Feynman Liang MATH 350 Assignment #7 3/10/2014

1, 2, 3, 2.3.11
1 Let G be a group of order 3. Prove that G must be cyclic. Let G be any group such that the order | G | = 3. Assign labels to the distinct elements of G G = {1 G , a, b } where 1G G is the identity (identity law for groups). By 2.2 Proposition 2, 1, a1 , . . . , a|a| are all distinct elements. Since | G | = 3, it must be that | a| 3 otherwise {1, a, a2 , a3 } G are four distinct elements in G, contradicting | G | = 3. Case | a| = 1: Clearly | a| = 1 otherwise a1 = a = 1G so G = {1G , 1G , b} = {1G , b} which contradicts | G | = 3 (). Case | a| = 3: If | a| = 3, then a = { a, a2 , a3 = 1G } are all distinct elements and by closure of G we have a G. Since | a | = 3 = | G |, it follows that a = G as sets and thus the two groups are equal. Case | a| = 2: Consider |b|. Case |b| = 1: Not possible otherwise b1 = b = 1G so G = {1G , a, 1G } contradicting | G | = 3 (). Case |b| = 2: Then b|b| = b2 = bb = 1G = aa = a2 = a|a| . This yields aa = 1G bb = 1G

= a = a1 = b = b1

after multiplication by inverses. Consider the product ab, which is in G by closure and thus must be equal to one of { a, b, 1G }. If ab = 1G , then by right multiplication a = b1 = b and G = { a, b, 1G } = { a, a, 1G } = { a, 1G } contradicting | G | = 3. If ab = a, then by left cancellation b = 1G and | G | = 3 is contradicted. If ab = b, then by right cancellation a = 1G and | G | = 3 is again contradicted. All cases lead to contradiction (). Case |b| = 3: Then b = {b, b2 , b3 = 1G } are all distinct and by similar argument to | a| = 3 we have b = G. All together, we have that the only two possible cases which do not result in contradiction are G = a or G = b . Therefore, G must be generated by one element hence cyclic.

2 Let G1 = x and G2 = y be cyclic groups. Assume | G1 | = m and | G2 | = n. Prove: (m, n) = 1 iff every homomorphism : G1 G2 is trivial. Assume m = 1 and n = 1 otherwise every homomorphism is trivial (homomorphisms must preserve identity so m = 1 implies ( G1 ) = ({1G1 }) = {1G2 } and if n = 1 then ( G1 ) = G2 = {1G2 }). Since m and n are non-negative, we have that m > 1 and n > 1. Throughout the proof we will freely use | x | = m, |y| = n which is provided by 2.3 Proposition 2. As a consequence of 2.3 Proposition 3, x kn = 1G1 and ykn = 1G2 for any k Z. Suppose (m, n) = d = 1. Let : G1 G2 be a homomorphism. Assume () that is nontrivial, so there is some k Z+ such that ( x k ) = 1G2 . Since G2 = y , there is some l Z+ such that ( x k ) = yl . Notice n l , otherwise n | l = p Z+ : yl = ynp = (yn ) p = 1G2 p = 1G2 contradicting yl = ( x k ) = 1G2 . Consider ( x mk ). Notice ( x mk ) = (( x m )k ) = (1G1 k ) = (1G1 ) = 1G2 since homomorphisms preserve identity. Also, by properties of exponents and homomorphisms m m m ( x mk ) = ( x km ) = (( x k ) ) = ( x k ) = (yl ) = ylm = (ym )l Together, this implies 1G2 = ( x mk ) = (ym )l By 2.3 Proposition 6 (2), since (m, n) = 1 we have G2 = ym and 2.3 Proposition 2 implies | G2 | = n = |ym |. By 2.3 Proposition 3, (ym )l = 1G2 implies that

|ym | | l n | l
This contradicts our earlier result that n l (). Therefore, the assumption was incorrect and it follows that is trivial. Therefore, (m, n) = 1 = every homomorphism : G1 G2 is trivial. We will prove the contrapositive. Assume (m, n) = d = 1. Since both m > 1 and n > 1, it follows that d > 1. By denition of gcd and since m, n, d > 1, there are s, t Z+ such that m = sd and n = td Dene the function : G1 G2 x k ykt We will show is a non-trivial and well-dened homomorphism. 2

Non-trivial: Consider ( x ) = ( x1 ) = y(1)t = yt . Since d > 1, n > 1, and n = td, it follows that 0 < t < n. Then by denition of order, |y| = n and 0 < t < n implies that ( x ) = yt = 1G2 so is non-trivial. Well-dened: Let x k , x l G1 for k, l Z+ be such that x k = x l . Then by left multiplication x kl = 1G1 and 2.3 Proposition 3 implies n | k l . This means that there is some p Z such that k = l + pm. Notice then ( x k ) = ykt Def of k = l + pm Distributivity in rings: k, l , t Z Property of exponents m = sd Associativity n = td = dt Property of exponents

= y(l + pm)t = ylt+ pmt = ylt y pmt = ylt y p(sd)t = ylt y ps(dt) = ylt y psn = ylt (y ) =y
lt l n ps

= ylt 1G2 ps = ( x )

|y| = n
Identity Def of

Thus x k = x l = ( x k ) = ( x l ) so is well-dened. Homomorphism: Let x k , x l G1 for k, l Z+ . Notice by property of exponents and denition of ( x k x l ) = ( x k+l ) = y(k+l )t = ykt+lt = ykt ylt = ( x k )( x l ) so is a homomorphism. Since we have shown the contrapositive (m, n) = 1 = nontrivial homomorphism : G1 G2 , it follows that if every homomorphism : G1 G2 is trivial then (m, n) = 1. Altogether, this shows (m, n) = 1 every homomorphisms : G1 G2 is trivial.

3 (a) Write the lattice of subgroups of Z/36Z. (b) Write the lattice of subgroups of Z/30Z. (a)

Figure 1: Subgroup lattice of Z/36Z

(b)

Figure 2: Subgroup lattice of Z/30Z 4

4 (2.3.11) Find all cyclice subgroups of D8 . Find a proper subgroup of D8 which is not cyclic. Consider D8 = r, s|r4 = s2 = 1, rs = sr 1 . The cyclic subgroups of D8 are: 1 r = r3 r2 s rs r2 s r3 s

{1} {1, r, r2 , r3 } {1, r2 } {1, s} {1, rs} {1, r2 s} {1, r3 s}

An example of a proper subgroup which is not cyclic is (from Exercise 2.1.3(a)) S = {1, r2 , s, sr2 } G. Notice that S is not isomorphic to any of the subgroup of D8 enumerated above. We will show S is indeed a valid subgroup. Identity: 1 S by denition. Associativity: Inherited from associative group operation on G. Inverse: For r2 , notice r4 = r2+2 = r2 r2 = 1 = (r2 ) For s, clearly s2 = 1 = s1 = s S For sr2 , using (r2 )
1 1

= r2 , s1 = s, and the properties of inverses (sr2 )

1

= (r 2 )

1 1

= r2 s
1

From the relation r n s = sr n on D8 (1.2 Example (6)) and (r2 )

= r2 , we have

(sr2 )

= r 2 s = s (r 2 )

= sr2 S

So S contains the inverse of all its elements. Closure: We construct a multiplication table 1 r2 s sr2 1 1 r2 s sr2 r2 r2 1 sr2 s s s sr2 1 r2 sr2 sr2 s r2 1

Notice everything is contained in S, hence S is closed under the binary operation. Since S G satises the group axioms, S < G is a non-cyclic proper subgroup.