma Physics
This=result 0. Accordingis known as≤to the 0. Equation
Boltzmann
...(6.42) (3.41),
H-theorem. the distribution
Plasma Physics: An Introduction
(3.42) function associated with
This result dt is known as the Boltzmann H-theorem.
54 this limiting
54 In fact,state the quantity is characterized H is bounded by below Plasma(i.e.,
Plasma Physics:
Physics: it cannot An Introduction
An take the value minus
Introduction
infinity). Hence, In This
Hfact, result
cannot the is knownHindefinitely,
quantity
decrease asisthe bounded Boltzmann but below must H-theorem.(i.e.,
tend ittocannot
a limittake the value minus
in which
This result is 54
54
known
54 infinity). as the Boltzmann H-theorem. � Plasma
Plasma � Plasma Physics:
Physics: Physics: An
An An Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
This result is known as the Boltzmann
Hence, H-theorem.
Hbelow cannot decrease indefinitely, but must tend to awithlimit minus
in which
ThisInNOTES dH/dt
result
fact, is
theknown= 0. as
quantity According
the HInBoltzmann
fact,
is boundedto theEquation H-theorem.
quantity Hf(i.e.,
(3.41), 1is f2bounded = the
it cannot f1distribution
f2below , take(i.e., thefunction
itvalue
cannot associated
minustake the value (3.43) infinity).
In fact,
In fact,
this the
the quantity
quantity
limiting dH/dt
state HHis= ischaracterized
is bounded
0.
bounded According below
below by to (i.e.,
Equation
(i.e., it cannot
it cannot (3.41), takethe
take thedistribution
the value minus
value minus function associated with
infinity). Hence, ThisThis H result
result cannot
is
Hence, is
known known
decrease
Hdecreaseas the
cannot decreaseas the
Boltzmann Boltzmann
indefinitely, H-theorem.
indefinitely, H-theorem.
but must but tend to a limit in which
limit in which dH/dt = 0. According
tendmust tend
limitto ina which
This result is known as the Boltzmann H-theorem.
infinity).
infinity). Hence, H
or,=equivalently,
Hence, H
Inthis cannot
cannot
fact, limiting
the decrease
quantity state indefinitely,
isbounded
indefinitely,characterized butbelow
but must
must by� (i.e., tend ittocannot
to aa limit in which
dH/dt 0. In fact,
In
According fact, the
the to quantity
quantity
Equation HH(3.41),
is isH is bounded
bounded the below
below
distribution (i.e.,
(i.e., it cannot
cannot
itfunction take
take take
associated the value
the the
value value
with minus
minus minus
dH/dt =
dH/dt = 0. 0.infinity).
According
According to Equationto
to Equation
Equation (6.41), (3.41),
(3.41), thedecrease distribution
thef1indefinitely,
the distribution
distribution = f1 function
f2 indefinitely, �
f2 �, but function
function associated associated
� associated with this
with
with limiting (3.43)state is characterized
this limiting infinity).
state infinity). Hence,
Hence,
isis characterized Hence, HH H
cannot
cannot ln
cannot
by 1 f
decrease
decrease + ln f
indefinitely, 2 − ln f but − ln
but
must
must
1f1 f2 = f2� f � , f must tend
tend = 0.
tend
toto a a to a
limit
limit limit
in
in in
which
which which (3.44)
(3.43)
this limiting
this limiting state
state
dH/dt dH/dt is bycharacterized
characterized
0. 0.
According According toby
byEquationto
Equation Equation (3.41), (3.41), the the
distribution distribution 1 2
function function associated
associated with with
dH/dt
or, equivalently, = = 0. = According to (3.41), the distribution function associated with
Consider this
thislimiting
this limiting aor,distribution
limiting state
state state is characterized
isischaracterized
characterized function
ff111 fff2212 = by �
f� fby �that
�
, ln satisfies (3.43) (3.44)
equivalently, fln +=by
= ff11�1ff22� 2,,−, 
ln f1� − ln f2� = 0. (3.43)
(3.43) ...(6.43)
� �
ln f
f1=satisfies
f1f2f1=fb+� ln �
f f, f2 ,� f � − ln f − ln 2 f = 0. (3.43) (3.44)
or,
or,equivalently,
or, equivalently,
equivalently, Consider a distribution or, equivalently, ln fi =f1fathat
function 1 ff22+
i = m 1i 22, 1· v2i + mi c vi ,
� � 1 2 (3.43)
(3.43) (3.45)
� �
or, equivalently,
or,equivalently,
equivalently, Considerln
ln f
f + a
ln
ln distribution
ff −−
ln f11 + ln f22 − ln f111− ln f22 2= 0. 
1 + 2 lnln ff��
− − lnfunction
ln f �f
�
= = 0. 0. that satisfies (3.44)
(3.44)
(3.44)
constants. It ...(6.44)
or, lni fln a+i + mf i −b��ln · vfi �+ 2
where iaisdistribution a speciesfunction label, lnm ln f is
i =fthe
ln f ln particle
− ln f − ln mass,
− f�m �lni c f �viand
0.
, 0. ai , b, and c are(3.44)
(3.44)
(3.45)
Consider
Consider aa distribution
Consider distribution function athat that
that f 11 + ln
satisfies f
satisfies lnfunction
+
satisfies 1 2 2 − ln 2 f −
fi1 = ai +2that
1 ln1 f 2 = = 0.
mi bsatisfies
2 =
· v i + mi c v i , 2 (3.44) (3.45)
follows Consider distribution
wherethat i isConsider
Consider
Consider a species aadistribution label, m
a distribution
distribution i isfunction
function
function thethat particle
that that
satisfies
satisfies mass,
satisfies
22
and a i , b, and c are constants. It
follows thatwhere ln ilnisffiia==�species aaiii + + +m mmiiib bb···vvvii i+
label, ++ mm mim iiis cci cvvthe2v , , ,  mass, and (3.45)
ii ,i particle a ,(3.45)
(3.45) b, and c are constants. ...(6.45)
It
� 2i2 ,c v 2 , � i � (3.45)
ln f1 + ln followsf 2 − ln
that f 1 − ln ln
ln f f
i if
ln
= =
2
fa=
a ii i=+ + b amm i·i +
ib(mb m · · v v
i1 biv
i + +·1vmm i+i
+ic c mvmv i2, v 2
i − m 1 v 1 − m 2 v
(3.45)
2 )
(3.45)
specieswhere label, im misii is a species label, m· i(m isand the andparticle
i
mass, am i, 2b,vand
Itc It
vand are constants. It follows that
wherei iiisis
where isaaaspecies the particleparticle mass, and aaa i,, ib, b,b,and and c arecareare constants.
where species
where
ln
where fi1is+label,
ia
lnis fa2 species
species
− ln is the
f1� label,
label,
−m particle
ln is fm2the =is bmass,
� mass,
the the
particle 1 vmass,
particle 1 +i2mass, m, and 2 v2and
and
a
−,cm b,a 1,and 1−
b,
constants.
�constants.
and
c are c
� It
2 ) constants.
are
constants. � 2ItIt � It
follows
follows that
that where i is a species label, m is particle c (m mass, and m a , b,
2 and m c are � 2 constants.
m 2m2).v2 ) (3.46)
follows that ln f + ln f i i
− ln
i
f �
+ − ln f �
1 =v b + · (m 2
i i
v
v + −i
m v
1 2v − m− v �
2 − v
follows
followsthat
follows that that 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
1 � 22 1 � 1
2 1
� � + c (m 1 v 1 + m 2 � v 2 − m 1� v 1 − m 2 v 2 ). (3.46)
lnf1ff11++
lnln +ln lnff2f22 −
ln −−ln ln ff1� − − ln ln fff2�� = =� bbb···�(m (m�1�11vvv111�+++m
(m mm222vv2v2 2− −−m m+m 11 c v1v�1(m
1v−
�− m2 v� ) �
−mv2mv+ 2�2�2v )m2 )2� v 2�− � m
�2
− mthat �2
However, for
ln f1f1ln an 1 elastic
f1ln f22ln fln22 =
f1�1collision,
ln −fln f22ln==fb2b·=·momentum b11· v(m 1+vm
1conservation
v1mm 1−vm )2 vimplies
�1 v 2 v2 ).(see
 Sec- (3.46)
...(6.46)
ln + +ln +f − −ln 2 − f − 1 −
ln f (m (m v11+ m
1 2+ 2vv2m 2− 2− 2 11− 1vv1m − 1 2−
m 22vv2m ) 2) 1
However, for an elastic collision, c (m v 222 momentum
m v 22
2 − m conservation
v ��22� 2
− m v
1
��22 � 2 implies that (see Sec-
).
2
(3.46)
tiontion 3.3)3.3) However, However, for++an
+ cc(m
for (m an11vv
1
elastic 1 ++mm+
1elastic
1 cccollision,
(m (m
2 v2v2222−−m2m
+21c12collision,
v(m 1+vm 1m2+
1
1momentum
2vv2m
−−
v1121v2momentum
12−vm 2m v�2222v).
m−2mv�m
2
1− conservation
2v� m −v�m �22 (3.46)
2).conservation � (3.46)
2
2).v ). (3.46)
implies
implies
(3.46)(3.46) thatthat
(see Sec-
� 2 11v�11 − 1m � 22v22 ). 2
++ v11 + 2−
However,
However, for
However, for
for an
an
an elastic
elastic tion
elastic 3.3)
collision,
elastic
collision,
collision,
m
momentum
m
momentum
momentum 1 vv 1 + + m m2 conservation
2 v
conservation
v =2
conservation m= mv �
1 + v implies
m
implies+ v
2 2 that
1 implies m , 2 v
that , (see
...(6.47)
(see
2 implies Sec-
Sec- (3.47) (3.47)
� that (see Sec-(see
However, for an elastic 1collision,
1 2
momentum 1 1 conservation
However,
However, for an
for an elastic collision,
collision, momentum
momentum conservation
conservation implies
implies � that
that
that (see
(see Sec-Sec-
Sec-
tion 3.3)
tion3.3)
3.3)whereas m 1 1 v + m 2 2 v = m v + m v , (3.47)
tion whereas tionenergy
tion tion
3.3)
3.3) energy3.3) conservationwhereas energy
conservation
m v m v yields
yields conservation
m
(see
v (see
� � Section
m Section
v � �yields
,
3.3)3.3)1 1 2 2
(3.47)
m vv11 ++ m
m111energy
+ v22vm==
22conservation
= mm 1 v 1�+ m22 v �2�,� �
+
v�m� ,2 v� , 3.3) (3.47)
whereas 1 mmm 211v v2211+ 1+vm 112+ 21vv v12m221= 2= +vyields
m 2m m1=12vv21m v1�+21+(see
,vm+Section
2 m1�222v22, � 22 � 2
(3.47) (3.47)
(3.47) (3.47)
whereas energy
whereas energywhereas conservation
conservation yields
yields m
m (see
(see v 2
1 v1 SectionSection
+ + m m v
2 23.3) 3.3)
v = 2 m= 1 m1 v v + m +2 vm 2 ....(6.48)
v . (3.48) (3.48)
energy conservation yields
m(see 2v 2 Section
whereas energy whereas
whereas energy
conservation
energy conservation
yields
conservation (see yields
1yields 1Section (see
(see 2 Section Section
3.3) 1 123.3)
3.3)
3.3) 2� 2 2 �2
1 1 + m 2 2 v = m 1 1 v + m 2 2 v . (3.48)
In other words, aIn m other
mdistribution
vv 22 + m
m words, vv 22 2function
= m
m a21distribution
vv ��222 +that
m2m2 vv�satisfies ���2222 . function
. � 2 � �2Equation 2 �that
2 satisfies
(3.45) (3.48)
(3.48) Equation (6.45) automatically
automatically
2v2m v12m 1vv1m 2vv2m (3.48)
1 + 2 = +
In other words, a mdistribution
1 12 1 mm
2 11v 2 2 +vm 1m
1function 12+ 12 � 22=vm 2mm that
=
12
2
2 1�++ v.1mm2+
2satisfies 2 .2. 2 Equation (3.48)
v . (3.45) (3.48)
(3.48) automatically
1 + mWe, m 12vv
vwords, 1+
2 av21(6.44). = 2= 2 1v2that
satisfies Equation In other
satisfies 1 Equation
(3.44). distribution
thus, We,1 + thus,
conclude function conclude that
collisions satisfies
thatact Equation
collisions
to drive act (3.45)
the to automatically
drive
distri- the distribution
In other
In other
satisfies words,
words,
In otherIn
otheraa
Equation distribution
distribution
other satisfies
words, words, (3.44).
a afunction
function
Equation We,
distribution
distribution that
that
(3.44). thus,
function satisfies
satisfies
function We,conclude
that Equation
Equation
that
thus,
satisfies satisfies that
conclude (3.45)
(3.45)
Equation collisions
Equation thatautomatically
automatically
(3.45) (3.45)
collisions act to drive
automatically
automatically act to the
drive distri-
the distri-
Insatisfies bution
other words, In functions words,
functions
a distribution for
a the
distribution
for
function colliding
theconclude function
colliding
thatthus, particles
satisfies that
particles towards
satisfies
Equation towards particular
Equation (3.45) (3.45)
particular distribution
automatically
automatically functions
distribution functions that satisfy
satisfies
bution Equation
Equation
satisfies
satisfies satisfies
functions (3.44).
(3.44).
Equation
bution
Equation Equation
for We,
We, the
(3.44).
functions
(3.44). thus,
thus,
(3.44).
colliding
We,
We, conclude
for We,thus,
thus, the that
that
particles
conclude
colliding
conclude collisions
collisions
conclude that
that towards
particles that act
act
collisions
collisions to
to
collisions drive
drive
particular
towards act
act to
to the
the
act to
drive distri-
distri-
particular
drive drive
distribution
the
the the
distri-distri-
distribution
distri- functions
functions
satisfies that satisfy(3.44).
Equation Equation
Equation We, (3.45).
(6.45).
thus, [Incidentally,
[Incidentally,
conclude that elastic collisions
elastic
collisions collisions act to generally
generally
drive the only
only
distri- conserve
conserve particle number,
bution functions
bution functions
bution
bution butionfor
for
functions
functions the
functions
the colliding
colliding
forforthe for
the particles
the colliding
particles
colliding
colliding towards
towards
particles
particles particles particular
particular
towards
towards towards distribution
particular
distribution
particular
particular functions
distribution
functions
distribution
distribution functionsonly conserve
functions
functions
bution that satisfy
particle
functions number,
forsatisfythat
Equationthe satisfy
particle
colliding (3.45).Equation momentum,
particles (3.45).
[Incidentally, towards and [Incidentally,
particle elastic
particular energy. elastic
collisions
distribution These collisions generally
conservation
functions generally onlylaws conserve
that satisfy
that satisfy Equation
that
that that
satisfy
Equation
satisfy particle
(3.45).
Equation
(3.45).
Equation Equationmomentum,
[Incidentally,
(3.45).
[Incidentally,
(3.45). (3.45). and
[Incidentally,
[Incidentally, elastic
elastic particle
[Incidentally, collisions
elastic
collisions
elastic energy.
elastic generally
collisions
generally
collisions These
collisions conservation
only
generally
only
generally generallyconserve
onlyonly
conserve
only laws
conserve
conserve correspond to the three
conserve
that correspond
particle
satisfy number,
Equation particle
to the
(3.45). particle number,
three
[Incidentally,terms
momentum, particle
appearing elastic momentum, and on the
collisions particle and
right-hand generally particle
energy. side energy.
only of
Theseconserve These
Equation conservation
(3.45).
conservation lawslaws
particle number,
particle number, particle
particle
particleparticle
particle terms
number,
number, number, momentum,
appearing particle
particlemomentum,
momentum,
particle on
momentum, and
and the
momentum, particle
right-hand
particle andandenergy. energy.
andparticle
particle side
particle These
energy.
These
energy. ofon energy. conservation
Equation
conservation
These These
Theseconservation (6.45). laws Hence,
conservation
conservation laws in
lawslaws
laws the absence of other
particle Hence,
number, in the
particle correspond
absence momentum, of to the
other three
conservation
and particleterms appearing
energy.laws, we These can the
be right-hand
sure
conservation that side
Equation
laws of Equation
(3.45) (3.45).
correspond
correspond
correspond to the
the
correspond
to to
correspond
correspond three
three the
toto
conservationterms
the
termsthree
to
the the
three
three appearing
appearingterms
three terms
terms
laws, terms appearing
on
appearing
appearing
we on the
appearing
the
can right-hand
onon
right-hand
be sure the on
on
the the the
right-hand
right-hand side
side
that Equation right-hand
right-hand of
of Equation
side
side
Equation side
ofof
(6.45) side
of (3.45).
Equation
Equation
(3.45).
isbe of
Equation
thesure Equation
(3.45).
(3.45).
(3.45).
most general (3.45).
expression
correspond
Hence, is the
in the
toin
Hence, most
the
Hence,
absence three Hence,
ingeneral
thein terms
the
ofabsence
other
absence
in
absence the
expression
appearing
conservation
ofother
absence
of other
other that on
conservation
of other
satisfies
the
conservation
laws, we
conservation
right-hand canEquation
laws, laws,
be we sure side
wewe
can can
that
laws,
(3.44).]
beof be
Equation
sure
we
Equation
sure
that
can
that (3.45).
Equation
(3.45)
Equation
that
(3.45)(3.45)Equation (3.45) that
Hence,Hence,in Hence,
the
Without
the
absence in absence
the of
satisfies
is
other
theother
loss ofmost of of
conservation
Equation general
generality,
other conservation
conservation
(6.44).] laws,
expression
we can
we
setwe
laws,can
that laws,
bewe
satisfies
sure can be
that surecan
Equation
Equation be
that sure
Equation
(3.45)
(3.44).] that Equation
(3.45) (3.45)
Hence,
is the
is in the
the most
most isis theismost
absence
general
the
general theexpression
most most
general
of
expression
general general expression
that
expression
that expression
conservation satisfies
satisfies that
that that
satisfies
laws,
Equation
satisfies
Equation satisfies Equation
can
(3.44).]
Equation
(3.44).] Equation
be (3.44).] (3.44).]
sure (3.44).]
that Equation (3.45)
is the
Without
mostlossWithoutgeneral
Without
ofexpression
Without generality,
loss Without
lossWithout expression
loss of
ofgenerality,
of loss
generality,
we can generality,
loss
can of of
setwe
that
generality,
wegenerality,

canwe
can satisfies
can
setm we
set set we Equation
can can set 2 set (3.44).]
is theWithout
most general loss of generality, that
we satisfies set Equation (3.44).]
3/2 mi V 
Without Without loss of loss generality, of generality, wecan ai=setln we ncan  set
im
i
 3/2 23/2−  mm 2 3/2 2, 2 (3.49)
m m 22i T,i,V , − mi V ,
3/2 m
mm  3/2 2π
3/2 i immTiiln V 2n− i−
Vi m iVV
a a a lnlni =n
n ln
 n a  (3.49)
(3.49) (3.49) (3.49)
T...(6.49)
aaii = = ln ln nnii  i i = = ii i i i i =
−−TT2π T ,2,3/222π − i 2 2 T(3.49) (3.49)
2πm1TTi 3/22π 2π m 2 TiT 2TTT2 m iV
2π 2m iV
ai = ln nab i i= =11lnV,1ni − , − , (3.49) (3.50) (3.49)
bb == V, 1
1 b b 2π b T T V,V, V,
...(6.50) 2π 21TT 2 T (3.50)(3.50)
V, = =
TT T
= b = V, (3.50) (3.50)
(3.50) (3.50)
T
T1 1 T
b = V,cc = 111 ,1 (3.51) (3.50)
cc == −−T 11 cb =c− −= −V,
,, = − 2T22TTT, 2...(6.51)
= , , 1 (3.50) (3.51)
(3.51) (3.51)
Tc = − , (3.51)
(3.51) (3.51)
221TT 2 T
where where nin,nV,
where ,i ,V, nand
V, ,and TTand
V,where cTare =are T−constants.
ni,areV,
constants. , and
constants. In
t are
In this
Inconstants.
thiscase, case, Equation In this
Equation (3.45)
case,
(3.45) becomes
Equation
becomes (6.45) becomes
where nnii,, V,
where
V, and and TTi are are
where
iand
constants.
are
ni , V, 2and
constants.
InTthis this case,
In 1this
this
Equation
case,
case, Equation
Equation
(3.45)
(3.45)
(3.45)
becomes
becomes
becomes (3.51)
where constants. In cT=  are
case,
m
−  m constants.
 Equation
3/23/23/2 ,    In(3.45)

m
this
(v
case,
becomes
−  
2V)2 2
2V)
Equation
  (3.45) becomes (3.51)
 fm n mm i
i 
i 2 T
3/2 i
exp exp m m i− i(v(v i
223/2
m
i i−i −(v
i V)V)i −  , , , ...(6.52)  (3.52) (3.52)
where ni , V, and T are constants. ==n3/2
fifi iiIn
= niiii= ncase,
f3/2
this Equation
m exp
exp (v
ii (vii −mV)
−−− V) (3.45) becomes , mi (vi − V) 2 (3.52) (3.52)
= nnii mi m
i
fii =
f 2π2π
exp
exp TTT2πf −− T n
i 2 2 T
, T2exp T
2 T − (3.52)
(3.52) (3.52)
where ni , V, and T are2π constants.
2π TT 3/2 In

i = this i case,
22 TT−TV) 2 Equation
,  (3.45) becomes ,
which mwe i recognize as mi (v a 2π Maxwellian
i distribution 2 T function (Reif 1965). It is easily
fi = ni exp −  ,  (3.52)
demonstrated 2π Tthat  mi 3/2 2 T mi (vi − V) 2
fi = ni exp − , (3.52)
138 Self-Instructional Material
2π T 2T
 ns 5555
ns
ons
ons 5555
55
wens recognize as a Maxwellian distribution function (Reif 1965). It is easily 55
we recognize
recognize as asaasMaxwellian distribution function (Reif 1965). It is easily
sions
we recognize
llisions
we
rated
ons
isionsrecognize
that asaaaMaxwellian
Maxwelliandistribution
Maxwellian distributionfunction
distribution function(Reif
function (Reif1965).
(Reif 1965).ItItItisis
1965). is55easily
easily
easily 555555
ted
trated
strated
we thatthat
that
recognize 
strated that as a Maxwellian  distribution

function (Reif 1965). It is easily
htrated
ich
we wewe recognize
recognize
that
recognize as as aMaxwellian
Maxwellian
as aaasMaxwellian
a Maxwellian
n distribution
3
3ddistribution
distribution
f v function
function (Reif
(Reif 1965).
1965). Itis(3.53)
Itiseasily
iseasily
easily
ch we
onstrated
recognize
that ni n=ni i==fi dfifivddi3,3v3vi ,i , function
i = distribution
i i , function (Reif (Reif 1965).
1965). It is Iteasily
(3.53)
(3.53)
(3.53)
monstrated
onstrated
strated that that
that n =
i   i f d v i , (3.53)
ni  =   fi  d3 v3i ,3 (3.53)
iV
 vffii ddfif33idvv3dfi3i,,v3dvi ,3i ,v 
ni nV nnni iVV
= n n
=
i=
n== i n=
v
i = i viv
i = f d
i ifif dd ivv 3iv,i, , i , (3.54)
(3.53)
(3.54) (3.53)
(3.53)
(3.54)
(3.54) (3.53) ...(6.53) Single-Particle Motions
i V = vii fii d vii , (3.54)
  3
3 3 ni V  =  1vi fi d32vi ,3 3 (3.54)
n23i33nT inT
n inV i=
V n V=i V =1=m 1v11imvfvi2iidvvff2iv2d3dffi ,ii3ddvv3i3.,vv3 ii ,. 
v f d v
(3.55)
(3.54)
(3.55) (3.54)
(3.54) (3.54) ...(6.54)
n T
=
2 232 nni iiiTT = = =
=2 2 2 i mim
m v
i ii vv2 iffii d
i f d, i
d v3v .
i i ..
v (3.55)
(3.55)
(3.55)
23n3 T the 12 i i i
lations allow us to identify in 3T== constants  12m1i v122 nfi2,d3V, 3
v.iand .3 T with the species-i (3.55)
num-
tions
elations allow
allow us to
us identify
toto 2 3 the constants 2 1m vn , f V, d f2dvand
n2vnniif,iv,V, T3i .vwith
vand thethespecies-i (3.55)
num- NOTES
toidentify nin2Tithe Tthe constants mivim dfviand Ti T with species-i num- (3.55)
i i i i3
elations
relations allow
allow us
us identify
2 2and
identify nthe
i=T constants
= =2 temperature,
constants m , iV,
V, and
d .
T with
with the
the species-i
species-i num-
num-
(3.55) (3.55)
y,ity, mean
mean flow flow velocity,

velocity, and kinetic
kinetic 2
temperature, 2i i i . respectively.
respectively.  We We conclude
conclude ...(6.55)
sity,
sity, mean
mean flow
flow velocity,
velocity, 2 and and kinetic 2 temperature, andTrespectively. WeWeconclude
elations
nsity,
isions meanallow
tend flow
to us to identify
velocity,
relax the and thethekinetic
distribution constants
kinetic temperature,
temperature,
functions nnii,,V, V,and for respectively.
Trespectively.
the with thethe
colliding We
species-i conclude
num-
conclude
particles
e
se
onsrelations
isions
ese tend
relationstend
relations
allow
to relax
allow
to
us
relax
allow
to
the
These
us to
us
identify
thedistribution
relations
identify
to distribution
identify the
constants
allow
the functions
constants us
functions
constants to n for
identify,n V,
for
, the
V, andthe
with
colliding
the
and T with
species-i
constants
colliding
T with particles
the n ,
num-
V,
species-i
particles
the species-i to-to-
and t with the species-i number
num-
to-
llisions
sity, mean
relations
llisions tend
density,
axwellian
wellian
tend
mean flow
allow to relax
velocity,
us to
to relax the
flow
distributions
distributions
the
identify
velocity, distribution
and kinetic
the
distributionby
and
characterized
characterized
constants
kinetic
by
functions
temperature,
functions
temperature,
a a common
common
n i , iV, i for
and
formean
mean
the colliding
respectively.
T with the
the colliding
respectively.
flowflow We We particles
conclude
species-i
particles
conclude
i
velocity
velocity and and num-
a anum-
to-
to-
ensity,
axwellian mean flow
distributions velocity, and
characterized kinetic by temperature,
aatemperature, respectively. We conclude
density,
Maxwellian
isions
nsity,
Maxwellian
nemperature. tend
mean
collisions
temperature. mean
density,
flow
tend flow
distributions
to torelaxrelax
distributions velocity,
mean
the
velocity, the andand
flow
characterized
distribution
distribution
characterized velocity,
kinetic kinetic byand
functions
temperature,
functions
by acommon
kinetic
common
common for forthe mean
temperature,
the mean flow
flow
colliding
respectively.
colliding
mean flow velocity
respectively. We We
respectively.
velocity
particles
particles
velocity and
conclude
to- and
andto-aWe
concludeaa conclude that collisions
collisions
n
on
dt temperature.
collisions
temperature.
Maxwellian
axwellian
ollisions tend
tend tend to relax
to
distributions
distributions
to relax relax
the the the distribution
characterized
characterized distribution
distribution by
by functions
a
functions functions
common
a common for
mean
formean forthe
the the
flowcolliding
flowcolliding
velocity
velocityparticles
particles
and a
and a to-to- toward Maxwellian
on temperature. tend to relax the distribution functions forcolliding particles
the colliding to-
particles
Maxwellian
rd
monMaxwellian
temperature.
n temperature.
Maxwellian distributions
distributions
distributions characterized characterized
characterized
characterized by by
by aa common by a common
a
common mean common mean
mean
mean flow flowflow velocity
flow velocity velocity
velocity and andandaa
mon temperature.distributions and aa common temperature.
mmon temperature.
on temperature.

6.8 TWO-BODY COULOMB COLLISIONS

Two-Body
o-Body Coulomb CoulombCollisionsCollisions
Two-Body
Two-Body
Two-Body Coulomb
Coulomb
Consider
Coulomb a Collisions
Collisions
two-body Coulomb collision between a particle of species 1, with mass m1 and
Collisions
r a Two-Body
two-body Coulomb
Coulomb Collisions
collision between a particle
Two-Body
aertwo-body
reraaatwo-body
two-body Coulomb
Coulomb
charge e1, and
Coulomb
Coulomb Collisions
collision
collisionbetween
a particle
collision between
between a particle
of species
aaparticleofof
2, with
particle
particle
species
species
mass
of
of m1,
species
1,
2 and
species 1,
1,
with
with mass
charge
with
with
mass
e2. The equations of motion
mass
mass
Two-Body
7arge
charge
sider two-body
Two-Body
a
Two-Bodye e ,
two-body
, and Coulomb
Coulomb
a Coulomb
particle
Coulomb
1and aCoulomb
particle ofCollisions
collision
collision
of
between
Collisions
species 2,
between
Collisions
species 2, with
with
a a particle
mass
mass m m
of of species
and
species
2
and charge
1,
charge
1,
with
e
with
e
. .
mass
2 The mass
The
charge
r charge
dand 1
a two-bodye
charge, and
e11 ,ofand a particle
theatwo
Coulomb
e1e,1of,and of
particles
particle species
collision
and take
of species
aatwo 2,
between
particle with
the2,form
with mass
a particle
of 2m
mass of
of species and charge
m22species
and charge 2
1, withe . The
e22 .mass
The 2,2,with withmass m2 mand charge e2 . The
of s charge
of motion
motion ofand the the two
particle
particles
particles take
speciestake the the form form mass 2 and charge e2 . The
nsider
nsider of amotion
two-body
a two-body of theCoulomb
two
Coulomb collision
particles collision take between
the between form aparticle
particle
a particle of species
of species 1,with
with
1, mass
ns
charge
ations
der of
a
ons of motion motion
of e ,
motion
two-body of of the
a the
Coulomb two
particle
two particles
of the two particles of
particles
collision species take
take the
between
taker the form 2,the form
with
form a mass m of and
speciescharge 1, e 2 . withThe
mass mass
nd and charge
charge
1
e ,
e and
,
and a particle
a ..
particle .. of of species r
species 2, with
...(6.56)
2, with mass
mass
2
m m and and charge
charge e . The
ns of motion
d charge e1 , of
1 and1 thea two particle
m1m m
particles
rm111of r ..r=..1..species k=take
= k r
the
r, r3r2,form
, 2
with mass m2 and charge(3.56) 2 e2 . TheThe
(3.56)2 e 2 .
ions
uations of ofmotion
motion of the
of thetwotwo particles r
particles
m1..r1 =|r|
1
1 r 1 11 = = k k k|r|
take
k|r||r|
3 take ,,the
, the form
form (3.56)(3.56)
(3.56)
(3.56)
ons of motion of the two particles take r|r|rthe
3
3 33 , form
m.. 1 .. r ..
r..=r.. 1 ..
=r=1..
= k r r ,r r (3.56)
m2m mrm
m 2m
2222r
2..
..2r1rm 2 −k
−k
=r−k =
−k |r|k 3r,kr3r,,, ,...(6.57)
3 3,, 3 ,
(3.57)
(3.57)
(3.57)(3.57) (3.56)
(3.56)
m m 1r
2.. 221= 1=
= −k|r|
1k=
−k
|r| 3 |r|
|r|
|r| r|r| 3
|r| 3 |r|
3
(3.56)
(3.57)
(3.57)
re where m2 r2 .. = ..−k 3 ,r r (3.57)
mkm
..2rm
e=2r12e2e=
er121= ee2=
2−k |r|−k r , , (3.57)
(3.57)(3.57)
k =kk==4π 2k= 2 e
−k ,
e1e11, e2e22, |r||r|3|r| ,3 3 (3.58)
(3.58)
(3.58)
k4π 4π ��0 ,...(6.58)
, (3.58)
(3.58)
(3.58)
eere
=4π e�4π �2�00�0 ,
10 evectors,
4π
e,
ndandr1 andr 2
r2 rare are
r2 are the
thethe
therespective
respective
respectiveposition
position
position
k = vectors,vectors, 0
e1eee12e2andand
, and
and r
r = r == r 1r −
1 −r
r=1 r−r11r−−2 ris
2 is
the the relative
relative(3.58)
rrr= 2 ris thetherelative
11and
rtion and
and
vector. r2r2It
vector. are
are
2 are
is isthe
Iteasily
the respective
respective
Here,
easily r1 and
demonstrated
respective
demonstrated
position
position
r2kare
position 4π
k=thatkthe
that
= e=1vectors,
�vectors,2 , , and
respective
0vectors, andposition − r2r22isis
= r1 vectors, therelative
is the
and relative
r= (3.58)
relativer1(3.58)
− r2 is the relative position
ector. It is easily demonstrated that 4π 4π � , (3.58)
nnvector.
vector.
and
vector. r2 areItItisis easily
isthe
It vector.easily
easily demonstrated
demonstrated
respective
demonstrated
Itrespective
is easily position demonstrated
that
that4π
that vectors,
μ � 0
0 � 0 and r r −
that and r = r − r is(3.59)
= 1 r 2 is the relative
μ+12μμmμ12
12
re, r1rand
rvector. 1 and rItr2israre are
2easily
thethe r=1r1=
respective
demonstrated =position R Rposition
that vectors,
r,vectors,
r, andand r =r r=1 1−r1r− 2r is thethe
(3.59)relative
relative
1 and 2 are the respectiver 1 rr
position
R + vectors,
12
μr, 12 2 is2 the(3.59)relative
ion
sition vector.
vector. It is
easily demonstrated =
r1 = Rmthat= R
+ R + + m
that
1 12
thatr, r,r, ...(6.59) (3.59)
(3.59)
It isIteasilyis easily demonstrated
1 1 1 (3.59)
n vector. demonstrated +1μmm
m1μ
12
12 11r,
r r12==R R+ μ− μ12 r, (3.60)(3.59)
r2 rr=2r2r2= r1=R −R12μm m r,μ12r, (3.60)
12
R r−
R= R1R −=−+m R+μμ12 μ
r,
2112
2+1212
r,r, r,
r,...(6.60) (3.60)
(3.60) (3.59)
(3.60)
(3.59)(3.59)
r 1== R m − m r,
m (3.60)
re 2 = 2μmm m
12m2 2 1
1 1
r = R1 −1 m r + m μ2r,
2 r (3.60)
where R2=rm2r1=rm1= 12μ212 (3.61)
m r R +
m Rm
−m μ
m 2−
r 22 r2 r, r,
12 (3.60)
(3.60)
R r
= 21mm = 111rr
2 R+ 1
1r1++−+ 2m m m222r r,
2mr2r222 (3.61)(3.60)
e vector position of the R RR
=
center = = of m m
mass 1 1
+ + m
(which m m 2 2 does not accelerate), and (3.61)
(3.61)
(3.61)
R =m m11mrm 1
+111m 2m m
2
r and ...(6.61) μ 12 =(3.61)
meere
ctor
2 /(mposition
1 + m2 ) the of the
reduced center
mass.
R = of mass
Equations m m1+ r
+
(which
+ m222m
(3.56) 22 r does not
(3.57) accelerate),
can be combined and μ to12 =
(3.61)
or position
ector position of of the thecenter
center of R ofmass =mass m1 1(which
rm1+1(which r1m+2does
+ m2does r2notnotaccelerate), andand μ12μμ12=12
2 r2does notaccelerate),
m 1 1 2 2
vector
ma+1single
vector m)position
)equation
position
the of
ofof
reduced the
the center
relative
center
mass. motion, ofof R
Equations mass
mass + (which
m
(which
(3.56) does
and not
(3.57) accelerate),
accelerate),
can be and
and
combined
==
(3.61)
to(3.61)
μ(3.61) =
m
+
m m
2the
) theis the
reduced
reduced vector
mass.
mass. R
position
Equations=
Equations
= of m the
(3.56)
m + center
m
(3.56) m and of
and mass
(3.57)
(3.57) (which
can canbe does
combined
be not
combined accelerate),
to12
to and μ12 = m1 m2 /
(m
ector
ngle 1
(m1 + 1+ +2 m
position
2 ) the
m2 ) the of
equation2 reduced
of the
reduced
relative mass.
center
mass.
motion, of Equations mass
Equations .. m 1
1
(which
+ 1m (3.56)
+ 2
does
2 and (3.57)
not
r (3.56) and (3.57) can be combined
2 can
accelerate), be combined
and μ 12 to =to
levector
equation (mofreduced
relative
+ m 2) the
motion,
reduced mass. .Equations (6.56) and be(6.57) can
esingle
ngle
he
m
vector
single + equation
1 vector
position
mequation position
2 ) the
position
equation 1ofof of themass.
ofrelative
of the
relative
the center
motion,
center
center
relative motion,
motion, 12of
of..rmass
μEquations =mass
of kmass
|r|r(which
(which
3(3.56) (which anddoes
does does notnot
(3.57)
not accelerate),
canaccelerate),
accelerate), combined
andand
(3.62) andμbeμ12μcombined
12to=
=
12 = to give a single
m /(m /(m + m m ) the
)
equationthe reduced
reduced mass.
mass.
of relative .. Equations
r..motion, r
Equations (3.56)(3.56)
= k r. r3r.(3.56) and (3.57) can be combined andand (3.57)
(3.57) can can be combined
be combined
(3.62)to to to
r..r..rk==
2ngle
/(m 21 + 1equation+
1m2 ) the2 2 of relative
reduced μmotion,
mass. μ12 r1212Equations (3.62)
aesingle
single equation 12μμ = kkk|r|
3 3 . .. (3.62)
(3.62)
a single equation equation ofofrelative
relative
of relative motion,
motion,μ12 motion,
.. = |r| |r| r|r|Plasma
|r| 33
(3.62)
μ12 r =..k.. 3Plasma .r r  Physics: An Introduction
Physics: An Introduction (3.62)
...(6.62)
μ12 μ12μ..r12 r== rk|r| =k rk .3 . . (3.62)
(3.62)(3.62)
|r||r| 3 |r| 3
ations
ations that that immediately
immediately follow
follow that from
fromimmediately the
the previous
previousfollow equation
equation are
arethe previous equation are
Two relations from
dh
dh = 0, ...(6.63)
(3.63)
dt = 0,
dt
(3.63)
dE
dE = 0, (3.64)
dt = 0, ...(6.64)
dt
(3.64)

.
h=
h × rr.
= rr × (3.65)
(3.65)
Self-Instructional Material 139

rved
rved angular
angular momentum
momentum per
per unit
unit mass,
mass, and
and

E
11 .. 22 +
|r|
kk
(3.66)
E== 2μ 12 |r| +
μ12 |r| (3.66)
2 |r|
ed
ed energy.
energy.
 Two
Two relations
relations thatthat immediately
immediately follow followdE from
from the thedh = 0, equation
previous equation are (3.63)
Two relations that immediately follow from dtprevious the 0,previous equation are
are
= 0, =
dtprevious equation are (3.64) (3.63)
Two relations that immediately follow dh dtfromdh
dh
the dE
= 0, = 0, (3.63)
(3.64)
=dh
= 0,
0, dt dE dt (3.63)
(3.63)
dt
dt
dh = 0, = 0, (3.63) (3.64)
where =dt 0, dE. dt (3.63)
where dE
dEdth ==dE
= 0, 0,r × r = 0, . (3.64)
(3.64) (3.65)(3.64)
where dt dt
dt
dE = h
0, = r × r (3.64) (3.65)
is the conserved angular momentum per=dt unit
0, mass, and . (3.64)
where where dt h = r × r (3.65)
where is the conserved angular momentum . per unit . mass, and
where is theand
Electrodynamics conserved angular where momentum h =1r × rr.h. = r ×k r mass, and
2 . unit
per (3.65) (3.65)
where Plasma Physics E h== rμ h
×12= |.r|
r × +r
1 |r| . 2 k
(3.65) (3.66)
(3.65)
is
is the
is the conservedmomentum
the conserved
conserved angularangular momentum per

angular momentum h =2unit r ×Emass, r=...(6.65)
per unit12mass,
1 μand and|r| +and (3.65) (3.66)
is the conserved angular momentum perE unit
per unit mass,
= 2 mass,
μ |
.
r| 2
and +
k
|r| (3.66)
theconserved
is the conservedangular energy.momentum is the conserved per unit. angular 1 2k and
mass,
12
. momentum k |r| per unit mass, and
1 . 2This 2
Equationthe conserved
(3.65) implies energy. thatE
E=
1
=r ·2hμ μ=
E 0. =
|r|
121|r| 2+ .|r|
12
2
+μ122is|r|thek+equation
k
|r| of a plane that (3.66)
(3.66)passes(3.66)
NOTES E | r| (3.66)
the conserved
Equation
through the origin, and whose energy.
(3.65) implies
Enormal 2
1 that
= .r
μ
is parallel ·
12 h =k
|r| 0.+
to |r| This is the equation
constant vector h. We, there-
the...(6.66) of a plane that passes
122|r|
2
Equation
through the (3.65)
origin, implies
and =whose μthat normal r · +
h is 0. This
parallel is tothe the equation
constant of a (3.66)
vector plane h. that
We, passes
there-
the the conserved
fore, conclude that the energy. relative position 2 vector|r|r is constrained to lie in this plane,
=
the conserved
conserved energy.
energy.
through the(3.65)
origin, the conserved
and whose energy.
normal rtoisequation h.the
which
Equation fore,
the conserved conclude
Equation
implies
(3.65) energy.
that the
implies that the
implies
trajectories
that rr ·· h relative
that of rboth · position
h =colliding 0.isThis parallel
vector is the
particles the constant
constrained
aaare of a vector
coplanar. topasses
plane lie
Let in
that We,
this there-
plane,
passes
Equationwhich
theplane
conserved (3.65)
energy.
fore, impliesthat
conclude thatthe
the h = 0.
=
relative 0. ThisThis position
is
is thethe equation
equation
vector r is
of plane
plane that
ofconstrained that topasses
lie in this plane,
through Equation
r · origin,
the h = 0and
through theimplies
(3.65)origin,
coincide
whose Equation
implies
andwith whose
normal that trajectories
(6.65)
r
theisx-y normal
· h = implies
0. of
This
is
plane,tosothethat both
parallel that
is the r
colliding
to h =
equation
the
•we can 0. particles
This
constantof is
a
writeh.rWe, the are
plane
vector
= (x, coplanar.
equation h.
that of
passes
We,
y). It a Let
plane
there- the
that passes through
through Equationthe plane
origin,
(3.65)
which r and
· h
implies whose
implies that
that
0 normal
the
coincide r · h is0.parallel
trajectories
= with parallel
This the is
ofx-ytothe
both the
plane,
constant
constant
equation
colliding
so that ofvector
vector
a plane
particles
we h.2that
can We,
are
write
there-
there-
passes r
coplanar. (x, Let the
It
is throughfore, the
convenient conclude
origin,
to the define=that
theand thestandard
whose
the
origin, relative
andnormal whose position
plane is normal rr vector
parallel
polar istoparallel
coordinates r isconstant
the constrained
toto =vector
r lie (x to +h.
lie 2We,1/2
in this
)vector there-
=andh.plane,
y).
tothe lie constant We, therefore, conclude
fore, conclude that relative position vector is constrained in this yplane,
fore,
through conclude
the plane
is thatr and
origin,
convenient·the relative
h whose to0 the position
normal
coincide
define the isterms
with vector
parallel
standard the x-ytoisthe
plane constrained
plane, constant
polar so coordinates
that vectorwe in
h.
can this
We,
rwrite plane,
there-
(x r2angu- 2 1/2
(x,
) y).andIt
which θ fore,
= tan conclude
which
−1
implies implies
(y/x).
that that
When
the
=the
that relative
expressed
trajectories trajectories
of position
in both of of
collidingvector
boththese r
collidingis constrained
coordinates,
particles particles
are the to lie
are
conservedin
= this
coplanar. plane,
= yLet
+ the
which
fore,lar
implies
conclude
which is
plane
momentumθ that
that
r
implies
= · h
the
convenient
tan −1
per the that
(y/x).
that
= 0
unitthe
the relative
trajectories
relative
to define
When
coincide
mass position
trajectories
becomes
of
theboth
expressed
with
positionvector
standard
the
of
colliding
both in
x-y
vector
rcolliding
terms is constrained
plane
plane, of
r is constrained
particles
polar
sothesethat
particles
are tocoplanar.
coordinates coplanar.
coordinates,
we lie
can
are in lie Let
to this
r the
write
coplanar.
inplane,
=Let
r
the
this2 plane,
(x=the
conserved
(x,
Let
+ 2 1/2which implies that the
) angu-
ythe
y). and
It
plane
plane rr ·· h = 00 coincide
h lar coincide with
trajectories
with the
theof x-y
both
x-y plane,
colliding
plane, so
so that
that particles we can write
arecoordinates,
coplanar. rr = = Let(x, y).
the It
It2 1/2r • angu-
plane h = 0 coincide with the
whichplane implies
is r that
θ=·=hmomentum
tan
convenient
= the
−1
0 trajectories
(y/x).
coincide
to per
defineWhenunit
with the of
expressed
mass theboth
standard becomes
x-y colliding
in
plane, terms
plane so
polarofwe
particles these
that
can
we are
coordinates
write
can coplanar.
write
(x,Let
2 r =r22the (x
=
1/2
y).
(x,
+ the
2conserved
yy).) Itand
is
is convenient
convenient
planeisr−1 ·θh=lar to
to define
define
0−1coincide the
the standard
standard
with the plane
plane
x-y plane, polar
polar coordinates
coordinates r
r = (x
(x 2 +
r= =the y
y )
) 1/2 and
and
tan
=tan
convenient momentum x-yWhen
to define
(y/x). plane,
perthe unit so that
mass
standard
expressed wehin
becomes=can
plane h eso
terms write that
z ,polar of rthese we
= (x,can
coordinates y). write
coordinates,
=
It isrconvenient +
(x(x,
2 y).
yto It and
define
2 (3.67)
conserved
+ angu- )1/2 the standard plane polar
angu-
θθis = tan−1 (y/x).
=convenient (y/x). When
−1toWhen
define expressed
expressed
the standard in
in terms
terms
plane 2
of
ofpolar
2
these coordinates,
thesehcoordinates
coordinates,
= h e , −1 r the
the
= conserved
conserved
(x 2
+ y 2 1/2
) angu-and (3.67)
lar θ =−1lar
momentum tanmomentum
(y/x).
per unit coordinates
When per unit
mass mass
expressed
becomes r = becomes
(xin terms + y )1/2 ofand these θ =coordinates,
ztan (y/x). When expressedangu-
the conserved in terms of these coordinates,
lar momentum
tan
θ =where (y/x). per
When unit mass
expressed becomes in terms of these h coordinates,
= h e , the conserved angu- (3.67)
lar momentum perthe
where
unit mass becomes
conserved angular momentum . z
per unit mass becomes
lar momentum per unit mass becomes h = r2hθ.= h ez , . (3.68)(3.67)
h =
h = h ezz ,  h e , 2 (3.67)
(3.67)
where h = h ez , 2 . h = r θ. (3.67) (3.68) ...(6.67)
Furthermore, the conserved energyhtakes = h ethe z,
form
h r (3.67) (3.68)
where = θ.
where
where Furthermore, thewhere conserved energy .. htakes the. form
where Furthermore, the conserved 1 h energy
= � 22. θ.
r takes=.r. 2 the �θ. form k (3.68) (3.68)
where E = hμ= rr θ.+...(6.68)
2 2 2
r2 θ.θ� . + . . � k (3.68) (3.69)
Furthermore, the conserved 2energy
12 h =.
1 r
2 takes the2form r2 2
(3.68)
Furthermore, the conserved energy
Furthermore, takesh =E r
the=
the θ. form μ
conserved � r + r
energyθ
. � + takes . the form (3.68) (3.69)
Furthermore, the conserved energy takes the form
Furthermore, the conserved energy Etakes=
1
2 the
μ
12
form r
. 2 + r2 θ 2 + kr . (3.69)
Suppose
Furthermore, thethat r = z −1 ,energy
conserved where takes z =�z(θ) 1
the and 2
form θ.�= θ(r).. It� follows
�.12 k r that
Suppose that Er = = z1 μ
1 −1 E = � .
r. 22 +�μzr.12 22 .z(θ) 2
�
θ r22 2+
k 2 2
rk θθ =+θ(r). (3.69)
μ.,12where k r ...(6.69)
+and . It follows that
+. r2 �.. dz (3.69)
=
E= 121�r 2+ r 2 θdθ (3.69)
Suppose that r.= z21 , where 2
E −1 z 2 z = .z(θ) and
rdz �r kr−hθ = .θ(r). It follows that (3.70) (3.69)
2 r.−r
μ θ .
r+=z.r2−1θ,2where
= 212
+ +
Er =
Suppose
=
−1 z
− μ212that =
. dθ dt +2=dz . zdθ =r z(θ) and
dθ dz θ = θ(r). It(3.69)
follows that
Suppose Suppose
that r zthat
−1 r = z
−1 , where z2= z(θ) , where r = z
and− = . z(θ)
θ = and
−r
θ(r). r
θIt=follows θ(r). = −h Itthat
follows. that (3.70)
Suppose that r−1= z −1 , where zr. =
=
Suppose that r = z , where z z(θ) and z 2θ = θ(r). dz It follows
dθ that
dz
z and θ 2=dθ dt It=follows dθ . that
= =
= z(θ)
.− = −r θ(r). −h ...(6.70) (3.70)
Hence,
Suppose Equation
that r =(3.69) z , where transforms
.r. =(3.69) zz.. =. z(θ) to and give
z z2θdθ= 2θ(r). dz dθ dθIt dt
follows dzthatdθ
Hence, Equation z r .
transforms
= − 22 dzdz =dθ −rto give dz
dz .= −h . (3.70)
r= −
−.z.22 =Equation
Hence, = −r
z
−r zdθ 2 ⎡ � 2dt dz
(6.69) =
�2= −h dθ−h transforms
⎤
dt . dz to give
dθ (3.70)
(3.70)
Hence, Equation . r
(3.69) −transforms
zz 1 2 2 2dθ
= = dz−r
⎢
⎢⎢ dz to give
dt ⎡� 2 ⎥⎥⎥dθ
dθ =⎥ dθ
dz�2−h . (3.70)
r =E−=2 =μz−r 12 h ⎢ ⎣⎢1todθ dθ=+dt −h ⎢⎢⎢⎡ z dz ⎦⎥dθ +.k z. dθ ⎤⎥ (3.70) (3.71)
Hence, Hence,
Equation Equation
(3.69) (3.69)
transforms
z transforms
2 to give
E dθ μ dt give h 2 ⎢ � � z2⎥ ⎥⎥⎥⎤ + k z. ...(6.71) (3.71)
Hence, Equation (3.69) transforms to give 1 12 ⎣⎢⎢ dz = ⎢ 2 +
Hence, Equation (3.69) transforms E to 2give μ ⎡h�2⎢ ⎢ dθ +⎤z2 ⎦⎥⎥⎥⎥ + k z.
� (3.71)
Hence, Equation (3.69) transforms to give ⎡⎡�� ��212 ⎢ ⎤⎤⎢⎣ 2
= ⎥⎥ ⎥⎦
It is convenient to define the1relative ⎢⎢1velocity
dz 2 ⎡2� 2 ⎢⎢⎢at�dz ⎥⎥⎥large dθ ⎤distances, 2⎥
It is convenientE It is
1 convenient
E = 22 ⎢
h ⎢⎢⎢⎡2�relativedz
μ to h define
⎢ 22 the
⎥⎥⎦⎤ + k ⎥⎥z.at large+ relative
z ⎥⎥ + k z. velocity at large distances,
(3.71)
Eto= =define the +� zz2dθ (3.71)
12⎢ +⎣velocity distances,
2
μ
μ12121h ⎣ ⎣ dθ� 2 �⎢⎢⎢⎢2 dz ⎥⎦⎥ + k2 ⎥⎥z. ⎦ (3.71)
It is convenientEto=define E
21 = the μ
2⎢
⎢ h
dθ
dz2⎣E velocity
⎢⎢12relative 1/2 ⎥ + z ⎥⎦ at k z. distances,
+ large (3.71)
122h u⎢
μCollisions ⎣ = + z2�⎥⎥⎥⎦, +
dθ k �z.1/2
...(6.72) (3.71) (3.72) 57
It is convenient to define 2 the relative dθμ velocity 2E at�large distances,
It
It isis convenient
convenient to to define
define the the relative
relative velocity velocity 12 at
atularge = � 2distances,
large distances, 1/2 , (3.72)
It is convenient to define the relative velocity E distances,
It is convenient to define the relative velocity at �= atμlarge
ularge 12
�distances,
1/2 , C (3.72)
�� 2 E ��1/2 1/2 2 E μ 12
2 E �
u= , � 1/2 , (3.72)
u
u= = � μ �1/2 2 E, μ12 (3.72)
(3.72)
u2μ12=E
12 , (3.72)
u= μ12, (3.72)
μ12

B
β
A α χ
b Θ
O
Fig. 6.1
Figure 3.1
A two-body Coulomb collision.
140 Self-Instructional Material

as well as the impact parameter,

h
. b= (3.73)
u
The latter parameter is simply the distance of closest approach of the two particles
in the situation in which there is no Coulomb force acting between them, and they,
consequently, move in straight-lines. (See Figure 3.1.) The previous three equations
omb collision.
Θ O
O
act parameter,
Figure 3.1
h
A two-body Coulomb collision.
b= . (3.73)
Coulomb collision. u
ter is simply
s well the distance
A two-body
as the impact of closest
Coulomb
parameter, approach of the two particles
collision. Single-Particle Motions
h
ewhich
impactthere isasnowell
parameter, Coulomb force
as the impact =acting
. between them, and they, (3.73)
bparameter,
ve in straight-lines. (See Figure h 3.1.) uThe previous three equations
The b =
latter parameter is simply the . ...(6.73) (3.73)
o give u distance of closest approach of the two particles
n the situation inThe
which there
latter is no Coulomb
parameter is simply force acting of
the distance between
closest them, andofthey,
approach the two particles in the NOTES
arameter is simply
 the distance of closest approach
 Figure of the two particles
onsequently, move in
2 straight-lines. (See 3.1.) The previous three equations
ion in which dz isinnowhich
situation
2there there
Coulomb is nok acting
force Coulomb force acting
between between
them, and they,them, and they, consequently,
an be combined
y, move in b
to give
straight-lines. − b2Figure
= 1(See z2 − 3.1.) z. The previous three (3.74)
equations
move dθin straight-lines. (FigureE 6.1.) The previous three equations can be combined to give
bined to give  2  
2 dz 2 2 k
ws the collision in a2frameb of reference
= 1 −b zin−whichz....(6.74) (3.74)
dz dθ k E particle 2 remains
b2
origin, O, whereas = 1 − b21z2traces
particle − z.out the path ABC. (3.74) Point B
dθ
Figure 6.1 showsin the
Figure 3.1 shows the collision E of reference
collision
a frame in a frame of reference
in which particle in which particle 2 remains
2 remains
e closest approach of the two particles. It follows, by symmetry
tationary atstationary
the origin, O, origin,
whereasO,particle 1 traces out the path ABC.
b.1 collisions at
in the
are reversible),
shows the collision that
a frame of whereas
the
reference inparticle
angles α and
which 1 traces 2out
β shown
particle the
remains thePoint
inpath B
ABC. Point B corresponds
orrespondstoto thethe closest
closest approach
approachofofthe
the two
two particles.
particles.ItItfollows,
follows,bybysymmetry
symmetry(because Coulomb
t one
the origin,
another. O, Hence,
whereaswe particle 1 traces
that outthatthe path ABC. Point B
because Coulomb collisions deduce
are reversible), the angles α and β shown in the
to the closest approach
collisions of the two that particles. It follows, by symmetry
α and β shown
figure are equal to oneare reversible),
another. Hence, wethe angles
deduce that in the figure are equal to one another.
oulomb collisionsHence, we are reversible),
χ deduce
= π − that2 Θ. that the angles α and β shown in the(3.75)
qual to one another. Hence, we deduce that
χ = π − 2Θ. χ = π − 2 Θ. (3.75) ...(6.75)
le through which theχ path of particle 1 (or particle
2 Θ. through which the path of particle
π −angle 2) is deviated
(3.75)1 (or particle 2) is deviated as
Here, is the angle Here, χ is=the
through which the angle
path ofthrough
particle 1which(or particle 2) is deviated
of theχ collision, whereas Θ is the the relative
s a consequence a consequence of the collision,
of the collision, whereas Θwhereas Θ is the
is the angle anglewhich
through through thewhich the relative position
relative
herotates as particle
angle through
osition vector, r,
which 1 moves
rotates
the pathfrom
as particle 1
point1from
of particle
moves
A(or(which
particleis2)assumed
point A
is deviated
(which is
to be to be
assumed
vector, r, rotates as particle
Θ is the1point moves from point A the
(which
uence
oint O)
nfinity
of the collision,
fartofrompoint pointB. O)whereas
Suppose
to point that
B. Suppose
angle through
Plasma
Athat which
Physics:
corresponds
point θ is
torelative
An
A corresponds
assumed to be infinity far from
=Introduction
0.
to θIt= 0. It
tor, r, rotates point O) to point
as particle 1 moves. Suppose
from point that point
A (whichA corresponds
is assumedtotoθ be = 0. It follows that
ollows that  Suppose
rom point O) to point B. that zmaxPlasma
 point Physics:toAnθ Introduction
, where r is the
zmax
dθ
distance of dθA corresponds
closest
Plasma approach.
Physics:
PlasmaAn
= 0. It
Now, byAnsymme-
Introduction
in58 min Θ = Θ dz.
= Plasma
dz. Physics: An
Physics:Introduction
(3.76) Introduction
(3.76)
 zmax
dz ...(6.76)
dz
0,
1/rsomin Equation
, where r (3.74)
is
min Θ = the
0 impliesdθ
distance that
of0
closest approach. Now, by symme-
1/r
Here,
=1/r minz
, ,max
where
where= 1/r rrmin iswhere
min ,is rmindzisdz.
the distance theof closest
ofdistance approach.
of Now, (3.76)
closest approach. byby symme-
Now, by symme-
zthe distance closest approach. Now, symme-
0, so Equation min
ax
= min Here,(3.74) 0=implies
1/r
 , that
where rmin is the distance of closest approach. Now, by symme
try, 0, so
(dz/dθ) Equation 0, so(3.74) implies
Equation
max (3.74)
min that implies that
k  that(6.74) implies that
=
zmax= 0, so Equation = (3.74)
2 = 0,implies
zmax
ax
− b2 zmax
try,1(dz/dθ)z
max − sokEquation
zmax =0. (3.77)
1 − b2 2zmax 2 −1 E
2  k 2zmax
2 = 0.k (3.77)
1 − b z
2 max 2 − −E bk zzmaxmax −= 0. zmax = 0. (3.77) (3.77)
1 − b zmax − E zmax =E0. ...(6.77) (3.77)
ions (3.74) andand (3.76), we E
obtain
Equations
Combining (3.74)
Equations (3.76),
(3.74) we
and obtain
(3.76), we obtain
Equations
 zmax (3.74) and (3.76),
Combining we obtain
Equations (6.74)
 ζζmaxmaxand (6.76), we obtain
Equations (3.74) and (3.76), we obtain
zmax bdz
b zdz 
b=dz  ζmax

dζ dζ
ζmax
, dζ
max
= Θ =  z zmax
Θ = b dz  = 2
dζ2 , (3.78)(3.78)
(3.78)
, ...(6.78)
Θ0 = 0 1 −max
1 b−2bz02b2z −
2 dz−kkz/E
2 z/E 2 =2 00 ζmax1 1
− −ζ ζ −dζ −
α ζ
1α−, ζζ 2 − α ζ (3.78)
Θ= 0 1
 1 − b z2 − k z/E = 0 − b z − k z/E 2
1 − ζ 2− α ζ ,
0 (3.78)
0 1 − b 2 z2 − k z/E 0 1 − ζ − αζ
/(E b), and
α = k/(Ewhere α = k /(E b), and
),where
k/(Eand
b), and
b), and
2
/(E b), and 1 − 2ζmax 2 − α1ζmax − ζ 2= 0. − α ζmax = 0. (3.79) (3.79)
1 −1ζ−max ζmax
2
− α
− ζ
α ζmaxmax
max == 0.0. ...(6.79) (3.79)
(3.79)
Speigel, Liu,(Speigel,
Integration 1 Liu,
and Lipschutz− ζmax and1999)
−Lipschutz
α ζmax yields 0. yields
= 1999) (3.79)
(Speigel,
gel, Liu, Liu,
and and Lipschutz
Lipschutz
Integration 1999)
1999) yields
(Speigel, yields
Liu, and Lipschutz 1999)  yields
Speigel, Liu, and Lipschutz 1999) yields
π
Θ = π− sin−1 Θ−1=√π −ααsin−1 . √ α . (3.80) (3.80)
Θπ=2π − sin −1
2√4 α + α 2 . ...(6.80)
4 + α 2 (3.80)
Θ =Θ = −2 sin − sin −1 √ 4 +
√
αα2 . (3.80)
(3.80)
Hence, from Equation2 (3.75), we get4 α 2 .
Equation (3.75), we get
Hence, 2from Equation 4(6.75), ++ α 2we get
m Equation (3.75), we get   
ation (3.75),
Equation we we
(3.75), getget −1 χ = 2α sin−1 √ α , (3.81)
χ = 2 sin −1 √ α , ...(6.81) (3.81)
χ = 2 sin   √4 + α2 , 4 + α2 (3.81)
−1give
−1 4α+α α2
which can be
e rearranged to give 2
rearranged
χ = χ = sin
2 sin
to √ √ ,, (3.81)
(3.81)
4 2 2
be rearranged to give  4 + α + α
�0 μ12 u2 b
Self-Instructional Material 141
 χ  2 E b χ 4π �2 Eμ b u2 4π
eranged
rearranged to give χ = 2cot = 0 12 = b . (3.82)
to give
cot E b=2 4π �0k μ12 u2 b. e1 e2 (3.82)
cot 2 = k = e1 e2 . (3.82)
  χ2  2 E
χ
kb 4π �e01μe12
2= E b =4π �0 μ12 u b .
2 u22 b
cot (3.82)
cot 2= k= e e . (3.82)
2 k e1 1e2 2
 χ = 2 sinπ  √   , (3.81)
−1 − sinα−1
4 α 2 α
Θ
χ = 2 sin = √ +α√ , . (3.81) (3.80)
χ = 2 2sin−14 +√α2 4 + α, 2 (3.81)
which can be rearranged to give 4 + α2
which Hence, from Equation
can be rearranged (3.75), we get
to give
which can be rearranged togive χ  2 E b 4π �0 μ12 u2b
cot χ  =2 E b =4π−1�0 μ12 αu2 b . (3.82)
cot 2= χ  χ =2k2E=sin
b 4π √e�10eμ212.u2, b (3.82) (3.81)
cot2 =k = e1 e42 + α2 . (3.82)
2 k e1 e2
which
Plasmacan be rearrangedwhich
Electrodynamics and
Physics to givecan be rearranged to give
 χ  2 E b 4π � μ u2 b
. ...(6.82)
0 12
cot = = (3.82)
3.8 Rutherford Scattering2Cross-Section k e1 e2
3.8 Rutherford
NOTES Scattering Cross-Section
3.8
ConsiderRutherford Scattering
Consider a particle of type6.9
a particle of type incidentCross-Section
1, RUTHERFORD
1, incident
with relativeSCATTERING CROSS-SECTION
velocity u onto an ensemble
with relative velocity u onto an ensemble of
of
particles of type 2 with number density n . If p (Ω) dΩ is the probability per unit
2 1
particles
Consider of type 2 withofnumber
a particle type
Consider1,density
incident
a particle n2 .withof Iftype prelative
1 (Ω) 1, dΩ velocity
is the
incident withprobability
urelative
onto an per unit
ensemble
velocity ontoof
u then an ensemble of particles
time of
time
of the
the particle
particle beingscattered
scatteredinto into the range of solid angle ΩΩto+Ω + dΩ,
particles of type being
2 withofnumber
type density
2 with number
the range
n . If of p solid
(Ω) angle
dΩ is Ωthe to dΩ,
probability then
per unit
2density1n . If p (Ω) dΩ is the probability per unit time of the particle
time3.8
of theRutherford Scattering Cross-Section
the differential
the differential scatteringcross-section,
scattering cross-section, dσ/dΩ,dσ/dΩ, is defined
is defined 2
via1via(Reif(Reif
1965) 1965)
particle being
being scattered into the range
scattered into the range of of solid
solid angle
angle ΩΩtotoΩΩ + dΩ,
+ dΩ, thenthen
the differential scattering
the differential
Consider a scattering
particle of cross-section,
type 1, incident dσ/dΩ,with dσ is defined
relative
dσ dΩ.via (Reif 1965) via
velocity (Reif
u onto 1965)
an ensemble of
cross-section,
p(Ω)
1 (Ω) dΩdΩ dσ/dΩ,
== n2nu2 isundefined (3.83)
particles of type 2 withp1number density .dΩ.If p (Ω) dΩ is the (3.83)
probability per unit
dΩ2dΩdσ 1
time of the particle being scattered p1 (Ω) dΩinto = nthe 2u
range dΩ. of(6.83)
solid angle Ω to Ω + dΩ, then
(3.83)
Assuming
Assuming thatthe
that thescattering
the differential scattering isisazimuthally
scattering azimuthally
cross-section, symmetric
symmetric
dσ/dΩ, dΩ (i.e., (i.e.,
is defined symmetric
symmetric
via (Reif in
in φ), we
1965) we can
φ), can
write dΩ
write dΩ == 2π 2πsinsinχχdχ.dχ.Now,
Now,Assuming
thetheprobability
probability that the perper unit
scattering
unit time time aofcollision
a collision
isofazimuthally having
symmetric
having an symmetric in φ), we can
an(i.e.,
Assuming that the scattering is azimuthally symmetric dσ (i.e., symmetric in φ), we can
impact parameter
impact parameterininthe therange
range
write b b
to to
b
dΩ the b
= p2π
+ +db db
sin dΩ
(Ω) is is
χ dχ.= n2 per u unit dΩ. (3.83)
write dΩ = 2π sin χ dχ. Now, 1probability
dΩ time of a collision having an
impact parameter in the range p1p(b)b to
1 (b)dbdb b=+= n2db nu22π is
u 2π b db. b db.  (3.84)
(3.84) ...(6.84)
Assuming that the scattering is azimuthally symmetric (i.e., symmetric in φ), we can
write dΩ
Furthermore,
Furthermore, we
we=can2πwrite
can sin χ dχ. Furthermore,
write Now,
p1 (b)the
 db
we can write
probability
= n2 u 2π per b db. unit time of a collision having (3.84)an
dΩ

impact parameter in the range bto b +db is
 dΩ
Furthermore, we can write p1p(Ω) 1 (Ω)
   = = p1 (b),
p (b), ,  (3.85)
(3.85) ...(6.85)
db  db   1
p1 (b) db dΩ= n2 u 2π b db. (3.84)
Collisions
p 1 (Ω) 
Collisions Now, the probability
 = p1 (b), (3.85)
59 impact parameter
Collisions db per unit time of a collision59having an 59 in the
Furthermore, we can write  
range b to b + db is provided  dΩ  that χ and b are related according to the two-particle scattering
provided
provided that χ andthat χ and
b provided
are bthat
relatedare related
χ andpb1according
according are
to the
(Ω) related  to
 two-particle the
=accordingtwo-particle
p1 (b), scattering
law, Equa-law,
to the two-particle
scattering Equa-
scattering
(3.85)law, Equa-
tion
tion (3.82). (3.82). It
It follows law,that
follows
tion
that (3.82). Equation
It follows(6.82). that  db It follows that
dσ 2π dσb 2π bdσ 2π b
= =. ...(6.86) .= . (3.86) (3.86) (3.86)
dΩ |dΩ/db| dΩ |dΩ/db| dΩ |dΩ/db|
Equation Equation (3.82)
(3.82) yields yields(3.82) yields
Equation
Equation (6.82) yields
  2  
dΩ dΩ dχ dΩ dχ 4π �0dχ μ12 u4π �0 μ122u2 4π �0 μ212 u2
= 2π sin χ= 2π =sin−2π χ =sin2π =χ−2π sin χsin χ= −2π sin χ(χ/2).
2 sin 2 sin (χ/2). 2 sin2 (χ/2).
(3.87) (3.87)...(6.87)
(3.87)
db db db db db edb 1 2e e 1 e 2 e 1 e 2

Finally, Equations
Finally, Equations Finally,
(3.82), Finally,
(3.82), (3.86),
Equations
(3.86), and Equations
and
can(3.87)
(3.82),
(3.87) (6.82),
(3.86),can
andbe
be combined (6.86),
combined
(3.87) andthe
can
to give be(6.87)
givecan
tocombinedthebe
so-called tocombined
so-called to give the so-called
give the so-called
RutherfordRutherford
scatteringscattering
Rutherfordcross-section,
scattering
cross-section, cross-section,
Rutherford scattering cross-section,
  2 2 2
dσ 1 dσ e1 e12 dσe1 e2 1 e1 e12 1
= = =4 2 . 4 . ...(6.88)(3.88)
. (3.88) (3.88)
dΩ 4 4πdΩ u
4 4π
dΩ 4 4π �0 μ12 u 0sin12(χ/2) sin0 (χ/2)
2 � μ � μ 12 u 2 4
sin (χ/2)
It is immediately
It is immediately fromItthe
apparent,is from
It is immediately
apparent, immediately
apparent,
previous apparent,
the formula,
previous
from the
that fromthat
formula,
previous the previousthatformula,
two-particle
formula,
two-particle Coulomb that two-particle
Coulomb
two-particle Coulomb Coulomb
collisionscollisions are
are dominated dominated
collisions areby
by collisions
small-angle small-angle
dominated
are(i.e., (i.e.,
small
dominated small
by small-angle
χ)byscattering scattering
(i.e.,
small-angle
χ) small
events. events.
(i.e., χ) scattering
small events.events.
χ) scattering

6.10 LANDAU COLLISION OPERATOR

The fact that two-particle Coulomb collisions are dominated by small-angle scattering events
3.9 Landau 3.9 Landau 3.9 Collision
Collision Landau
Operator
allows someOperator
Collision
simplificationOperatorof the Boltzmann collision operator in a plasma. According
The two-particle
fact thatThe to Equations
two-particle (6.23)
Coulomb and (6.88), the Boltzmann collision operator
scat- for two-body
scat- Coulomb
The fact that fact
Coulomb collisionscollisions
that two-particle Coulomb
are dominatedare dominated
collisions are by
by small-angle small-angle
dominated
scat- by small-angle
tering
tering events events
allows allows
tering
some collisions
events
simplificationbetween
someallows
simplification
some
of particles
the of the of type
simplification
Boltzmann 1of(with
Boltzmann
collision mass m1 in
collision
the operator
Boltzmann anda charge
operator
collisionin eoperator
a1 ) and particles
in a of type 2
plasma. According
plasma. According toplasma. (with
Equationsto (3.23)mand
mass
Equations
According and
2to charge
(3.23) and
Equations
(3.88), thee(3.88),
) can be
2(3.23)
Boltzmannandwritten
the Boltzmann
(3.88),
collision collision
the opera-
Boltzmann opera-
collision opera-
tor for two-body
tor for two-body tor forCoulomb
Coulomb two-body
collisions collisions
Coulomb
between between
collisions
particles particles
of between
type of type
particles
1 (with 1 (with
mass mass1 m
of1 type
m and 1 andmass m1 and
(with
142 Self-Instructional Material
charge e1 )charge e1 ) and
and particles particles
charge
of type of type
e1 )2and
(with 2 (with
particles
mass mass
mof2 type
and 2m 2 and
(with
charge )charge
e2masscanmbe 2 eand
2 ) can be written
charge
written e2 ) can be written
  
dσ � � dσ � � 3 dσ � 3 �
C12 = C 12 u
= u
( fC12f =− f1( ff2 )fd − f2()f d fv2−dΩ,
uv2f1dΩ, f1 f2 ) d3(3.89)
v2 dΩ, (3.89) (3.89)
dΩ 1 2 dΩ 1 2 dΩ 1 2
where where where   2 2 2
dσ 1 dσ e1 e12 e1 e2 1
dσ e1 e12 1
= = =4 2 . 4 . (3.90)
. (3.90) (3.90)
dΩ 4 dΩ 4π �0 μ412 u4πdΩ
2 �0sin 4u 4πsin
μ12(χ/2) 12 u
�0 μ(χ/2) 2 4
sin (χ/2)
 Collision
Landau Operator
Collision OperatorOperator
Collision
o-particle
o-particle Coulomb
Coulomb collisions
fact that two-particle
Landau Collision Coulombare
collisions
Operator are dominated
dominated
collisions by
by small-angle
are dominated small-angle scat-
scat-
by small-angle scat-
ows
ows
ng some simplification
someallows
events simplification ofof the
some simplification the Boltzmann
Boltzmann of the Boltzmann collision
collision operator
collision in
operator in aa
operator in a
act
ng
ma.tothat two-particle
Equations Coulomb collisions are dominated by small-angle scat-
ing Equationsto(3.23)
toAccording (3.23) and
Equationsand (3.88),(3.88),and
(3.23) the Boltzmann
the(3.88),Boltzmann collision
collision opera-
the Boltzmann opera- opera-
collision
events allows some simplification of the Boltzmann collision operator in a
or two-body
Coulomb
Coulomb Coulombbetween
collisions
collisions collisions
between between
particles
particles ofof particles
type
type of type
11 (with
(with mass1 (with
mass mass m1 and
mm11 and
and
a. According to Equations (3.23) and (3.88), the Boltzmann collision opera-
rge e
rticles
rarticles
1 )
two-body
and
of particles
type 2
of Coulomb
type 2 (withof
(with type
mass 2 m
massbetween
collisions
(with and mass charge
m22 andparticles charge m and
e
2 of ) charge
can
e22type
) can1 be be e ) can
written
written
(with
be
2 mass m andwritten
1
  of type 2 (with
e e1 ) and particles

massdσ m and charge e ) can be written Single-Particle Motions
dσdσ 2 � � 2 3
CC1212 == C12
uu = ((ff1�1�dσ ff11 f(f22f)1)ddf323vv−22dΩ,
ff2�2�u−−dΩ 1 f2 ) d v2 dΩ,
fdΩ, (3.89) (3.89)
(3.89) ... (6.89)
dΩdΩ
C12 = � �
u 3
( f1 f2 − f1 f2 ) d v2 dΩ, (3.89)
re where dΩ
 dσ 1  22 e1 e2 2 1
dσ
dσ 11 ee11e=
e 211 (3.90)
== dσ dΩ 1 22 4 e14π
e2 � μ u2 1.. 4 . (3.90)
(3.90) ... (6.90) NOTES
dΩ 4 4π=� μ u22 0 4412
dΩ 4 dΩ4π �040 μ124π sin. (χ/2) u (3.90)
12 �0 μ12sin u2 (χ/2)
sin (χ/2)
sin4 (χ/2)
e, u is the relative velocity prior to a collision, and dΩ = sin χ dχ dφ, where χ is
ative
lative
u is the velocity
velocityprior priorto to aa collision,
collision, and
anddΩ dΩ
and=dΩ = sin sin=χ χdχ dχ dφ,
dφ, where
where whereχ χχisis
angle ofrelative
deflection, velocityHere, andprioru φis is to arelative
the an collision,
azimuthal velocity angleprior sin
that toχ dχ dφ,
a collision,
determines theand isdΩ = sin χ dχ dφ, where χ is the
orientation
ection,
ection, and
and
gle of deflection, φφ isisand an
an azimuthal
φazimuthal
is an azimuthal angleangle that
that
angle determines
determines
that determines the
the the orientation
orientation
orientation
heplane
plane which in angle
which ofa deflection,
given two-body and φ collision
is an azimuthaloccurs. Recall
angle thatthat f1�and
determines , f2� , f1the , and orientation of the plane
hich aaingiven
which given a given
two-body
two-body two-body
�collision
collision collision occurs.
occurs.
�
occurs. Recall
Recall Recall that
that that ff1�1�,f,1�f,f2�2�,f,2� ,ff11f,1,,and
and
reshort-hand
short-hand in for
�� which f (r,
a givenv , t), f
(r,two-body (r, v , t), f
collision (r, v , t), and f (r, v , t), respectively.
that f 1' , f 2' , f1, and f2 are short-hand for f1
ff22occurs. 2Recall
1 � 2
� 1 1 2 2
dally,
d for
for ff11(r,(r, vfor
= v(1/m 11,,t),
f1 (r,
t), ff22v1/m
(r,1 , t),
(r,−1 222
f,t),
vv��1),−12t),
. fvf121(r,
,(r, t),vvf21,(r,
11 ,t),t),vand , t), and
1and (r, v22,,vt),
(r,f2v(r, , t),
t), respectively.
respectively.
respectively.
y, μ12μ12 v' + v'2, t), f1(r, v1, t), and f2 (r, v2, t), respectively. Finally, μ12 = (1/m1 + 1/m2)−1.
(r, ..1, t), f22(r,particle
= (1/m + 1/m
1 ) .
/m
/m1type
The
he 1+ + 1/m
type1/m
1 and
)−1
1
122)and
−1
typetype
2
2 particle velocities velocities prior to prior to the collision
the collision are v1 and arev2v,1 and v2 ,
nd
and type
type
ectively,
ctively, so so2that
2 particle
particle
u =u
that The type
v1=−velocities
velocities
vv12− . Let 1vand
2 . us Let type
prior us2write
prior
write particle
to the
to corresponding
the the velocities
thecollision
collision
corresponding prior
are
are
velocities vv1to the
and
and
1velocities vvthe
aftercollision
22,, afterare thev1 and v2, respectively,
hat
hat
ision
on as uuas vvSection
==(see
(see 11so vthat
v22..3.3)
−−Section Let
uLet =3.3)vus write
write the the corresponding
correspondingvelocities velocitiesafter
1 − v2. Let us write the corresponding velocities after the collision as (see Section
us after the the
Section
Section3.3) 3.3) 6.3) μ12 Plasma μ12 Physics: An Introduction
v�1 = vv�1 + =m v11 +g, g, (3.91) (3.91)
� μμ 12121
m
60 vv11 == vv11 ++
�
g,g,...(6.91) 1 Plasma
(3.91)
(3.91) Physics: An Introduction
�
− u is assumed60 to be small, v mmv1�21 − μimplies
� which 12
g. μ 12 that the angle of deflection Plasma
(3.92) is Physics: An Introduction
60 2 =
v2 = m v22order− ing.g, we obtain Plasma Physics: An(3.92) Introduction
Expanding
60 f1� Here,
≡ f1 (r, �g
v=�1 ,ut)� − to�u μsecond
μ12 is
12 assumedmto 2 be small, which Plasma implies Physics: thatAn theIntroduction
angle of deflection is
�
Here, vv22 == g v= 2u −−− u isg.
v2Expanding g.assumed
...(6.92)
� to be� small, which implies (3.92)
(3.92) that the angle of deflection is
Here, g = u also also� small.
− u small. is assumed mm22to be small, f ≡ f (r,
21 fwhich
v , t) to
1 �2implies second that the order in
angle g, we
of we obtain
deflection
� μis12assumed Expanding
∂� f1 (vto1 )be small,
1f� ≡
�1 1μ12 which 1 (r, v ,ft)1 (v
∂1implies to1 )second order in g, obtain is
f1Here,
also �g f=1 (v
(v�1 )small. uExpanding
− u
1 Here, g = u'
) + g · f ≡ f
1 − u is assumed 1 (r, + v 1 , t) to ggsecond: order
to be small, which implies .in that g, the
we angle
obtain
(3.93)
2 that2 the angleisof deflection is
of deflection
also small. Expanding m1 f � ∂v ≡ 1�f1 (r, v�2, t) m 2
to second
μ 12 ∂v1order∂vf11(vin
∂ 1 ) g, 1
we μobtain
12 2 ∂ f21 (v1 )
also small. Expanding 1 1 � 1 1 f1 1(r,
1f (v ) f�' f≡1(v ) +v'1,μt)12gto· second
1 ∂ f12 (v1order +) 12 inμ2 12 g,
ggwe : obtain
∂ f1 (v1. ) (3.93)
�
f (v )
1 1 12 1 1 1 11μ � f (v ∂ ) f +m
(v ) g ·1 ∂v μ 121 +2 ∂ f (v gg
m11 2 1 :∂v1 ∂v1 .
) (3.93)
1 ) + μ g · ∂ f (vm)1 + 1 μ∂v 2 1gg : 2
� �
xpanding f2 ≡ f2 (r, f1 (vv21, )t),�we f1 (vget 2 m1 . ∂v1 ∂v (3.93)
1
∂ f (v )
� f1 (v1 ) + fm� 1≡ gf · (r,∂v 2 m121 gg : ∂v11∂v11 . ...(6.93)
12 1 11 2
Likewise, f1 (v�1 ) expanding v�21, �t), +we2 get (3.93)
Likewise, expanding m2 f1� 22 ∂v
≡ f (r, v , 2t), wemget
2 ∂v1 ∂v1
μ12 f � ∂≡f2f(v(r, 2 ) � 21 12 μ
v+2 , t), wegg
2
get: 2∂ f2 (v2 ) .
1
f2Likewise,
(v�2 ) � f2 (v expanding
1 ) Likewise,
− g ·2 expanding 2
f ' ≡ f v' , ∂v we get 1 μ(3.94)
t),f 2(v
2μ(r,
2
Likewise, expanding m2 f ≡∂v �
f22�(r, v2 ,2t),m � 2
2we get 12 ∂v22∂ 2 2) 2 ∂2 f (v2 )
2 f (v
2 2 ) �� f2 (v1 ) −
2 μ g·
12 ∂ f22 (v2+ ) 12 12μ2 12 gg : ∂2 f2 (v2. ) (3.94)
f2 (v2 )μ�12 f2 (v∂ 1 )f2− (v22 ) g ·1 ∂v
m μ12 2 +2∂mf22 (v2 2gg :∂v2 ∂v2 .
) ...(6.94) (3.94)
n writing the previous f2 (v�2 two ) � fequations,(v ) − we g · have
∂ f∂v (v m
neglected
) 2 + ∂v
2 the gg
2 r : and 22 tm de- . ∂v 2 (3.94)
∂v 2
21 m1222 gg : ∂∂v22∂v22 . f (v )
2 1 μm122 μ 2
� 2 22
f1 (r, v�1 , t), etNote cetera, f2that,
(vfor 2) � inease fwriting
2 (vof 1 ) notation.
− the g · Hence,
previous two + equations, we have neglected(3.94) the r and t de-
Note that, in writing m the
2 previous ∂v 2 two2 equations, m 2 ∂vwe 2 ∂v have2 neglected the r the
andrt andde- t
� pendence Note that, f1in �writing
v�1 , �t), et the previous two 2 equations, we have neglected
Note that, writingofthe
inpendence of
(r,
previous
f (r, v t), two cetera,
et equations,
cetera,
for ease
for we
ease
ofhave
of
notation.
notation. neglected Hence,
Hence,the r and t de-
∂ f1 f2 � of f1 f ∂(r, f12 v' , 1t), et cetera, for ease of notation. Hence,
,
Note
μ12 gthat,
f2 �pendence · dependence
in fwriting
of 1 (r, − v1 , t), the1etprevious
cetera, 1 twoease
�for equations,
of notation. we�have Hence, neglected the r and t de-
∂v
pendence of f f�1 f(r, m � m2 ∂v2
� v1 , t), et cetera, for ∂ ∂ � f ease f f ∂ f �
f1 fof � notation. f1 ∂ f2Hence,
1 1 1 2 1 2
1⎛f �2 f2− � f1 f2� � μ12 g · 2− ⎞
1
� �2 ⎜⎜⎜ 1∂ 2 f− f1 �ff∂2 f�1 μff12 2 g ·∂∂v 2f11 ∂
f m f12 � −m2 2 ∂v∂2f1 ∂ f2 ⎟⎟
+f1� fμ2�12−gg f1 :f2⎜⎝ � μ12 g · ∂ f+ f − f ⎛∂1 f− 1
1 2 1 ∂v 2 m m 2 ∂v 2 ⎟⎟⎠ . (3.95) ⎞
f12 f2 − f1 f2 ∂v g m 2 11 m
∂v 1 m 212 m 12 ∂v ⎛ 222
mf m 2
2 ∂ f1 ∂ f2 ⎟⎟⎟ ⎞
� μ1 ∂v 12 1 · 1 2 2
∂v
− ∂v
2 ⎜ ⎜
⎜2 ∂ 11 2 2 1 1 2 ∂ f2
2 f ∂v f
∂v
∂v+1 ⎛mμ 1 2gg m2: ⎜⎝∂v⎜⎜⎜2 ∂ f1 2f22+ 2f1 ∂ f2 − 2⎞ ∂ f1 ∂ f⎟⎠2.⎟⎟ (3.95)
1 2 +2⎜⎜⎜⎛ 1∂12μ2 12 f1 gg f:2∂v ⎜⎝ 1 ∂vf1 m∂ 2f2+m 2∂v22∂v2 ∂ f1−m∂1 m f2 2⎟⎟⎟⎞ ∂v1 ∂v2 ⎟⎟⎠ . ...(6.95)
(3.95)
at + 1 μ12 gg : ⎝⎜⎜ 2∂2 f f ∂v1f∂v1 ∂m21f −
+ 1 2m2 ∂v 2 2 ∂v∂2 f ∂mf1 m (3.95)
⎟⎟ .2 ∂v
⎠ 1 ∂v2
+ 2 that
⎜ 2 2 m1 m2 ∂v11 ∂v22 ⎟⎟ . (3.95) ⎟
gg : ⎜⎜⎝ ∂v�1 ∂v1 m12 + m22 ∂v
2 1 2 1 ∂v2
�2 � �It �follows μ12 � 2� 2 − ⎠
e1 e2 It
Itμ follows follows
2 1
that that2
∂v 1 ∂v1 1 ∂m 1 1 m 2 ∂ ∂v 2 ∂v 2 d 3 m m ∂v ∂v
v 2 dΩ1 2 1 2
4π �It0 μfollows
12
that 12 g · J1+� 2� eμ12egg �: 2 ��m1� � ∂v � −
� 1 � m2 ∂v12 2 u3 sin 1�(χ/2)
J �4
∂
, � �
1 ∂ � � d3 v32 dΩ
1 2 2
It follows that � C12 � �21� � e1� e2 μ12 g · J +� μ112 gg 2 : 1 ∂�−� 13 ∂ J d 4v2 dΩ ,...(6.96)
1 e1Ce122 �4� 4�
4π �0 μ12
4π 1 μ212 g · J�+
21 μ∂12 gg :m
2 1 1 ∂v
∂(3.96)
1 m ∂v22 dΩ Ju sin (χ/2)
−
� 1J� 2md23 v∂v
, 3
C12 � � 2 � ��0μμ
1212g · J + μ12 gg : − m1 ∂v 2 , u3 sin4 (χ/2)
e�10eμ2 12
1 where 1 2 1 ∂ 1 ∂ 3 d v24 dΩ
C12 � 4 4π μ12 g · J + 2 μ12 gg : m1 ∂v1 − m2 ∂v2 J u sin4 (χ/2) , (3.96)
4 4π �0 μ12 2 m1 ∂v1 m2 ∂v2 u3 sin (χ/2) (3.96)
∂ f1 f2 f1 ∂ f2 (3.96)
J=
where − . ...(6.97) (3.97) (3.96)
where ∂v1 m1 m2 ∂v2 ∂f f f ∂f 1 2 1 2
where J = ∂ f1 f2− f1 ∂ f.2 (3.97)
n be a right-handed
andwhere Let l, m,set and of nmutually f1 f2 ∂v
∂orthogonal
beJa =right-handed J = set ∂mf1vectors.
f1unit
1 of −
m2 ∂v
2mutually Suppose
2 .
orthogonal unit vectors. (3.97)
Suppose that
� f f − f∂v 1 fm .
1 m 2 ∂v 2 (3.97)
Recall thatuu= u= l. u
Let + g.
Recall Now,
l, m, and in
that nu'be an ∂
elastic
= au=right-handed
+ g.1Now,
∂v 1 m collision
1 −in set
2 m an
1 ∂
for
2 ofelastic
∂v 2 which the
collision
2mutually anglefor which
orthogonal unitthe angle Suppose
vectors. of deviation
is χ, we require |u Let
�
| l,|u|,
m,|u and × nuJ�be
| a ∂v
right-handed
u �2 1sin
m χ, m
and � of. mutually orthogonal unit(3.97)
set
u∂v u when χ 0. vectors. Suppose
that u =u l. Recall that = u u g.
2 Now, = in an elastic = collision forother words,angle
which the
Let l,ism,χ, that
we
andrequire |u'| = |u|,that uu'|
|u ×set ==and u sin χ, and u' an
= uelastic
when χ = 0. InSuppose we need
1 2 2
un =be ua l.right-handed � of mutually orthogonal unit vectors.
= = +
rds,that
weLetneed |g u l| = u, |l Recall
× g| u sin χ, �u +gg.=Now, 0 when in
� χ = 20. We collision � for which the angle
of
u =l,|gum, +deviation
uand
+l. of =nu,
Recall bethat
l|deviation is g|
�
uis =χ,
χ, we
|la×right-handed
=uuwe=
sinrequire
g.
χ, set
Now,
and
+ require ofg mutually
|u | in
= |u|,
� 0an
= when |u
elastic χ u
orthogonal
× = | u
collision
0. = sin
unit
� We deduce χ, and
2 forvectors.
which
that uthe u when χ = 0.
Suppose
=� angle
|u | = |u|, 2|u × u | = u �sin χ, and u = u when χ = 0.
that u =� uIn
of deviation l. is
other
Recall
χ, we words,
that u�we
require = |uuneed
�+ g.|gNow,
| = |u|, + |uu l|×in=uan |= |l u�× g|sincollision
�u, elastic = u andsin χ,uforand ugwhen
=which 0 when
= the = 0.χ = 0. We
χangle
g � u (cos In
χ −other
1) l + words,
sin χ we
cos need |g
�φ m + sin χ sin+ u l| � φu,
= n |l2. × g| χ, = u sin �χ, and g = 0 when χ = 0. We
(3.98)
of deviation deduce
In other words, is χ, that
we
we that require |u | = |u|, |u × u | u
need |g + u l|� u, |l × g| = u sin χ, and g = 0 when χ =� 0.=We
= sin χ, and u = u when χ 0. Self-Instructional Material 143
deduce
In other
deduce that words, we need |g g +� u ul| (cos
=� u, χ|l− × 1) g| l +
= sin
u sinχ cos
χ, and
φ m g += sin0 sin
when
χ φ
χ n = . 0.
� We (3.98)
� g � u (cos χ − 1) l + sin χ cos φ m + sin � χ sin φ n . (3.98)
� deduce that Thus, � πg�� u �(cos χ − 1) l + sin � χ cos φ m + sin χ sin φ n� . (3.98)
g dΩ Thus,g � gu sin (cos χ dχχ −dφ 1) l=+usin χ(cos cosχφ−m1)+ dΩ sin χ sin φ n . (3.98)
Thus,
4
= � 4 � π� 4 �
sin (χ/2)
Thus, 0 sin (χ/2)
� g dΩ � � g sin
π sin (χ/2) χ dχ dφ �(cos χ − 1) dΩ
� � �4 gπdΩ � = g sin χ�dχ dφ= u (cos4 χ − 1) dΩ
� g dΩ 2 dΩsin�(χ/2) 4π � g sin
= 0 χ dχ dφ 4
sin (χ/2) 4� (cos =
χ u
− 1) dΩsin (χ/2)
� −u g4 dΩ2 = sin , (χ/2)g sin4χ� 0 dχ dφ sin = u (χ/2) (cos χ(3.99)
4 − 1) dΩ
sin4 (χ/2)
sin (χ/2)
sin (χ/2) = 0 sin (χ/2)� 2 dΩ =u sin (χ/2)
 wherewhere f∂1 f1f2 f2∂−f f1f1∂ ∂f2f2 .
∂Jf1=J f=∂ 2 ∂v f1m− 2 m ∂v. (3.97)
(3.97)
J= −1 m
1 1 . 2 2 (3.97)
∂v1 m∂v 1 m1 ∂vm 2 ∂v2
Let l, m, and n be a right-handed set 2of mutually 2
orthogonal unit vectors. Suppose
Let l, m, Letand l, m, and nright-handed be a right-handed set of mutually orthogonal unit vectors. Suppose
that u =n ubel. aRecall that� u� =setu of + g. mutually
Now, inorthogonal an elastic collision unit vectors. for whichSuppose the angle
that u
that u = uofl. deviation = u l.
Recall that Recall u we�that u = u + �g. Now, in an� elastic
= urequire + g. Now, in an elastic collision 2 collision
for which for
� which
the angle angle
the
is χ, �|u | = |u|, |u × �u | = 2u sin χ, and u� = u when χ = 0.
of
of deviation deviation
In other is χ, we is
words, χ,requirewe we needrequire
|u� | =|g |u|, |u |
+ u |u = |u|,
l| =× u, |u × u |
u� ||l =× ug|2 =sinu χ, = u sin
sinand χ, andχ, and
u� =g = u
u when =
0 when u when
χ χ= =0.χ0.=We 0.
In other In other
words,
deduce words,
we thatneed we |g need + u�|g l| + = uu,l| |l=×u,g||l=×ug|sin = χ, u sin andχ,g and = 0gwhen = 0 when
�
χ = 0.χ We = 0. We
deduce
deduce that that g �� u (cos χ − 1) l + sin χ cos φ m + sin χ sin φ n� . (3.98)
Electrodynamics and
Plasma Physics g � u g�(cos
� uχ(cos − 1) χl − + 1)
sin l χ+ cos sin χ φ mcos+φsin m χ+ sin sin φχ nsin � φ n . ...(6.98)
. (3.98) (3.98)
Thus,
Thus, Thus, Thus, � � � �
� g dΩ � �π g sin χ dχ dφ � (cos χ − 1) dΩ
� dΩ4� π�
= =
dφ� (cos χ(cos u
g dΩ gsin g sindφ
π
(χ/2) g sin 0 χ dχsin
χ4dχ (χ/2) − 1) sinχdΩ4− 1) dΩ
(χ/2)
NOTES 4=
= � 4 =u
=u 4
4 sin (χ/2) 0 4 sin (χ/2) 4 sin (χ/2)
sin (χ/2) 0 sin (χ/2) 2 dΩ sin (χ/2)
� � −u � , (3.99)
2 dΩ 2
sin dΩ 2
(χ/2)
� −u � −u 2 sin2,(χ/2) ,  (3.99)(3.99) ...(6.99)
and sin (χ/2)
and and
� � �
gg dΩ u2 sin2 χ dΩ 2 2 dΩ
� �2 (mm + nn) � � u (I − ll)� , ...(6.100)
(3.100)
� Collisions 4 2 � 2 4 � 22dΩ 61
gg dΩggsin dΩu(χ/2) 2
� +
u
(mm + nn) sin 2 sin
χ dΩ sinχ(χ/2) dΩ
2 � u (I − ll)
2 2 dΩ sin (χ/2)
, (3.100)
4 sin (χ/2)
4� (mm 2 nn) 4 sin (χ/2)
4 � u (I − ll) 2 sin (χ/2)
2, (3.100)
Collisions
Collisions sinwhere (χ/2)where use use 2 has
has again again been beenmade sin
made of(χ/2) of the
the factfact thatthat χ isχsmall. sin61
is61small. (χ/2)
Collisions
Collisions Now, 61 61
where use has again been made Now,
Collisions
of the fact that χ is small. 61
where use has again been made � of the fact that
Collisions � χ is small. � � � 61
Now,
where where
use has useagain
has again beenbeen mademade of the 2of dΩ the that
fact fact χthat χsin
is4πsmall. is small.
χ dχ d(χ/2) χmax
Now, where use has again = been made of � 16π
the fact that χ is small. = 16π ln (3.101)
, ...(6.101)
� Now, Now, � � where sinuse 2
(χ/2) has
� � again been 2
sin (χ/2)made of� the� fact � that sin(χ/2)χ is small. χmin
� 2 dΩ Now, �
4π sin� χsin dχ d(χ/2) χmax �
� 2� 2 dΩ2=dΩ=� 4π dχ � �d(χ/2)
�
4π
χ Now,
sin�χ16π dχ
� 16π = 16π
d(χ/2) = 16π ln ln� χmax ,χ � max , (3.101) (3.101)
sin sin2 dΩ
(χ/2)2
(χ/2) =4πsin
sin 2 where
sin(χ/2)
(χ/2) 2 χ dχ�max � 16π
� χ and χ mind(χ/2)
sin(χ/2)� are
sin(χ/2) the
�4π sin χ dχ maximum = ln 16πχmin and
χlnχmax � minimum
min�, d(χ/2) ,(3.101) angles
(3.101)of �deflection, �χ �� respec-
sin 2 =
(χ/2) where sinχ max
2
(χ/2) � 2 dΩ
and16π
2 dΩχ min are the
4π
sin(χ/2) maximum
=sin 16πχ dχ and minimum
χ d(χ/2) angles of deflection,
χmax respectively.
sin2 (χ/2) sintively.
2
(χ/2)However, 2 2
according
=sin(χ/2)
= to
2 2
Equation � �16π χ(3.82),
16π
min
min small-angle ==16π two-body
16π lnln maxCoulomb
,, (3.101)
(3.101)col-
wherewhere χmaxχmax andand χminχmin are are
the maximum
the
lisions maximum sin
are sin(χ/2)
and minimum
and
(χ/2)
characterized minimum sinangles
by sin(χ/2)angles
(χ/2) of deflection,
of small-angle
deflection, sin(χ/2)
respec-
sin(χ/2) respec- χχmin
where However, according to Equation (6.82), two-body Coulomb min collisions are
tively.
where
tively.However,
max and
χHowever, χand
χmaxaccording χare
minto
according
are
the the maximum
Equation
maximum
to Equation (3.82), and
(3.82),
and minimum
small-angle
minimum small-angle angles angles
two-body of
two-body
of
eCoulomb
deflection, deflection,
1 e2Coulomb col-col-
respec- respec-
deflection,(3.102)
min χ � two-body
where andand areare the maximum and minimum angles
anglesof of deflection, respec-
bycharacterized by
tively. However, according toχmax Equation χmin (3.82), small-angle ,
2 Coulomb
col- col-
lisions areHowever,
characterized where χmax χmin the maximum 2π �0 and uminimum
b respec-
tively.
lisions are according
characterized by to Equation (3.82), small-angle two-body μ12 Coulomb
lisions are characterized tively. tively.
by However, e1 ee2 1according
However, e according
2 , ...(6.102)
to toEquation
Equation (3.82),
(3.82), small-angle
small-angle two-body
two-body Coulomb
Coulomb col-
lisions are characterized by where χ� bare
χis�are the impact e 1parameter.
e , Thus, we can write (3.102) (3.102)
lisions lisions characterized
2π �0�μ�e1201 μ characterized
ue212bu b
2 2 2 by by (3.102)
χ � χ2π 2π �0uμ2 12 ,u2 b�, e1ee1 2e2 (3.102)
where b isbthe impact parameter. Thus, 2π � μ b χ 2 �
χ dΩ � , , (3.102)
where
where
is the
b is
impact
the impact
parameter. where
parameter.
Thus, bwe is
Thus,
can
we
the 0 can write
12
impact
we
write
can parameter.
write 2
Thus,2π2π�0�= we 16π
μ0 12
μ can
12u2uln 2bwrite
bΛc , (3.103)
where b is the impact parameter. � � Thus, we can write sin (χ/2)
where where 2b�dΩ is2bthedΩis the impact impact parameter.Thus,
parameter. Thus,we wecan canwrite write
� 2 2 =dΩ 16π = ln Λln
16π c , Λc , ...(6.103)
� (3.103) (3.103)
where sin sin the 2 dΩ
(χ/2) quantity
2
(χ/2) = 16π ln Λc , 2 dΩ � �2 dΩ � � (3.103) �(3.103)
2 = 16π ln Λc ,
2 sin (χ/2) χ max = = 16π16π b
ln ln Λ
max Λ c,
, (3.103)
sin (χ/2) ln Λc =sin ln
sin2 2 (χ/2) = ln c
, (3.104)
where the quantity
where the quantity where� the� quantity � � � � � � (χ/2)
χmin bmin
where where the quantity
the quantity χ max χ � �b max b � �
c where the quantity
lniswhere =Λclnthe max ln= ln� logarithm. max
quantity � � χ � � (3.104)
Λln known = as ln � the � max
Coulomb , �bmax
ln χln
=χ
b= bln ,
...(6.104) � �(3.104) ��
(3.104)
Λ cχ= min χ
max min min b
max min , max b bmaxmax
ln ΛItc follows = ln from χ = the ln previous b
ln , Λanalysis= ln χ that
max = ln (3.104) , (3.104)
is known as the Coulomb logarithm. χmin min bmin ln Λmin c = c ln
χmin = ln bbmin , (3.104)
is known as the Coulomb logarithm. � �2 � ⎡ χ min min � � ⎤
isItknownis known
follows theas
asfrom the previous
the Coulomb logarithm.
analysis e1 ethat ⎢⎢⎢ μ12 l · J μ12 2
1 ∂ 1 ∂
It follows Coulomb
from logarithm.
the previous is
is known
analysis
known as
2 the the
that Coulomb
Coulomb logarithm.
logarithm. ⎥⎥
It follows from the is
C12 known
previous= as the
analysis Coulomb 4πthatln Λc ⎣⎢− logarithm. + (I − ll) : − J⎥⎦⎥ d3 v2 .
It� follows from the previous analysis
It follows
4π �0 μ12 that from the previous analysis
2 that
� �2 �2 ⎡
� �ItItfollows ⎡follows
· Jl ·from from 2 the previous � �analysis u that that2 u � � ⎤ m1 ∂v1 m2 ∂v2
⎤
e1 e2�
C12 C=12 =� e1 ee2 1 4π �e22 ln �2 ⎢⎢⎢ μ⎢⎢�
⎢− ⎡ ⎢12 μ l⎡12
� Jμ12 the μ12
(I
�
2 previous
− ll)
2 : �
1 analysis
� ⎡ 1∂� − ∂ 1 1∂ ∂J�⎥⎥⎥⎥ d⎤3⎥⎥⎥v� .3 ⎤� � ⎤
J1 e2l2+ �·u2μJ212
� (I12− ll) 21 ⎦ ∂J⎥
∂ 2 ⎥⎥⎥ ⎦ d3J�⎥⎥⎦⎥v2d.13 v2 .∂
Λ
e02μ12 4π ln 22 μ �−m:⎡ll) ∂121 l1m
+
C4π 0eμ
12 �4π
= 1 �12
c Λc ⎣
4π ln Λ ⎢⎢⎢c⎢⎣−�μu122⎢
⎢⎢⎢ l μ·2e12
− u + u (I 11 ⎢⎢⎢∂v
m : μ1 ∂v ·− J∂2 1m ∂v − μ2212∂v
2 ⎥
1 ∂ (3.105)� ⎤⎥⎥ 3
C12 = 4π ln Λc C⎢⎣12− = e12 e2 u+2 ⎣ 4π
(I2 − lnll)Λ : ⎢ ⎣⎢μ ⎢ −12ml 1·2J−
1 μ 2
+ m2(I∂v d v: 2 .1 ∂ − 1 ∂ J⎥⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦ d 3v2 .
J−⎥⎦2ll)
4π �04π μ12�0 μ12 C12 =
If we define u 4π �0 μ1224π u lnuΛc c ⎢⎢⎣m − 1 ∂v u
1
∂v+m 1 12
2 2∂v u (I
2 − ll) : m1 ∂v1 − m2 ∂v2 J⎦ d v2 .
4π �0the μ12tensor u2 22 u (3.105) (3.105)m1 ∂v1 m2 ∂v2
I − ll u I − uu (3.105) (3.105)
...(6.105) w= = (3.105) (3.106)
(3.105)
If we define the
If we define the tensor tensor u u 3

If weIfdefinewe define the tensor If 2

the tensor If we we
I −definedefine
Ill−=lluthe the tensor
Iutensor
− 2 uu
I −2 uu
then
Ifwwe= itwdefine
is=readily the I − seenll
tensor
= that
2 3 u3 I − uu I − ll 2u2 (3.106) I − (3.106)
uu
uw I − ll u u I − uu ...(6.106)
w� = = u� =u = u
� u3 w = I − ll =u� I − 3(3.106) uu (3.106) � � (3.106)
thenthen
it isitreadily seen that ∂ u ∂ u 3 δi j w = u uu j= u 2 ui 2 l (3.106)
is readily seen that i
� then it� is readily � seen that ∂uit·iswreadily ≡ seen that 1/2 − u 3/2 = u−3 =− 2 . (3.107)
then it�is readily � seen �δ thenthen
that
it is u readily
u i � ∂u�j (uk uk )
seen that
(u�k uk��) � (uk uk )3/2 u i
uj i u�j � seen� �thati 2 ui 2 u 2 l
=u−i = −�2ui2u.�lj 2�.l (3.107)
∂ ∂� ∂� ∂ i j δi then it� is i readily
� · w ∂≡ � ≡ � ∂ �1/2 j
−δ�i j − ui=urun −
� �� � �
∂u ∂∂u ·i w ·i∂u − 23/2 j 2 (3.107) 2 ui 2l
Here, i, j, ∂ ucetera,
et � u j = ∂� from δi to
1 3, and correspond to Cartesian components. More-
(u u )
δ (u u ) 3/2 (u u ) u u 2 l = − 2 l2� .
�
w ≡w i∂u
∂
j ≡ j k (u k k uk ) 1/2 k (u k−k· u wk ) ≡∂3/2 k =(uδk−
3/2 3/2
ki juik )1/2 = −3/2u= 2
ui−j 3/2 (3.107) (3.107)
i 2 =. −
i j i j
· ∂u −∂ 1/2 − − i u . (3.107) 2 u
(u u ) (u u ) (u )k u−k ) (usummation k u2k ) u =i − convention
3/2 urepeated
∂u j over, k
1/2 wek have
∂u· w made≡ k
3/2 k
=
use
∂u j of(u ku
the kEinstein
3/2 (uk uk ) =(that
i
− . indices
...(6.107)
(3.107)
∂u ∂u (uk uk ) (uk uk ) ∂u i (uk uk1/2 ) u 3/2i i
Here, i, j,i,etj,cetera,
Here,
i
et cetera, runjrun
from 1 toimplicitly
are
from 13,to∂u and3, and correspond
summed
i correspond (ukCartesian
to
j from uk1)Cartesian
to to 3) (Riley (uk ucomponents.
components. k )1974). More- (uMore-
Hence, 3/2
k uk )we deduce u2that
i
over, Here,
wei,we have i, j, et cetera, run Here,
from 1 i,to j,3, et cetera,
and run
correspond from to 1 to
Cartesian3, and correspond
components. to Cartesian
More- components. More-
over,
Here, etmade
j, have made
cetera, use offrom
use
run the
of the Einstein
1over, toEinstein
3,�we and summation
have
summation
correspond�
made
2 runuse
convention
convention
to �1
of Cartesian
�
the
(that
�
Einstein
repeated
(that
components.
� repeated
summation
indices indices
More- �
convention (that repeated� � indices
areover, over,
implicitly we have
summed made
from use Here, of i,
the j, et
Einstein
e cetera,
e summation from to
convention 3, and correspond
(that 2 to
repeated Cartesian
indices
1 components.
1 More-
are implicitly
we have summed
made use of1the
from to 1123)
Care Einstein(Riley
to=implicitly
3) (Riley 1974).
1 summation
2 1974).
summed
Hence,
4πuse ln of Hence, we we
convention
from
μ deduce
12 deduce
1Einstein
to 3)
∂
(that that
wrepeated
·deduce ·that
J1974).
μ 12indices
w:
∂
− repeated
∂ 3
that J dindices v2 .
are
� implicitly
144 Self-Instructional
are implicitly summed
� summed
Material
from
�
over,
from
� 1 to
we
� 1 to
3)
have
4π
(Riley3)
� 0 � μmade
(Riley
12 1974). 1974). Λ
Hence,
c the
� Hence, 2
we we(Riley
∂u
deduce
summation
that �
+that
� 2 Hence,
convention m 1
we∂v deduce
1
(that m 2 ∂v 2
� 2 �2 � � � � � � �
�2 areμimplicitly μ12∂� ∂� �summed μ��122 μfrom 11�to1∂�3) � ∂(Riley� 1 1∂1974). � ∂ 3 Hence, we deduce that � �
2
e1 e2e�1 e2 12 �
2
2� � �
C12 C e14π
�e2 2 ln
4πΛln � μ·12w ·e·∂1J
�e+2· J + w : μ12 : �∂v μ12−
2� J � d J�μv12
12 3
2d. v2 . 1 ∂ 1 ∂
� J� d(3.108)
=12 =� c Λc� � w 2 lnw
∂
4π
C12�4π
0= �e02 μ12
eμ1 12 4π ln Λ 2 cμC122∂u
12�=∂∂u �2w2 ·μ4π
· J 2
+ Λm
�c1 w1m: 1∂ �1 1m−2∂1∂v
∂v ·w
m�−2∂ ·1J2 +∂
∂v 2 3 Jw d :�3 v2 . − 3
v2 .
C12 = 4π �0 μ124π ln Λ c 2 e 4π
·
1 e
w �
∂u
2 0 ·μ J12+ 12
w :
2 μ 1
12 2
m ∂−∂u
∂v
2
m Jμ
∂v d
122 v 2 . 1m 1 ∂v
∂ 1 m
1 2 ∂v
∂ 2 3
4π �0 μ12 C122= ∂uby parts 4π
Integration 2ln Λc m1 ∂v1 ·mw2 ∂v
yields 1 1 · J2+ (3.108)
2 2 w: − J d v2 .
4π �0 μ12 2 ∂u 2 (3.108) m1 ∂v1 m2 ∂v2 (3.108)
� �2 � � � � (3.108)
2 (3.108) 2 � � �
Integration by parts
Integration by parts yields yieldsC12 Integration e1 e2 μ12 ∂ μ ∂J μ ∂ (3.108)
Integration by parts yields = by 4πpartsln Λyields
c · w · J + 12 w : + 12 · w · J d3 v2 .
Integration
� � by2 parts
� �2 yields �
� � � � 4π
� �� 0�μ 12 � μ�22 yields 2 ∂u � �� � 2 m� 1
�2 � ∂v 1 2 m 2 ∂v 2
e1 e2e� e � Integration
μ ∂� ∂ �by parts
μ12 � � 2�
�12 μ 2 ∂J� ∂J μ12 μ 2 ∂ ∂ � 3� � 2 � � �
 IfIfwe
wedefine
definethe
thetensor
tensor
I I−−llll u2u2I I−−uuuu
ww== == 3
(3.106)
(3.106)
uu uu3

thenititisisreadily
then readilyseen
seenthat
that
�� �� �� �� �� ��
∂∂ ∂∂ δiδj i j uiuui uj j 2 2uiui 2 2l l
·w ≡
· w ≡ −−
1/2 (u(uu u)3/2 3/2
=−
= − 3/2
= −
= − 22 . . (3.107)
(3.107)
∂u ∂u i i ∂u∂uj j (u(u u u
k kk k) )
1/2
k kk k ) (u(u u u)
k kk k )
3/2 uu i i
Here,
Here, i,i,j,i,j,et
Here, j,etet cetera,
cetera,
cetera, run
run
run from
from
from 1 1to1to3,
to3,and
3,and
and correspond
correspond
correspond toCartesian
Cartesian
totoCartesian components.
components.
components. More- Single-Particle Motions
More-
More-
over, wewe
over,
over, have
wehave made
have useuse
made
made of of
use the
oftheEinstein
the Einstein
Einstein summation
summation
summation convention
convention
convention (that repeated
(that
(that indices
repeated
repeated are
indices
indices
are
are implicitly
implicitly summed
summed from
from 1 1to to3)3) (Riley
(Riley 1974).
1974).
implicitly summed from 1 to 3) (Riley 1974). Hence, we deduce that Hence,
Hence, we
we deduce
deduce that
that
�� �2�2 ��� � � � �� 2 �� � �� �
e1ee1 2e2 μ12 ∂ ∂
μ12 μ2 12
μ12 11 ∂∂ 11 ∂∂
CC
1212== 4π4πlnlnΛΛ
c c · w· J· J++ ww: :
·w −− J Jd3dv32v.2 . NOTES
4π4π�0�μ0 12
μ12 2 2 ∂u∂u 22 mm 1 1 mm
∂v
1 1∂v ∂v
2 2∂v2 2

(3.108)
(3.108)
...(6.108)
Integration
Integrationbyby
Integration parts
byparts yields
partsyields
yields
�� �2�2 Plasma ��Physics: �
� � � � An�Introduction 2 2�� �� ��
e1ee1 2e2 μ12 ∂ ∂
μ12 μ2 12
μ12 ∂J∂J μ12μ2 12 ∂∂
CC =
1212 = 4π
4π lnln
Λ Λ
c c · w
· w· J
· J
+ + ww: : + + · w
· w· J· Jd3dv32v.2 .
4π4π�0�μ0 12
μ12 2 2 ∂u∂u 2 2mm 1 1 1 1 22
∂v∂v mm ∂v
2 2 ∂v2 2
Plasma Physics: An Introduction
∂...(6.109) ∂ ∂ Plasma Plasma
Plasma
Plasma
Physics:
Plasma
Plasma Physics:
Physics: AnAn
Physics:
Physics:
Physics:
Introduction
An
An Introduction
Introduction
AnIntroduction
Introduction
Introduction
An
(3.109)
(3.109)
·w=− ·w=− · w, (3.110)
∂v2 ∂u ∂v1
However,
er,
r,
nction of u = ∂v1∂−v ∂ 2 . Thus, ∂ ∂
∂∂w∂·=
· ∂w− = ∂− we ∂∂∂ ∂obtain
· w ·=w ∂− =− ∂the ∂∂∂so-called
· w, ∂· ∂w, Landau collision (3.110)
(3.110)
u 1936), ∂v∂v ∂v ·
2 ·w w w·=w= · ∂u
= −
w−− ∂u ·
=−−··ww·=w w == w−
· ∂v − ∂v
=−− ·
1 · ·w,w,w,· w, · w, ...(6.110) (3.110)
(3.110)
(3.110)
(3.110)
(3.110)
2∂v22 ·∂v =∂u ∂u∂u ∂u
− = ∂v
1 ∂v1∂v 11 ∂v
∂v2∂v2 2 ∂u ∂v 1 1
sfunction
a function uof
of of uv=−v v1 −v 2 . Thus,
. Thus,

wewe we
obtain obtain the the
so-calledso-called Landau
Landau collision
collision
esw saawaisfunction
Laudau function
isa afunction
function of=u
function
of
1936),
C uof
u=
of= = vvuv=
γ1u12
=because 11−v
1= −vv∂1v22−v
2−v . −v
12.w.·Thus,
Thus,
.2 .Thus,
Thus,
2is awThus, wewe
function
· J d
obtain
obtain
3we
obtain
we v of
obtain
,
the
obtainuthe
the =the
so-called
vso-called
theso-called
so-called
− v .
Landau
so-calledLandau
Landau
Thus, we
Landau collision
Landau collision
collision
collision
obtain
(3.111) the so-called Landau collision
collision
dau 1936), 12 2 1 2
or audau
Laudau
Laudau (Laudau
(Laudau 1936),
1936),
1936), 1936), m
1936),operator (Laudau
1 ∂v 1
 1936),
γ12∂ ∂    
C
C12CC12=12
γ= 12
=C= γm γγ1212γ12
12 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂w ·w
γ2∂12
· · J · 3Jvd33,3v2 , 3
d (3.111)
(3.111)
C1212C= = ∂v ·
1· ·w · w· w ·
· ·
wJJJwdd·d23J·vvJvd22,3,d,v v,2 ,...(6.111) (3.111)
(3.111)
(3.111)
(3.111)
(3.111)
m e 12 e
121m 2 ∂v
= ∂v 1 2
γ12 = 1mm111m1∂v m
∂v 1∂v ∂v 2
1 12π
1 1 ln
1 1 Λ c . (3.112)
where 4π �0
  e1e2222 
onvenient to write γthe Landau
e1 ee121ee22ecollision
22 2π 2 2 ln Λ operator in the form (3.112)
γ12γγ12 =12 = e ee 2π1e2e2π 2ln Λ ln . Λccln . (3.112)
(3.112)
γ1212γ=12 = γ4π
= 12= 4π
=1 � 2 1
0 2π2π ln
2π lncΛ
2π Λ ln ..Λ
c ....(6.112)
Λ .c . (3.112)
(3.112)
(3.112)
(3.112)
1 4π
�4π
0 ��04π c c
4π ∂�4π 00 �0�0
mes
smes convenient
convenient toCtoto
12 write
write = −thethe Landau Landau 12 ,collision
· Acollision operator operator in inin the
the form form
(3.113)
mes
metimes
mesetimes convenient
convenient
convenient
convenient
convenient Itwrite
toto write
write
to mthe
istosometime
write
write the
1 ∂v
the Landau
Landau
the
Landau
the Landau
convenient
1 Landau collision
collision
collision collision tooperator
collision operator
write
operator the
operator inin
operator the
the
the
in form
form
inthe
Landau the
form form operator in the form
collision
form
1 ∂
C12CC =12 − = 1− 111∂ 1∂∂1·∂A∂· ∂A, ...(6.113) 12 , (3.113)
(3.113)
C C12 C =C = −
− − m∂v
= − 1−∂v∂1 f··112 ·A
A A 12
· A,,,A12, ,
· (3.113)
(3.113)
(3.113)
(3.113)
(3.113)
A12 = B12 f12 1212 = m12
1 −1m
= Dm1112 ∂v·m
1∂v ∂v , 1212 12 (3.114)
m 1m ∂v 11∂v
1 ∂v 111 1
where 1
∂ f1
A=12 B= Bf12 −f1D− D·12∂ ·f1∂∂∂,ff11f1∂,∂f...(6.114) (3.114)
A12A
AA =A=BB
12 B 1
BfBf 1f112− 12D
−fD12− D·D · ·12∂v , 1f1
12· 1· , , , ,
(3.114)
(3.114)
(3.114)
(3.114)
A= ff21D1−12 (3.114)
12 =12 (3.114)
12
γ1212 1212 12=
12 121∂− 12
∂v ∂v
1 ∂v11 ∂v
B12 =and w· d3 v2 ,∂v1∂v 11 (3.115)
m2 ∂v2
γ 
γ12γ=12γ1212  w3∂·f2∂∂ff223 d3 v , ...(6.115)
D12B12 =BB12 12 γ12 wγw γf212d· v· 2∂.∂df2f2∂vd∂f2332,3fv2 2,3 3 (3.116) (3.115)
(3.115)
BB12
= m12 B1=
=B
m= γ=
12212
m12= 2 12 w w w∂v · ·w∂vw· 2· dd vvd222d,,v2v,2 , (3.115)
(3.115)
(3.115)
(3.115)
(3.115)
mm m 22m m 2
∂v
2∂v22∂v
∂v 2 ∂v 2
 2 
γ12   3 2 2

D12D D=12 γ=12γγγ12 12γw γ fw f32vd3.3v2 . 3 (3.116)

m 1212w 2wd ff2w ddd2f3vvfv2d22.3.d.v...(6.116) (3.116)
(3.116)
DD12
12 f (3.116)
12 m
12D =
=D= 12
121m = = 1 w 2w
2 2 2 2 v . 2 . (3.116)
(3.116)
(3.116)
mm111mm 11

mb Logarithm
6.11 COULOMB LOGARITHM
uation (3.103), the Coulomb logarithm can be written
oulomb According to Equation (6.103), the Coulomb logarithm can be written
Logarithm
omb Logarithm
ulomb
oulomb Logarithm
Logarithm
Coulomb Logarithm
Logarithm dχ ...(6.117)
ulomb Logarithm
Coulomb
o Equation
Equation (3.103),
(3.103), ln Λ
the the
c =Coulomb
Coulomb , logarithm can be written (3.117)
ngoto
oing Equation
Equation
toEquation
Equation
Equation
to (3.103),
(3.103),
(3.103), the
the
(3.103),
(3.103), the Coulomb
theCoulomb
theCoulomb
Coulomb χlogarithm
Coulomb logarithm
logarithm
logarithm
cancan
logarithm
logarithm can
be be
can written
bewritten
can
be
can written
bewritten
written
be written

  dχ
dχ dχ
made use of the fact wherethat ln
we scattering
Λ have
c = made angle
dχ
dχ , dχ
useχof is the
small,factObviously,
that scattering (3.117)
the angle χ is small, Obviously, the
ln ln
Λln
ln cΛ
Λ
=
Λ
lncln
c =
Λ=Λ = , χ ,,dχ
, , , (3.117)
(3.117)
(3.117)
(3.117)(3.117)
(3.117)
g in the previous expression c =
diverges
integral appearing in theχprevious c c
= χ χ χ at
χ χboth large and small χ.
expression diverges at both large and small χ.
ce
ave ofmade
the integral
use of theon thefact right-hand
that scatteringside of anglethe χprevious
is small, equation
Obviously, at the
eave
have
we mademade
made
have use use
made of of
use the
of
use fact
the
the
of factthat
fact
the thatscattering
that
fact scattering
scattering
that angle
scattering angle
angle is
χangle
χχ small,
isis small,
χsmall,
is Obviously,
Obviously,
Obviously,
small, thethe
Obviously, thethe the
eequence
ave made
have
earing of
madeuse
in the theof
use breakdown
the
previousof fact
the that
fact
expressionofthatthe small-angle
scattering
scattering
diverges angle angleχ
at bothapproximation.
is χ small,
is
large small,
and The
Obviously, χ. the
Obviously,
small Self-Instructional Material 145
ring
earing
pearing in
appearing the
in
in previous
the
thein previous
previous
the expression
expression
previous expression diverges
expression diverges
diverges at
divergesboth
at
at bothlarge
both
at large and
large
both andsmall
and
large smallχ.
small
and χ.
small
χ. χ.
earing
tion forinof
appearing
ergence the
avoiding
inthe previous
the previous
integral expression
this divergence
on expression
the diverges
is to
right-hand diverges at both
truncate
side ofthe
at both
thelarge
integralandand
large
previous small
at some
smallχ. χ.at
equation
ence
ergence
ergence of of
divergence the
ofthe integral
the integral
oftheintegral
thethe onon
integralthe
onthe right-hand
the
ontheright-hand
right-hand
theright-hand side
right-hand sideof side
side the
of
oftheprevious
the previous
oftheprevious
the equation
equation
previousequation at atat at
equation
ergence
hconsequence
divergence of the
the small-angle
of integral
of integral on
breakdownthe
approximation
on right-hand
of becomes
the side of the
invalid.
side
small-angle of previous
According
previous
approximation. equation
to
equation
Theat at
nsequence of ofthe breakdown of ofthe small-angle approximation. The
,consequence
isconsequence
a aconsequence
this
sescription consequence
consequence
truncation
for ofof the
isthe
the
of
avoiding of breakdown
breakdown
the
breakdown
equivalent
the breakdown
breakdown
this to
divergence of
of the
the
the
neglecting
of of small-angle
small-angle
the small-angle
small-angle
the all collisions
small-angle
is truncate
to truncate
approximation.
approximation.
approximation.
approximation.
the whose im-
approximation.
integral
The
The
The
at someThe The
dription
scription
escription forfor
prescription avoiding
for avoiding
avoiding
for thisthis
avoiding divergence
this divergence
divergence
this is to
divergence is
is to
to truncate
istruncate
to thethe
truncate integral
the integral
integral
the at at
some
at
integral some
some
at some
escription
all below
prescription
which thefor avoiding
thesmall-angle
value
for avoiding this divergence
this divergence
approximation isbecomes
tois truncate
to truncate the the
invalid. integral at some
integral
According at some
to
hichwhich
which the small-angle
the
the small-angle
small-angle approximation
approximation
approximation becomes
becomes
becomes invalid.
invalid.
invalid. According
According
According to to
bove
ove which
.102), which
which the
this thethe small-angle
small-angle
small-angle
truncation is approximation
approximation
approximation
equivalent to becomes
neglecting becomes
becomes invalid.
all invalid.
invalid.
collisions According
According
According
whose toto toto
im-
2),(3.102),
102), thisthis
truncation
truncation is equivalent e2 to to
e1 equivalent neglecting allall
collisions whose im-
3.102),
on.102),
eters (3.102), this
this
fall truncation
this
truncation
this
below bthe
truncation �is
truncationisisequivalent
minvalue
equivalent
isisequivalent
equivalent 2
toneglecting
.to neglecting
toneglecting
neglecting
neglecting
to allcollisions
all collisions
allcollisions
collisions
all whose
collisionswhose
whose
(3.118)whose im-
im-im-
whose
im- im-
 According to Equation (3.103), the Coulomb logarithm can be written

dχ
ln Λc = , (3.117)
χ
where we have made use of the fact that scattering angle χ is small, Obviously, the
integral appearing in the previous expression diverges at both large and small χ.
The divergence of the integral on the right-hand side of the previous equation at
Electrodynamics and The divergence of the integral on the right-hand side of the previous equation at large χ is
large χPlasma is a consequence
Physics of the breakdown of the small-angle approximation. The
standard prescription for aavoiding consequence of the breakdown
this divergence of the small-angle
is to truncate the integralapproximation.at some The standard prescription
χmax above which the small-angle for avoidingapproximation this divergencebecomes is to truncate invalid. the integral
According at someto χ max above which the small-
Equation (3.102), this truncation is equivalent to neglecting all collisions
angle approximation becomes invalid. According to Equation (6.102), this truncation is whose im-
pact parameters NOTES fall belowequivalent the value to neglecting all collisions whose impact parameters fall below the value
e1 e2
Collisions bmin � . 63
(3.118)
Collisions 2 ...(6.118)
Collisions Collisions 2π � 0 μ12 u 6363 63
The ultimate justification for the truncation Thetruncation
ultimate of the integral appearing
justification for appearing
the truncationin Equation of the integral appearing in Equation
TheThe ultimate
The
ultimate ultimatejustification
justification justification
for for the the
for the
truncation truncation
(3.117) at large χ is the idea that Coulomb collisions are dominated by small-angle of ofthe the of integral
the
integral integral
appearing appearingin inEquation
Equation
in Equation
(3.117) at
(3.117) large
atχ χ is
large thethe isidea(6.117)
the that
idea at large
Coulomb
that χcollisions
Coulomb iscollisions
the idea
collisionsthat
are Coulomb
dominated
are collisions
dominated by are
small-angle dominated by small-angle scattering
(3.117)
scattering atevents,
large andis thatχ idea
the that
occasionalCoulomb large-angle are
scattering dominated
events by
have a by
small-angle
negli- small-angle
scattering
scattering
gible effectscattering events,
events,
on and and
events,
the scattering thatthat
andtheevents,
the
that theand
occasional
occasional
statistics. that
occasional the occasional
large-angle
large-angle
Unfortunately, large-angle
scattering
this large-angle
scattering
is not scattering events
events
quite true scattering
have
events
have
(if have
itawere events
a negli-
negli- have a negligible effect on the
a negli-
gible
gible
then theeffecteffect
gible
integral on on
effectthethe
would scattering
on the
scattering scattering
converge statistics.
at statistics.
statistics.
scattering large Unfortunately,
χ). Unfortunately,
Unfortunately,
statistics. this
thisthe
Unfortunately,
However, is
is not not
thisthis
rare quite
islarge-angle
quite not
is nottrue true
quitequite(if
(iftrue it
itscat-
were
truewere
(if (if
it were
it were then the integral would
then
then the the
then integral
the
integral integralwould
would
tering events only make a relatively wouldconverge
converge converge
converge at
weakat
largelarge
at large at large
χ).
logarithmicχ). However,
However,
χ).
χ). However, However,
the therare
the rareto
contribution rare
the large-angle
rare
large-angle
large-angle large-angle
the scattering scat-
scat- scat-
scattering events only make a relatively
tering
tering
statistics. events
tering
events onlyonly
events make make
only a relatively
amake
relativelya relatively
weakweak logarithmic
weak
logarithmic logarithmic contribution
contribution contributionto to thethe toscattering
the scattering
scattering
statistics. weak logarithmic contribution to the scattering statistics.
statistics.
Making statistics.
the estimate (1/2) μ12 u2  2T , where T is the assumed2common temper-
ofMaking
ature Makingthe two thethe
Making estimate
the estimate
estimate
colliding (1/2)
(1/2)
species, μMaking
μ(1/2)
we
12 12 uμ12
u2obtain Tu,T the estimate
2 , where
where T, T Tis is
where (1/2)
the the
T isμassumed
12 u assumed
the
assumed T,common
common where commonT temper-
is thetemper-
temper- assumed common temperature of
ature
ature ofatureof the
the two two
of the colliding
two colliding
colliding species,
species,
the two we
species,
wecolliding obtain
obtain we obtain species, we obtain
e1 e2
bmin  e12 e=2 er1c ,e2 (3.119)
bmin
bmin 4π bmin�e01 Te == rc ,rc ,=...(6.119)
rc , (3.119)
(3.119) (3.119)
4π4π �0 �T04π T �0 T
where rc is the classical distance whereof closest
rof theapproach introduced ofin Section 1.6. How-
where r is the classical distance c is
closest classical
approach distanceintroduced closestin approach
Section 1.6. introduced
How- in Section 1.6. How- ever, as
ever, as mentioned in Section 1.10, it is possible for the classical distance Section
where where
rc isc the r c is the
classical classical
distance distance
of closest of closest
approach approach
introduced introduced
in Section in of1.6. How-
closest 1.6. How-
ever, as mentioned in Section mentioned
1.10, itinis Section
possible 1.10,
for itfor
is classical
possible for the classical ofdistance
closest of closest approach to fall
ever,
approach asever,
to fallasbelow
mentioned mentioned
inthe deinBroglie
Section Section
1.10, it1.10,
is
wavelength it is of
possible possible
for
one orthe
the the
classical
both ofclassical distance
thedistance
colliding ofof
distance closest
closest
parti-
approach
evenapproach
approach
cles, intotheto
fallfalltobelow
below
case fall the
below
of athe debelow
weakly dethe
Broglie dethe
Broglie
coupled de
Broglie
wavelength Broglie
wavelength
plasma. wavelength wavelength
of
In of
one
this one ofor
or one
both
situation, ofor
both ofone
of
both
the or
thethe ofboththe
colliding
most of
colliding theparti-
colliding
sensible parti-colliding
parti- particles, even in the case
cles,
cles,toeven even
cles,isinto in
even
the the
casecase
in the of
ofcase a
a weaklyweakly
bof coupled
weakly
coupled coupled plasma.
plasma. plasma. In this
InIn
In thiswavelength situation,
thissituation,
situation, situation,
the the most most
themost sensible
most
sensible sensible
thing do approximate mina asweakly
the largercoupled plasma.
de Broglie this (Spitzer the 1956; sensible thing to do is to approximate
thing
thing to to
thing
do dois tois
to to
do approximate
is to
approximate approximate b b as
min as
bthe the as
largerlarger
the de
larger
de Broglie
Broglie de Brogliewavelength
wavelength wavelength (Spitzer
(Spitzer (Spitzer1956;
1956; 1956;
Braginskii 1965). bmin minas the min larger de Broglie wavelength (Spitzer 1956; Braginskii 1965).
Braginskii
Braginskii Braginskii 1965).
1965). 1965).
The divergence of the integral on the right-hand side of Equation (3.117) at small
The divergence of the ofintegral The
onon divergence ofside the integral ofon the right-hand side of Equation (6.117) at small χ
χ is a The The divergence
divergence
consequence ofof thetheinfinite therange
integral integral ofthe
the onright-hand
the
right-hand
the Coulombright-hand side ofofside Equation
Equation
potential. Equation
The (3.117)
(3.117)
standard (3.117)at
at pre- small
small at small
χ is
χ is
scription aχfor
consequence
is avoiding
a consequencea consequence of
thethe
ofthis isthe
infinite
divergence a consequence
ofinfinite range
infinite
rangeis toof of
rangethethe
take ofofthe
Coulomb
the
Coulomb
the Debyeinfinite
Coulomb range
potential.
potential.
shielding of
ofthe
potential.
The The
the Coulomb
standard
The standard
standard
Coulomb potential.
pre- pre- The standard prescription
pre-
scription
scription
potential scriptionfor
foraccount.
into avoiding
for avoiding
avoiding this divergence
thisavoiding
this divergence
(See for
Section divergence
1.5.) is
is tothis to
Thistaketake the the
isdivergence
isto take
Debye
equivalentDebye
theisDebye shielding
shielding
toto take shielding
the
neglecting of
of Debye the
theall Coulomb
ofcolli-
Coulombthe Coulomb
shielding of the Coulomb potential into
potential
potential potential
into into account.
into
account.
sions whose impact parametersaccount. account.
(See (See Section
(See
Section Section
exceed (See 1.5.)1.5.) This This
1.5.) is is
This equivalent
equivalentis equivalent
to to neglecting
to
neglecting neglecting
all all colli-
colli-all colli-
the value Section 1.5.) This is equivalent to neglecting all collisions whose impact
sions
sions whose
sions
whose whoseimpact
impact parameters
impact
parameters parameters exceed
exceed thethe
exceed valuevalue
the value
parameters exceed the value
bmax = λD , (3.120)
bmax bmax = b= Dλ, D
λmax ...(6.120)
=, λD , (3.120)
(3.120) (3.120)
where λD is the Debye length. Of course, where λDebye theshielding
isDebye Debye is a many-particle
length. Of course, Debyeeffect. shielding is a many-particle effect.
where
where where
λ λ is
D is
theλthe isDebye
the
Debye length.
Debye
length. Of Of
length. course,
course, Of DDebye
course,
Hence, the Landau collision operator can no longer be regarded as a pure two-body
D D Debyeshielding
shielding is is
shielding
a a many-particle
is a many-particle
many-particle effect.
effect. effect.
Hence,
Hence, thethe
Hence, Landau
the
Landau collision
Landau
collision Hence,
operator
collision
operator the
operatorLandau
can canno no
cancollision
longer
longerno be
longer
be operator
regarded
be
regarded can as
regarded
as ano a longer
purepure
as a be
pure
two-body regarded
two-bodytwo-body as a pure two-body collision
collision operator. Fortunately, however, many-particle effects only make a relatively
collision
collision
weak operator.
collision
operator.
logarithmic Fortunately,
contribution operator.
Fortunately,
operator. to however, Fortunately,
thehowever,
Fortunately, however,
operator. however,
many-particle
many-particle
many-particle many-particle
effects
effects only
effects
only make
only
make effects
amake only
a relatively make a relatively weak logarithmic
a relatively
relatively
weak
weak logarithmic
weak
logarithmic
According logarithmic contribution
contribution
to Equations to to
contribution
(3.104), the
contributionthe tooperator.
the
operator.
(3.119), operator.
to the
and operator.
(3.120),
According
According Accordingto to Equations
to Equations
Equations (3.104),
(3.104), (3.104),(3.119),
(3.119), and
(3.119),
and (3.120),
and (3.120),
(3.120),
According
  to Equations
  (6.104), (6.119), and (6.120),
bmax    λD    
ln Λc = ln bmax = ln
bmax bmaxr λDλ. D λD (3.121)
ln ln
ΛcΛ=cln= lnΛblncmin= ln = = ln lnc = ln. . . ...(6.121) (3.121)
(3.121) (3.121)
bminbmin bmin rc rc rc
Thus, we deduce from Equation (1.20) that
Thus,
Thus, we we
Thus, deduce
deducewe deduce from
from Equation
from
Equation Thus,
Equation(1.20)
(1.20) wethat
(1.20)
that deducethat from Equation (1.20) that
ln Λc  ln Λ. ...(6.122) (3.122)
ln ln ΛcΛcln lnΛln  ln Λ.
c Λ.
Λ. (3.122)
(3.122) (3.122)
In other words, the Coulomb logarithm is approximately equal to the natural logarithm
In other words, the Coulomb logarithm is approximately equal to the natural loga-
InIn
rithm other
other
of In
the words,
other
words,
plasma thethe
words, Coulomb oflogarithm
the Coulomb
Coulomb
parameter. the
The plasma
logarithm isparameter.
logarithm
fact thatis approximately
the isplasma
approximately Theparameter
approximatelyfact
equalthatto
equal the
to
equal
the plasma
is the tonaturalparameter
thelarger
natural
much loga-loga-
natural
loga- is much larger than unity in a
rithm
rithm
than unityof of
rithm
in the
thea of plasma
the plasma
plasma
weakly parameter.
parameter.
coupled parameter. The
The fact
plasma fact
The
impliesthatthat
fact
that the
thethat plasma
plasma
the the plasma
Coulomb parameter
parameter parameter is
is much
logarithm much
isislargelarger
much larger
larger
146 Self-Instructional Material
than
than unity
than
unity in in
unity
a a weakly
in
weakly a coupled
weakly
coupled plasma
coupled
plasma plasmaimplies
implies that
implies
that
compared to unity in such a plasma. In fact, ln Λc lies in the range 10–20 for typi- the the
that Coulomb
the
Coulomb Coulomb logarithm
logarithm logarithm
is is large
large is large
compared
compared compared
to to unity
unity toin in
unitysuch
such ina a
suchplasma.
plasma.
cal weakly coupled plasmas. It also follows that bmax a plasma.
In In fact,
fact, Inln ln
fact,
Λ cΛ ln
lies
c lies
Λin in
thethe
lies in range
the
range 10–20
range
10–20
 cbmin in a weakly coupled for
10–20
for typi-
typi-for typi-
cal weakly
cal weakly
plasma, cal weakly
which coupled
meanscoupled
coupled plasmas.
plasmas.
that there It It
plasmas.
is alsoalso
a large follows
Itfollows
also
range that
follows
that bmax
of impact b
that 
bmax b
parameters
max in
inbamin
bminmin a weakly
inwhich
weakly
for a weaklycoupled
it is coupled
coupled
plasma, which
plasma, means
which that
means
that there
that
there is is
there
a a
large large
is a range
large
accurate to treat Coulomb collisions as small-angle two-body scattering events. it
plasma, which means range of
range
of impact
impact of parameters
impact
parametersparameters
for for which
whichfor it is it is
which
is
accurate
accurate accurateto treat
to treattoCoulombCoulomb
treat Coulomb collisions
collisions
collisions as small-angle
as small-angle
as small-angle two-body
two-body two-bodyscattering
scattering events.
scattering
events.events.
 Plasma Physics: An Introduction
Plasma Physics: An Introduction
official definition of the Coulomb logarithm is as follows (Huba 2000d).
article
The of type
official weakly
1, with
definition coupledmass
of the plasma
mCoulomb
1 and charge
implies that
e1 =the
logarithm Z1isCoulomb
e,asscattered
follows logarithm
by(Huba particles is large compared to unity in Single-Particle Motions
2000d).
a2,particle
with mass ofsuch m2a plasma.
type and
1, with charge In fact,
mass e2m=1lnand ZΛ2ce,lies theinCoulomb
charge the
e1 range= Z1 logarithm 10–20
e, scattered for is typical
defined
by weakly coupled plasmas. It
particles
2
ln(b2,
ype maxwith
/bmin ). Here,
also
mass follows
m264 band
min that is bthe
charge larger
»e
max 2 min 2 b = of in
Z eae,
1 e
weakly
the
2 /(4π Coulomb
� coupled
0 μ 12 u ) and
plasma,
logarithm /(2 which
is
μ u),
defined
Plasma
12 means that there
Physics: is a large
An Introduction
d over both particle distributions, where m m 2 m ) and u =
c = ln(bmax /b min ).ofHere,
range impact bminparameters
is the larger forofwhich
μ 12e1 e2 /(4π
= /(m
it1 is 2�accurate
0 μ12 1 u ) to
+ and
2 treat /(2 μ12 u), collisions as small-
Coulomb
64 64 2 −1/2 Plasma Physics:
Plasma An Introduction
Physics: An Introduction
.agedFurthermore,
over both bparticle
angle two-body
max = The
( n official
distributions,
scattering
s s e s /� 0 definition
T )
where
events.
s , μ of
where
12 =the the
m Coulomb
1 msummation
2 /(m 1 +logarithm
m extends
2 ) and is
u as = follows (Huba 2000d). NOTES
2 
− species, s, forThe
v2 . Furthermore, which b For
official
maxū a=<
∼ particle
T( s
definition /m n s . of
e
s s s of0 the For
2
/� type T 1,
thermal) with
−1/2
, mass
(i.e.,
where m
Maxwellian)
the 1 and
summation
s Coulomb logarithm is as follows (Huba 2000d). charge electron- eextends
1 = Z 1 e, scattered by particles
The
of type official
2 2, < with definition mass mof the Coulomb
2 and charge e2 logarithm is Coulomb
as follows (Huba 2000d).
nr collisions,
all species, we
For s, aobtain
for which
particle ofū type T1, s /m withs . For mass thermal
m1 and (i.e.,
charge e1 Z=2 e,
Maxwellian)
= Z1the scattered bylogarithm
e,electron- particles is defined
<
∼
tron collisions, For
we 2, a
ln
obtain particle
Λ = ln(b of type /b 1, with
). Here, mass b m is
1 and
the charge
larger of e 1 e =e Z/(4π
1 e, �scattered
μ u 2 by particles
) and /(2 μ12 u),
of type
of type  c2, mass
with
with
max
m2 and
mass
mincharge e min
m and charge2 = Z2 e, the Coulomb logarithm is defined
e Z e, the
1 2
Coulomb
0 12
logarithm is defined
averaged over bothb particle distributions, 2 m1 m2 /(m1 + m2 ) and u =
e12 e2where
1/2 −3/2 =
�0μμ
ln Λln 2 2 2
c =Λc23= −ln(b ln ne /b
max  Tmin e ). Here,  min isbtheTlarger e <10of eV, /(4π−1/2 12 =
12 u ) and 2/(2 μ12 u),
ln Λcv1= ln(b
v . /b min ). Here,bmax
Furthermore, is (the larger
n e of e e /(4π � μ u ) summation
and /(2 μ12 u),
ln Λc = 23over
averaged −
− ln1/2
 max
1/2
ne −1particle
both2 Te −3/2 min =
distributions,2 where T e < 10μs 12
s s eV,= m1 m2 /(m01 +12the
/� 0 T 1
s ) 2 , where m2 ) and u = extends
ln Λc = 24averaged− ln ne all over both particle distributions, where = m1 (i.e., m2 /(m u =
1 + m2 ) andelectron-
over
v1 − v2 . Furthermore,  Tspecies,
e b  s, = for( which n e
Tū2e >∼< 10
/� TT)s−1/2
eV.
/m Forμ12
s,. where (3.123)
thermalthe summation Maxwellian)
extends
v − v . 1/2 −1max bmax s= s( s n0s e s2 /�0 T s )−1/2 , where the summation extends
Furthermore,
ln Λc all
over = 24
1 electron
− ln ns,e for
species, 2 collisions, we
T ewhich ū 2 < T /m s. TFor obtain e > s 10 eV.
thermal (i.e., Maxwellian) (3.123) electron-
e, for thermal over all species,
electron-ion collisions, s, forwewhich get
∼
ūs2 ∼< s T s /m s . For thermal (i.e., Maxwellian) electron-
electron collisions, we obtain  
ewise, for thermal electron
electron-ion collisions, collisions, lnweΛcobtain =we23get − ln ne1/2 T e−3/2 T e < 10 eV,
   
1/2 −3/2 3/2 i ,  
Λc = 30 − ln ne  T i Zlni Λm̂ c i= 23ln −TΛln e <nT
1/2m /m
i Tee 1/2
−3/2
T e < 10 eV,
1/2 −3/2 3/2 ln Λ c = 23
c =− e24
ln −nln nTe1/2 −3/2T e−1 T e <T e10 10 eV.
> eV, (3.123)
ln Λc = 30 − ln1/2ne T−3/2 i
 Z i m̂ i T e < T i m
e e /m e
i ,
Λc = 23 − ln ne  Zi T e ln Λc = 24 −Tln i mn e /m
1/2 <  −1T e < 10Zi eV, T e > 10 eV. ..(6.123)
e i T e 1/2
2
(3.123)
1/2Likewise, −3/2 for ln Λthermalc = 24 − ln ne T e−1collisions,
electron-ion we get T e > 10 eV. (3.123)
ln Λc = 23 − ln1/2ne −1Zi T e
  T i me /mi < T2e < 10 Zi2 eV,
Λc = 24 − ln ne Likewise, Te  for thermal T electron-ion
i me /mi < 10collisions, Zi eV < Twe e . get (3.124)
Likewise, for thermal electron-ion  collisions, we 2 get

ln Λc = 24 − ln Likewise, ne1/2 T e−1lnfor thermal electron-ion
Λc = 30 − ln nie e T i i Zi im̂i T m
1/2 /m −3/2 < collisions,
10 3/2 Z eV we
< TTget
ee. < T i (3.124)me /mi ,
 −3 
e and ni are measured in units of1/2 cm −3/2 , whereas
 3/2 T e and   T i are measured in
ln Λc = 30ln−Λln =ne23 T −pcm i ln1/2 nZ 1/2
−3/2Z m̂Ti 3/2−3/2 T e < T i meT/m mii ,m T e < 10 Zi2 eV,
e,electron-volts.
ne and ni are Moreover, ln Λc in 30
m̂=i units
c= m ln n , whereT eiiwhereas
m i pZis them̂ and TTi mass. < iTmeasurede /m i <
− ei proton
−3
measured  i of
/m e ,  ie T eare e /m i , in
sstandard
of electron-volts. 1/2   , where m
−3/2  is the proton mass. 2
approach ln ΛMoreover, 23 − lnm̂physics
in= plasma ni e= mZ−iin/m Tis epto
nZe1/2treat −1the T i me /milogarithm
p Coulomb <T Tme </m10as Zi10 eV,Zi2ZeV
c ln Λcln=Λ23 c =− 24 ln ln1/2
T T−3/2
e
e  i eelectron numberi density, T m e i
/m e
i < T
i <
e < 10 2 < T e . ..(6.124)
i eV,
(3.124)
ant, with
The a value
standard approachdetermined in plasma by
 the physics
1/2  −1
ambient is to treat the Coulomb logarithm 2
the as
lnHere, n24 − lnni nand Tthe  Tcm −3/m
i mnumber i < 10 ZasT eV T2Ti are (3.124)in units
e and are measured −1in units andofmass , whereas and< e . measured
t electronwith and aion Λc =determined
temperatures, lnthe ion Tcharge
onstant, value e numbers, i ehas
ln Λ
Here, c n= 24 and −e byn arene e1/2 ambient
measured
e
electron
in units of Tcm i m−3 e /m
,
density,
i < 10 ZT
whereas
the
i eVand < TT e .are measured
(3.124) in
nient
bient described.
electron ofThis
electron-volts.
and approximation
ion temperatures, eMoreover, i
ensures
and m^ithat
the =ion mthe/mpLandau
icharge , where m
and collision
massp is the numbers,protonasmass.
operator, hase i

fbeen units oftwoelectron-volts. Moreover, m̂−3i ,=whereas

mi /m p , where mTp is the proton mass.
2 ), is described.
strictly
Here,bilinear
ne and
This
The in nits i are
approximation
standard arguments.
measured
approach inin
ensures units
plasma of
thecm
thatphysics Landau is cm collision
to treat
−3 theT eCoulomband
operator, i are measured
logarithm as ain
constant,
Here,
units ofbilinear n eThe
electron-volts.and n
standard
i are measured
Moreover, approach in in units
plasma of physics ,
m̂i = mi /m p , where m p is the proton mass. whereas
is to treatT e and
the T are measured
Coulomb
i logarithmin as
( f1 , f2 ), is strictly
with aunits value in its
determined two arguments.
by the ambient electron number density, the ambient electron and
of electron-volts.
a constant, with ainvalue Moreover, determined m̂ m /m , where m is the proton mass.
isibyto pthetreatambient p electron number density, the
i =
The standard approach plasma physics the Coulomb logarithm as
ion temperatures,ambient
The standard and the
electron approachion
and charge
ion in and mass
temperatures,
plasma physics numbers,
and isthe to ion as charge
treat has thejust and been
Coulomb mass described.
numbers,
logarithm This
as
ashas
a constant, with a value determined by the ambient electron number density, the
a
approximation
ambient just
constant, been
electronensures with described.
and ionthat a value This
the Landauand
temperatures, approximation
determined collision by the
the ionoperator, ensures
ambient
charge and that the
electron
C12mass Landau
number
(f1, f2numbers, collision
), is strictly density,operator,
the
bilinear in
as has
its two C
arguments.
12 ( f1 , f2 ), is strictly ion bilinear
just been described. This approximation ensures that the Landau collision operator, as has
ambient electron and temperatures, in its two
and arguments.
the ion charge and mass numbers,
Rosenbluth Potentials
C12 ( f1just
, f2 ),been described.
is strictly bilinear This in approximation
its two arguments. ensures that the Landau collision operator,
1 Rosenbluth C12Potentials
( f1 , f2 ), is strictly bilinear in its two arguments.
nvenient to define 6.12 ROSENBLUTH POTENTIALS
convenient to define 
It is convenient to define
G2 (v1 ) = uf2 d3 v2 , (3.125)
3.11G (v Rosenbluth
) = u f d 3Potentials
v , (3.125)
2 1 2 2 ...(6.125)
3.11 Rosenbluth Potentials
−1 3
3.11ItHis2Rosenbluth
convenient
(v 1) = uto define d v2 .
f2Potentials
−1 3
(3.126)

It is convenient Hto2 (v define1) = u f2 d v2 . ...(6.126)  (3.126)
It is convenient to define G2 (v1 ) = u f2 d v2 , 3
(3.125)
om Equation (3.106), 
w, from Equation (3.106), Now, from Equation (6.106),G2 (v1 ) = 
u f2 d v2 , 3
(3.125)
3
δi j ui u j G2 (vH12)(v =1 ) = u f2 ud−1 v2f,2 d3 v2 . (3.125)
(3.126)
wi j = − 3 . ...(6.127)  (3.127)
u δi j u Hui(v uj −1 3
65
wi j = − 2 3 1.) = u f2 d v2 . (3.127) (3.126)
−1 3
Moreover,
Now, from Equation (3.106), u u H 2 (v 1 ) = u f 2 d v 2 . (3.126)

Now, from Equation ui ...(6.128)
∂u (3.106),
= , (3.106),
Now, from∂uEquation
u
δi j (3.128)
ui u j
i wi j = − 3 . (3.127)
∂ui δi j ui u j u u
= δi j . wi j = − δi 3j . ui (3.129)
uj (3.127) Self-Instructional Material 147
∂u j wui j = u − 3 . (3.127)
u u
s easily demonstrated that
∂2 u
wi j = , (3.130)
∂ui ∂u j
 
∂wi j ∂w j j ∂ 1
= =2 . (3.131)
 Collisions
Collisions Collisions 6565 65
Collisions Collisions 65 65
Moreover,
Collisions
Moreover, Moreover,
Collisions 65 65
Moreover, Moreover,
Collisions ∂u∂u ui ui 65
Moreover, =u = , , ∂u u
u i (3.128)
Moreover, ∂u∂u∂u ∂u = i , (3.128) (3.128)
i i ii u , u ∂u = u, (3.128) (3.128)
Moreover, =
∂u u ∂u i u
∂u∂u ii i u ∂u i u i
∂u=i = , i, i (3.128) (3.128)
Electrodynamics and
∂u ∂uui i ∂u i δ
...(6.129) =
∂u i jδ .ui j=. u∂u ∂ui = δi j . (3.129)
(3.129) (3.129)
Plasma Physics = i ∂u ∂u ,=
j j . i
∂u = δ i j . (3.128) (3.129) (3.129)
∂ui ∂uuj ∂uiδii∂u jj ∂u jj
Hence,Hence, it is easily
it is easily demonstrated
demonstrated that j
that demonstrated
i
= δi j=. δi j . (3.129) (3.129)
Hence,
Hence, it
it is
Hence, is easily it ∂u
easily is demonstrated
ieasily∂u
demonstrated that that
= δi j .2 2 ∂u jthat
j
Hence, it is easily demonstrated that (3.129)
demonstrated ∂u j that ∂ ∂ u u ...(6.130) 2
NOTES
Hence, Hence, it is easily
it is easily demonstrated wi w j = ij = ∂22that
∂u u ∂u
, w, = ∂
i j ∂2 u u , (3.130)
(3.130) (3.130)
Hence, it is easily demonstrated thatwii jj = ∂u
i i ∂u j w = ∂u ∂u ,
2, j 2i j i j (3.130) (3.130)
∂u i ∂u ∂ j u ∂ u  ∂u  i ∂u
 j
 
∂w∂w i jwi j = ∂wi
wi∂u ∂w
jj j=j=
j ,
j ∂wi j∂ ∂,  1 1j j
∂w 1 (3.130) (3.130)
w ∂w ∂2 iu=j∂w = i ∂u ∂u∂w 2j∂i i2∂u
= j =j ∂w .j j .=...(6.131) 2
∂
∂ 1 . (3.131)
(3.131) (3.131)
ij = ∂u∂u
i j j j ∂u∂u , j j i i ∂u∂u∂u 1
i iu∂u u 2 . (3.130) (3.131)
  i u
∂u =j j2 ∂u jj ∂ ∂u = . 1ii   ∂u= (3.131)
∂w =i ∂u j ∂w ∂u u
According to toEquations
∂u jj i j ∂u
∂w i
i j ∂w ∂u
= 2 = 2 j ji
i u ∂ 1 i
(3.131)
∂w(3.115) and (3.116),
According Equations (3.115) = . (3.131)
According
According According i to
j Equations
to ∂w
=Equations∂u toj jjand
Equations (3.116),
∂u2j(3.115) ∂u =
∂ i ∂u
(3.115) 1(6.115)and
iand
∂u  uand
(3.116),
(3.116),
i ∂u i u
.
(6.116),
According to Equations (3.115)
γ12  and (3.116),
=
f∂2 γf23∂ui uγ12  .   (3.131)
According Bto
to Equations = = ∂u γj (3.115)
12 w ∂u· i ∂and 12v23 = γ∂12f ∂3 ∂· w fγ12d3v3 , ∂  ...(6.132)
According B12
12 Equations
γ m B w
(3.115)
∂ 12 f ·= γd(3.116), 12d v
and (3.116),
2γw =m· ∂ f22 ∂d∂u 3 v2 =· w γ212f2 d2 v2∂, · w f2(3.132) d 3(3.132)
3 v2 , (3.132)
According to Equations12 B 12(3.115) and
12
12 2m2 w  ·B 12 ∂v2
2 = ∂v
d 3
2 3m v w 12
12 · 2m∂v  d v
·∂uw
2 = f md 33
v , ∂u · w f d
(3.132)
2 v 2 , (3.132)
=
γ12  γ(3.116), 
∂v·22 ∂ fm
2 22
2 22∂3
=
f2m=322 γ∂v
2 2
γ12 ∂ ·2w
 2 m22 22 ∂u
m=
12 2∂u ∂ f d3 v , 3
B12 Bγ22 12γ 12w 3wγ3·12d v 2 d v ·2 w f22d v2 , (3.133) (3.132) (3.132)
Dγ12 D12γ12
12 = m
=m 2 2mD2w
12 12
=∂ f w f 2 d v
f3=2 d 212
∂v γ 2 ,
v∂v
γ 2 , 2 w f2 d23 vm
12 ∂ m
2 = 3
, ∂u (3.133) (3.133)
B12 =D12 = 12w1m · 1 w D d 3
12 v = w f d · wv 2 f,2 ...(6.133)
d 3
v ∂u, (3.132) (3.133)
m2 m1 γ12∂vγ2 f22 d v22 ,m
12 23 = 1 2 22 2 (3.133)
12 m3
m1 2 ∂u
where where wewe havehave where D12
integrated we
integratedD1 12
= the
have =the first
12 wequation
first
integrated wd fv22the
f2equation d, 3by vfirst2by,parts, parts,
equation makingmaking by use use
parts, of of Equation
Equation
making use(3.110).
(3.133)
(3.110).
of (3.133) (3.110).
Thus,
where wewe havededuce γfrom
where
where 12 we
integrated we m
have
Equations
the 1 3m
havefirst integrated
integrated
(3.130)
equation the and
by the first first
(3.131)
parts, equation
equation
making that byuse byparts,
of parts, making
Equation making useuse
(3.110). of Equation
Equation
of Equation (3.110).
(6.110). Thus,
Thus, we D12deduce=Thus,from we wdeducef2 d v2from
Equations 1 , (3.130) Equations and (3.131) (3.130) that
and (3.131) that(3.133)
Thus, wherewewhere we have
deduce m
Thus,
from we
integrated
1 Equations deduce the from
first
(3.130) Equations
equation and by
(3.131) (3.130)
parts, that makingand (3.131)
use of that
Equation (3.110).
wewe have deduceintegrated from the Equations first2equation γ212γ(6.130) ∂H2 by and
parts, (6.131)
making that use of Equation (3.110).
B12B(3.130) 12 ∂H 2 γ ∂H
where weThus, have we
Thus, deduce
integratedwe deduce from
the first Equations
from equation
Equations by= parts,
122 = (3.130) and making B(3.131)
and , 2=,(3.131)
use2 that
γ of
12
12 Equation
that
∂H 2
2 , (3.110).(3.134) (3.134) (3.134)
B γm 122m
12 ∂H ∂v 22B ∂v112 = m ∂v , (3.134) (3.134)
Thus, we deduce from Equations (3.130) 12 and (3.131)
12 = 2 that , 12
...(6.134)
1
2 ∂H2m2 ∂v1
2 1
B12 m = γ 22 2 γ∂v 12221 ∂H
∂ 1 G γ 2 12 , (3.134)
B12γ12 =2 ∂∂v 2G 2 γ , ∂2 G (3.134)
D 2 12γ1212 =γ∂H =m122m 1.= . γ112 12 ∂ G 2 .
2 2 (3.135)
B12 =D D 12
12 1
∂
, 22G m
m1 ∂vD112
∂v 1 2
2
D
∂v 212
.∂v=12 m
1
∂v
. (3.134) (3.135)
(3.135) (3.135)
(3.135)
12m=
12 2 ∂v1γ12 ∂2 G...(6.135) m 1 ∂v ∂v 1 ∂v
∂v 1
The quantities H (v) and G (v) D are m= 1
known
1 ∂v11 ∂v γ as 12 2∂ G 21
11 Rosenbluth .
1
potentials
1
(Rosenbluth, (3.135)
The quantities The (v) and 2Gγ2H(v)
2H2quantities 12are
(v) D 2and known =G2∂v (v) asare Rosenbluth
known . aspotentials (Rosenbluth, (3.135)
The
MacDonald, quantities and H The
Judd (v)The quantities
and
1957), quantities
G (v)
and H 122
are
can 2 (v)H
∂
known
easily G12
and (v)
m2 1G
and
as
be 2m (v) 1G
1 ∂v
Rosenbluth
seen are
∂v1to known
1(v)
∂v 1are
satisfy as Rosenbluth
known
potentials Rosenbluth as
potentials
potentialspotentials
Rosenbluth
(Rosenbluth,
(Rosenbluth,
(Rosenbluth,(Rosenbluth,
MacDonald, and 2 Judd
MacDonald, and
2 D
1957), 12 2
2 = and
Judd can1957),
2 easily .
and be can seen to satisfy
2 easily be seen to satisfy (3.135)
MacDonald, The The andMacDonald,
quantities Judd
quantities
MacDonald, H
1957), (v) H
and
and
and
(v)
2 and ∇
G Judd
can
and
m (v)
Judd
1
G
1957),
∂v
are
easily (v) 1 ∂vknown
arebe
1 and seen
known
can
as to easily
Rosenbluth
satisfy
as
be
Rosenbluth
seen
potentials to satisfy
potentials (Rosenbluth,
(Rosenbluth,
222 1957), fand can easily be seen to satisfy
2 2 2
Hcan
v H2as
−4π (v),
f2v2seen
(v), (3.136)
(Rosenbluth, (3.136)
MacDonald, andand Judd 1957), and v∇ =easily −4π be H to−4π satisfy
toff22satisfy
(v), (3.136)
= 2∇
The quantities MacDonald, H2 (v) andGJudd 2 (v) are 1957), known
22 H and can Rosenbluth
easily ∇ H be2 = = potentials
seen −4π (v), (3.136)
∇ 2 2
2 = −4π f 2
2 (v), v 2
...(6.136) (3.136)
MacDonald, and Judd 1957), and can easily v
∇v∇G22v2H Gbe =2 seen2
2H
= 2
−4π 2H to2∇(v),
(v), satisfy
f 2
(v),
G = 2 H (v), (3.137)
(3.137)
(3.136) (3.137)
2 H2 = ∇ 2v2 G 2f2=
v 2 (v), 2 H22 (v), (3.137) (3.136) (3.137)
2 v ∇ vH2 (v), −4π
2 ∇vv G 2 2 =2
2
where ∇ 2 2
denotes a
velocity-space
∇ H = −4π Laplacian f (v), 2 ...(6.137)
operator. The former (3.136)
result follows
where v∇v denotes where a∇ velocity-space
2
v 2denotes
v 2 a∇velocity-space 2
v G∇
Laplacian
2
2 2=G22 H 22 (v), operator.
Laplacian The operator.former The result follows
(3.137)
former result follows
where
because ∇ 2 2 2 where
denotes
(1/v) a ∇ 2
velocity-space denotes and a velocity-space
Laplacian
the latter =
operator.
because H 2 (v),
Laplacian 2The
(v) operator.
former 2/v. result
In The former
follows
particular, (3.137)
if result follows
because 2 ∇
vv v∇v (1/v) where
because= = −4π D
−4π v
∇ 2 denotes
δ(v),δ(v),
(1/v)
2 and a
2−4π velocity-space
the v
δ(v),latter and because the Laplacian
∇
latter ∇ 2
(v) = operator.
v because ∇(3.137)
= 2/v. 2In The former
particular, if
2v (v) = 2/v. In particular, if
result follows because
v G2 = H2 (v),
v 2v ∇ = v
where
f2 (v)
because iswhere2
2 ∇ 2
isotropic because
denotes in a
velocity ∇ (1/v)
velocity-space
space = −4π
then δ(v),
Laplacian
we obtain and the
operator. latter
22
(v) because
The 2/v. former
In ∇ (v) =
result
particular, 2/v.
follows
if In particular, if
f2 (v) ∇is vv (1/v)
isotropic
v ∇fvD 2 = 2 −4π
denotes
in velocity
δ(v),v a and
velocity-space
space the latter
then we because
Laplacianobtain ∇ operator. = 2 The former
v result follows
Dv (v) = 2/v. In particular, if f2 (v) is isotropic in
v2 (1/v)
2 (v) = −4π δ(v), and thespace latterthen because
f (v) is
is isotropic
isotropic in
in velocity
velocity space then
vwe obtain
v
we 2obtain
2because ∇2 (1/v) −4π δ(v),  and the  latter because ∇ (v) 2/v. In particular, if
wheref22 ∇
(v)v is denotes
isotropic
because av velocity-space
∇2
inv (1/v)=
velocity = space−4π dLaplacian then
δ(v),  and weoperator. obtain
the
 latter  The
because formerv ∇2v (v) = result = 2/v.follows In particular, if
f22v(v) is isotropic velocity in space
velocity then
dlatter
space 2 dH 2we dH
then
 2 obtain 2= we d obtain 22dH
because ∇ (1/v) = −4π
f2 (v) is isotropic in velocity
δ(v), and the
ddvdv v dH vspace because then =−4π
d −4π we ∇ v (v)
vv22v obtain
2 dHf22 (v),
2
v 2f2 (v),
= =2/v. −4π In 2 particular,
vv2 ff2 (v), if(3.138)
(3.138) (3.138)
f2 (v) is isotropic in velocity space then vd22 we  dv 2
2 dv
obtain
 = −4πdv  v 2 f dv (v), = −4π 2 (v), (3.138) (3.138)
dv dv d2 dH  2 dH  dv  v f2(v),
22 dv
2
d  dH d d 2 vdGdG 2v22 =
2−4π 2 ...(6.138) (3.138)
2d v22 vvH =22 dG −4π 2 v f2 (v), (3.138)
2d dv 2v vdv 2 dv (v). (3.139)
v dvdv dG =dv −4π
=2dv
v = d f (v), 2 2dG
H 2 (v).
2 = 2 v 2
2 H 2 (v). (3.138) (3.139) (3.139)
dv dvvd
2  2
2
dv= 2 dv  v2 H 22
 v22 (v).dv = 2 v H2 (v). (3.139) (3.139)
dv dv d
2 dG 2 dG 2 dv 2
dv
Suppose that thatf2Suppose
(v)
f2 (v)is a Maxwellian
  v vdistribution
2 2 v H
= 2 2vof of (v).
2 characteristic number (3.139)
density
2...(6.139)
Suppose = H (v). (3.139)
Suppose d is2athat dG
that
Maxwellian
dv 2ff2 (v) is
2 (v) dv2is dv distribution
a Maxwellian
2a Maxwellian
dv(v).
characteristic
distribution
distribution of
of
number
characteristic
characteristic
densitynumber
number density
density
n2Suppose
,nmean
, mean flow that
flow f2 (v)
velocity
velocity
nn2 ,, mean is a
zero,
flowMaxwellian
v
zero, and and
velocity temperature
= distribution
v
temperature
zero, H and T T. Inof
.
temperature In characteristic
other other words,words,
T number(3.139) density
2 .. In other words,
2 2 2 2 2
Suppose mean
that that dv
f2Suppose flow
(v)f2is(v) dv
velocity
a Maxwellian zero, and
distribution temperature T In other words,
n22 , mean flow velocity
Suppose 2 zero, and temperature
isthat f (v) is
a Maxwellian 2 m2m a3/2
3/2 T 2Maxwellian
. Inother
distribution mofvwords, characteristic
2 of
2
distribution
2
characteristic

number density
of characteristic
number density number density n2,
n2 , mean flow velocity zero, and temperature T  . In
m 2m23/2
other v words, m 2
Suppose that
n2 , mean f (v) is
flow a Maxwellian
velocityf (v) zero, n distribution
 and  2
temperature of
exp characteristic
 2 − T 2 . In 3/2other
. number words, 2 density
v 2 (3.140)
mean flow velocity zero, and=temperature m2222vT222T Texp
m 2. In − other
m 2 words,
2 f (v)= n 3/2 exp −2 2 v (3.140)
Tff2222(v) n .
2 2 = 2 2m 3/2 . (3.140)
n2 , mean flow velocity zero, and = n22 2π
f2 (v)temperature 222π T
m
(v)
T
. 2Inexp = other
3/2 n22− 2π
3/2 2π
words,T
T m 2  . 22 exp − 2
v 2 T
T 2 . (3.140) (3.140)
2π T 2 2 m 2 T 2 2 2 m v 2 2
66 66 f2(v)f2=(v) n23/2n2  2 2 exp − 2 2 . Plasma PlasmaPhysics: Physics: (3.140) AnAnIntroduction
Introduction
m2 = 2π T2π 2 T m22 v2 exp2 T−2 2 T 2 ....(6.140) (3.140)
f2 (v) = n2 exp − . (3.140)
InInthis thiscase, case, 2π T 2 (3.138)
Equation
Equation (3.138) reduces
reduces 2 T 2 toto
In this case, Equation (6.138) reduces to
dd2 2 44 nn2 2 −ζ−ζ2 2 22 nn2 2 dd −ζ−ζ2 2
(ζ H ) = −
2(ζ H2 )2 = − √√ v ζ e
ζ e == √√ e e , ...(6.141)
, (3.141)
(3.141)
dζdζ 2
ππvt 2t 2 ππvtv2t 2dζdζ
√√
where
where
where ζ ζ=ζ=v/v v/v
=v/v ,and
,and
t 2t,2t2 and vtv2tv2t2=== 22TT2 /m Hence,
2 .2 .Hence,
2 /m requiring
requiringHH2 (ζ)
Hence,requiring (ζ)toto
22 (ζ) tobebe
befinite
finiteatat
finite atζ ζζ===0,0, we can
we can integrate
we integrate
can integrate the previous
the previous
the previous expression
expression
expression to give to give
to give

148 Self-Instructional Material

erf(ζ)
nn2 2 erf(ζ)
HH 2 (ζ)==
2 (ζ) ,, (3.142)
(3.142)
vtv2t 2 ζ ζ
where
where 
22 ζ ζ −t−t2 2
erf(ζ)== √√
erf(ζ) e e dtdt (3.143)
(3.143)
ππ 0 0
isisa aso-called
so-callederror
errorfunction
function(Abramowitz
(Abramowitzand
andStegun
Stegun1965b).
1965b).This
Thisfunction
functionisissuch
such
that
that
 In
histhis
case, case, Equation
Equation d(3.138)
(ζ2H 22 )reduces
= − to √4to n2nζne2 −ζ 2 =2 2√2 2 2n2n nd2 de d−ζ 2, 2 2 (3.141)
2 (3.138) 2d 2d(ζ(ζreduces π√4√ v4t 2−ζ vdt 2 2dζ
s case, Equation d(3.138) dζ
2 2 reduces H(ζ H2 )H)= 4 to) −=− n √2− 22ζ e ζ−ζ
ζ e e2 −ζ==n√ = 2π√√ 2 e −ζ
e e ,−ζ, , (3.141)
(3.141)
(3.141)
d d(ζ
2dζHdζ 2) = 2 −2√ 4 π 2 =
4 n nζ2veπtv2 v−ζ = 2 √ 2
2 π
n n2vπtvd2edvdζ −ζ
dζ, dζ 2 (3.141)
dζ
d 2 2 dζ
(ζ 2
H ) = √ 4− √ nv 2π ζ t2e2−ζ = t 2 2
2 √ n v π
2dζ
d t 2 t e
2 −ζ
−ζ 2 , (3.141)
2(ζ H2 ) 4 2 −2nπ√ ζ e =2 = nrequiring π 2td2 v dζ −ζe (3.141)
√ √
where ζ = dv/v 2
,dζand
(ζ 2H2v)t 2= =−= √√ 2T√2ππ
2t 2v −ζ
/m te2.2 Hence, 2 ππ v t 2−ζdζ eH2 2 (ζ)
2
, to , be finite (3.141)at ζ = 0,
where ζ = v/vdζ
t 2dζ
(ζ 22 ,Hand ) = v −√ √
= √2 T ζ e
/mvζ−ζ
t 22 . = Hence, √ requiring te
dζ 2 H, (ζ) to be (3.141)
finite at ζatζ=ζ=0,=0,0,
we where
where
can ζ
integrate
ζ = v/v
2 t
v/v the, 2 ,
and and
previoustv2 v √ = π 2v
expression tT2
2 2 T/m 2/m . to . Hence,
Hence,
give π v t requiring
π vt 2 dζH2 (ζ) to2be finite at ζ = at
requiring
2 H2 H (ζ) (ζ) to tobe be finite
finite
tdζ
= t 2 t 2
= vt 2 2 . 2Hence, 2 2 2
hereweζ can = v/v 2 , and vthe
integrate
t2
t2 = previous
t 22 T
√ π2 /m expression
2
to requiring
give 0,
where we we ζcan can
= v/v t 2,, and
integrate
integrate andthe vthe √ =previous
t 2previous 2TT 2expression
/m 2.. Hence,
expression Hence, toto requiring
givegive H H2(ζ) (ζ) to to be be finite
finite at at ζζ == 0,0,
ewhere
can
ere ζcan ζ
integrate= v/v tthe
2
v/vt 2 , andthe
= integrate previousv √
t 2 =
= 2 T 2expression
vt 2previous 2
expression 2 /m
/m2 . Hence, 2 to give requiring requiring
22 erf(ζ) H2 (ζ) to be finite at ζ = 0,
ngive 2
we
eweζ= v/v , and v 2 T /m . Hence, to
requiring H (ζ) to be finite at ζ 0,
cancan integrate thethe
t2 t 2 previous
= 2 expression 2 H2 (ζ) = to give n2 erf(ζ) ,2 = (3.142)
integrate
n integrate the previous expression H
previous expression
toH
ton give
2 (ζ)
give
H (ζ)2 ==
(ζ) vt=2n2n2erf(ζ)
erf(ζ) ζ erf(ζ) ,, , (3.142)
(3.142)
(3.142)
H2 (ζ) = 2 nn22verf(ζ) 2
tverf(ζ)
2 vt ,2 ζ ζ ζ (3.142)
where H
H2 (ζ) 2 (ζ) nv=2t 2v erf(ζ) ζ t2
,, (3.142)
(3.142) Single-Particle Motions
where H2 (ζ) =n2 =erf(ζ) v t 2  ζζ,ζζ (3.142)
where H2 (ζ) = vt 2 ζ ,  ζ−t2 t2 2 (3.142) ...(6.142)
here where
2

where erf(ζ) vt 2 = √ ζ 2ζ 2  eζ −tζ 2dt 2 (3.143)

where erf(ζ) erf(ζ) 2 =√
= π 2 e dt
2−t (3.143)
ere where erf(ζ) erf(ζ) 2 =ζ√ πeπ √ ζ0 2
ζ−t0 −t e−te dtdt (3.143)(3.143)
(3.143)
e is a so-called error function erf(ζ)
= √ 2
√ πe−t0dt220 dt (3.143)
(Abramowitz
erf(ζ) =2 π ζ 0 and
 −t2e Stegun dt 1965b). This function is such
(3.143)
isisaisaso-called
aso-called
so-called error
errorerror function erf(ζ)
function
function (Abramowitz2=
(Abramowitz √ √ππe−te20and
=(Abramowitz 0 and
and
dtStegun ...(6.143)
Stegun Stegun 1965b). 1965b).
1965b). This This (3.143)
function
function is such
is such NOTES
that
a so-called
that error function (Abramowitz erf(ζ) = √ π and  0 Stegun dt 33 1965b).  This function is suchis such
This function
(3.143)
is a so-called
that
that
isso-called
a so-called error
error function
function (Abramowitz
(Abramowitz
π 2 0   and ζStegun  1965b).   This function is such
at error function erf(ζ)
(Abramowitz = √2andand − Stegun
2ζζStegun ζ ζ3 + 3O 1965b). 5
ζ   This  This
 function is(3.144)
such
that
o-called
that error function is a so-called (Abramowitz error2function
erf(ζ) erf(ζ) = and √ π 2Stegun
√ ζ (Abramowitz
3 − 3 1965b).
ζ − 3ζ+1965b). O + ζO 5and5 Stegun
This

function 1965b).
5ζ function is such (3.144)
is such
This function is such that
(3.144)
erf(ζ) erf(ζ) (3.144)(3.144)
= 3−O
2ζ √  5ζO5 ζ 
t 3
= √ 2= −ππ 3πζζζ+ 3 3 ζ3+
when 0 < ζ � 1, erf(ζ)
and erf(ζ) =2 π√ ζ3 ζ−3 3 + O =  √ ζ − +  O  5 (3.144)
(3.144)
when when
when 0 0<0<ζ<ζ�ζ� 1, �1,and 1,and
erf(ζ) and = =√2 √πζ −π
erf(ζ) ζπζ−
O 3
+ O 5 ζ 5 ζ ...(6.144) (3.144)
(3.144)
hen 0 < ζ � 1, and 3−ζ 22
+  ζ  
when00 << ζζ � � 1, 1,when and 0 < ζ << 1, π and 3 e−ζ    1 
when and erf(ζ) 1 √ −ζ 2 −ζ 2 12+ (3.145)
− 2 e  122 1 1
en 0 < ζ � 1, and
0 < ζ � 1, and erf(ζ) erf(ζ)
=
= e1 −ζ− √π
1

− e  1+1OO+
2 ζ
−ζe ζ O 2 (3.145)
(3.145)
√
erf(ζ) erf(ζ) 12e−ζ 1 +O (3.145)
= −2 1√
−ζ   
1 ζ ...(6.145)
= 1 − =√ e π +ζ πO 
ζ 1 ζ 2 ζ 2 (3.145)
erf(ζ)
erf(ζ) = 1 − −ζ√
e π√ζ π 1
 ζ + O
1ζ 2 (3.145)
when ζ � 1. Equation (3.139) = 1=yields e1−ζ√ − π1ζζ +1O+1 O ζζ22 (3.145)
2

when � 1. Equation erf(ζ) (3.139) −yields π (3.145)

when ζ ζ � 1. erf(ζ)
Equation = 1 −
(3.139) √ yields 1 + O 2 (3.145)
hen ζwhen � 1. Equation (3.139)(3.139) yields πζ ζ
� 1.ζEquation yields 2 πζ
dyields ζ2
when ζζ �
when � 1. 1. Equation
Equationwhen ζ(3.139) >> 1. Equation
(3.139) yields 2 (ζ2G (6.139) yields
en ζ � 1. Equation (3.139) yields d2d 2d 2 ) = 2 n2 vt 2 erf(ζ), (3.146)
2 2 (ζ(ζG 2 )G)= 2=2n2n2vntv22 verf(ζ), (3.146)
2
ζ � 1. Equation (3.139) yields d dζ (ζG ) erf(ζ),erf(ζ), (3.146)
dd(ζ
2dζ G
dζ
(ζ 22) =
dζ
2
2 2 2n2 vt 2 erf(ζ),
)
= t
2 t 2 ...(6.146) 2
(3.146)(3.146)
dζ
d 2 2
(ζ to G
G=2the 2 = 2
)2=nconstraint n 2
2 vn2 verf(ζ), v t 2 erf(ζ), (3.146)
which can be integrated, d 2 subject dζ(ζ22G t 2 erf(ζ), that G2 be finite at ζ =(3.146) 0, (3.146)
to give
which can bebeintegrated, 2dζ
subject 2 )to the 2constraint that GG bebe finite atatζ(3.146)
=ζ=0,=0,to
which
which can can be integrated,
integrated,
whichsubject dζ
can2 be to(ζ G
subject )
subject =
integrated, 2to n tothe vthe t2
erf(ζ),
constraint
constraint
subject toGthe that that 2G
constraint be finitefinite at
G2tobegive 0,togive
togive
atgive
hich can be integrated, dζ
2
n22the
 2
constraint d
t 2
erf that
 2 be  finite at ζthat
2 2  = 0, ζ finite ζ = 0, to give
which
which can
can bebe integrated,
integrated, subject
subject toto vtt 22the
the
 constraint
 d erf + 1that
constraint that GG 22 bebe finite
finite at
at
 ζ = 0,
ζ = 0, to giveto give
G (ζ) = n  v ζ +  2 ζ 2 erf(ζ)
  . (3.147)
ich can be integrated, subject to the ζ2ndconstraint d erf that1G 122be ζ ζ22finite2 at ζ. = 0, to give (3.147)
2 2 t 2 v2 tζ2 dζ
h can be integrated, Gsubject GG 2 (ζ)G nto22(ζ)
2 (ζ)
vthe
= 22 =2nconstraint
v2t erf ζdthat
erf
++G +21+ 2be finite
2 2ζerf(ζ)
aterf(ζ)
erf(ζ)ζ = 0, . .to give
...(6.147) (3.147)
(3.147)(3.147)
n t=
v d ζ
erf dζ + +
2 (ζ) = n 2 v  t ζ
22ζ 2
ζ ζd erf + dζ 1 dζ+ 2 ζ erf(ζ)
2   .
G 2
G2 (ζ) (ζ) n = 2 v 
ζ2 t 2 d ζdζ
erf  + 1 + 2  ζ 2 erf(ζ) . (3.147)
According to Equations
According to G2 (ζ) n2 v(3.128),
= =t22 t 22 ζdζerf
2Equations
(3.129),
ζ dζ  (3.142),
dζ+1(6.128), 1 +122+ζ 22 and
+ ζerf(ζ) erf(ζ)
(3.147), . . (3.147)
(3.147)
According
According Gto2Equations
According
(ζ)
to Equations
=
Equations (3.128),
2 to ζ ζ (3.129),
(3.128),
(3.128),
ζ dζ +(3.129),
(3.129), +(3.142),
2(3.142), (6.129),
ζ(3.142), erf(ζ) and and and (3.147),
.(6.142),
(3.147),
(3.147), and (6.147),
(3.147)
ccording to Equations (3.128), 2∂H ζ 2 (3.129), dζ (3.142), v andand (3.147),
Accordingto
According to Equations
Equations(3.128), (3.128), (3.129),
(3.129), (3.142),
(3.142), and (3.147),
(3.147),
cording to Equations ∂H (3.128), ∂H ∂H 2 =
(3.129),
∂H −n
2 −n F 2 F (ζ)
(3.142),
1 v ,
3 v,and ...(6.148)
v (3.147), (3.148)
rding to Equations (3.128), ∂v
2 (3.129),
2 = (3.142),
2−n v
F1 (ζ)
F (ζ) v and
(ζ) (3.147),
, (3.148)
(3.148)
(3.148)(3.148)
∂H=∂v = = −n 2 1, v v 3v3
2 1 3 ,
∂H 2 ∂v −n ∂v 2 F 1 (ζ)  v v 
∂H 2 2
∂v2∂ 2G22== −n −nn22FF v 2
1 (ζ)
v v 3 , vv (3.148)
1t 2(ζ)
2 2v3,   (3.148)
2 vv 2−F
∂v 2n(ζ)
∂H2 ∂v ∂=∂G 2−n∂n22FG=2F 2212nv23ntv,2vt3v
,v3 2 (ζ) I + 3 F3 (ζ) vv 2vvvv , (3.148) (3.149)
∂v∂∂v G2 −n
2 =∂v ∂v 2G 2 1v
=(ζ)  2 2 2 (ζ) I + 3 Fvv
t−F
−F (ζ) I 3 (ζ)
F v
(ζ) ,  (3.148) (3.149) ...(6.149)
(3.149)
∂2G G=2 ∂v
∂v
2 t=
n 2 =
2v 2t −F
v 2v33
vv232v(ζ) 3 I+ −F (ζ)2 I
2 3 F (ζ) 3vv + +3 3
F (ζ)
3 2
v 2v2 , ,
(3.149) (3.149)
∂ ∂v ∂v ∂v n
∂v22  22
−F2 (ζ)II++33FF3(ζ) 3
(ζ) vv
 , v (3.149)
where 2
2 ∂∂vG∂v ∂v n nv==22vvt 2 t32 −F
2 3 vv
3  v,22 ,
v 2 ,
wherewhere
∂where G2 ∂v2 ∂v =2 t 2 322vv3−F2 (ζ)2 (ζ)
∂v I + 3 F3 (ζ) vv v
(3.149)
(3.149)
here where ∂v ∂v = 23 v −F2 (ζ) I + 3dFerf 3 (ζ) 2 v , 2 (3.149)
where
where
∂v
∂v F21v(ζ) = erf(ζ) − ζ d erf ,
d erf
v
...(6.150) (3.150)
ere F 1 (ζ)
F =
(ζ) erf(ζ) erf(ζ)d − erf ζ − dζ ζd erf , , (3.150)
(3.150)
e F1 (ζ) = F1erf(ζ)(ζ)
1 = erf(ζ) − =
− ζ dd erf ζ, dζ dζ,
erf (3.150)(3.150)
F (ζ)
1(ζ) = erf(ζ) −dζerf
= erf(ζ)
 − ζdζ  , dζ
, d erf (3.150)
F1 (ζ) F1F =2 (ζ) erf(ζ) = 1−− dζerf2 ζ 222dζ dζ
erf(ζ)
,   − ζ d derf ...(6.151) (3.150)
(3.150) (3.151)
F1 (ζ) =F erf(ζ) (ζ)
 − ζ 1 −  2 dζ , 2ζerf(ζ)
2 − dζ d, erf
erf (3.150) (3.151)
2 F
F2 (ζ) =
(ζ) 1 − ζ 2 erf(ζ) d erf ζ − ζ , , (3.151)
2 ζ12dζ 2 ζ erf(ζ) −d erf (3.151)(3.151)
= = −erf(ζ)
onsCollisions F2 (ζ) =
F (ζ)  12−
1 − 2 ζ 2  − ζ
erf(ζ) − ζ d erf
ζ, dζ dζ,
dζ
, 67 (3.151)
67
Collisions F 2(ζ) = 1 −
2  1 − 21ζ−
=  2 2 ζ 2 2
erf(ζ)  − d ζ dζ
erf d erf
, (3.151) 67
F F 2 (ζ)F= 3 (ζ) erf(ζ)
2ζ2 −
2 −  dζerf− ζdζ
erf(ζ) dζ , d erf ...(6.152) (3.151) (3.152)
(ζ) F1F
 2=ζ 2 (3.114), erf(ζ) 22 (3.134), d d. erf
erf (3.151)
it Finally,
follows itfrom follows Equations 2from =Equations
(3.114), −
3 (ζ) 
= 1
(3.134),
2 −
F3(ζ)= =1221−3− ζ ζ erf(ζ) 3 ζ ζerf(ζ)
(3.135),
2 2 dζ
d ,
− (3.135),
(3.148),
erf(ζ)−d −erf erf ζ dζζ and
.(3.148),
(3.149)
. and that (3.149) that
(3.152)
(3.152)
Fit3⎧(ζ) =3 (ζ) 1 from
− ζ2Equations  erf(ζ)
2 3 −dζ ζ d erf ζ. dζ dζ. (3.135), (3.152) (3.152)
⎧Finally, F follows
3
Fit3 (ζ) (ζ)
 = 1 2 3−  ζ 23 erf(ζ)(3.114), − d � ζdζ
erf (3.134),
dζ
. ⎫ �(3.148), ⎫ and (3.149) that
(3.152)
⎨−Finally, follows 1 2−v1 from −ζ v32 2ζEquations erf(ζ) −(6.114), . (ζ).(6.134), vv3�F ∂(6.135),
(3.152)
(6.148),
⎬ and (6.149) that
�m 2 ζ dζ
⎬vv(3.152)
γ12 nF23v⎪ ⎨(ζ) = 2 −vd tζ2erf ∂ f1 ⎪
n2=⎪ 11 −+ m t 2erf(ζ) f1 (3.152)
3erf(ζ) dζ ⎪
v) = − Aγ1212(v) ⎪ 2 F F(ζ)3 (ζ)⎪ ⎩ =2fF = (ζ)
(v) ζ322f⎧ 1 (v) + −F − ζ(ζ) I + dζ −F .3 F2 (ζ) I +
2 � · 3 (ζ) ⎪ . · ⎪
⎭ . � ⎫
m2 ⎩ Am122 (v)
1
v3 = − γ123vnm
1 32 ⎪ ⎨ 2 v3 m1v 2 vdζ 2 3 m2 vt 2v2
3 ⎭v 2 ∂v vv ∂ f1 ⎪ ⎬
1⎪2
⎩ F1 (ζ) 3 f1 (v) + −F∂v 2 (ζ) I + 3 F 3 (ζ) 2 · ⎪.
m2 v m1 2 v 3
(3.153) v ∂v ⎭
(3.153)
...(6.153) (3.153)
Suppose
pose that f1 (v) isSuppose that f (v)
a Maxwellian
1 is a Maxwellian
that f1 distribution(v) is a Maxwellian distribution
of characteristic of
distribution characteristic
number number
density
of characteristic density
number density n ,
n1 , mean
n flow velocity flowzero, velocity
Supposeand zero, thatand
temperature f1 (v) temperature
is
T a. Maxwellian
In other T 1 .words, other words,of characteristic number density 1
In distribution
mean flow velocity zero, and temperature T1. In other words, 1
n1 , mean flow � velocity �3/2�zero, and
�3/2 temperature � T� 1 . In other words,
m m1� m1 v2 � m1 v2
f1 (v) = n1 f1 (v) = n1 exp − exp 1 � − �3/2 .  � � (3.154) ...(6.154)
2π T 1 2π T 1 2 T 1 .m1 2 T 1 m1(3.154)
v2
f1 (v) = n1 exp − . (3.154)
2π T 1 2 T1
It
ws that follows that It follows that
It follows that ∂ f1 m∂1 f1 m1
v f1 .
= − ∂vv f=1 . −...(6.155) T 1 ∂ f1 m1 (3.155) (3.155)
∂v T1 =− v f1 . (3.155)
Hence, Equations
Equations (3.113) and (3.113)
(3.153) and yield(3.153) yield ∂v T1 Self-Instructional Material 149
Hence, Equations (3.113) and (3.153) yield
1 ∂
C12 (v) = − C121(v)∂=· −(R12 f1 ) ,· (R12 f1 ) , (3.156) (3.156)
m1 ∂v mC112∂v 1 ∂
(v) = − · (R12 f1 ) , (3.156)
m1 ∂v
where � 2 γ n �� T − T � F (ζ)
where 2 γR 12 n2= T 2 − 12 T 12 F 12 (ζ) 1 1
R12 = 12
3 m v 3 T32 γ v, n2 �ζ T3 2 −v,T 1 � F1 (ζ) (3.157) (3.157)
m2 v t 2 T2 1 tR 2 = ζ 1 12
v, (3.157)
 f1 (v) = n1 2π T 1 exp � − �3/2 m21 T.1 � m1 v2 � m1 v2 (3.154)
2π T f (v) mn�13/2 2 T � −exp
1
f1 (v) = n1 m1 �
1 = 1
2π
1exp
T
� −
m1 v22 T .2 T 1
. (3.154)(3.154)
It follows that f1 (v) = n1 2π T 1 exp − 1 1. (3.154)
It follows that ∂ f1 2πmT1 1 2 T1
It follows that that ∂ f1 ∂v
It follows =m− 1
= − ∂vTf1f1 . ∂ fm
v f1 .
m1 (3.155)
(3.155)
It follows that 11
∂v T1 1 =v−f1 . v f1 . (3.155)(3.155)
Hence, Equations (3.113) and (3.153) yield ∂ f1 ∂v =m− ∂v
1T T1
Hence, Equations (3.113) and (3.153) yield = − v f1 .
1 (3.155)
∂v T 1 yield
Hence,Hence, Equations Equations (3.113)(3.113) and (3.153) 1 ∂
and (3.153) yield
Hence,and Equations (3.113) C12and (v) =(3.153)1− ∂ yield · (R12 f1 ) , (3.156)
Electrodynamics Hence,
C12 (v) Equations
= − m1(6.113) ·∂v (R121 and f1 )∂, (6.153) 1 ∂ yield (3.156)
Plasma Physics m1 (v) ∂v C=12−(v) = − · (R f· (R f ), (3.156)(3.156)
C 12 1 m∂ ∂v m1 ∂v 12 1 ) , 12 1
where C12 (v) = � − 1� · (R12 f1 ) , ...(6.156) (3.156)
where 2 γ12 �n2 T 2 m −1�T∂v 1 F 1 (ζ)
where where 2
R = 12 2 3 2γ n T − T 1 F 1 (ζ) � v, � (3.157)
R12 =12 m32 vt 2 2 γ12T�n122 �γT 1232n− ζ2 v,3 T� − T
T 2 F 1 (ζ) 1 F 1 (ζ) (3.157)
where m T
t 212 2=γR12 v, (3.157)(3.157)
NOTES 2 R v 1 = ζ � 1
v,ζ...(6.157)
n2 3−Tm 2 −v T 3 1 F 1T (ζ)ζ 3 ensemble-averaged
3
and use has been made of theRfact = that 12 3mF 2 3vt 2 F22 = tT 2 12 F 1 . 1The v, (3.157)
and use has been made of the fact that 3mF3v − 12 3 F 2 =T 2 F 1 . The
1 in theζ form
3 ensemble-averaged
kinetic equation, and Equation (3.9), can thus 2 the tbe
2 written
kinetic equation, and use hasuse
Equation beenhas been
made made
of the of
fact
and use has been made of the3fact that
(3.9), can thus be that
written fact 3 inthat
F the − 3 F F
form − F2 1−=. FThe
2 =32FF
3
3
2= F1 .ensemble-averaged
The ensemble-averaged
2 2 F1. The ensemble-averaged kinetic
andkinetic
use has kineticbeen equation, of Equation (3.9), 3�Fcan −thus be 2written in the form
∂ f made
equation,
equation, Equation
∂ Equation the(3.9),fact1 that
(6.9), can ∂can thus 3 be
thus
F
be 2 =
writtenwritten
F1the
�in . The
in the form ensemble-averaged
form
kinetic equation,∂ f1 1 Equation ∂+ f1 ) 1+ can
· (v (3.9), ∂ thus � · be (F1written + R12�)inf1the 0,
= form (3.158)
+
∂t ·∂r(v f1 ) +∂ f m1∂ ·∂v(F11+ R 121 )� f1 ∂ = 0, � (3.158)
�
∂t ∂r ∂ f1 + ∂m1 ·1+ ∂v f1 )·+ (v f ) + ∂ �
· (F + R = )0,f1 = 0, ...(6.158) (3.158)(3.158)
∂ f1 ∂t ∂ ∂r ∂t (v∂r 1 m∂1 ∂v� m· 1(F∂v 1 + R121)� f1 12
where + · (v f1 ) + 1 · (F 1 + R 12 1) f = 0, (3.158)
where ∂t ∂rF = e (E m
where 1 1 +1v∂v × B) ...(6.159) (3.159)
where F1 = e1 (E + v × B) (3.159)
is thewhere
ensemble-averaged is the Lorentz ensemble-averaged
force. FIn1 deriving = eF 1 (E
e1v (E
=+Equation
1 Lorentz × B) + v (3.158),
force. × B) In deriving we have Equation
made (3.159) (6.158), (3.159)
we have made
is the ensemble-averaged Lorentz force. In F deriving
= e (E +Equation
v × B) (3.158), we have made (3.159)
use of the easily proved
is the result
useensemble-averaged
of the easilyLorentz proved 1 result In
Lorentz 1
force. In deriving Equation (3.158), wemadehave made
use of the easily is the proved
ensemble-averaged
result ∂ result force. deriving Equation (3.158), we have
is the use of
ensemble-averaged the
use of the easily proved result easily proved
Lorentz∂ force.
· F = 0. In deriving Equation (3.158), we have
(3.160) made
use of the easily proved result ·∂vF1 = 10.∂...(6.160) ∂ (3.160)
According to Equation (3.158), collisions∂with
∂v F1∂v
·particles = ·0.F1of=type 0.
2 give rise to a ve- (3.160)
(3.160)
According to Equation (3.158), According collisions to Equationwith ∂v
particles
· F(6.158),
1 = 0. of type
collisions 2 give rise
with particles to a ve-
of type (3.160) 2 give rise to a velocity
locity dependent effective
According toforce,
Equation R 12 , (3.158),
acting on
∂von individual individual
collisions with particles
particles ofoftype type 1. As
2risegive rise to a ve-
locity dependent According effective to
dependentEquation
force, R (3.158),
effective
12 , acting collisions
force, R12with , of with
acting particles
particles
on individual ofof type
type 2 1.
particlesgive As ofOn to
type a1.ve-
As1.expected, this
expected,
Accordingthis locity
force
to is zero (3.158),
dependent
Equation if the effectivetemperatures
collisionsforce, R , the acting
particlestwo species
on of individual
type are
2 equal.
give particles
rise to aof type
ve- As
expected, this locityforcedependent
is zero if effective
the temperaturesforce, R12 ,ofacting the two
12 on individual
species areparticles equal. On of type 1. As
ifforce isthiszero isifzerotheis2temperatures of onthe two species are equal. On the