UNIVERSIDAD DE CANTABRIA, DEPARTAMENTO DE FÍSICA MODERNA

Standard Model of Particle Physics

Extra Exercise chapter 1

Consider the text from Shawl’s book, Quantum Field Theory, given below. Read the text and
answer the following questions.

Question 1. Provide a brief description of the principle of action and the concepts of Lagran-
gian and Lagrangian density.

Question 2. Repeat the derivation of the Euler-Lagrange equations for the fields.

Question 3. Derive Klein-Gordon equation applying the Euler-Lagrange equations to the

Klein-Gordon Lagrangian.

Question 4. Derive Dirac equation applying the Euler-Lagrange equations to the Dirac La-
grangian. L = Ψ̄(i γµ ∂ν − m)Ψ.

Question 5. Provide a (brief) description of Noethe’s theorem and repeat the derivation that
from a given symmetry leads to a conservation equation.

Please try to be brief in your answers.

And do not get frustrated if the exercise is hard.

Just write me an e-mail if you don’t know how to proceed.

1
26 Quantum Field Theory

2.1 Relativistic Notation

We shall write xP- (J.l = 0, 1 , 2, 3) for the space-time four-vector with the time component
x0 = et and the space coordinates xi (j = 1 , 2, 3), i.e. xJ.t = (et, x) . The components of four­
vectors will be labelled by Greek indices, the components of spatial three-vectors by Latin
indices.
By means of the metric tensor gJ-tv ' with components
goo = -g u = -g22 =-g33 = + 1 } ' (2 1 )
.
gJ-ll/ = 0 if jl =I= 1/
we define the covariant vector xJ.t from the contravariant xJJ.:

(2.2)

In the last expression we have used the summation convention: repeated Greek indices,
one contravariant and one covariant, are summed. From Eqs. (2 . 1 ) and (2.2) we have
xJ.t = (et, - x) .
We also define the contravariant metric tensor g;.J-t by
(2.3)
where 8� is the usual Kronecker delta: 8�= 1 if A = v, and 8� = 0 if A =I= v. From
v
Eqs. (2. 1 ) and (2.3) , gJ.t = gJ.t v ·
A Lorentz transformation
(2.4)
leaves

(2.5)
invariant, i.e. xJ-t � = xl-lxl-l is a scalar quantity. Hence
A).J-1. A ;.v =8�. (2.6)
(In addition the matrix A;.J-t must be real to ensure the reality of the space-time
coordinates.)
A four-component object sJ-t (sJJ. ) transforming like xl-l (xJ-t ) under Lorentz transforma­
tions, and hence with sl-lsJ-t invariant, is a contravariant (covariant) four-vector. An example
is the energy-momentum vector pl-l=(Eje, p). When no confusion can result, we shall
often omit the tensor indices, e.g. we may write x for xl-l or xw
a b
The scalar product of two four-vectors and can be written in various ways:
(2.7)
Like x2 = xJ.txJ.t , so the scalar product ab is an invariant under Lorentz transformations.
 Lagrangian Field Theory 27

The four-dimensional generalization of the gradient operator V transforms like a four­

vector. If </J(x) is a scalar function, so is

8</J = a8<P 8xJ1. '

xJJ.
and hence

(2.8a)
is a covariant four-vector. Similarly
8</J = J1. ;/... = ;/... J1.
8xJ1. - 8 '+' - '+'' (2.8b)

is a contravariant four-vector. Note that indices following a comma denote differentiation.

Finally, we note that the operator D is a scalar:
2
8J1. 8Jl. -- c18 2
2 8t2 - v =- o .
(2.9)

2.2 Classical Lagrangian Field Theory

We consider a system which requires several fields <Pr ( x) , r= 1 , . . . , N, to specify it. The
index r may label components of the same field [for example, the components of the vector
potential A(x)], or it may refer to different independent fields. We restrict ourselves to
theories which can be derived by means of a variational principle from an action integral
involving a Lagrangian density
(2. 10)
where the derivative <Pr, is defined by Eq. (2.8a). The Lagrangian density (2. 10), depending
a

on the fields and their first derivatives only, is not the most general case possible, but it
covers all theories discussed in this book and greatly simplifies the formalism.
We define the action integral S(Q) for an arbitrary region Q of the four-dimensional
space-time continuum by

S(!l) = ttxY( <f>n </>,, ,) , (2. 1 1)

where d 4x stands for the four-dimensional element dx0 d3 x.

We now postulate that the equations of motion, i.e. the field equations, are obtained
from the following variational principle, which is closely analogous to Hamilton' s prin­
ciple in mechanics. For an arbitrary region n, we consider variations of the fields,
(2. 12)
which vanish on the surface r(Q) bounding the region n
8</Jr (x) = 0 on r (0) . (2. 1 3)
28 Quantum Field Theory

The fields c/Jr may be real or complex. In the case of a complex field cp(x), the fields cp(x) and
cp*(x) are treated as two independent fields. Alternatively, a complex field cp(x) can be
decomposed into a pair of real fields, which are then treated as independent fields. We now
demand that for an arbitrary region Q and the variation (2. 12-2. 13), the action (2. 1 1) has a
stationary value, i.e.

8S(!l) = 0. (2 . 14)
Calculating 8S(!l ) from Eq. (2. 1 1), we obtain2

(2. 15)

where the last line is obtained by partial integration, since

The last term in Eq. (2. 15) can be converted to a surface integral over the surface r (!l)
using Gauss's divergence theorem in four dimensions. Since 8c!Jr = O on r, this surface
integral vanishes. If 8S (Q) is to vanish for arbitrary regions Q and arbitrary variations 8c/Jn
Eq. (2. 15) leads to the Euler-Lagrange equations

8.!ff
8cpr
(
- 8,8.!ff ) - '
a
axa c!Jr a
_

0 r = 1 , . . . , N. (2 . 16)

These are the equations of motion of the fields.

In order to quantize this classical theory by the canonical formalism of non-relativistic
quantum mechanics, we must introduce conjugate variables. We are dealing with a system
with a continuously infinite number of degrees of freedom, corresponding to the values of
the fields c/Jn considered as functions of time, at each point of space x. We shall again
approximate the system by one having a countable number of degrees of freedom and
ultimately go to the continuum limit.
Consider the system at a fixed instant of time t and decompose the three-dimensional
space, i.e. the flat-space-like surface t = const., into small cells of equal volume 8xi,
labelled by the index i = 1, 2, . . . We approximate the values of the fields within each
cell by their values at, say, the centre of the cell x = xi . The system is now described by the
discrete set of generalized coordinates:

(2. 1 7 )

2 In Eq. (2 .1 5 ), and thereafter, summations over repeated indices r and a, occurring in products, is implied.
 Lagrangian Field Theory 29

which are the values of the fields at the discrete lattice sites xi . If we also replace the spatial
derivatives of the fields by their difference coefficients between neighbouring sites, we can
write the Lagrangian of the discrete system as
L (t) = 4= 8xiYi ( cp,. (i, t) , �,.(i, t) , cp,. (i l ,t) ) (2. 1 8)
l
where the dot denotes differentiation with respect to time. The Lagrangian density in the
ith cell, .2-'i , depends on the fields at the neighbouring lattice sites i' on account of the
approximation of the spatial derivatives. We define momenta conjugate to q,.i in the usual
way as
= . = n,.(i, t) 8xz·
8L 8L
Prl· (t) = - (2. 1 9)
aq. rz. 8"''ft ( z. , t)
where

n,. ( z. , t) - �.--
8.::/.i
(2.20)
8cp,.(i, t)
The Hamiltonian of the discrete system is then given by
H = 'L PriiJ.ri - L
{
i
= 4= 8xi n,.(i , t)�,. (i, t) - Yi ·
(2.2 1 )
l
}
With a view to going to the limit 8xi � 0 , i.e. letting the cell size and the lattice spacing
shrink to zero, we define the fields conjugate to cp,.( ) as x
8!?
n,. (x) = (2.22)
a;p r .
In the limit as 8xi � 0, n,. (i, t) tends to n,.( xi , t) , and the discrete Lagrangian and
Hamiltonian functions (2. 1 8) and (2.2 1 ) become

L (t) = Jd3x2'(r/>n rf>r , a ) (2.23)

and

H= Jct3xJr(x) , (2.24)

where the Hamiltonian density ?t'(x) is defined by

(2.25)
and the integrations in Eqs. (2.23) and (2.24) are over all space, at time t. With our
Lagrangian density, which does not depend explicitly on the time, the Hamiltonian
H is, of course, constant in time. The conservation of energy will be proved in
Section 2.4, where the expressions (2.24) and (2.25) for the Hamiltonian will also be
re-derived.
30 Quantum Field Theory

As an example, consider the Lagrangian density

2:> = 2 ( </J , a </J, - JJ_2<fJ2)

1 a (2.26)
for a single real field </J(x), with J.1 a constant, which has the dimensions (length)- 1 . In the
next chapter we shall see that the quanta of this field are spinless neutral bosons with
reduced Compton wavelength JJ.- 1 , i.e. particles of mass (nJJ.Ic). The equation of motion
(2. 1 6) for this field is the Klein-Gordon equation
(2.27)
the conjugate field (2.22) is
1
2
.
n(x ) = (x) (2.28)
c <P
and the Hamiltonian density (2.25) is

Jr(x) = � [c2n2(x) + (VcjJ) 2 + 1icp2] . (2.29)

2.3 Quantized Lagrangian Field Theory

It is now easy to go from the classical to the quantum field theory by interpreting the
conjugate coordinates and momenta of the discrete lattice approximation, Eqs. (2. 17) and
(2. 1 9), as Heisenberg operators, and subjecting these to the usual canonical commutation
relations:
[A.l.f/

}
8rs 8 '
r ( ], t) , 1Ls (] , t )] = In fJXjj
• • 1 •

j . (2.30)
[<Pr (j, t), <Ps (j ' , t)] = [nr (j, t), ns (j ' , t)] = 0
If we let the lattice spacing go to zero, Eqs. (2.30) go over into the commutation relations
for the fields:
[<Pr (x , t) , ns(x ', t)] = in 8rs 8 ( x - x ') } (2.3 1 )
[<Pr ( x , t) , <Ps ( x ' , t)] = [nr( x , t), ns (x ' , t)] = 0 '

since i n the limit, as 8xi 0 , 8ii' / 8xi becomes the three-dimensional Dirac delta function
---t

8(x - x'), the points x and x' lying in the jth and j' th cell, respectively. Note that the
canonical commutation relations (2.3 1 ) involve the fields at the same time; they are equal­
time commutation relations. In the next chapter we shall obtain the commutators of the
fields at different times.
For the Klein-Gordon field (2.26), Eqs. (2.3 1 ) reduce to the commutation relations:
[<P ( x , t), � ( x' , t)] = inc2 8 ( x - x ') }· (2.32)
[<P ( x , t) , </J(x ' , t)] = [� ( x , t) , � ( x' , t) ] = 0
In the next chapter we shall study the Klein-Gordon field in detail.
 Lagrangian Field Theory 31

2.4 Symmetries and Conservation Laws

It follows from the Heisenberg equation of motion of an operator O( t)

i1i
d t
��
) = [ O (t) , H]
(we are not considering operators with explicit time dependence) that 0 is a constant of the
motion provided
[ O , H] = 0.
Constants of the motion generally stem from invariance properties of systems under
groups of transformations, e.g. translational and rotational invariance lead to conservation
of linear and angular momentum, respectively. Such transformations lead to equivalent
descriptions of the system; for example, referred to two frames of reference related by a
Lorentz transformation. Quantum-mechanically, two such descriptions must be related by
a unitary transformation U under which states and operators transform according to
I'�') ---7 I'�' ' ) = VI'P) , o ---7 o' = uout . (2.33)
The unitarity of the transformation ensures two things. Firstly, operator equations are
covariant, i.e. have the same form whether expressed in terms of the original or the
transformed operators. In particular, this will be true of the commutation relations of the
fields and of the equations of motion, e.g. Maxwell' s equations will be covariant with
respect to Lorentz transformations. Secondly, under a unitary transformation, amplitudes,
and hence observable predictions, are invariant.
If one deals with continuous transformations, the unitary operator U can be written
(2.34)
where T = Tt and a is a real continuously variable parameter. For a = 0, U goes over into
the unit operator. For an infinitesimal transformation

U� l + i8aT
and Eq. (2.33) becomes
0' = 0 + 80 = ( 1 + i8aT) O ( l - i8aT)
i.e.
80 = i8a [ T , O] . (2.35)
If the theory is invariant under this transformation, the Hamiltonian H will be invariant,
8H = 0, and taking 0 = H in Eq. (2.35) we obtain [T, HJ = 0, i.e. Tis a constant of the motion.
For a field theory derived from a Lagrangian density 2, one can construct conserved
.quantities from the invariance of 2 under symmetry transformations. We shall show that
for such a theory, the invariance of 2 leads to equations of the form
8fQ
- =0 (2.36)
8xa
32 Quantum Field Theory

where the f a: are functions of the field operators and their derivatives. If we define

F0 (t)= Jct3xr(x, t) , (2.37)

where integration i s over all space, then the continuity equation (2.36) gives
! dFo (t) =- Jct3x t � fj (x t) = 0
8xJ ,
(2.36a)
c dt i= l
where the last step follows by transforming the integral into a surface integral by means of
Gauss' s divergence theorem and assuming (as always) that the fields, and hence the j 1,
tend to zero sufficiently fast at infinity. 3 Hence

(2.38)

is a conserved quantity. With T = JfJ, the corresponding unitary operator is then given by
Eq. (2.34).
The interpretation of the four-vectorfa: follows from Eqs. (2.36)-( 1 38). jc andfl are
the three-dimensional volume and current densities of the conserved quantity JfJ!c.
f0
Eq. (2.36a), applied to a finite three-dimensional volume V bounded by a surface S, then
states that the rate of decrease of JfJ!c within V equals the current of JfJ!c flowing out
through S. Correspondingly, the four-vector f a: (x) , satisfying the conservation equation
(2.36), is called a conserved current. (Strictly speaking, one should call it a four-current
density.) The result, that the invariance of the Lagrangian density !l' under a continuous
one-parameter set of transformations implies a conserved quantity, is known as Noether' s
theorem.
We apply these ideas to the transformation
(2.39)
of the fields. The change induced in !l' is given by

where the last step follows since <Pr(x) satisfies the field equations (2. 1 6), and summations
over repeated indices r and a are implied as previously. If !l' is invariant under the
transformation (2.39) so that 8!l' = 0, the last equation reduces to the continuity equation
(2.36) with

3 If one employs a finite normalization volume for the system, as we did in the last chapter, the surface integral vanishes on
account of the periodic boundary conditions.
 Lagrangian Field Theory 33

and the constant of the motion, from Eqs. (2.38) and (2.22), is

Jfl = c d3 xnr(x)84>r (x) .

J (2.40)

An important particular case of the above arises for complex fields cj;n i.e. non­
Hermitian operators in the quantized theory. cpr and cf;t are then treated as independent
fields, as discussed earlier. Suppose !l' is invariant under the transformation
+
cpr � cp �. = eiEcpr :::: ( 1 ie )cpr }
cf;t � cf;t = e- iEcf;t :::: ( 1 - ie) cf;t
' (2.41 )

where e i s a real parameter, and the right-hand expressions result for very small e . From
Eqs. (2.4 1 )
8,�-.t
'f'r = - iE,�-.t
'f'r '
and Eq. (2.40) becomes

Jfl = iEc J d3x [nr(x) iflr (x) - n� (x) ifl� (x) ] .

Since IfJ multiplied by any constant is also conserved, we shall, instead of IfJ, consider

(2.42)

where q is a constant to be determined later. The reason for this change is that ± q will turn
out to be the electric charges of the particles represented by the fields.
[
We evaluate the commutator Q , cpr (x) ] . Since cpr and cf;t are independent fields, cpr
commutes with all fields except nr [see Eq. (2.3 1 )] . Hence taking (x)0 = x0 = et,

[Q, <Pr (x) J =-

i
:J
d3 x' [ns(x') , iflr (x) J <f>s (x') ,
and using the commutation relations (2.3 1 ) one obtains
(2.43)
From this relation one easily verifies that if I Q ') is an eigenstate of Q with the eigenvalue
Q', then cpr (x) IQ') is also an eigenstate of Q belonging to the eigenvalue (Q' - q), and
+
correspondingly cf;t (x) I (Q') belongs to (Q' q). In the next chapter we shall see that,
consistent with these results, cpr and cf;t are linear in creation and absorption operators, with
+
cpr absorbing particles of charge ( q) or creating particles of charge (- q), while cf;t absorbs
+
particles of charge (-q) or creates particles of charge ( q). Hence, we interpret the
operator Q, Eq. (2.42), as the charge operator. We have therefore shown that charge is
conserved (dQ/dt = 0, [Q, H] = 0), provided the Lagrangian density !l' is invariant with
respect to the transformation (2.41 ), which is known as a global phase transformation
[corresponding to the fact that the phase e in Eq. (2.41 ) is independent of x] or as a gauge
transformation of the first kind. We see from Eq. (2.42) that we require complex, i.e. non­
Hermitian, fields to represent particles with charge. Real, i.e. Hermitian, fields represent
uncharged particles. Interpreting Eq. (2.42) as an operator involves the usual ambiguity
34 Quantum Field Theory

as to the order of factors. We shall have to choose these so that for the vacuum state i (O) ,
in which no particles are present, QI (O) =O. We shall return to this point in the next
chapter.
The unitary transformation corresponding to the phase transformation (2.4 1 ) can, from
Eq. (2.34), be written
u = ei aQ _ (2.44)
Hence for infinitesimally small a, we obtain from Eq. (2.33)
cp � = eiaQ cp, e -iaQ (2.45)
= c/J, + ia[Q, cp,] = ( 1 - iaq )cp,
where the last line follows from Eq. (2.43). Comparing Eqs. (2.45) and (2.41 ), we see that
they are consistent if we take e = -aq.
Although we have talked of electric charge, with which one is familiar, this analysis
applies equally to other types of charge, such as hypercharge.
Conservation of energy and momentum and of angular momentum follows from the
invariance of the Lagrangian density !l' under translations and rotations. Since these
transformations form a continuous group we need only consider infmitesimal transforma­
tions. Any fmite transformation can be built up through repeated infinitesimal transforma­
tions. In four dimensions these are given by
(2.46)
where 8a is an infinitesimal displacement and Eaf3 is an infinitesimal antisymmetric tensor,
Eaf3 = - e13a, to ensure the invariance of XaXa under homogeneous Lorentz transformations
(8a = 0).
The transformation (2.46) will induce a transformation in the fields which we assume
to be

(2.47)
In this section, summation over repeated indices r, s, labelling fields, as well as over
Lorentz indices a, {3, is implied. Here x and x' label the same point in space-time
referred to the two frames of reference, and cp, and cp' , are the field components referred
to these two coordinate systems. The coefficients S�fin Eq. (2.47) are antisymmetric in
a and {3, like Eaf3' and are determined by the transformation properties of the fields. For
example, for the vector potential Aa(x), Eq. (2.47) reduces to the transformation law of a
vector.
Invariance under the transformations (2.46) and (2.47) means that the Lagrangian
density expressed in terms of the new coordinates and fields has the same functional
form as when expressed in the original coordinates and fields:
iff (cp,(x) , cp,, a (x)) = �(cp �(x') , c/J � , a (x')) . (2.48)
(Here cp, , a (x') - 8cp �(x') I ax la .) From Eq. (2.48) the covariance of the field equations,
etc. follows; i.e. they will have the same form expressed in terms of either the original or
the transformed coordinates and fields.
 Lagrangian Field Theory 35

The conservation laws follow by expressing the right-hand side of Eq. (2.48) in terms of
the original coordinates and fields by means of Eqs. (2.46) and (2.4 7). We shall first state
and discuss these results, postponing their derivation to the end of this section.
=
For a translation (i.e. Eaf3 0), one obtains the four continuity equations
ayaf3 =
-a-xa- o, (2.49)
where
8.!£1 --
a{3 --- --
y
8cpr - 2-'ga{3 ' (2.50)
84>r , a ax{3
and the four conserved quantities are

cP" - Jct3x. r0" = Jct3x{ C1l:y(x) o��x) - 2'g0<> } · (2.5 1 )

}
pa is the energy-momentum four-vector, with

cpO = J d3x { 11:r(x) cf}, (x) - 2' (<Pr > <Pr , a ) } (2.5 1 a)
=J d3xz = H
being the Hamiltonian, Eqs. (2.24) and (2.25), and

pj= Jd3xn,. (x) 8cf>axr (jx) (2.51b)

being the momentum components of the fields. This interpretation will be confirmed when
we come to express these operators in the number representation. Correspondingly yaf3 is
called the energy-momentum tensor.
For a rotation (i.e. 8a = 0) Eqs. (2.46)-(2.48) give the continuity equations

(2.52)
where

(2.53)

and the six conserved quantities (note that �llaf31 = - �lla'f3) are
cM"/3 = Jd3x",rOa/3
= Jct3x{ (x"y0f3 - xf3. r0" ] + cn,(x) S';!</J, (x) } . (2.54)

For two space-like indices (i, j = 1 , 2, 3), MiJ is the angular momentum operator of the
field (M 1 2 being the z-component, etc.). Remembering that yoi / c is the momentum
density of the field [see Eqs. (2.5 1 )] , we interpret the term in square brackets in Eq. (2.54)
36 Quantum Field Theory

as the orbital angular momentum and the last term as the intrinsic spin angular
momentum.
We return to the derivation of the continuity equations (2.49) and (2.52).4 The variation
of a function c/Jr(x) with the argument unchanged was defined in Eq. (2.39) as
(2.55a)
In addition, we now define the variation
(2.55b)
which results from changes of both the form and the argument of the function. We can then
write
8T c1Jr (x) = [c/J � (x ') - c/Jr (x') ] + [c/Jr (x') - c/Jr (x) ]
= 8cpr (x') + 88c/Jr 8x13, (2.56)
Xf3
where 8x13 is given by Eq. (2.46). To first order in small quantities this can be written

(2.57)

We can similarly write Eq. (2.48) as

0 = !ff ( c/J� (x') , c/Jr , a (x')) - Y( c/Jr (x) , c/Jr , a (x))
= 8Y + - 8Y 8. a .
X (2.58)
8xa
For 8Y we obtain, since c/Jr(x) satisfies the field equations (2. 1 6),
8Y 8L 8
8Y= cp 8cpr + �

}
c/Jr, a

� { a:�a �� � { a:�a [
B r
�:; ] }·
(2.59)
=8 6 =8 oT �r - 6xp

We combine Eqs. (2.58) and (2.59) to obtain the continuity equations

8J a =
axa o, (2.60)
where
BY 8T c/Jr - yaf3 8X
f a = 8cp
r,a f3 (2.6 1 )

with ya/3 given by Eq. (2.5 0).

We first consider translations, i.e. f.a /3 = 0, so that from Eqs. (2.46) and (2.47) 8x13 = 813
and 8T c/Jr =0. Eq. (2.6 1 ) reduces to f a = - ..ra/3 8x13, and, since the four displacements 813

4 The reader may omit the rest of this section as the details of this derivation will not be required later on.
 Lagrangian Field Theory 37

are independent of each other, Eq. (2.60) reduces to the four continuity equations (2.49) for
energy and momentum conservation.
Finally, we consider rotations, i.e. 8a = 0. From Eqs. (2.46) and (2.47) for 8xf3 and 8T c/Jr ,
and the antisymmetry of Eaf3 , Eq. (2.6 1 ) becomes

(2.62)
where �,;;af31 is the tensor defined in Eq. (2.53). Since the rotations Ef31 are independent of
each other, Eq. (2.60) reduces to the continuity equations (2.52).

Problems
2. 1 . Show that replacing the Lagrangian density .!/ = !ff ( c/Jn cp,., a) by
2_;=2.' + 8aAa (x),
where A a (x), a = 0, . . . , 3, are arbitrary functions of the fields c/Jr(x), does not alter the
equations of motion.
2.2. The real Klein-Gordon field is described by the Hamiltonian density (2.29). Use the
commutation relations (2.3 1 ) to show that
[H , cp(x)] = - i c2 n(x) ,
n n
[H , n(x)] = i (Jl-2 - V2 ) 4J (x) ,
where H is the Hamiltonian of the field.
From this result and the Heisenberg equations of motion for the operators cp(x) and
n(x), show that

2.3. Show that the Lagrangian density

for the real vector field cpa (x) leads to the field equations

and that the field cpa (x) satisfies the Lorentz condition

2.4. Use the commutation relations (2.3 1 ) to show that the momentum operator of the
fields

(2.5 1b)

satisfies the equations

)] _
[p j , n,. (X - .
_ ·t
lrt
8nr(x)
a
Xj