Introduction to Digital Communication

GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY, BENGALURU-98.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Communication is the process of exchanging or passing information from source to

destination. The basic Communication system comprises of a Transmitter at the source,
a Receiver at the destination and a Channel to carry the signal from source to
destination. Usually the channel is free space. The block diagram of digital
communication system is as shown in the Fig1 below.
Fig1: Block Diagram of Digital Communication System
A Transmitter is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the information/

message into a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium.
A Receiver is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the signal back to the
original information.
The Communication Channel is the medium by which the electronic signal is
transmitted from one place to another. The signals that are transmitted can be classified as
Analog and Digital signals. The analog and digital signals differ in their properties and
transmission. An analog signal is continuous and a digital signal is discrete in nature.
Before a signal is transmitted over a long distance it is strengthened. The low frequency
message is superimposed on a high frequency carrier by varying the amplitude, frequency
or the phase characteristics of the carrier. This process is termed as Modulation.
The modulation is of two types: Analog Modulation and Digital Modulation.

The different modulation techniques are illustrated in the Fig2 and Fig3 below.
Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 1

Fig2: Types of Modulation
Fig3: Types of Digital Modulation

Comparison between Analog and Digital communication

Analog Digital
Analog signal is a continuous Digital signals are discrete time
Signal signal which represents physical signals generated by digital
measurements. modulation.
Waves Denoted by sine waves. Denoted by square waves.
Uses continuous range of values Uses discrete or discontinuous
Representation
to represent information. values to represent information.
Human voice in air, analog Computers, CDs, DVDs and other
Example
electronic devices. digital electronic devices.
Samples analog waveforms into a
Analog technology records
Technology limited set of numbers and records
waveforms as they are.
them.
Subjected to deterioration by Can be noise-immune without
Data
noise during transmission and deterioration during transmission
transmissions
write/read cycle. and write/read cycle.
Response to More likely to get affected Less affected since noise response
Noise reducing accuracy. are analog in nature.
Digital hardware is flexible in
Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. implementation.
Can be used in analog devices

Best suited for Computing and
Uses only. Best suited for audio and
digital electronics.
video transmission.
Applications Thermometer. PCs, PDAs.
There is no guarantee that digital
Analog signal processing can be signal processing can be done in
Bandwidth done in real time and consumes real time and consumes more
less bandwidth. bandwidth to carry out the same
information.
Stored in the form of wave
Memory Stored in the form of binary bit.
signal.
Analog instrument draws large Digital instrument draws only
Power
power. negligible power.
Analog instruments usually have
Digital instruments are free from
a scale which is cramped at
Errors observational errors like parallax
lower end and give considerable
and approximation errors.
observational errors.
Digital modulation provides more information capacity, high data security, quicker
system availability with great quality communication. Hence digital modulation
techniques have a greater demand, for their capacity to convey larger amounts of data
than analog ones. There are many types of digital modulation techniques.
Time-Division Multiplexing

Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting multiple data streams in a

single signal by separating the signal into many segments, each having a very short
duration. Each individual data stream is reassembled at the receiving end based on the
timing.
The circuit that combines signals at the source (transmitting) end of a communication link
is known as a multiplexer. It accepts the input from each individual end user, breaks each
signal into segments, and assigns the segments to the composite signal in a rotating,
repeating sequence. The composite signal thus contains data from multiple transmitters.
At the other end of the long-distance cable, the individual signals are separated out by
means of a circuit called a demultiplexer, and routed to the proper end users. A two-way
communications circuit requires a multiplexer/demultiplexer at each end of the long-
distance, high-bandwidth cable.
If many signals are sent along a single long-distance line, careful engineering is required
to ensure that the system will perform properly. An asset of TDM is its flexibility. The
scheme allows for variation in the number of signals being sent along the line, and
constantly adjusts the time intervals to make optimum use of the available bandwidth.
The Internet is a classic example of a communications network in which the volume of
traffic can change drastically from hour to hour. In some systems, a different scheme,
known as Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM)) is preferred.
Losses in Optical Fibers
Attenuation or loss in optical fibers basically refers to the loss of power. During transit,
light pulse loses some of their photons, thus reducing their amplitude. Attenuation for a
fiber is usually specified in decibels per kilometer. The degree of attenuation depends on
the wavelength of light transmitted.
Attenuation measures the reduction in signal strength by comparing the output power
with input power. Measurements are made in decibels (dB). The basic measurement for
loss is done by taking the logarithmic ratio of input power (P i) to the output power
(Po). Attenuation is directly proportional to the length of the cable. It also decides the
number of repeaters required between transmitter and receiver. It is also called as signal
loss or fiber loss. Attenuation means loss of light energy as the light pulse travels from
one end of the cable to the other.
Types of Losses
Bending
Dispersion
Scattering
Absorption

Bending Losses: Radiative losses occur whenever an optical fiber undergoes a bend of
finite radius of curvature. The loss which exists when an optical fiber undergoes bending
is called bending losses.
There are two types of bending
a. Macroscopic Bending, in which complete fiber undergoes bends which causes
certain modes not to be reflected and therefore causes loss to the cladding.
b. Microscopic Bending, in which either the core or cladding undergoes slight bends
at its surface. It causes light to be reflected at angles when there is no further
reflection.
Scattering Mechanism: It causes the transfer of some or all of the optical power
contained within one propagating mode to be transferred linearly into a different mode.
This process tends to a result in attenuation of the transmitted light as the transfer may be
to a leaky or radiation mode which does not continue to propagate within the fiber core,
but is radiated from the fiber. With all linear process there is no change of frequency on
scattering. Linear scattering may be categorized as:
a. Rayleigh Scattering
b. Mie Scattering
Absorption Loss: Absorption of light energy due to heating of ion impurities results in
dimming of light at the end of the fiber.
Two types of Absorption are:
a. Intrinsic Absorption
b. Extrinsic Absorption
CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION
Microwave transmission is the transmission of formation or energy by electromagnetic

waves whose wavelengths are measured in small numbers of centimeter; these are
called microwaves. This part of the radio spectrum ranges across frequencies of roughly
1.0 Giga Hertz (GHz) to 300 GHz. These correspond to wavelengths from 30 cm down to
0.1 cm.
Microwave Link
A Microwave Link is a communications system that uses a beam of radio waves in the
microwave frequency range to transmit video, audio, or data between two locations,
which can be from just a few feet or meters to several miles or kilometers apart.
Microwave links are commonly used by television broadcasters to transmit programs
across a country, for instance, or from an outside broadcast back to a studio.
Mobile units can be camera mounted, allowing cameras the freedom to move around
without trailing cables. These are often seen on the touchlines of sports fields on Stead
cam systems.
Properties of Microwave Links

 Involve Line of Sight (LOS) communication technology.
 Affected greatly by environmental constraints, including rain fade.
 Have very limited penetration capabilities through obstacles such as hills,
buildings and trees.
 Sensitive to high pollen count.
 Signals can be degraded during Solar proton events.
Uses of Microwave Link

 In communications between satellites and base stations.
 As backbone carriers for cellular systems.
 In short range indoor communications.
 Telecommunications, in linking remote and regional telephone exchanges to
larger (main) exchanges without the need for copper/optical fiber lines.
Microwave Tube device used in the Lab: Reflex Klystron
In the Reflex Klystron, the electron beam passes through a single resonant cavity. The
electrons are fired into one end of the tube by an electron gun. The electron beam is
velocity modulated when it first passes through the cavity.

Working Principle:
When the circuit is switched on, the electrons start emitting from the cathode. These
electrons move in uniform speed towards anode. When a RF input (Negative Half Cycle)
is given at the buncher cavity, negative charges will develop and the electrons slow down
between cathode and cavity. As a result, a bunch of electrons will be formed near buncher
cavity. This bunch will now travel towards the anode. At this moment with reference to
the RF input applied (positive half cycle) the speed of the electrons will increase. These
electrons will join the bunch of electrons and field strength of the bunch of electrons will
further increase. In this way, a bunch of electrons are present in front of buncher cavity.
When the bunch of electrons reaches in front of catcher cavity, due to its strong field
strength the excitation of the cavity takes place and we get an amplified output from the
catcher cavity.
Microstrip Devices:
Microstrip is a type of electrical transmission line which can be fabricated using printed
circuit board technology, and is used to convey microwave-frequency signals. It consists
of a conducting strip separated from a ground plane by a dielectric layer known as the
substrate. Microwave components such as antennas, couplers, filters, power dividers etc.
can be formed from microstrip, with the entire device existing as the pattern of
metallization on the substrate. Microstrip is thus much less expensive than
traditional waveguide technology, as well as being far lighter and more compact.
Microstrip transmission lines consist of a conductive strip of width "W" and thickness "t"
and a wider ground plane, separated by a dielectric layer ("substrate") of thickness "H" as
shown in the figure below. Microstrip is by far the most popular microwave transmission
line, especially for microwave integrated circuits and MMICs. The major advantage of
microstrip over stripline is that all active components can be mounted on top of the board.
The disadvantages are that when high isolation is required such as in a filter or switch,
some external shielding may have to be considered.

Given the chance, microstrip circuits can radiate, causing unintended circuit response. A
minor issue with microstrip is that it is dispersive, meaning that signals of different
frequencies travel at slightly different speeds. Microstrip does not support a TEM mode,
because of its filling factor. For coupled lines, the even and odd modes will not have the
same phase velocity. This property is what causes the asymmetric frequency of microstrip
bandpass filters, for example.
Variants of microstrip include embedded microstrip and coated microstrip, both of which
add some dielectric above the microstrip conductor.

PART - A
EXPERIMENT NO. 01
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING AND
DEMULTIPLEXING OF TWO BANDLIMITED SIGNALS
Aim:
To study TDM and recover two bands limited PAM signals.
Objectives:
 To study TDM and reconstruct two band limited PAM signals.
 Plot the waveforms.
Components Required:
 IC 7493
 IC 4051
Theory:
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a type of digital or (rarely) analog multiplexing in
which two or more signals or bit streams are transferred apparently simultaneously as
sub-channels in one communication channel, but are physically taking turns on the
channel. The time domain is divided into several recurrent timeslots of fixed length, one
for each sub-channel. A sample byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is transmitted during
timeslot 1, sub-channel 2 during timeslot 2, etc. One TDM frame consists of one timeslot
per sub-channel. After the last sub-channel the cycle starts all over again with a new
frame, starting with the second sample, byte or data block from sub-channel 1, etc.
Circuit Diagram of TDM:
Procedure:
1. Rig up the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Switch on the power supplies and adjust the VCC to the required values.
3. Apply the TTL clock of 2 KHz, 10Vp-p at pin 11.
4. Apply the input signals at pin 13 (sine wave 5Vp-p, 1 KHz) and pin 14 (triangular
wave 5Vp-p, 250 Hz) of IC 4051.
5. Observe the TDM output signal at pin 3 of first IC 4051(multiplexed output).

6. Change the frequency and amplitude of the input signals and observe the output.
7. The second IC 4051 acts as demultiplexer. Observe the demultiplexed output at
the filter and compare the input and demultiplexed outputs.
Applications:
 The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) system, also known as
the PCM system, for digital transmission of several telephone calls over the same
four-wire copper cable (T-carrier or E-carrier) or fiber cable in the circuit
switched digital telephone network.
 The SDH and synchronous optical networking (SONET) network transmission
standards, that have surpassed PDH.
 The RIFF (WAV) audio standard interleaves left and right stereo signals on a per-
sample basis.
 The left-right channel splitting in use for stereoscopic liquid crystal shutter
glasses.
 TDM can be further extended into the Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
scheme, where several stations connected to the same physical medium, for
example sharing the same frequency channel, can communicate. Application
examples include GSM telephone system.
Waveforms:
Result:

EXPERIMENT NO. 02
ASK GENERATION AND DETECTION
Aim:
To generate, demonstrate and detect ASK signal. Compare similarity of original and
reconstructed signal.
Objectives:
 To design and construct ASK modulation circuit.
 Test the circuit, record the readings and Plot the input, output waveforms.
 Design and construct ASK demodulator circuit.
 Plot the output waveform and compare with input modulating signal.
ASK Modulation Circuit:

 The input binary sequence is applied to the product modulator.
 The product modulator modulates the sinusoidal carrier wave.
 It passes the carrier when the input bit is ‘1’.
 It breaks the carrier when the input bit is ‘0’.
 The circuit operation is as follows:
During the positive half cycle the transistor conducts and it allows only the part of
input during the cycle.
During the negative half cycle the transistor does not conduct hence the output is
zero.
Circuit Diagram of ASK Modulation:

Design:
Assume:
Ic (sat) = 2mA
hfe (min) = 30
VCE (sat) = 0.2V
VBE = 0.7V
Ιc 2 x10−3
Ι B= = =66.66 μA
β 30
V E V E V c−V cε ( sat )
R E= = =
IE IC Ιc
8−0.2 =R1=22 KΩ ¿
R E= −3 =3.9 Κ Ω
2∗10
Choose R E =R2=3.3 Κ Ω
V −V −V 10−0.7−7.8
RB = m Bε E = =22K Ω
IB 66.66∗10−6
Choose Ralignl ¿ B ¿ ¿
Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in figure with the designed values.
2. Set m(t) at input to 250 Hz, 10V (p-p) using function generator.
3. Set C(t), sine carrier at collector circuit to 3 KHz, 8V (p-p) using function
generator.
4. Ensure that all grounds of the circuit are made common.
5. Connect CRO to input and output terminals.
6. Adjust the CRO to clearing view of the input and output wave forms.
7. Align input and output waveforms to check if output exists while the input at
logic1.
8. Measure the input and output waveforms (refer figure for typical waveforms).
Circuit Diagram of ASK Detector:

Design:
1
Let fc =
2 π RC
Let fm = 200 Hz
Choose fc= 800 Hz
Let c = 0.1μF
1 1
R= = = 2KΩ
2 π f c C 2 π∗800∗0. 1 x 10−6
Use R1=R=10KΩ potentiometer
Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit as shown below in figure with the designed values.
2. Feed the output of ASK signal to the input of the envelop detector.
3. The output of the envelop detector is compared with V ref using comparator to get
the proper square wave.
4. The output of comparator is the recovered message which is compared with the
input message.
Expected Waveforms:

Circuit Diagram for Simulation:
Result:
Voltage of Detected Output:
Frequency of Detected Output:

EXPERIMENT NO. 03
FSK GENERATION AND DETECTION
Aim:
To generate and demonstrate the FSK signal. Compare the similarity of the original and
reconstructed signal.
Objectives:
 To design and construct FSK modulation circuit.
 Test the circuit and record the readings and plot the output waveforms.
 Design and construct FSK modulator.
 Test the demodulator and record the readings.
 Plot the input and output waveforms and compare with modulated input.
FSK Modulation Circuit:
In the binary FSK, the frequency of carrier is shifted according to the binary symbol.
However the phase of the carrier is unaffected.

Design:
Assume:
Ic (sat) = 2mA
hfe (min) = 30
VCE (sat) = 0.2V
VBE = 0.7V
2∗10−3
Ι B =Ιcβ= =66.66 μA
30
V V V c −V cε (sat )
R E= E = E =
IE IC Ιc
8−0 . 2
RE= −3
=3 . 9 ΚΩ
2∗10
R3=R 4=R E =3. 3 KΩ .
Vin−Vbe−Ve
R B= =22 KΩ
ΙB
Choose RB =22 KΩ
Choose R1=R2 =R B =22 KΩ
Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit as shown bellow in fig-1 with the designed values.
2. Set m (t) at input=250 Hz, 10V (p-p) using pulse generator.
3. Set C1(t) at collector circuit to 2.5 KHz, 7V (p-p) and C 2(t)= 1KHz, 7V(p-p) using
function generator.
4. Connect CRO CH1 to input and CH2 to output terminals.
5. Adjust the CRO to get clear view of the input and output wave forms.
6. Measure the input and output waveforms
7. Ensure that all grounds of the circuit are made common.
Circuit Diagram of FSK Detector:

Design:
1
Let fc =
2 π RC
Let fm = 200 Hz
Choose fc= 800 Hz
Let c = 0.1μf
1 1
R= = =¿1.9KΩ
2 π f c C 2 π∗800∗0. 1∗10−6
Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit as shown below in figure with the designed values.
2. Feed the output of FSK signal to the input of the FSK demodulation circuit.
3. Observe the demodulated output with the help of CRO.
4. The output of Demodulator is the recovered message which is compared with the
input message.
Expected Waveforms:

Circuit Diagram for Simulation with Waveforms:

Result: Voltage of Detected Output:

EXPERIMENT NO. 04

BPSK GENERATION AND DETECTION

Aim:
To generate and demonstrate BPSK signal compare similarly of the original and
reconstruction signal.
Objectives:
 Design and construct the BPSK generator circuit.
 Test the circuit and record the readings.
 Design and construct the BPSK detection circuit.
 Test the circuit and record the readings.
 Plot the input and output waveforms and compare the parameters.
Circuit Diagram of Modulator:
Design:
Assume: Ic (sat) = 2mA
hfe (min) = 30
VCE (sat) = 0.2v
VBE = 0.7 v
2∗10−3
Ι B =Ιc hfe= =66.66 μA
30
V V V c −V cε (sat )
R E= E = E =
IE IC Ιc
8−0 . 2
RE = =3 . 9 ΚΩ
2∗10−3
V −V Bε−V E 10−0 .7−7 . 8
R B= m = .=22 KΩ
IB 66.66∗10−6
Choose R3=R 4=R E =3. 3 ΚΩ
Choose R1=R2 =R B =22 ΚΩ

Procedure:
1. Construct the circuit as shown in figure with the designed values.
2. Set m (t) at input equal to 250 Hz 10V (p-p) using a pulse generator.
3. Set c (t) at collection circuit to 2 KHz 7V (p-p) using function generator.
4. Connect CRO CH1 to the input terminals and CH2 to the output terminals.
5. Adjust CRO to clearly view the input and output waveforms.
6. Measure the input and output waveforms.
Circuit Diagram of BPSK Detector:
Design:
1
fc = , Let fm = 200 Hz,
2 π RC
Choose fc= 2500 Hz, Let c = 0.1μF
1 1
R= = ≈ 1 KΩ
2 π f c C 2 π∗2500∗0 . 1 x 10−6
Procedure:
1. Design and construct the circuit as shown in the figure with the designed values.
2. The BPSK signal is fed at the input of the adder.
3. The output of the envelop detector is fed to the comparator where it is compared
with respect to reference voltage to get proper square wave.
4. The detected message is compared with the input message.

Expected Waveform:

Circuit Diagram for Simulation with Waveforms:
Result: Voltage of Detected Output:


EXPERIMENT NO. 5A
MEASUREMENT OF ATTENUATION AND
OUTPUT POWER USING MICROWAVE BENCH
Aim:
To measure the output power and attenuation using microwave bench
Objectives:
 To study the characteristics of Reflex klystron tube.
 To determine the attenuation.
 To determine the output power.
Equipments Required:
Reflex Klystron with mount, Klystron Power Supply, Variable Attenuator, Detector,
Cooling fan and Frequency Meter.
Theory:
Reflex klystron is a low power microwave oscillator. It consists of a cathode, a focusing
electrode at cathode potential, a cavity resonator, repeller detector at negative voltage
with respect to the cathode and detector gun. The detector beam passes through the gap in
the resonator and gets repelled by repeller. Under suitable conditions, the returning
electrode give up their kinetic energy to the electromagnetic energy of the field in the
cavity; due to the oscillation occur inside the cavity resonator.
BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR MICROWAVE TEST BENCH
Procedure:
1. Set the microwave bench as shown in the figure. Switch on the cooling fan and
keep near the klystron tube.
2. Switch on the supply, set HT switch to ON and wait for 10 sec for the tube to set
warm.
3. Slowly vary the beam voltage (not more than 220V). Set the beam current to
around 10mA.
4. Connect the detector mount output to the CRO and optimize the demodulated
square waveform by adjusting the repeller voltage and AM modulation knob.
5. Find the frequency of modulated signal by varying the frequency meter and
simultaneously keep observing the waveform in the CRO.

6. Measure the output power using CRO.

7. Keep variable attenuation in minimum position and note down the output power.
8. Vary the variable attenuation from minimum position and note down the output
voltage.
9. Using formula calculate attenuation loss.
Tabular Column:
Vi = V (without any attenuation)
Pi = Watt (Normalized)
R = 1Ω
Vo(Volt) Po (Normalized) =Vo2 Loss in dB = 10 log10 (Po/Pi)
(watt)
Result:

EXPERIMENT NO. 5B
MEASUREMENT OF WAVELENGTH,
FREQUENCY AND VSWR
Aim:
To measure the wavelength of waveguide and VSWR of the given load using
slotted carriage using klystron.
Objectives:
 Determine the guide wavelength and free space wavelength.
 Find the frequency of the wave using direct and indirect method.
 Compare the detected frequency and calculated frequency.
 Find the VSWR for different load.
Equipments Required:
Klystron power supply, Isolator, Slotted line section Detector, Frequency meter and CRO.
Theory:
Slotted line carriage is a measuring instrument containing a co-axial E-field probe
penetrating in a longitudinal slot cut exactly at the centre of the broad wall of a
rectangular wave guide section. The slot is cut exactly at the centre of the broad wall
because for the dominant mode (TE10), the electric field lines are concentrated at the
centre of the waveguide and reduces as we move towards the two side walls in a
sinusoidal manner. To reduce the effect of discontinuity, the two ends of the slot is
tapered to zero.
Formulas:
λg = 2 (y-x)
λg
2
λo =
√ 1+ ( ) , a=2.3cm
λg
2a
f = c/λo
VSWR = VMAX/VMIN
BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR MICROWAVE TEST BENCH

Procedure:
1. Set the test bench as shown in figure.
2. Switch on the power supply by the general procedure.
3. Short the slotted line at the load using shorting load.
4. Observe the output on CRO and adjust it to get neat and max square wave output.
5. Move slotted line probe from load and until you get max signal output on CRO.
Record the probe position as ‘X’ in cm. Read the value from the vernier scale
where the ‘0’ marking coincides.
6. Now move the slotted line until you get the next maximum output on CRO.
Record that position as ‘Y’ in cm.
For VSWR:
1. Connect the matched termination to slotted line section.
2. Move the carriage and find the max and min output voltage in CRO. (For matched
condition VSWR should be less than or equal to 1.1).
Results:
Wavelength of waveguide =
Frequency of Transmission by direct method =
Frequency of Transmission by indirect method=
VSWR of load =

EXPERIMENT NO. 06
MEASUREMENT OF DIRECTIVITY AND GAIN OF
MICROSTRIP DIPOLE AND YAGI ANTENNAS
Aim:
To study the field patterns of different antennas.
Objective:
To estimate the gain of an antenna at the resonant frequency.
To plot the field pattern for different antennas.
Apparatus Required:
Microwave Generator, VSWR Meter, Detector, Transmitter and Receiving mast, Mains
chord and Antenna
Yagi Antenna (Dielectric Constant: 4.7) - 2 no.
Dipole Antenna (Dielectric Constant: 4.7) - 2 no.
Theory:
The Radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram of field strength as a function of the
aspect angle at a constant distance from the radiating antenna. An antenna pattern is of
three dimensional but for practical reasons it is normally presented as a two dimensional
pattern in one or several planes. An antenna pattern consists of several lobes, the main
lobe, side lobes and the back lobe. The major power is concentrated in the main lobe. 3dB
beam width is the angle between the two points on a main lobe where the power density
is half the maximum power density. Only far field pattern is plotted. To determine the
gain of given antenna, two identical antennas are used: one as transmitter and other as
receiver. Gain can be calculated from the following formula.
Where,
Pt is transmitted power (Convert dB to normal value).
Pr is received Power at 00 (Convert dB to normal value).
G is gain of transmitting and receiving antenna.
S is the distance between two antennas.
λo is free space wavelength.
Procedure:
Field Pattern Measurement and gain calculation:
1. Connect a mains cord to the Microwave Generator and SWR Meter.
2. Set the Freq to 2.35GHz and RF Level to maximum position, turn on RF and
measure the direct power transmitted, without connecting the antenna (Pt).

3. Now connect a Dipole antenna in horizontal plane to the transmitter mast and
connect it to the RF Output of microwave generator using a cable (SMA to SMA).
4. Now take another Dipole antenna and connect the output of antenna to the input of
Detector and mount the detector at the Receiving mast.
5. Connect one end of the cable (BNC to BNC) to the bottom side of receiving mast,
and another end to the input of SWR meter.
6. Now set the distance between Transmitter (feed point) and the receiver (receiving
point) at twenty centimeter.
7. Now set the receiving antenna at zero degree (in line of Transmitter) and Switch
on the power supply for Microwave Generator, SWR Meter.
8. Select the transmitter for internal AM mode and press the switch “RF ON”.
9. Select the range switch at SWR meter at – 40dB position with Normal mode and
mark the obtained reading on the radiation pattern plot at zero degree position (Pr).
10. Now slowly move the receiver antenna in the steps of 10 degree and plot the
corresponding readings. This will give the radiation pattern of the antenna under
test. In the same way the field pattern of Yagi-Uda antenna can also be
determined.
Set Up for determination of field pattern of antenna
Radiation Patterns of Different Antennas:
Result:
Gain of Dipole Antenna=
Gain of Yagi-Uda Antenna=

EXPERIMENT NO. 07A

COUPLING AND ISOLATION CHARACTERISTICS OF
MICROSTRIP DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
Aim:
To measure the coupling, isolation characteristics of a micro strip branch line
directional coupler.
Objective:
To measure the coupling, isolation characteristics of a micro strip 3dB branch line
directional coupler in the frequency range 2 to 3 GHz.
Equipments/Components:
Microwave signal source with modulation (1 KHz), Attenuator pad, VSWR meter,
Frequency meter.
Items from the Kit:

3 dB branch line coupler, Detector, Matched loads, Cables and adapters.
Procedure:
1. Assemble the set up shown in Figure. Connect the output of the frequency meter
directly to the directional coupler (connect P to Q directly).
2. Switch on the source and the VSWR meter. (Before switching on the source,
ensure that there is sufficient attenuation to keep the RF output low).
3. Set the frequency of the source to 2.2 GHz. Adjust the power output of the source
for a reasonable power indication on the VSWR meter. Note the reading of the
VSWR meter. Increase the frequency of the source in steps of 0.1 GHz to 3 GHz
and note the corresponding readings of the VSWR meter. Record the frequencies
in column 1 and VSWR meter readings as PindB in column 2 of Table. This is the
reference input power.
4. Insert the branch line coupler between P and Q with input port (port 1) connected
to P and the direct output port (port 2) to Q. Terminate ports 3 and 4 of the branch
line coupler in matched loads. Record the readings of the VSWR meter at the
above frequencies as P2out dB in column 3 of Table.
5. Interchange ports 2 and 3. That is, connect port 3 to Q and terminate port 2 in
matched load. Record the readings of the VSWR meter at the same frequencies as
P3out dB in column 4 of the Table.
6. In order to determine the isolation property of the coupler, connect port 4 to the
output end (at Q). Terminate ports 2 and 3 in matched loads. Record the readings
of the VSWR meter at the same frequencies as P4out dB in column 5 of the Table.

Coupling and Isolation:

Power at direct output port in dB = Pin (dB) - P2out (dB). Denote this loss as S21 (dB) and
enter at column 6 of Table.
Coupling C (dB) = Pin (dB) - P3out (dB). Denote this coupling loss as S31(dB) and enter at
column 7 of Table
Isolation in dB = Pin (dB) - P4out (dB). Denote this loss as S41 (dB) and enter at column 8 of
the Table.
BRANCH-LINE COUPLER
Coupling and Isolation of 3dB Branch line Coupler
Freq. VSWR meter readings (dB) Coupling Isolation

f (GHz) Pin P3out P4out S31(dB) S41(dB)
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
Result:

EXPERIMENT NO. 7B
MEASUREMENT OF SUBSTRATE DIELECTRIC
CONSTANT USING RING RESONATOR EXPERIMENT
Aim:
To measure the resonance characteristics of a micro strip ring resonator and
determine the relative dielectric constant εr of the substrate.
Objective:
 To determine the resonant frequency of the ring resonator.
 To determine the relative dielectric constant of the given substrate.
Equipment/Components:
Microwave signal source (2.2 GHz) with modulation (1 KHz), Attenuator pad, VSWR
meter, Frequency meter.
Items from the Kit:

Micro strip ring resonator, Detector, Cables and adapters.
The micro strip ring resonator supplied in the Kit has its lowest order resonance in the
frequency range 2 - 3 GHz.
The known parameters are:

Strip conductor width (in the ring) w = mm
Height of the substrate h= mm
Mean radius of the ring R= mm
Block Diagram:
BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR RING RESONATOR

RING RESONATOR
Tabular Column:
Freq. f (GHz) VSWR meter readings (dB)
2.2
2.3
2.40
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.44
2.45
2.46
2.47
2.48
2.49
2.5
2.6
Procedure:
1. The transmission loss response of the resonator can be measured using the Test
Bench set up given in figure.
2. Tabulate the results as per Table 1 at frequencies from 2.2 to 2.6 GHz in steps of
0.1GHz.
3. Plot the transmission loss in dB as a function of frequency.
4. Identify a smaller frequency span of about 200 MHz around the minimum
transmission loss. In this frequency range, repeat the measurements in smaller
frequency steps (steps of 20 MHz) and locate the frequency at which the
transmission loss reaches a minimum. This is the resonant frequency f0 of the
resonator.

Formulas:
Resonance is established when mean circumference of the ring is equal to integral
multiples of guide wavelength in microstrip. ε ef is calculated by the formula
nv 0
2 πR=
f r √ ε ef
Where,
n=1,2,3,…,Take minimum value as 1.
R = mean radius of the ring.
ε ef=Effective dielectric constant of microstrip.
vo = free space velocity=3*108m/s.
fr = resonant frequency of the ring.
Dielectric constant of the material is calculated by,
−1 /2
10 h
ε r=
[(
2 ε ef + 1+
w ) −1
]
−1 /2
10 h
[( 1+
w ) +1
]
Result:
Dielectric constant =

EXPERIMENT NO. 7C
MEASUREMENT OF POWER DIVISION AND ISOLATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF 3 DB POWER DIVIDER
Aim:
To study coupling and isolation in a power divider.
Objective:
To measure the power division and isolation characteristics of a matched 3 dB power
divider in the frequency range 2.2 to 3 GHz.
Equipment/Components:
Microwave signal source with modulation (1 KHz), Attenuator pad, VSWR meter and
Frequency meter, Matched power divider, Directional coupler, Detector, Matched loads,
Cables and adapters.
Theory:
The micro strip power divider provided in the Kit is of the 3 dB Wilkinson type. The
impedance of the input/output lines is 50Ω and the isolation resistor connected between
the two output lines has a value of 100Ω. Measuring the power division property involves
measuring the transmission response between the input port (port 1) and the two output
ports (ports 2 and 3). While measuring the transmission response between any two ports,
the third port has to be terminated in a matched load. Measuring the isolation property
involves measuring the transmission response between ports 2 and 3 by terminating port 1
in a matched load.
MICROSTRIP POWER DIVIDER
Procedure:
1. Assemble the set up as shown in figure, switch on the source and the VSWR
meter. Before switching on the source, ensure that there is sufficient attenuation to
keep the RF power output low.
2. Set the frequency of the source to 2.2 GHz. Adjust the power output of the source
for a reasonable power indication on the VSWR meter. Note the reading of the
VSWR meter. Increase the frequency of the source in steps of 0.1 GHz to 3 GHz
and note the corresponding readings of the VSWR meter. Record the frequencies
in column 1 and VSWR meter readings as P in dB in column 2 of Table. This is the
reference input power.

3. Insert the power divider with input port 1 as input port and one of the output ports
(port 2) as output port. Terminate port 3 in matched load. Record the readings of
the VSWR meter at the above frequencies as P2outdB in column 3 of Table.
4. Interchange ports 2 and 3. That is, connect port 3 to VSWR meter and terminate
port 2 in matched load. Record the readings of the VSWR meter at the same
frequencies as P3out dB in column 4 of the Table.
5. In order to determine the isolation between the two output ports, remove the
power divider and reconnect with port 2 at the input end and port 3 at the output
end. Terminate port 1 in matched load. Record the readings of the VSWR meter at
the same frequencies as P32out dB in column 5 of the Table.
Power Division:
Power loss from port 1 to port 2 = Pin (dB) - P2out (dB) = S21. Denote this loss as S21 (dB)
and enter at column 6 of the Table.
Power loss from port 1 to port 3 = Pin (dB) - P3out (dB) =S31. Denote this loss as S31 (dB)
and enter at column 7 of the Table.
Isolation:
Isolation between ports 2 and 3 = P in (dB) - P32out (dB) = S32. Denote this isolation as S 32
(dB) and enter at the last column of the Table.
Power Deviation and Isolation Characteristics of Matched Power Divider

Power Power Isolation
division division between
Freq. VSWR meter readings (dB)
Port 1 to 2 Port 1 to 3 Port 2 to 3
f(GHz) S21(dB) S31(dB) S32(dB)
Pin P2 out P3 out P32 out
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
Result:

EXPERIMENT NO. 08A

LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBERS
Aim:
To measure propagation and bending loss in optical fiber.
Objective:
 Determine the propagation loss for different lengths of the optical fibers.
 Determine the bending loss in an optical fiber.
Procedure:
Propagation Loss:
1. Make connections as shown in block diagram.
2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Insert the 0.5meter fiber into cap & tighten it.
4. Insert other end of fiber into receiver end.
5. Adjust the transmitter level using intensity control pot P 3 and measure the output
voltage V1.
6. Repeat the above procedure for 1meter length fiber.
Bending Loss:
1. Keep connections with 1meter fiber as shown above and adjust using pot P3.
2. Now take a portion of fiber and loop it to a given diameter & note output voltage
for different diameters.
3. Bending loss in dB = 20log10 (V2/V1) where V2 is output voltage after the bending
and V1 is voltage without bending.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION
Propagation Loss:
Vin = 1V constant
Freq = 1 KHz
l2= 1m, V2=
l1= 3m, V1=
Loss in dB = 20*log10 (V2/V1)/ (l2-l1)

Bending Loss:
Set the Output Voltage without bending to V1 = 1 Volt
Bending loss in dB = 20*log10 (V2/V1)
O/p amplitude in Bending Loss

Bending
Volt (V2) in dB
Bend 1
Bend 2
Bend 3
Bend 4
Result:

EXPERIMENT NO. 8B
MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE
USING OPTICAL FIBRE
Aim:
To measure numerical aperture of an optical fiber using 660nm wave.
Objective:
Determine the Numerical aperture of a given optical fiber cable.
Theory:
Optical fiber consists of very fine inner core made up of silica glass surrounded by a
concentric layer called cladding. That is made of glass surrounded by Refractive Index
less than core. The numerical aperture of fiber refers maximum angle at which light
incident on fiber end is totally internally reflected and is transmitted properly along fiber.
The core formed by rotation of this angle along the axis of fiber is a core of acceptance of
fiber. The light ray strikes the fiber end with core of acceptance else it is reflected out of
fiber cable core.
BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR NUMERICAL APERTURE MEASUREMENT
Procedure:
1. Make connections as shown in figure connection the power supply cable to FCL-
01.
2. Insert the fiber into cap and tighten it in bank.
3. Switch on power supply and insert another end of fiber into numerical aperture
measurement.
4. Hold the white sheet facing the fiber; adjust the fiber such that its cat phase is
perpendicular to the axis of fiber.

5. Keep the distance about 10 mm between fiber tip & screen.

6. Observe the bright red light spot on the screen
7. Measure exactly the distance‘d’ and also the diameter.
8. Determine the radius r = diameter/2.
r
9. Find numerical aperture NA=sinθ max = 2 2
√r +d
θ
Where maxis the maximum angle at which maximum intensity of light is
transmitted through fiber.
Tabulation:
f=1 KHz V=1V
r
Height ‘d’ cm Radius ‘r’ cm ΝΑ= θ=sin−1 NA (degree)
√ r +d 2
2
Result:

Part-B
EXPERIMENT NO. 01
SIMULATE NRZ, RZ AND GENERATE EYE DIAGRAM
FOR BINARY POLAR SIGNALING
Theory:
Line Codes:
A line code is the code used for data transmission of a digital signal over a transmission
line. This process of coding is chosen so as to avoid overlap and distortion of signal such
as inter-symbol interference.
Properties of Line Codes

 As the coding is done to make more bits transmit on a single signal, the bandwidth
used is much reduced.
 For a given bandwidth, the power is efficiently used.
 The probability of error is much reduced.
 Error detection is done and the bipolar too has a correction capability.
 Power density is much favorable.
 The timing content is adequate.
 Long strings of 1s and 0s is avoided to maintain transparency.
Types of Line Codes

 Unipolar
 Polar
 Bi-polar
Unipolar Signaling
Unipolar signaling is also called as On-Off Keying or simply OOK.
The presence of pulse represents a 1 and the absence of pulse represents a 0.
There are two variations in Unipolar signaling:
 Non Return to Zero (NRZ)
 Return to Zero (RZ)
Unipolar Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)

In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data is represented by a positive pulse called
as Mark, which has a duration T0 equal to the symbol bit duration. A Low in data input
has no pulse.

Advantages of Unipolar NRZ

 It is simple.
 A lesser bandwidth is required.
Disadvantages of Unipolar NRZ

 No error correction done.
 Presence of low frequency components may cause the signal droop.
 No clock is present.
 Loss of synchronization is likely to occur (especially for long strings of 1s and
0s).
Unipolar Return to Zero (RZ)

In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a Mark pulse, its
duration T0 is less than the symbol bit duration. Half of the bit duration remains high but
it immediately returns to zero and shows the absence of pulse during the remaining half
of the bit duration.

Advantages of Unipolar RZ
 It is simple.
 The spectral line present at the symbol rate can be used as a clock.
Disadvantages of Unipolar RZ
 No error correction.
 Occupies twice the bandwidth as unipolar NRZ.
 The signal droop is caused at the places where signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.
Eye Pattern
 The quality of digital transmission systems are evaluated using the bit error rate.
Degradation of quality occurs in each process modulation, transmission, and
detection. The eye pattern is experimental method that contains all the information
concerning the degradation of quality. Therefore, careful analysis of the eye
pattern is important in analyzing the degradation mechanism.
 Eye patterns can be observed using an oscilloscope. The received wave is applied
to the vertical deflection plates of an oscilloscope and the sawtooth wave at a rate
equal to transmitted symbol rate is applied to the horizontal deflection plates and
the resulting display is eye pattern as it resembles human eye.
 The interior region of eye pattern is called eye opening
 The width of the eye opening defines the time interval over which the received
wave can be sampled without error from ISI.
 The optimum sampling time corresponds to the maximum eye opening.
 The height of the eye opening at a specified sampling time is a measure of the
margin over channel noise.
 The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate of closure of
the eye as the sampling time is verified. Any non linear transmission distortion
would reveal itself in an asymmetric or squinted eye.
 When the effect of ISI is excessive, traces from the upper portion of the eye
pattern cross traces from lower portion with the result that the eye is completely
closed.
Program:
clc;
clear;
close all;
x=[1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0];
t=0:1/100:1+1/10;
signal=zeros(1,length(t));
signal1=signal;
for i=1:length(x)
if x(i)==1
signal(1,i*10-9:i*10)=1;
signal1(1,i*10-9:(i-1/2)*10)=1;
else
signal(1,i*10-9:i*10)=-1;
signal1(1,i*10-9:(i-1/2)*10)=-1;
end
end
subplot(211);plot(t,signal),axis([0 1 -2 2]),grid on;
xlabel('time'); ylabel('amplitude');title('Polar NRZ plot')
subplot(212);plot(t,signal1),axis([0 1 -2 2]),grid on;
xlabel('time'); ylabel('amplitude');title('Polar RZ plot')
%eye diagram
fs=10;
fd=1;
a=length(x);
delay=5;
% r=input('enter roll off factor');
r=0.5;
rcv=rcosflt(x,fd,fs,'fir/normal',r,delay);
n=fs/fd;
eyediagram(rcv,n);

Waveforms:
Polar NRZ plot
2
1
amplitude
0
-1
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
Polar RZ plot
2
1
amplitude
-1
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time
Polar RZ and NRZ plots
Eye Diagram
1
A m p lit u d e
0.5
-0.5
-1
-0.5 0 0.5
Time
Eye Diagram
Result:

EXPERIMENT NO. 02
SIMULATE PULSE CODE MODULATION AND
DEMODULATION SYSTEM AND DISPLAY WAVEFORM
Theory:
Pulse Code Modulation is a method that is used to convert an analog signal into a digital
signal, so that modified analog signal can be transmitted through the digital
communication network. PCM is in binary form, so there will be only two possible states
high and low (0 and 1). We can also get back our analog signal by demodulation. The
Pulse Code Modulation process is done in three steps Sampling, Quantization, and
Coding. There are two specific types of Pulse Code Modulations such as Differential
Pulse Code Modulation (DPCM) and Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation
(ADPCM).
To get a pulse code modulated waveform from an analog waveform at the transmitter end
(source) of a communications circuit, the amplitude of the analog signal samples at
regular time intervals. The sampling rate or number of samples per second is several
times the maximum frequency. The message signal converted into binary form will be
usually in the number of levels which is always to a power of 2. This process is called
Quantization.
Basic Elements of PCM System
At the receiver end, a pulse code demodulator decodes the binary signal back into pulses
with same quantum levels as those in the modulator. By further processes we can restore
the original analog waveform.

Pulse Code Modulation Advantages

 Analog signal can be transmitted over a high- speed digital communication
system.
 Probability of occurring error will reduce by the use of appropriate coding
methods.
 PCM is used in Telkom system, digital audio recording, digitized video special
effects, digital video, voice mail.
 PCM is also used in Radio control units as transmitter and also receiver for remote
controlled cars, boats, planes.
 The PCM signal is more resistant to interference than normal signal.
Program:
clear all;
close all;
clc;
f=2; % freq of signal
fs=20*f; % Nyquist sampling
t=0:1/fs:1; % Time
a=2; % Amplitude
x=a*sin(2*pi*f*t); % input signal
figure;
subplot(4,1,1);plot(t,x,'r-');
xlabel ('Time');ylabel ('Amplitude');title ('Input Signal');grid on;
x1=x+a; % level shifting
q_op=round(x1);%quantization
subplot(4,1,2);plot(t,q_op,'k+-');
xlabel ('Time');ylabel ('Amplitude');title ('Quantized Signal');grid on;
enco=de2bi(q_op,'left-msb');
[m,n]=size(enco);
y3=reshape(enco',1,m*n);
t = linspace(0,1.23,1230);
for i=1:length(y3)
if y3(i)==1
signal(1,i*10-9:i*10)=1;
else
signal(1,i*10-9:i*10)=-1;
end
end
subplot(4,1,3),plot(t,signal),axis([0 1.23 -2 2]),grid on;
xlabel('time in seconds'); ylabel('amplitude');title('PCM signal')

% PCM Rx
for i=1:length(signal)/10
if (signal(1,i*10-9:i*10)==1)
y4(i)=1;
else
y4(i)=0;
end
end
y5=(reshape(y4,n,m))';
deco=bi2de(y5,'left-msb');
xr=deco-a; % level shifting back to original
t=0:1/fs:1;
subplot(4,1,4);
plot(t,xr);
xlabel ('Time');ylabel ('Amplitude');title ('PCM demodulated Signal');grid on;
Waveforms:
Input Signal
2
Amplitude
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time
Quantized Signal
4
Amplitude
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time
PCM signal
2
amplitude
-2
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
time in seconds
PCM demodulated Signal
2
Amplitude
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time
Result:

EXPERIMENT NO. 03
SIMULATE QPSK TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER AND
PLOT SIGNALS AND ITS CONSTELLATION DIAGRAM
Theory:
QPSK Modulation:
In digital modulation techniques, a set of basis functions are chosen for a particular
modulation scheme. Generally the basis functions are orthogonal to each other. Basis
functions can be derived using ‘Gram Schmidt Orthogonalization procedure. Once the
basis function are chosen, any vector in the signal space can be represented as a linear
combination of the basis functions. In Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK) two
sinusoids (sin and cos) are taken as basis functions for modulation. Modulation is
achieved by varying the phase of the basis functions depending on the message symbols.
In QPSK, modulation is symbol based, where one symbol contains 2 bits.
The following equation outlines QPSK modulation technique:

si(t)=2EsT√cos(2πfct+(2n−1)π4),n=1,2,3,4
When n=1, the phase shift is 45 degrees. This is called pi/4 QPSK. The constellation
diagram of QPSK will show the constellation points lying on both x and y axes. This
means that the QPSK modulated signal will have an in-phase component (I) and also a
quadrature component (Q). This is because it has only two basis functions.
A QPSK modulator can be implemented as follows:

A demultiplexer (or serial to parallel converter) is used to separate odd and even bits from
the generated information bits. Each of the odd bits (quadrature arm) and even bits (in-
phase arm) are converted to NRZ format in a parallel manner. The signal on the in-phase
arm is multiplied by cosine component and the signal on the quadrature arm is multiplied
by sine component. QPSK modulated signal is obtained by adding the signal from both
in-phase and quadrature arm and is as shown below.
QPSK Modulator

QPSK Demodulation:
For QPSK demodulator, a coherent demodulator is taken as an example. In coherent
detection technique, the knowledge of the carrier frequency and phase must be known to
the receiver. This can be achieved by using a PLL (Phase Lock Loop) at the receiver. A
PLL essentially locks to the incoming carrier frequency and tracks the variations in
frequency and phase.
For the following simulation, a PLL is not used but instead we simply use the output of
the PLL. For demonstration purposes we simply assume that the carrier phase recovery is
done and simply use the generated reference frequencies at the receiver (cos(ωt)) and
(sin(ωt)). In the demodulator, the received signal is multiplied by a reference frequency
generators (cos(ωt)) and (sin(ωt)) on separate arms (in-phase and quadrature arms). The
multiplied output on each arm is integrated over one bit period using an integrator. A
threshold detector makes a decision on each integrated bit based on a threshold. Finally,
the bits on the in-phase arm (even bits) and on the quadrature arm (odd bits) are remapped
to form detected information stream. Detector for in-phase arm is shown below. For
quadrature arm, the below architecture remains same but sin(ωt) basis function must be
used instead.
QPSK Demodulator
Program:
clc;
clear;
close all;
x=[0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 ];
disp('input bits');
disp(x);
t = linspace(0,.8,800);
y1 = sin(2*pi*50*t);
y2 = sin(2*pi*50*t+pi/2);
y3 = sin(2*pi*50*t+pi);
y4 = sin(2*pi*50*t+3*pi/2);
figure;subplot(411);plot(t,y1),axis([0 .8 -2 2]),grid on;

xlabel('time in seconds'); ylabel('amplitude');title('carrier with phase 0');
subplot(412);plot(t,y2),axis([0 .8 -2 2]),grid on;


j=1;
for i=1:2:length(x)
if (x(i)==0 && x(i+1)==0)

signal(1,i*100-99:i*100)= -1;
signal(1,(i+1)*100-99:(i+1)*100)= -1;
q1(1,j*100-99:j*100)=y1(1:100);
elseif (x(i)==0 && x(i+1)==1)

signal(1,i*100-99:i*100)= -1;
signal(1,(i+1)*100-99:(i+1)*100)= 1;
q1(1,j*100-99:j*100)=y2(1:100);
elseif (x(i)==1 && x(i+1)==0)

signal(1,i*100-99:i*100)= 1;
signal(1,(i+1)*100-99:(i+1)*100)= -1;
q1(1,j*100-99:j*100)=y3(1:100);
elseif (x(i)==1 && x(i+1)==1)

signal(1,i*100-99:i*100)= 1;
signal(1,(i+1)*100-99:(i+1)*100)= 1;
q1(1,j*100-99:j*100)=y4(1:100);
end
j=j+1;
end
figure;subplot(211);plot(t,signal);axis([0 .8 -2 2]),grid on;
xlabel('time in seconds'); ylabel('amplitude');title(' input signal')
subplot(212);plot(t(1:400),q1);axis([0 .4 -2 2]),grid on;
xlabel('time in seconds'); ylabel('amplitude');title('QPSK modulated wave');

% QPSK demodulation
i=1;
for j=1:4
if(round(corr(q1(j*100-99:j*100)',y1(1:100)'))==1)
x1(i)=0;
x1(i+1)=0;
elseif(round(corr(q1(j*100-99:j*100)',y2(1:100)'))==1)
x1(i)=0;
x1(i+1)=1;
x1(i)=1;
x1(i+1)=0;
x1(i)=1;
x1(i+1)=1;
end
i=i+2;
end
disp('received bits');
disp(x1);
Waveforms:
input signal
2
1
am plitude
-1
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
time in seconds
QPSK modulated wave

2
1
am plitude
-1
-2
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
time in seconds
Input signal and QPSK modulated wave

carrier with phase 0

2
amplitude 0
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
time in seconds
2
amplitude
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
time in seconds
2
amplitude
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
time in seconds
2
amplitude
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
time in seconds
Different Carrier Phases used for QPSK
Result:

EXPERIMENT NO. 04
TEST PERFORMANCE OF A BINARY DIFFERENTIAL
PHASE SHIFT KEYING SYSTEM BY SIMULATING THE
NON-COHERENT DETECTION OF BINARY DPSK
Theory:
DPSK Modulator:
DPSK is a technique of BPSK, in which there is no reference phase signal. Here, the
transmitted signal itself can be used as a reference signal. Following is the diagram of
DPSK Modulator.
DPSK Modulator
DPSK encodes two distinct signals, i.e., the carrier and the modulating signal with 180°
phase shift each. The serial data input is given to the XNOR gate and the output is again
fed back to the other input through 1-bit delay. The output of the XNOR gate along with
the carrier signal is given to the balance modulator to produce the DPSK modulated
signal.
DPSK Demodulator:
In DPSK demodulator, the phase of the reversed bit is compared with the phase of the
previous bit. Following is the block diagram of DPSK demodulator.
DPSK Demodulator
From the above figure, it is evident that the balance modulator is given the DPSK signal
along with 1-bit delay input. That signal is made to confine to lower frequencies with the
help of LPF. Then it is passed to a shaper circuit, which is a comparator or a Schmitt
Trigger circuit, to recover the original binary data as the output.

Program:
clc;
clear;
close all;
x=[1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 ];
disp('input bits');
disp(x);
x1(1)=bitxor(1,x(1));
for i=2:8
x1(i)=bitxor(x1(i-1),x(i));
end
x1=[1,x1];
% disp('coded bits');
% disp(x1(2:9));
t = linspace(0,.9,900);
y = sin(2*pi*50*t);
for i=1:length(x1)
if x1(i)==1
signal(1,i*100-99:i*100)=1;
y1(1,i*100-99:i*100)=signal(1,i*100-99:i*100).*y(1,i*100-99:i*100);
else
signal(1,i*100-99:i*100)=-1;
y1(1,i*100-99:i*100)=signal(1,i*100-99:i*100).*y(1,i*100-99:i*100);
end
end
subplot(311);plot(t,signal),axis([0 .9 -2 2]),grid on;
xlabel('time in seconds'); ylabel('amplitude');title('coded input signal')
subplot(312);plot(t,y),axis([0 .9 -2 2]),grid on;
xlabel('time in seconds'); ylabel('amplitude');title('carrier');
subplot(313);plot(t(1:900),y1),axis([0 .9 -2 2]),grid on;
xlabel('time in seconds'); ylabel('amplitude');title('DPSK modulated wave');
% Demodulation of DPSK
for i=1:9
z1(i,:)=y1(100*(i-1)+1:100*i);
end
q1(1)=1;
for i=2:9
q1(i)=sum(z1(i,:).*z1(1,:));
if(q1(i)>0)

q(i-1)=1;
else
q(i-1)=0;
end
end
% disp('recovered bits');
% disp(q);
d1(1)=bitxor(1,q(1));
for i=2:8
d1(i)=bitxor(q(i-1),q(i));
end
disp('decoded data');
disp(d1);
Waveforms:
coded input signal
2
1
amplitude
-1
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
time in seconds
carrier
2
1
amplitude
-1
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
time in seconds
DPSK modulated wave
2
1
amplitude
-1
-2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
time in seconds
Waveforms of DPSK
Input Bits:
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Decoded Data:
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Result:

Introduction to Digital Communication

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction to Digital Communication

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GLOBAL ACADEMY OF TECHNOLOGY, BENGALURU-98.

INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

Communication is the process of exchanging or passing information from source to

Fig1: Block Diagram of Digital Communication System

A Transmitter is a collection of electronic circuits designed to convert the information/

The modulation is of two types: Analog Modulation and Digital Modulation.

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 1

Fig2: Types of Modulation

Fig3: Types of Digital Modulation

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 2

Comparison between Analog and Digital communication

Can be used in analog devices

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 3

Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a method of putting multiple data streams in a

Losses in Optical Fibers

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 4

INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION

Microwave transmission is the transmission of formation or energy by electromagnetic

Properties of Microwave Links

Uses of Microwave Link

Microwave Tube device used in the Lab: Reflex Klystron

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 6

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 7

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 8

Circuit Diagram of TDM:

5. Observe the TDM output signal at pin 3 of first IC 4051(multiplexed output).

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 10

ASK Modulation Circuit:

Circuit Diagram of ASK Modulation:

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 11

Circuit Diagram of ASK Detector:

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 12

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 13

Circuit Diagram for Simulation:

Frequency of Detected Output:

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 14

FSK Modulation Circuit:

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 15

Circuit Diagram of FSK Detector:

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 16

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 17

Circuit Diagram for Simulation with Waveforms:

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 18

Result: Voltage of Detected Output:

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 19

BPSK GENERATION AND DETECTION

Circuit Diagram of Modulator:

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 20

Circuit Diagram of BPSK Detector:

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 21

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 22

Circuit Diagram for Simulation with Waveforms:

Result: Voltage of Detected Output:

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 23

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR MICROWAVE TEST BENCH

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 24

6. Measure the output power using CRO.

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 25

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR MICROWAVE TEST BENCH

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 26

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 27

Department of ECE Advanced Communication lab [15ECL76] 28