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software implementations now allow alterations and improvements without having to redesign or replace the modem. We introduce here in table(1.1) a comparison between analog and digital modulation schemes to conclude the assessment of both modulation schemes usage in Wireless communication systems
Analog
Less bandwidth(Advantage) More accurate (Advantage)
Digital
Large bandwidth(Disadvantage) Less accurate due to the Quantization error that can not be avoided or corrected. (Disadvantage)
High noise immunity as the amplitude of the digital has two levels only and channel coding(error correcting codes) can be used. (Advantage) High level of security as you can use Encryption (Ciphering) and Authentication. (Advantage)
Support complex signal conditioning and processing techniques such as source coding, encryption, and equalization((Advantage)
High QOS. (Advantage) You can use FDM, TDM, CDM, OFDM multiplexing techniques. (Advantage) In mobile communications, digital supports voice, SMS, data (you can access the internet), images and video call. (Advantage) Easily designed using software (Advantage).
In mobile communications, analog supports voice service only. (Disadvantage) More difficult to design than Digital. (Disadvantage)
eqn (1.1)
The system capacity of a digital mobile communication system is directly related to the bandwidth efficiency for a modulation scheme. So a modulation scheme with greater value of B will transmit more data in a given spectrum allocation. Note that the maximum possible bandwidth efficiency is limited by the noise in the channel according to Shannon's Theorem as: = = 2 1 + Where C is the channel capacity in bps , and S/N is the signal to noise ratio .
eqn (1.2)
Fig.(1.1) Digital modulation according to demodulation type The modulation schemes listed in the fig.(1.2) and the tree are classified into two large categories: constant envelope and nonconstant envelope. Under constant envelope class, there are three subclasses: FSK and PSK. Under nonconstant envelope class, there are three subclasses: ASK and QAM. Digital Modulation schemes
constant Envelope nonconstant envelope
FSK
PSK
ASK
M'ary QAM
Communication system
GSM(Global System for Mobile communications) 2G. GPRS(General Packet Radio Service) 2.5G. EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution) 2.75G. CDMA 2000 (Code Division Multiple Access) UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) 3G HSDPA (High-Speed Downlink Packet Access). 3.5G
8PSK -QPSK in the forward channel (From BTS to MS). -OQPSK in the reverse channel QPSK -Adaptive modulation: depending on signal quality and cell usage. - QPSK , data rate: 1.8 Mbit/s - 16QAM , data rate: 3.6 Mbit/s in good radio conditions. BPSK , QPSK , 16 QAM , 64 QAM Adaptive Modulation: QPSK, 16 QAM, 64 QAM
Wi Fi (Wireless Fidelity) WiMAX (the Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) , Fixed and mobile
High Power efficiency low Power efficiency Low Bw efficiency high Bw efficiency ____________________________________________________________ Fig.(1.3) comparison between constellation diagram interpretation on power and BW efficiencies.
eqn (1.6)
exp ( 2 2)
eqn (1.7)
And dij is Euclidean distance between ith and the jth points.
1.2
LINE CODES
Line codes (Baseband modulation) is defined as a direct transmission without Frequency transform. It is the technology of representing digital sequences by pulse waveforms suitable for baseband transmission. A variety of waveforms have been proposed in an effort to find ones with some desirable properties, such as good bandwidth and power efficiency, and adequate timing information. These baseband modulation waveforms are variably called line codes, baseband formats (or waveforms), PCM waveforms (or formats, or codes). Any of several line codes can be used for the electrical representation of a binary data stream. Figure (1.4) displays the waveforms of five important line codes for the example data stream 01101001. Figure (1.5) displays their individual power spectra (for positive frequencies) for randomly generated binary data, Assuming that symbols 0 and 1 are equiprobable, the average power is normalized to unity, and The frequency f is normalized with respect to the bit rate 1/Tb. The five line codes illustrated in Figure (1.4) are described here:
____________________________________________________________________ Figure (1.4) Line codes for the electrical representation of binary data: (a) Unipolar NRZ signaling. (b) Polar NRZ signaling. (c) Unipolar RZ signaling. (d) Bipolar RZ signaling. (e) Split-phase or Manchester code.
_____________________________________________________________________ Figure(1.5) Power spectra of line codes: (a) Unipolar NRZ signal. (b) Polar NRZ signal. (c) Unipolar RZ signal. (d) Bipolar RZ signal. (e) Manchester-encoded signal. The frequency is normalized with respect to the bit rate 1/Tb and the average power is normalized to unity.
_____________________________________________________________________ Figure (1.6)(a) Original binary data. (b) Differentially encoded data, assuming reference bit 1. (c) Waveform of differentially encoded data using unipolar NRZ signaling.
Amplifierequalizer
Decisionmaking device
Timing circuit
+ ()
eqn (1.8)
Input binary data bk consists of symbols 1 and 0 each of duration T b. PAM modifies this binary sequences into a new sequence of short pulses.
ak = s t =
+1 1
k
y t =
where is a scaling factor and p(t) is to be defined and normalized i.e p(0) = 1 P(t) = g(t) * h(t) * c(t) * denotes convolution Convolution in time domain multiplication in (f) domain P(f) = G(f) H(f) C(f) ) Receive filter output y(t) is sampled at time t i = iTb. = =
= + =
eqn (1.11)
ai is the contribution of the ith transmitted bit BUT Second term represents the ISI [Residual effect due to the occurrence of pulse before and after the sampling time instant ti is called ISI] Note that: Under normal (ideal) conditions the ith transmitted bit is decoded correctly. ISI and noise in system introduce errors in decision device at the receiver. We want to minimize these effects to reach good decoding. We will neglect noise now to concentrate on ISI only.
1.3.2 Nyquists criterion for Distortion less Base Band Binary Transmission
Typically The frequency response of the channel and the transmission pulse shape are specified, the problem is to determine the frequency responses of the transmit and receive filters to reconstruct the original binary data sequence (b k). Extraction involves sampling the o/p y(t) at time t=iTb. The decoding requires that the weighted pulse contribution a kP(iTb kTb) for k=i be free from ISI due to overlapping tails of all other weighted pulse contributions represented by ki We control pulse p(t) such that = 1 = 0
F.T of infinite periodic sequence of delta function of period T b whose individual areas are weighted by the respective sample value of p(t) that is given P (f) is given by = =
= ( =
) eqn(1.14)
0 () 2 = 0 = 1
eqn(1.15)
eqn(1.16)
2
Nyquist criterion for distortion less baseband transmission in the absence of noise Ideal Nyquist channel = =
1 = 2 2 eqn(1.17)
_____________________________________________________________________ Figure (1.9) Nyquist criterion for ISI cancellation (ideal Nyquist channel) (a) Ideal magnitude. (b) Ideal basic pulse shape
This transfer function corresponds to a rectangular "brick-wall" filter with absolute bandwidth=Rb/2 where Rb is the bit rate. While this transfer function satisfies the zero ISI criterion with a minimum of bandwidth, there are practical difficulties in implementing it, since it corresponds to a noncausal system (h(t) exists for t< 0) and is thus difficult to approximate. Also, the (sin t) /t pulse has a waveform slope that is 1/t at each zero crossing, and is zero only at exact multiples of 7's, thus any error in the sampling time of zerocrossings will cause significant ISI due to overlapping from adjacent symbols (A slope of 1/t2 or 1/t3 is more desirable to minimize the ISI due to timing jitter in adjacent samples).
0 1
eqn(1.18)
1 4
1 0
( ) 2 2 1
1 2 1 2 1
eqn(1.19)
Where = 1
is called roll off factor which indicates the excess bandwidth over the ideal solution w. Transmission B.W BT = 2w f1 = (1+) W. This transfer function is plotted in Figure 1.10 for various values of a. When = 0. the raised cosine rolloff filter corresponds to a rectangular filter of minimum bandwidth. The corresponding impulse response of the filter can be obtained by taking the inverse Fourier transform of the transfer function, and is given by p t = sinc 2wt
cos 2 wt 116 2 w 2 t 2
eqn (1.20)
Notice that the impulse response decays much faster at the zero-crossings (approximately as 1/t3 for t>> when compared to the 'brick-wall" filter (=0). The rapid time rolloff allows it to be truncated in time with little deviation in performance from theory. As seen from Figure 1.10, as the rolloff factor a increases, the bandwidth of the filter also increases, and the time side lobe levels decrease in adjacent symbol slots. This implies that increasing a decreases the sensitivity to timing jitter, but increases the occupied bandwidth. The spectral efficiency offered by a raised cosine filter only occurs if the exact pulse shape is preserved at the carrier. This becomes difficult if nonlinear RF
amplifiers are used. Small distortions in the baseband pulse shape can dramatically change the spectral occupancy of the transmitted signal. If not properly controlled, this can cause serious adjacent channel interference in mobile communication systems. A dilemma for mobile, communication designers is that the reduced bandwidth offered by Nyquist pulse shaping requires linear amplifiers which are not power efficient. An obvious solution to this problem would be to develop linear amplifiers which use real time feedback to offer more power efficiency, and this is currently an active research thrust for mobile communications.
_______________________________________________________________ Figure (1.10) Responses for different rolloff factors of raised cosine filter. (a) Frequency response. (b) Time response.
0.5887
eqn(1.22)
As a increases, the spectral occupancy of the Gaussian filter decreases and time dispersion of the applied signal increases. The impulse response of the Gaussian filter is given by =
exp 2 2
eqn(1.23)
Figure 1.11 shows the impulse response of the baseband Gaussian filter for various values of 3-dB bandwidth-symbol time product (BTS). The Gaussian filter has a narrow absolute bandwidth (although not as narrow as a raised cosine rolloff filter), and has sharp cut-off, low overshoot, and pulse area preservation properties which make it very attractive for use in modulation techniques that use nonlinear RF amplifiers and do not accurately preserve the transmitted pulse shape . It should be noted that since the Gaussian pulse-shaping filter does not satisfy the Nyquist criterion for ISI cancellation, reducing the spectral occupancy creates degradation in performance due to increased ISI. Thus, a trade-off is made between the desired RF bandwidth and the irreducible error due to ISI of adjacent symbols when Gaussian pulse shaping is used. Gaussian pulses are used when cost is a major factor and the bit error rates due to ISI are deemed to be lower than what is nominally required.
eqn (1.23)
where A is a constant, m(t) = 1 or 0, fc is the carrier frequency, and T is the bit duration. It has a power P = 2 , so that A = 2P . Thus equation (1) can be written as = = = 2 cos 2 ,
2 2
0 0 0 eqn (1.24)
cos 2 ,
cos 2 ,
2 T
where E = P T is the energy contained in a bit duration. If we take 1 t = cos2fc t as the orthonormal basis function, the applicable
signal space or constellation diagram of the BASK signals is shown in Figure (1.11).
Figure (1.11) BASK signal constellation diagram. Figure (1.12) shows the BASK signal sequence generated by the binary sequence 0 1 0 1 0 0 1. The amplitude of a carrier is switched or keyed by the binary signal m(t). This is sometimes called on-off keying (OOK).
_____________________________________________________________________ Figure (1.12) (a) Binary modulating signal and (b) BASK signal
2 2 + 2 2
2
eqn (1.25)
The effect of multiplication by the carrier signal Acos 2fct is simply to shift the spectrum of the modulating signal m (t) to fc. Figure 1.13 shows the amplitude spectrum of the BASK signals when m(t) is a periodic pulse train. Since we define the bandwidth as the range occupied by the baseband signal m(t) from 0 Hz to the first zero-crossing point, we have B Hz of bandwidth for the baseband signal and 2B Hz for the BASK signal.
_____________________________________________________________________ Figure (1.13) (a) Modulating signal, (b) spectrum of (a), and (c) spectrum of BASK signals. Figure (1.14) shows the modulator and a possible implementation of the coherent demodulator for BASK signals.
_____________________________________________________________________ Figure (1.14) (a) BASK modulator and (b) coherent demodulator.
2 0,
eqn (1.27)
for i = 0, 1, ..., M - 1 and M > 4. Here, A is a constant, fc is the carrier frequency, and T
0 0 0 eqn(1.28)
cos 2 ,
cos 2 ,
where Ei = PiT is the energy of s(t) contained in a symbol duration for i = 0, 1, ..., M -1.
Figure (1.15) shows the signal constellation diagrams of M-ASK and 4-ASK signals.
_____________________________________________________________________ Figure (1.15) (a) M-ASK and (b) 4-ASK signal constellation diagrams. Figure (1.16) shows the 4-ASK signal sequence generated by the binary sequence 00 01 10 11.
____________________________________________________________________ Figure (1.16) 4-ASK modulation: (a) binary sequence, (b) 4-ary signal, and (b) 4-ASK signal.
Figure (1.17) shows the modulator and a possible implementation of the coherent demodulator for M-ASK signals.
_____________________________________________________________________ Figure 1.17 (a) M-ASK modulator and (b) coherent demodulator.
20
eqn(1.29)
2(1)
6( 2 ) 2 1
eqn(1.30)
1.5.1 Binary phase shift keying (BPSK):Here the phase of constant amplitude carrier signal is switched between two values according to the possible signals m1, m2 which corresponds to 1, 0. Normally m1, m2 phases are separated by 180 phase shift and amplitude of Ac and energy per bit (Eb= 2 2 Tb)
1
eqn(1.31)
OR: The signal is shifted by when transmitting binary zero which means =
2
eqn(1.32)
These signals are referred to as antipodal signals and is normalized to unit energy The reason that they are chosen is that they have a correlation coefficient of -1, which leads to the minimum error probability for the same Eb/No, as we will see shortly. If m(t) represents binary data which takes on one of two possible pulse shapes(1,-1) as general case = ()
2
cos 2 +
eqn(1.33)
Therefore The BPSK signal is equivalent to a double sideband suppressed carrier amplitude modulated waveform, where cos (2 ) is applied as the carrier, and the data signal in m(t) is applied as the modulating waveform. Hence a BPSK signal can be generated using a balanced modulator.
sin ( ( ) 2 ( )
sin ( ( ) 2 ( )
eqn(1.35)
eqn(1.36)
From figure (1.19) we conclude that 90% of BPSK energy is contained within an approximately equal to 1.6 Rb and we can also find that with using a raised cosine filter of = 0.5 all energy are contained within 1.5 Rb
Figure (1.19) BPSK spectrum with rectangular and raised cosine filter with roll of factor=0.5
cos 2 +
constellation points separated by 180 degree phase shift Therefore A coherent binary PSK system is characterized by having a signal space that is one dimensional (i.e. N=1), with a signal constellation consisting of two message points
1.5.1.5 Modulator
Using a balanced modulator after putting the binary data on the form of polar NRZ (non return to zero) (-1,+1) we can generate the BPSK signal note that the carrier frequency must satisfy that = for satisfying synchronization i.e ensure that each transmitted bit contains an integral number of cycles of the carrier wave.
1.5.1.6 Demodulator:As we pointed out before the PSK modulation must be coherently demodulated so a carrier recovery circuit (Costas loop-phase locked loop) must be employed to obtain the carrier. To detect the original binary sequence of 1s and zeros we apply the noisy PSK signal to a correlator which is supplied with the locally generated carrier the correlator output is compared with a threshold of zero volts if the output exceeds zero the receiver decides in favor of symbol 1 otherwise the receiver decides in favor of zero.
2 2 + =
2 1 2
+ 2 cos (2(2 + )
eqn(1.37)
When no pilot signal is transmitted a Costas loop or squaring loop may be used to synthesize the carrier phase and frequency from the received BPSK signal. Figure (1.23) shows the block diagram of a BPSK receiver along with the carrier recovery circuits.
Figure (1.23) shows the block diagram of a BPSK receiver along with the carrier recovery circuits. The received signal is squared to generate a dc signal and an amplitude varying sinusoid at twice the carrier frequency. The de signal is filtered out using a bandpass filter with center frequency tuned to A frequency divider is then used to recreate the waveform.
1.5.1.7 Power sufficiency & bandwidth efficiency:Since we have only two constellation points hence we have High power efficiency Low bandwidth efficiency: the symbol is represented by 1 bit
= = 0.5
eqn(1.38)
1.5.1.8 Probability of error:Since that Distance between constellation points =2 . Then the probability of error is derived from the general probability of error equation of the matched filter (correlator) receiver =
1 +2 2 12 1 2 2
eqn(1.39)
= 2
eqn(1.40)
1.5.2 Differential phase shift keying (DPSK):As we have seen in BPSK modulation that the demodulator must be coherent i.e. it needs a reference signal to be demodulated which will increase the complexity of the demodulator by the synchronization circuits and the reason of this that the demodulator must preserve the phase of the carrier which includes the message. From here a noncoherent version of BPSK is needed. the idea here is to equip the receiver with storage capability so as it can measure the relative phase difference between the waveforms received during two successive bit intervals provided that the unknown phase varies slowly (slow enough to be considered constant over the two bit intervals) That is we consider the differential PSK (DPSK) as Noncoherent form of PSK. which will result in many advantages such as: no need for coherent reference signal and the receivers are cheap to build. This would be done by differential encoding i.e. The input binary sequence is first differentially encoded & then modulated using BPSK modulator.
The effect:to leave symbol dk unchanged from the previous symbol if ak=1 & toggle if else. Example of differential encoding: mk dk-1 dk 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 Table (1.3) Example of differential encoding 1 0 0 0 0 1
1.5.2.2 Modulator:
Figure (1.24) DPSK modulator It consists of a one bit delay element and a logic circuit interconnected so as to generate the differentially encoded sequence from the input binary sequence. The output is passed through a product modulator to obtain the DPSK signal i.e. output bit is delayed by 1 bit duration and XNORed with newer i/p bit,Then the o/p sequence is transformed to polar NRZ and then it will be like BPSK.
1.5.2.3 Demodulator:(1) Suboptimum receiver: At the receiver, the original sequence is recovered from the demodulated differentially encoded signal through a complementary process,
(2) Optimum receiver: The demodulator does not require phase synchronization between the reference signals and the received signal. But it does require the reference frequency be the same as the received signal this can be maintained by using stable oscillators, such as crystal oscillators, in both transmitter and receiver. However, in the case where Doppler shift exists in the carrier frequency, such as in mobile communications, frequency tracking is needed to maintain the same frequency Therefore the suboptimum receiver is more practical, and indeed it is the usual-sense DBPSK receiver. Its error performance is slightly inferior to that of the optimum
1.5.2.4 Example:
A complete example of differential PSK (DPSK) is shown in Table (1.4) Modulation Message ak Encoding = 1 Signal phase Demodulation Output of correlator Demodulator output ref 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 -1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 -1 0 0 0 -1 0 0 1 0 -1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
1.5.2.5 Advantages & disadvantages:Advantage.: reduce the receiver complexity. Disadvantage.: energy efficiency is less than coherent PSK by 3 dB
eqn (1.43)
Figure (1.27) Performance comparison between coherent BPSK,coherent DPSK ,optimum and suboptimum DPSK
=
Where i=1,2,3,.M
2(1)
eqn(1.44)
cos 2 +
eqn (1.45)
i=1,2,..,M & Ts: is symbol time=(log2M)Tb . And Es=symbol energy=(log2M)Eb Using trigonometric identities: =
2
eqn(1.46)
Let 1 () =
cos 2
, 2 () =
2
sin 2
eqn(1.47)
1.5.3.2 Constellation diagram:(1) Since we have two basis signals two dimensional diagram (2) From equation the envelope is constant (when no pulse shaping is employed) while the phase is varyingthat can be represented by equally spaced message points on a circle of radius (3) Gray coding is usually used in signal assignment in MPSK to make only one bit difference to two adjacent signals1 bit error An example of 8-ary PSK with gray coding is as shown:-
Figure (1.29) Formulation of probability of error expression for MPSK signal And hence using eqn(1.39) we will find that average symbol error probability equal 2 & For M 4: 2
4 2 2
eqn(1.48)
eqn(1.49)
1.5.3.4 Power spectra of M-ary PSK:The first null BW decrease as M increases while bit rate is held constant = 2 2
= 2 2 2 ( 2 )
eqn (1.50)
1.5.3.5 Power & BW efficiency:As the value of M increases, the bandwidth efficiency increases. That is, for fixed Rb, increases and Bandwidth decreases as M is increased. At the same time, increasing M implies that the constellation is more densely packed, and hence the power efficiency (noise tolerance) is decreased so As M increases (a) Bandwidth efficiency increases (b) Power efficiency decreases.
Where
2 2 log 2
Therefore,
eqn(1.51)
log 2 2
And To ensure that there is no degradation in error performance (BER) the ratio Eb/No must increase. Table (1.5) gives a values of both the bandwidth and power efficiencies of M-ary PSK signals 2 4 8 16 32 64 M 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 = / -6 10.5 10.5 14 18.5 23.4 28.5 Eb/No for BER =10 Table (1.5) bandwidth and power efficiencies of M-ary PSK signals
Figure(1.31) symbol error rate versus signal to noise ratio for various modulation PSK schemes
1.5.3.6 Modulator: For M 4we can use a quadrature modulator. The only difference for different values of M is the level generator The level generator gives two signals corresponding to each n bits of the input sequence(symbol) by changing the levels of these signals we can vary the phase. Note that the M-ary can be directly modulated or differentially encoded to provide noncoherent detection
1.5.3.7 Demodulator:-
Message
Phase
Note that : it is better to arrange the states with Gray Coding , this makes each adjacent symbol only differs by one bit to minimize the bit error rate (BER).
cos[2 + 1
0 = 1,2,3,4.
eqn (1.52)
Where TS is the symbol duration and is equal to twice the bit period T b. Using trigonometric identities: =
2
cos[ 1
sin[ 1
cos(2 )
,
2
2 = 1
sin(2 )
2
Then the 4 signals in the set can be expressed in the terms of the basis functions as: = = 1,2,3,4 cos 1 sin 1 2 eqn (1.54)
Figure (1.34) (a) QPSK constellation where the carrier phases are 0, /2 , ,3/2 (b) QPSK constellation where the carrier phases are /4, 3/4 ,5/4,7/4
From the constellation diagram, it can be seen that the distance between two adjacent points in the constellation is 2 . Since each symbol corresponds to two bits, then ES=2Eb, then the distance between two adjacent points in the constellation is 2 . Then the average probability of bit error in AWGN channel: =
2
= 2
eqn (1.55)
Note that QPSK has the same probability of bit error as BPSK, but twice as much data can be sent in the same bandwidth. Thus compared to BPSK, QPSK provides twice the spectral efficiency with exactly the same power efficiency. Similar to BPSK, QPSK can also be differentially encoded to allow noncoherent detection.
Figure (1.36) QPSK modulator The unipolar binary message stream has bit rate Rb and is first converted into a bipolar non return to zero (NRZ) sequence using a unipolar to bipolar converter. The data sequence is separated by the serial-to-parallel converter (S/P) to form the odd numbered bit sequence for I-channel (cosine) and the even numbered bit sequence for Q-channel (sine). Next the odd-numbered-bit pulse train is multiplied to cos 2 fct and the evennumbered-bit pulse train is multiplied to sin 2 fct. It is clear that the I-channel and Q-channel signals are BPSK signals with symbol duration of 2Tb. Finally a summer adds these two waveforms together to produce the final QPSK signal. The BPF at the output of the modulator confines the power spectrum of the QPSK signal within the allocated band, this prevents spill-over of signal energy into adjacent channels.
The frontend bandpass filter removes out -of -band noise and adjacent channel interference. The filtered output is split into two parts , each part is coherently demodulated using the in-phase and quadrature carriers which are recovered from the received signal using carrier recovery circuit. The outputs of the demodulators are passed through decision circuits which generate the in-phase and quadrature binary streams. The two components are then multiplexed to reproduce the original binary sequence.
The above figure shows the difference in the behavior of the phase between ordinary QPSK and OQPSK. It can be seen that in the first plot (ordinary QPSK) the phase can change by 180 at once, while in OQPSK the changes are never greater than 90. The following figure shows the even and odd bit streams, mI (t) and mQ(t) and the offset in their relative alignment by one bit period (half-symbol period):
Due to the time alignment of mI (t) and mQ (t) in standard QPSK, phase transitions occur only once every Ts = 2Tb s, and will be a maximum of 180 degree if there is a change in the value of both mI (t) and mQ (t) However, in OQPSK signaling, bit transitions (and hence phase transitions) occur every Tb s. Since the transitions instants of mI (t) and mQ (t) are offset, at any given time only one of the two bit streams can change values. This implies that the maximum phase shift of the transmitted signal at any given time is limited to 90. Hence by switching phases more frequently (i.e., every Tb s instead of 2Tbs) OQPSK signaling eliminates 180 phase transitions. Since 180 phase transitions have been eliminated, bandlimiting of (i.e., pulse shaping) OQPSK signals does not cause the signal envelope to go to zero. Obviously, there will be some amount of ISI caused by the bandlimiting process, especially at the 90 degree phase transition points. But the envelope variations are considerably less, and hence hard limiting or nonlinear amplification of OQPSK signals does not regenerate the high frequency side lobes as much as in QPSK. Thus, spectral occupancy is significantly reduced, while permitting more efficient RF amplification.
The modulated signal is shown in the figure below for a short segment of a random binary data-stream:
Figure (1.40) OQPSK modulated signal Note that half symbol-period offset between the two component waves. The spectrum of an OQPSK signal is identical to that of a QPSK signal, hence both signals occupy the same bandwidth. The staggered alignment of the even and odd bit streams does not change the nature of the spectrum. OQPSK retains its band limited nature even after nonlinear amplification, and therefore is very attractive for mobile communication systems where bandwidth efficiency and efficient nonlinear amplifiers are critical for low power drain. Further, OQPSK signals also appear to perform better than QPSK in the presence of phase jitter due to noisy reference signals at the receiver
1.5.6 / 4QPSK
The /4 shifted QPSK modulation is a quadrature phase shift keying technique which offers a compromise between OQPSK and QPSK in terms of the allowed maximum phase transitions. It may be demodulated in a coherent or noncoherent fashion. In /4 QPSK, the maximum phase change is limited to 135 as compared to 180 for QPSK and 90o for OQPSK. Hence, the bandlimited /4 QPSK signal preserves the constant envelope property better than bandlimited QPSK, but is more susceptible to envelope variations than OQPSK. An extremely attractive feature of /4 QPSK is that it can be noncoherently detected, which greatly simplifies receiver design. Further, it has been found that in the presence of in multipath spread and fading, /4 QPSK performs better than OQPSK . Very often, /4 QPSK signals are differentially encoded to facilitate easier implementation of differential detection or coherent demodulation with phase ambiguity in the recovered carrier. When differentially encoded /4 QPSK is called /4 DQPSK.
radians, hence the name) with respect to one another. Usually, either the even or odd data bits are used to select points from one of the constellations or the other bits select points from the other constellation. This also reduces the phase-shifts from a maximum of 180, but only to a maximum of 135 and so the amplitude fluctuations of / 4QPSK are between OQPSK and non-offset QPSK.One property this modulation scheme possesses is that if the modulated signal is represented in the complex domain, it does not have any paths through the origin. In other words, the signal does not pass through the origin. This lowers the dynamical range of fluctuations in the signal which is desirable in communications. /4 QPSK modulator, signaling points of the modulated signal are selected from two QPSK constellations which are shifted by /4 with respect to each other. The figure shows the two constellations along with the combined constellation where the links between two signal points indicate the possible phase transitions. Switching between two constellations, every successive bit ensures that there is at least a phase shift which is an integer multiple of /4 radians between successive symbols. This ensures that there is a phase transition for every symbol, which enables a receiver to perform timing recovery and synchronization. Information bits mI,mQ Phase 11 /4 01 3/4 00 -3/4 10 -/4 Table (1.7): Carrier phase shifts corresponding to various input bit pairs.
_____________________________________________________________________ Figure (1.41) Constellation diagram of /4 QPSK signal (a) possible states of wken 1 = /4 (b) possible states when 1 = /2 (c) all possible states
1.5.6.1 Example
Sketch the modulated symbols for the input bit stream: 11000110
_____________________________________________________________________ Figure (1.42) constellation diagram of /4 QPSK The modulated signal is shown below for a short segment of a random binary datastream:
Figure (1.43) modulated signal when 11000110 is transmitted Note that: Successive symbols are taken from the two constellations shown in the diagram. Thus, the first symbol (1 1) is taken from the 'blue' constellation and the second symbol (0 0) is taken from the 'green' constellation.
The input bit stream is partitioned by a serial-to-parallel (S/P) converter into two parallel data streams mIk and mQk each with a symbol rate equal to half that of the incoming bit rate. The Kth in-phase and quadrature pulses, Ik and Qk are produced at the output of the signal mapping circuit over time kT t (k + 1)T and are determined by their previous values, Ik -1 and Qk -1 as well as k which itself is a function of k which is a function of the current input symbols mIk and mQk. Ik and Qk represent rectangular pulses over one symbol duration having amplitudes given by: = cos = 1 cos 1 sin = sin = 1 sin + 1 cos Where = 1 + eqn (1.56) eqn (1.57) eqn(1.58)
Just as in a QPSK modulator, the in-phase and quadrature bit streams Ik and Qk are then separately modulated by two carriers which are in quadrature with one another, to produce the /4 QPSK waveform given by: = cos () sin
4
Where = =
1 =0
2 2
= =
1 =0 cos 1 =0 sin
2 2
eqn(1.59) eqn(1.60)
1 =0
Both Ik and Qk are usually passed through raised cosine roll off pulse shaping filters before modulation, in order to reduce the bandwidth occupancy. The function P(t) in equations (1.59),(1.60) corresponds to the pulse shape, and Ts is the symbol period. Pulse shaping also reduces the spectral restoration problem which may be significant in fully saturated, nonlinear amplified systems. It should be noted that the values of Ik and Qk and the peak amplitude of the waveforms I(t) and Q(t) can take one of the five possible values 0, +1, -1, +1/ 2 , -1/ 2 . From the above discussion it is clear that the information in a /4 QPSK signal is completely contained in the phase difference k of the carrier between two adjacent symbols. Since the information is completely contained in the phase difference, it is possible to use noncoherent differential detection even in the absence of differential encoding.
the kth data bit, the output wk and zk from the two low pass filters in the in-phase and quadrature arms of the demodulator can be expressed as: = cos eqn (1.61) = sin eqn(1.62)
where is a phase shift due to noise, propagation, and interference. The phase is assumed to change much slower than k so it is essentially a constant. The two sequences wk and zk are passed through a differential decoder which operates on the following rule: = 1 + 1 eqn(1.63) = 1 + 1 eqn(1.64) The output of the differential decoder can be expressed as = cos cos 1 + sin sin 1 =cos 1 = sin cos 1 + cos sin 1 =sin 1 eqn (1.65)
The output of the differential decoder is applied to the decision circuit, which uses Table (1.7) to determine:
= 1, > 0 = 0, < 0 = 1, > 0 = 0, < 0 Where SI and SQ are the detected bits in the in-phase and quadrature arms, respectively.
1.5.6.3.3 FM Discriminator
Figure (1.47) shows a block diagram of an FM discriminator detector for /4QPSK. The input signal is first filtered using a bandpass filter that is matched to the transmitted signal. The filtered signal is then hard limited to remove any envelope fluctuations. Hard limiting preserves the phase changes in the input signal and hence no information is lost. The FM discriminator extracts the instantaneous frequency deviation of the received signal which, when integrated over each symbol period gives the phase difference between two sampling instants. The phase difference is then detected by a four level threshold comparator to obtain the original signal. The phase difference can also be detected using a modulo-2 phase detector. The modulo -2 phase detector improves the BER performance and reduces the effect of click noise.
Technically FSK has two classifications, the non-coherent and coherent FSK. In non-coherent FSK, the instantaneous frequency is shifted between two discrete values named mark and space frequency, respectively. On the other hand, in coherent Frequency Shift Keying or binary FSK, there is no phase discontinuity in the output signal. In this digital era, the modulation of signals are carried out by a computer, which converts the binary data to FSK signals for transmission, and in turn receives the incoming FSK signals and converts it to corresponding digital low and high, the language the computer understands best. The basic principle of Frequency Shift Keying is at least a century old. Despite its age, FSK has successfully maintained its use during more modern times and has adapted well to the digital domain, and continues to serve those that need to transfer data via computer, cable, or wire. There is no doubt that FSK will be around as long as there is a need to transmit information in a highly effective and affordable manner.
0 = 1 =
cos c +
2 2
0 ( 0) 0 ( 1)
eqn(1.66) eqn(1.67)
cos (c
Where is a constant offset from the nominal carrier frequency. The most important factor to keep in mind when designing FSK is to keep the frequency of the different symbols orthogonal to minimize the correlation between the two symbols to the zero assuming perfect synchronization of receiver oscillators. To achieve this we must do the correlation function between to transmitted symbols and get the conditions to achieve the orthogonality = =
0
0 1
2 2
eqn (1.68)
In practice 1, and the second term on the right hand side can be ignored therefore
=
in order for E = 0 from the previous equation: f = n/2Tb where n is any integer.
eqn(1.69)
eqn(1.70)
Larger f means wider separation between signaling frequencies. Thus binary FSK system is characterized by having a signal space that is two dimensional with two message point as shown in figure (1.48)
2 Decision boundary
Forward hint
We can think in the different orthogonal carriers of the FSK signal as a multidimensional system with each carrier represents an axis in this system. In binary FSK we only have two dimensions. The M-ary FSK is built on this idea
Region 1
Region
1 2
m (t)
2 cos (2 1 )
Inverter
2 cos (2 1 )
_____________________________________________________________________
Fig 1.49 Block diagram for binary FSK transmitter
Figure (1.50) shows generating a FSK signal, there are four signals first the binary one second the 1 signal with lower frequency third the 0 signal with the higher frequency and last the final FSK signal.
_______________________________________________________
Figure 1.50 FSK signal
Where I f is the in phase component and Q f is the quadrature phase component. S f can be found easily since the in phase component is independent of data. It is defined on the entire time axis. Thus:
= ( )
= 2
1 2
+ ( +
1 2
eqn(1.73)
Where stands for Fourier transform. It is seen that the spectrum of the in phase part of the FSK signal are two delta functions.
1 ( ) 2
2 1 2
2
1 2 cos
eqn (1.74)
The complete baseband PSD of the binary FSK signal is the sum of I(f) & Q(f) :
() = 2
1 2
+ ( +
1 2
) +
1 2 cos 1 2 2
eqn(1.75)
+
0
Decision device
To study the coherent demodulator error performance of the transmitted FSK signal we need to look at fig 1.51 where the distance between the two message points is equal to 2Eb and the error probelity is driven from the relation
= > 0 0 ) + < 0 1 )
We can drive that Pe 0 & Pe (1) have the same value and it is equal to :
(0 1 = (
2
2 0
eqn(1.76)
Averaging Pe 0 & Pe (1), we find that the average probability of symbol error for coherent binary FSK is:
=
2
2 0
eqn (1.77)
Comparison device
Filter matched to
if 1
if 1
The noncoherant binary FSK described is a special case of noncoherant orthogonal modulation with: = And = Where is the bit duration and is the signal energy per bit. Hence, the can be proven to be =
1 2
exp ( 2 ) 0
eqn(1.78)
cos
eqn(1.79)
Where = 1,2, , and the carrier frequency = /2 for some fixed integer . The transmitted signals are equal duration T and have equal energy E. Since the individual signal frequencies are separated by 1/2T hertz, the signals describes above are as proved orthogonal, that is: = 0 eqn(1.80) 0 For coherent M-ary FSK, the optimum receiver consists of band of M correlators or matched filters, with the wanted signals providing the pertinent references. At the sampling times t=kT, the receiver makes decisions based on the largest matched filter output.
The M-ary FSK can be considered multidimensional system with M orthogonal axis. Giving the probability of error parameters of the M-ary FSK as following:
Average symbol error probability: eqn(1.81) Average bit error probability: eqn(1.82) Asymptotic power efficiency: eqn(1.83)
Fig 1.53
The bit error rate of different Ms for the M-ary FSK is shown in Fig 1.53, it can be shown from the Fig that the more M the lower level of probability of error for the same SNR Coherent detection of M-ary FSK requires the use of exact phase references, the provision for which at the receiver can be costly and difficult to maintain. We may avoid the need for such a provision by using noncoherant detection, which result in a slightly inferior performance. In a noncoherant receiver, the individual matched filters are followed by envelope detectors that destroy the phase information. The probability of symbol error of the noncoherant detection of M-ary FSK: =
1 2
exp ( 2 )
0
eqn(1.86)
cos 21 + 0 cos 22 + 0
1 eqn(1.87)
=
2
Where is the transmitted signal energy per bit, and is the bit duration. The phase(0), denoting the value of phase at time = 0, depends on the past history of the modulation process. The frequency 1 & 2 are sent in response to binary symbol 1 and 0 appearing at the modulation input, respectively. Another useful way of representing the CPFSK signal s(t) is to express it in the conventional form of an angle-modulation waves follows =
2
cos 2 +
eqn(1.88)
The phase is a continues function of time, this leads to the modulated wave s(t) itself to be continues all the time including the inter-bit switching times. eqn(1.89) = 2 ( 1 + 2) The phase of CPFSK signal increases or decreases linearly with time during each bit period of seconds, as shown by: = 0
1
eqn(1.90)
Where the plus sign corresponds to sending symbol 1, and mines sign corresponds to sending symbol 0. The parameter h is defined by: = (1 2 ) eqn(1.91) We refer to h as the deviation ratio, measured with respect to the bit rate 1/ . At time t = 0 = 1 0 eqn(1.92)
That is to say, the sending of symbol 1 increases the phase of CPFSK s(t) by h , whereas the sending of symbol 0 reduces it by an equal amount This can be cleared using the phase trellis method
Fig 1.54 Using some mathematical operations we can express the CPFSK s(t) in terms of its inphase and quadrature components as follows:
eqn(1.93) So we have the following four cases: 1. The phase 0 = 0 and = /2, corresponding to transmission of symbol 1. 2. The phase 0 = 0 and = /2, corresponding to transmission of symbol 0. 3. The phase 0 = 0 and = -/2 (or, equivalently, 3 /2, modulo 2 ), corresponding to transmission of symbol 1. 4. The phase 0 = 0 and = -/2 (or, equivalently, 3 /2, modulo 2 ), corresponding to transmission of symbol 0. 5. This in turn means that the MSK signal itself can take one of four possible forms, depending on the values 0 and
This, in turn, means that the MSK signal itself may assume any one of four possible forms, depending on the value of 0 & The appropriate form for the orthogonal basis function 1 () and 2 (): 1 = 2 = 2 cos cos 2 Tb 2 2 sin sin 2 2 0 2
Correspondingly, we may express the MSK signal in the form = 1 1 + 2 2 0 Accordingly, the signal constellation for an MSK signal is two-dimensional, with four message points, as shown in Fig 1.5.9
Figure (1.55) Constellation diagram for MSK signalIf we made a comparison between the constellation of MSK and the QPSK signals we would notice that they have identical format. Note, however, that the coordinates of the message points for the QPSK signal are expressed in terms of signal energy per symbol, E, whereas for the MSK signal they are expressed in terms of the signal energy per bit.
The basic difference between QPSK & MSK signals is in the choice of orthogonal signals 1 () and 2 (). For QPSK 1 () and 2 () are represented by a pair of quadrature carriers, whereas for an MSK signal, they are represented by a pair of sinusoidally modulated quadrature carriers.
Fig 1.56 Sequence and waveforms for MSK signal To generate the signal described before of MSK we can use the following MSK transmitter shown in Fig 1.57, the advantage of this modulator is that the signal coherence and deviation ratio are largely unaffected by variation in the input data rate.
Fig 1.57 MSK modulator Fig 1.58 shows the block diagram of typical MSK receiver.
Fig 1.58 MSK Demodulator Earlier we remarked that the MSK and QPSK signals have similar signal space diagram. It follows, therefore, that for the case of AWGN channel, they have the same forela for their average probability of error: = ( This is much better than the ordinary FSK.
0
eqn(1.94)
Fig 1.59 GMSK implemented by Frequency Shift keying modulation with FM-VCO.
Fig 1.60 GMSK implemented by a quadrature baseband method.modulation with FM-VCO. The shaded areas in the two above figures have the same function. The GMSK VCOmodulator architecture as shown in the first is simple but is not however, suitable for coherent demodulation due to component tolerance problems. This method requires that the frequency deviation factor of the VCO exactly equals 0.5, but the modulation index of conventional VCO based transmitters drifts over time and temperature. The implementation in the second employs a quadrature baseband process followed by a quadrature modulator. With this implementation, the modulation index can be maintained at exactly 0.5. This method is also cheaper to implement. Both methods lead to the same GMSK modulated signal. We are going to be looking at the second of these two methods that is we shall be looking at a quadrature baseband processor followed by a quadrature modulator as shown in the second. The Gaussian low-pass filter has an impulse response given by the following equation
t
T 2
g t = 2T Q 2Bb
ln 2
Q 2Bb
t+
T 2
ln 2
eqn(1.95)
For 0 Bb
Fig 1.61 The truncated and scaled impulse response of the Gaussian low-pass filter.method.modulation with FM-VCO. Recall the probability of error for plain MSK is given by = (
2 0
eqn(1.96)
By comparing we can conclude that Pe GMSK > Pe FSK this arises from the trade off between power and bandwidth efficient: GMSK achieves better bandwidth efficiency than MSK at the expense of power efficiency.
(b) (a)
Figure (1.62) showing 16-Ary PSK (a) crowded on the constellation circle and equivalent average power
16-Ary QAM (b) with constellation points distributed to make use of the same space
This technique is called quadrature amplitude modulation as it combines with or make use of both ASK and PSK. As in Fig(1.62)-b is a constellation diagram showing 16-Ary QAM, it can be represented as two quadrature carriers each is modulated with 4-level ASK.
. j(2 + ),
0 t Tb
eqn(1.97)
cos 2 +
20
sin 2 ,
0 t Tb eqn(1.98)
E0 is the energy of the signal with the lowest amplitude, ai and bi are a pair of independent integers chosen to specify a certain constellation point, i [ -L+1 L-1], where = ( + 1, 1) ( + 3, 1) ( 1, 1) ( + 1, 3) ( + 3, 3) ( 1, 3) , = eqn (1.99) ( + 1, + 1) ( + 3, + 1) ( 1, + 1) The rectangular QAM signal could be represented in terms of 2 independent basis functions: 1 = , 2 =
2 2
cos 2 sin 2
0 0
eqn(1.100) eqn(1.101)
The coordinates of the ith message point are 0 and 0 , for example, for the 16-QAM with L = 4: 3, +3 3, +1 , = 3, 1 3, 3
1, +3 1, +1 1, 1 1, 3
eqn (1.102)
The first rectangular QAM constellation usually encountered is 16-QAM, the constellation diagram for which is shown here. A Gray coded bit-assignment is also given. The reason that 16-QAM is usually the first is that a brief consideration reveals that 2-QAM and 4-QAM are in fact binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) and quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK), respectively. Also, the error-rate performance of 8-QAM is close to that of 16-QAM (only about 0.5dB better), but its data rate is only threequarters that of 16-QAM. 1.7.1.3 Circular or Rectangular 8-QAM? When dealing with 8-Ary constellation, APK is preferable as it is space efficient rather than QAM. In 16-Ary constellation, its more advisable to go to QAM constellation as its more energy efficient, even some standards actually uses 16 APK like V29.bis telephone standard to maximize the phase difference between points having the same energy in the expense of increasing the amplitude levels. Also the symmetry of rectangular QAM sometimes doesnt suit the channel characteristics or the detection process, and more, the designer wishes to put the constellation points anywhere, from here came the APK.
eqn(1.104)
0 0
, but
2(1)0 3
3 2(1)0
eqn(1.105)
APK (amplitude-phase keying): its constellation is simply multi level of amplitudes. 8-QAM is considered the optimal constellation as it requires least mean energy. < 1 (
2
20
) eqn(1.106)
The separation between each point having the same magnitude is 45 degrees.
___________________________________________________________
Figure (1.66) M-Ary QAM Modulator
Binary data are split into 2 parallel paths, in each path a number of bits = is amplitude shift keyed to L levels then phase shift keyed using the 2 independent carriers. Then the paths are combined again to form the M-Ary QAM signal.
As in PSK, the i/p signal is multiplicated by both in-phase and quadrature carriers then integrated over the symbol period to get a multi-level baseband symbol set. The decision circuit translates those levels to bits which are then combined using the S/P converter to get the modulated binary data. Example for 16-Ary QAM symbols
amp=4.2426, ph=-135 5 5 amp=3.1623, ph=-161.5651 5 amp=3.1623, ph=161.5651 5 amp=4.2426, ph=135
-5
50
100
-5
50 amp=1.4142, ph=-135
100
-5
50 amp=1.4142, ph=135
100
-5
50
100
amp=3.1623, ph=-108.4349 5 5
amp=3.1623, ph=108.4349 5
-5
50
100
-5
50 amp=1.4142, ph=-45
100
-5
50 amp=1.4142, ph=45
100
-5
50
100
amp=3.1623, ph=-71.5651 5 5
amp=3.1623, ph=71.5651 5
-5
50 amp=4.2426, ph=-45
100
-5
50
100
-5
50
100
-5
50 amp=4.2426, ph=45
100
amp=3.1623, ph=-18.4349 5 5
amp=3.1623, ph=18.4349 5
-5
50
100
-5
50
100
-5
50
100
-5
50
100
1.7.5 BW efficiency:
Its identical to M-Ary PSK where
= =
2 2
eqn (1.107)
1.8 SYNCHRONIZATION
The coherent detection of a digitally modulated signal , irrespective of its form, requires that the receiver be synchronous to the transmitter. We say that two sequences of events (representing a transmitter and a receiver) are synchronous relative to each other when the events in one sequence and the corresponding in the other occur simultaneously. The process of making situation synchronous, and maintaining in this situation is called synchronization. From the discussion presented on the operation of digital modulation techniques, we recognize the need for two basic modes of synchronization: When coherent detection is used , knowledge of both the frequency and the phase of the carrier is necessary. The estimation of the carrier phase and frequency is called carrier recovery or carrier synchronization.
To perform demodulation , the receiver has to know the instants of time at which the modulation can change its state. That is, it has to know the starting and finishing times of individual symbols , so that it may determine when to sample and when to quench the product-integrators. The estimation of these times is called clock recovery or symbol synchronization. We have observed that in a digital communication system, the output of the demodulator must be sampled periodically, once per symbol interval, in order to recover the transmitted information. Since the propagation delay from the transmitter to the receiver is generally unknown at the receiver, symbol timing must be derived from the received signal in order to synchronously sample the output of the demodulator. The propagation delay in the transmitted signal also results in a carrier offset, which must be estimated at the receiver if the detector is phase coherent.
Figure (1.69) Block digram of binary PSK receiver The block diagram of an M-ary PSK demodulator is shown in Fig(1.70). In this case, two correlators (or matched filters) are required to correlate the received signal with the two quadrature carrier signals g t cos 2fc t + and g t sin 2fc t + . where is the carrier phase estimate. The detector is now a phase detector, which compares the received signal phases with the possible transmitted signal phases.
Finally, we illustrate the block diagram of a QAM demodulator in Fig( ). An AGC is required to maintain a constant average power signal at the input to the demodulator. We observe that the demodulator is similar to a PSK demodulator, in that both generate in-phase and quadrature signal samples (X, Y) for the detector. In the case of QAM the detector computes the euclidean distance between the received noise corrupted signal point and the M possible transmitted points, and selects the signal closest to the received point.
Figure(1.71) Mth power synchronizer for carrier recovery. A difficulty in circuit implementation of the Mth power loop is the Mth power device, especially at high frequencies. Costas loop design avoids this device. Figure (1.72) is the Costas loop for carrier recovery for BPSK. Initially the VCO generates a sinusoid with a frequency close to the carrier frequency fc and some initial phase. The frequency difference and the initial phase are accounted for by the phase . The multipliers in the I and Q-channels produce 2 fc terms and zero frequency terms. The LPFs attenuate the 2fc terms and their outputs are proportional to a t cos or a t sin . Then these two terms multiply again to give the term 2 a2 t sin 2 which is low-pass filtered one more time to get rid of any
1
sin 2 which drives the VCO such that the difference becomes smaller and smaller. For sufficiently small , the I-channel output is the demodulated signal.
Figure(1.72) Costas loop for carrier recovery for BPSK. The Costas loop for QPSK is shown in Figure (1.73). The figure is selfexplanatory and its working principle is similar to that of BPSK. The limiters are bipolar, which are used to control the amplitude of the two channels' signal to maintain balance. When the phase difference = is sufficiently small, the I- and Q-channel outputs are the demodulated signals. A difficulty in Costas loop implementation is to maintain the balance between the I- and Q-channel. The two multipliers and low-pass filters in these two channels must be perfectly matched in order to achieve the theoretical performance. Although the appearance of the Mth power loop and the Costas loop are quite different, their performance can be shown to be the same.
Figure(1.74 ) Two types of open-loop symbol synchronizers. An early/late-gate circuit shown in Figure (1.75) is an example of the class of closed-loop synchronizers. The working principle is easily understood by referencing Figure (1.75). The time zero point is set by the square wave clock locally generated by the VCO. If the VCO square wave clock is in perfect synchronism with the demodulated signal m(t), the early-gate integrator and the late-gate integrator will accumulate the same amount of signal energy so that the error signal e = 0. If the VCO frequency is higher than that of m(t),then m(t) is late by < d, relative to the VCO clock. Thus the integration time in the early-gate integrator will be T - d - , while the integration time in the late-gate integrator is still the entire T - d. The error
signal will be proportional to - . This error signal will reduce the VCO frequency and retard the VCO timing to bring it back toward the timing of m(t). If the VCO frequency had been lower and the timing had been late, the error signal would be proportional to +, and the reverse process would happ en, that is, the VCO frequency would be increased and its timing would be advanced toward that of the incoming signal.
M ary ASK =
2( 1)
BFSK
1 = 2
) 0 2 ) 0 3 2( 1)0
Table (1.8) introduces a comparison between relevant modulation schemes from the Bandwidth efficiency and power efficiency and the error free E b/No.
used in digital mobile cellular systems, such as the United States digital cellular (USDC) system. The PSK schemes have constant envelope but discontinuous phase transitions from symbol to symbol. The CPM schemes have not only constant envelope, but also continuous phase transitions. Thus they have less side lobe energy in their spectra in comparison with the PSK schemes. The CPM class includes, GMSK, and MSK. MSK is a special case of CPFSK, but it also can be derived from OQPSK with extra sinusoidal pulse-shaping. MSK has excellent power and bandwidth efficiency. Its modulator and demodulator are also not too complex. MSK has been used in NASA's Advanced Communication Technology Satellite (ACTS). GMSK has a Gaussian frequency pulse. Thus it can achieve even better bandwidth efficiency than MSK. GMSK is used in the US cellular digital packet data (CDPD) system and European GSM (global system for mobile communication) system. Constant envelope schemes (such as GMSK) can be employed since an efficient, non-linear amplifier can be used.
The generic nonconstant envelope schemes, such as ASK and QAM, are generally not suitable for systems with nonlinear power amplifiers. However QAM, with a large signal constellation, can achieve extremely high bandwidth efficiency. QAM has been widely used in modems used in telephone networks, such as computer modems. QAM can even be considered for satellite systems. In this case, however, back-off in TWWs input and output power must be provided to ensure the linearity of the power amplifier. High level M-ary schemes (such as 64-QAM) are very bandwidth efficient, but more susceptible to noise and require linear amplification.
Creating a plot & Produce a comparison curves between different types of modulation. The simulation can be theoretical, semi-analytic or Monte carlo analysis. The simulation can be achieved in AWGN & Rayleigh fading channel. The tool supports: Channel coded sequence(convolution & block) Coherent and noncoherent detection Differential encoded sequence. Synchronization errors addition.
By using the above tool in the theoretical mode we obtain the next results: 1.10.1.1 Phase shift keying (PSK) modulation scheme simulation
Figure (1.78) Simulation of PSK modulation schemes By simulating PSK modulation schemes from BPSK to 64 PSK in the signal to noise ratio range of 0-20 dB(for 32PSK and 64PSK we extend the range to 30 dB) we will find that: BPSK and QPSK have the same probability of error but QPSK has higher spectral efficiency. As M increases the probability of error increases which represents a power /bandwidth efficiency trade off. From the figure we deduct that the QPSK is robust modulation scheme that we can employ in noisy channels in WiMAX From the figure we conclude the power efficiency and spectral efficiency BPSK QPSK 8PSK 16PSK 64PSK 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 Spectral efficiency (log2 M/2) -6 Power efficiency (for BER=10 ) 10.5dB 10.5dB 18.5dB 23.2dB 28.5dB Table (1.9) PSK power and spectral efficiencies simulation results
Figure (1.79) shows a simulation for QPSK,OQPSK and DQPSK simulation from 0:20 dB We found that OQPSK and QPSK has the same BER but with less phase abrupt changes DQPSK is inferior to both by 3dB. Figure (1.80) shows a simulation for BPSK versus DPSK simulation in the range of 015 dB We found that DPSK is slightly inferior to BPSK but in the expense on increasing the complexity of the coherent demodulator employed to demodulate PSK signal
Figure (1.80) BPSK and DPSK simulation 1.10.1.2 Frequency shift keying simulation (FSK) simulation Figure (1.81) shows the effect of increasing the order of FSK modulation from the BFSK into 32FSK.
From the figure we conclude that: As the order of modulation increases (M increases) the BER decreases. That increase in power efficiency is traded off by the required transmission bandwidth Table (1.10) shows the power efficiencies of M-ary FSK
-6
BFSK 13.5 dB
4FSK 10.7dB
8FSK 9.2 dB
16FSK 8.2 dB
32PSK 7.5 dB
Figure (1.82) BFSK, MSK simulation Figure (1.82) shows a simulation of BFSK and MSK and we can here assess that the MSK has a better BER performance than BFSK and hence better more power efficient.
Figure (1.83) coherent and noncoherent FSK Figure (1.83) shows that noncoherent FSK is inferior to coherent FSK 1.10.1.3 QAM simulation
Figure (1.84) shows QAM simulation for various modulation order (16,32, 64,128,256,512,1024) in the signal to noise ratio of 0-30 dB and we found that: As M increases the BER increases. 2QAM and 4QAM are BPSK and QPSK which are previously simulated As M increases the spectral efficiency increases. 16QAM and 64QAM are suitable modulation scheme to be employed in good channel conditions in WiMAX Table (1.11) shows the power efficiencies /bandwidth efficiency of QAM modulation QAM order 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1024 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Spectral efficiency (log2 M/2) 13.5 14.5 17.5 18.7 22 23.5 27 28.5 Power efficiency (for BER=10-6) in dB Table (1.9) QAM power and spectral efficiencies simulation results
Figure (1.85) shows the three modulation schemes used in WiMAX system, the results instruct an adaptive modulation to be employed in WiMAX system according to channel conditions (signal to noise ratio)
Figure (1.86) comparative simulation for 16FSK, 16PSK, 16QAM Figure (1.86) shows a comparative simulation between different modulation schemes each having same modulation order 16 so we found that: 16 FSK is the best modulation scheme which is pointed out before (since it trades the better performance by the excessive transmission bandwidth). 16 QAM is better than 16PSK (since the symbols in 16QAM cover all the spaces in the constellation diagram and not confined to a densely packed circle). Hence when it is required to achieve same spectral efficiency square QAM is used instead PSK. However PSK is used when the linear amplification is considered.
Figure (1.87) shows a comparative simulation between all introduced modulation schemes
Figure (1.87) Comparative simulation between all modulation schemes As we found from figure we can arrange the modulation schemes descendingly from the most power efficient scheme to the least as following: 32FSK16FSK8FSKBPSK/QPSK4FSKBFSK8PSK16QAM 32 QAM16PSK64QAM256QAM.
1.10.3.2 Sample runs with different Signal to noise ratios (a) With SNR=5dB.
_____________________________________________________________________ Figure (1.90) Simulation results with SNR=5dB. Figure (1.90) shows a simulation results when the signal to noise ratio is very low (5 dB) we can see that: The constellation points moves away from its designated points due to large noise power. The receiver cannot differentiate between symbols correctly and hence that will lead to 0.004 bit error rate.
As shown in figure (1.91) that although the constellation points moves away around its transmitted places but the movement is confined to the decision region and hence no error occurs
_____________________________________________________________________ Figure (1.92) Simulation results when SNR=100dB In figure (1.92) we can see that when no noise is added (approximately) the constellation points will lay in its correct places.
The program asks the user for the message bits and the frequency of the carrier and the user can choose the appropriate modulation scheme from the set {ASK,BFSK,BPSK,QPSK} and the program will draw tha modulated signal in time and frequency domain. Sample Run: QPSK of {1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0}