National University of Singapore

Department of Civil Engineering

CE 5112
Structural design and construction of
deep basements &
cut & cover structures
Lecture 1
Words of wisdom
8
All things are wearisome,
more than one can say.
The eye never has enough of seeing,
nor the ear its fill of hearing.
9
What has been will be again,
what has been done will be done again;
there is nothing new under the sun.
10
Is there anything of which one can say,
"Look! This is something new"?
It was here already, long ago;
it was here before our time. Eccl 1:8-10 (NIV)
Practical Design Considerations
1) Introduction sharing of structural engineer perspectives
2) General requirements clients, builders & designers
3) Ground, soil profile & gases
4) Concept of effective stress vis--vis total stress
5) Groundwater control
6) Movements caused by excavation activities
7) Methods of construction
8) Types of earth retaining system
9) Influence of foundations type adopted
10) Site Investigation
11) Geotechnical & structural analysis, soil-structure interaction
12) Protective measures
13) Durability and waterproofing
14) Safety, legal and contractual issues & risk communications
Topics of Interest
In the next 4-5 lectures, we should spend some
time on topics relating to Temporary Earth
Retaining (TER) structure that you would like
to know in depth. Please email these topics to
me or Prof. Liew and we will try our best to
look for books, papers or source from others to
address them.
Introduction sharing of structural engineer perspectives
1) A deep excavation is one for which the depth, structural
arrangement and loads, surrounding structures & utilities, soil &
groundwater conditions are such that due diligence is required
on geotechnical & structural aspects and their interaction.
Normally an excavation > 5-6m, i.e. more than 1 basement, can
be much less soft marine or fluvial clay stratum, 3m.
2) Ground-structure interaction requires many engineering skills
including reliance on observation and monitoring; clear
understanding of geotechnical and construction materials;
appreciation on the effects of groundwater & seepage;
development of proper conceptual and analytical models; &
judgment based on a knowledge of case histories and
construction methods, with properly evaluated past experience.
3) The next few lectures are intended to develop overall conceptual
understanding. Drawing attention to key aspects of deep
excavation from a structural engineer perspective, with some
case histories. This is a complex and wide-ranging subject,
where in-depth understanding of some subjects is needed at
times. So engage real specialists whenever necessary.
Introduction sharing of structural engineer perspectives
Basic technical considerations:
1) Excavation will cause displacement to the
surrounding ground. Need to determine
likely & acceptable max. ground movements
Alert & Work Suspension Levels.
2) Construction method adopted is intertwined
with the final underground structures
creativity to balance buildability, safety &
economy.
Introduction sharing of structural engineer perspectives
Other considerations
1) Professional responsibilities & liabilities public
& client interests. Temporary works are mainly the
domain of builder QP (TER) but BCA requires QP
(Supervision) to review builders temporary works
submission. Some temporary structures become
permanent after completion.
2) Construction methods must be fully discussed at
the preliminary design stage with the contractor
and/or architects (if they are interested). This is to
ascertain construction and related design
approaches.
3) Construction must finished within specified time
and price. Simplicity of concept which allows
design and construction expediency may be the
key.
Introduction sharing of structural engineer perspectives
Other considerations
1) The need for better consultant selection,
improved tendering arrangements and clearer
regulatory & client guidance in order to achieve
better working practices for the construction
industry.
2) The client and his relevant professional advisors
are responsible for the permanent works in the
permanent condition.
3) The contractor and his advisors are responsible
for the temporary condition of the permanent
works and for temporary works.
PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY DESIGN
Designers of props for a temporary retaining system, need to ensure that
the performance requirements for the wall are met and site operations are
not unduly constrained. He should take account of the methods of
constructing the permanent works & preferred method of prop removal
(Contractor inputs is necessary).
Where the retaining wall also form part of the permanent works the
designer of the temporary props may need to consider aspects of the
permanent works design. To minimize delays and inefficiencies the tender
documents for such projects should include one of the following
information:
1.The assumptions made about the temporary works for the design of
permanent works (propping levels and spacing, construction sequence,
support system, stiffness, prop removal sequence, etc); If this approach is
chosen, the permanent works QP is likely to attract some liability for the
performance of the wall in the temporary case. The contractor may not be
solely responsible if the temporary works scheme complies with the
assumptions made in the design of the permanent works.
2.Vertical and horizontal bending moment and shear capacities of the wall
(horizontal bending can affect prop removal) and any other details
pertinent to the temporary works design.
3.Put out the excavation works as a D&B contract with performance
requirement including that of the permanent works if relevant.
Uses & Consideration of Underground Structure
Ever increasing land cost is making underground
structures more economical - car-park, storage,
commercial, utilities, transportation tunnel &
station, etc.
BCA and FSSDs approval for adequate
ventilation, provision of fire-fighting lobby &
area of refuge, locations of fire-lifts, protected
escape staircases & passages; fire fighting
appliances: sprinklers, smoke & heat detectors
including dry and wet risers; means of access for
fire personnel & engine. M&E rooms.
Uses & Consideration of Underground Structure
Fire spread risk is addressed by compartmentalization
and full isolation of high fire risk zone, e.g., ventilation
ducts, effective smoke extraction performance based
design e.g. by CFD analysis. E&M provisions affect
head room thus excavation depth.
Planned construction access and hauling of spoil.
4 hours fire rating for underground structure.
Ramps for car park & skylight (architecture) - openings.
Minor changes in layout or use may result in extensive
redesign and redetailing, so get your view heard early.
Get your view heard on Underground Structure
E a r t h P r e s s u r e
Earth Pressure
Slab as beam in plane
Figure 1
The concept of effective stress
Effective stress principle is essential to the
understanding of mechanical behavior of
the ground.
Saturated soil consists of discrete solid
particles in mechanical contact forming a
skeletal structure with voids (pores) filled
with water (& gas).
Deformation or failure of soil is mainly
result from slip at contact points rather
than crushing of the solid particles.
Change in total vertical load, o, will be
resulted by additional load on the soil
skeleton and/or change of porewater
pressure.
Chemical bonding is a generalized term for 1) cold
welding of mineral contact points between particles. 2)
exchange of cat-ions, and 3) cementation.
The concept of effective stress
Any plane through an element of soil has acting on it a
resultant normal stress o and a shear stress t. In
addition, the water in the pores will be under a
pressure, , porewater pressure. By definition, the
effective normal pressure o acting across the plane is
the difference between the resultant or total normal
pressure and the porewater pressure. Thus:
As water cannot take shear, t will be an effective
stress:
Effective stress principle
An effective stress may be thought of as that part of the total
stress transmitted through the soil skeleton. This refers to the
complex state of stress at particles contact points.
Effective stress principle: all measurable effects of a change in
stress, such as compression, distortion or shearing resistance,
are due exclusively to changes in effective stress.
The strength of a soil in terms of effective stress is defined by
Coulombs equation:
where t
f
is the shear strength, c is the effective cohesion & is
the effective angle of shearing resistance. Both of these
parameters refer to the soil in its undisturbed state of stress and
stress history drained condition.
Effective stress soil properties are denoted by a prime .
Effective stress principle
The classical equation of Coulomb
derives from experiments sliding
blocks of material with different
normal loads.
When combined with the Mohr
circles representing individual soil
tests, parameters c and can be used
to describe a failure line. This
allows simple mathematics to
predict one principal stress at
failure given the other principal
stress.
Effective stress parameters
Typical results from undrained triaxial tests with porewater
pressure measurement (a), or from drained triaxial tests (b), on
good quality undisturbed samples of a uniform overconsolidated
clay):
Expressed in
terms of
Angle of shearing
resistance
Cohesion
intercept
t, o c
t, s ' t'
Where &
If | = 30
= 26.57
t = 0.866 c
If | = 20
= 18.88
t = 0.940 c
Effective stress & soil strength
An increase in effective stress (o) results in
compression of soil and an increase in strength.
This increase in effective stress could result
either from an increase in the total stress (o) or
decrease of porewater pressure ().
Decrease in o results in swelling of soil and a
decrease in strength. This result either from a
decrease in the o or increase of .
Soil shear strength
When sheared, loose or slightly
over-consolidated soil will
gradually compress until is
reaches a critical state of
constant shear stress t, normal
effective stress o and specific
volume v.
Dense or heavily over-
consolidated soil (jet grout) will
initially compress & then dilate
to reach similar critical state.
L= Loose Sample (disturbed)
D = Dense Sample
L= Loose Sample (disturbed)
D = Dense Sample
CREEP RATE BEHAVIOUR OF K
o
CONSOLIDATED UNDISTURBED HANEY CLAY
UNDER AXIALLY SYMMETRIC LOADING.
q is the principal
stress difference
normalized with
respect to the vertical
effective stress during
consolidation
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RUPTURE LIFE AND MINIMUM CREEP RATE
Illustration : primary, secondary and tertiary phases of creep
Wall movements showing phases of creep
Soil shear strength
For a loose soil, the critical
state is relatively easy to
identify.
To define fully the state of a
soil, 3 variables are
required: specific volume v,
shear stress t & normal
effective stress o. Critical
states are combinations of
these three variables at
which steady, continued
shear deformation take
place.
v= 1+ e(voids ratio)
Soil shear strength
Undrained state paths for clay samples having the same
specific volume: (a) v vs lno; (b) t vs o. Sample A -
heavily overconsolidated; sample B - lightly
overconsolidated.
Undrained shear failure at constant v must follow a
horizontal path on the graph of v vs lno from initial
condition to the critical state (a). The position on the
critical state line is fixed by v of the sample being
sheared: defines the shear stress at undrained failure (b).
Soil shear strength
For a dense or heavily overconsolidated soil, the stress-
strain behavior is more complex. The shear stress rises
to a peak, at or near which a rupture surface develops.
The shear stress then falls rapidly, and failure is brittles.
Once the rupture has formed, it governs the overall
behavior of the soil element.
Compression between the ends of a triaxial test sample
is due to relative sliding along the rupture surface rather
than a uniform, continuous axial strain. The axial load
that the sample can sustain depends on the stress state of
the soil in a thin rupture zone, which is likely to soften
and swell preferentially and differ markedly from the
remainder of the sample.
Groundwater conditions play a vital role in
ground engineering problems. Porewater
pressures in soil can change because of seepage,
water-table fluctuations, increases of applied
total stress (consolidation) and decreases of
applied total stress (swelling).
Any process that results in a decrease in effective
stress is potentially dangerous, since it results in
swelling and reduction in strength.
Effective stress & soil strength
Fine-grained soils (cohesive clay) are relatively impermeable, and
so volume change will be gradual and related to the length of
time taken for porewater to dissipate - undrained to drained
state.
Short term strength of a clay will be controlled by the initial
effective stresses, giving what is called the undrained strength, c
u
- apparent cohesion. (
u
=0)
c
u
is dependent on the water content. High water content gives
low undrained strength and low water content gives high
strength. If identical clay samples are tested without allowing
any change in water content, then no matter what confining
pressure is applied they will all fail at the same shear stress.
Undrained strength
Assessment of soil properties such as unit weight,
strength and stiffness, etc. should be based on a
comprehensive site investigation with high quality
laboratory testing, to derive relevant total and
effective stress parameters. The investigation should
establish the properties of all soil layers for foundation
and retaining structures design. The current methods
of assessing the soil properties are:
SOIL PROPERTIES
1. CIRIA Report 104 type A - moderately conservative
2. CIRIA Report 104 type B - Worst credible
3. BS8002 Representative values of either peak
strength or critical state strength
4. Eurocode 7 (EC7) - characteristic values.
SOIL PROPERTIES
ROCK PROPERTIES
SINGAPORE ROCK PROPERTIES
1. The industry is moving towards the adoption of the
Eurocode system, both in the UK and Europe.
2. It is broadly comparable with the CIRIA Report 104 type A
moderately conservative method. The Eurocode system
uses partial factors to achieve an overall margin of safety
similar to that given by the global safety factors of CIRIA
104.
3. BS8002 introduces a new set of approximations, e.g. that a
constant percentage of the representative strength is
mobilized throughout the soil mass in the service condition
of the wall, This may not be conservative in some
situations, but there are cases in which prop loads predicted
in this way are higher than those experienced in practice.
SOIL PROPERTIES
EC7 characteristic value method is adopted in CIRIA Report
517 for the following reasons:
Typical granular soil, c=0 &
strength defined by , the
Mohr diagram gives active
and passive earth pressure
coefficients K
a
and K
p
according to the horizontal
stress vis--vis the vertical
stress.
Rankine theory with no
allowance for wall friction
which reduces active pressure &
increases passive resistance.
Earth Pressure Granular Soil
Only a small wall movement
away from a soil face is
required to reduce the at rest
earth pressure (K
o
) to the active
pressure (K
a
). A very much
larger movement towards the
soil face is needed to mobilize
the full passive resistance
coefficient K
p
. (This applies to
normally consolidated clays and
to sands and gravels but not to
stiff overconsolidated clays
which have high K
o
values.)
Earth Pressure Granular Soil
=30
K
a
=0.333
K
p
=3
Undrained strength allows
earth pressures due to clays to
be assessed in the short term,
before moisture contents
change and when actual pore
water pressures are unknown.
Pressure coefficients
K
ac
=K
pc
=2, have been assessed
by wedge theory to allow for
adhesion. In this case
K
a
=K
p
=1.
It takes no account of the
effects of wall adhesion which
reduces active pressure and
increases passive pressure.
Earth Pressure Cohesive Soil
When calculate earth pressures on walls we must be
clear about what type of analysis (long or short term) is
to be applied to each layer and type of soil.
In the long term, pore water pressures in clays will
stabilized (excess porewater pressures dissipation) to a
steady state controlled by external conditions. These
long term water pressures can be estimated just as for
sands and gravels, and long term effective stress
pressure calculations should be made for clays using
effective stress parameters c and .
Earth Pressure Cohesive Soil
Long term = Drained = Effective stress = c
Short term = Undrained = Total stress = c
u

u
Note: usually c = 0 & always
u
= 0
Long term = Drained = Effective stress = c
Short term = Undrained = Total stress = c
u

u
Note: usually c = 0 & always
u
= 0
Basis of calculation of soil pressures
Note: For temporary cofferdams c is normally taken as zero
for clays as well as for sands and gravels.
Movements caused by excavation activities
1) Ground movement caused by excavation activities may
damage surrounding structures, roads & services,
depending on their sensitivity, magnitude & types of
movement. Detailed instrumentation and monitoring of
ground movements are often required also a precaution
against frivolous claims.
2) The amount & extent of movement can be controlled by
method of construction and good control & standard of
workmanship. Cost increases with more stringent
movement limits balanced by knowledge & insurance
cost.
3) The main causes of damage to adjacent buildings are
generally wall installation and problems associated with
groundwater lowering.
4) Ground movements computation is a complex problem &
much experience is required to make sensible use of
complex FEM analyses when warranted, best applied with
precedent.
Movements caused by excavation activities
198 South Bridge Road Building
Settlement
Trend plots for building settlement are
stable generally.
Start to slow down & turn off recharge
wells. Then monitor movement for
another week before props removal work.
199 South Bridge Road Building
Settlement
Computation of soil movements
Calculations based on soil strength can be used to
assess stability, but not to estimate wall and soil
movements under working conditions. A stress-strain
relationship for the soil is needed.
Stiffness of clay is defined either as tangent stiffness,
do/dc, or as secant stiffness o/c where o & c
represent changes of generalized stress & strain from
a defined starting point.
Computation of ground movements
The maximum shear strain increment in the soil around an
embedded retaining wall with small deflections is 0.1%. This
can be used to estimate a suitable soil stiffness profile for use in
analysis.
Usually, the soil stiffness must be allowed to vary with depth to
account for the effects of increasing average effective stress and
decreasing over-consolidation ratio.
With judicious choice of stiffness parameters, numerical
analyses (e.g. finite element or difference) using a linear elastic-
plastic soil model can lead to reasonable estimates of wall
movements and bending moments.
Computation of realistic ground movements requires the use of
a more complex soil model that better represents the
degradation of stiffness with strain. It is important to cheek,
that the computed stresses do not take the soil beyond the strain
range for which the stiffness parameters are chosen.
Movements caused by excavation activities
Ground disturbance during installation of in-
situ walls: due to vibration (driving &
retrieving), loss of ground (boring & retrieving)
or heave (driving of pile).
Movements caused by excavation activities
Ground movements caused by vertical loading
and unloading of an excavation:
Movements caused by excavation activities
Movement in the props supporting a wall (e.g.
because of temperature changes, shrinkage or
loss of support:
Movements caused by excavation activities
Movement due to changes in groundwater
conditions, i.e., water table drawdown can be
far reaching and time-dependent for low
permeability clay: (dragdown & consolidation)
Movements caused by excavation activities
Most wall movement tends to occur before the insertion of any
temporary support, because the walls deflect as cantilevers until
a prop is installed. To reduce ground movements from
excavation the designer may raise the level of the top prop,
decrease the spacing between prop levels and increase the
stiffness of the wall. It is comparatively less effective to increase
the prop stiffness; for example by preloading. Preloading does
not affect movements caused by flexure of the wall or overall
movements due to the unloading effect of excavations.
With many of the deformation methods of analysis in current
use, it is possible to obtain smaller calculated wall movements
by assuming high prop loads or prop stiffness. This is to comply
with the specified wall movement criteria, these calculated
results are of little practical relevance. The measured
movements described above show that these factors are of
secondary importance, It is not efficient to provide stiffer props
in an attempt to restrict movements.
Movements caused by excavation activities
Control of water table for different permeability of soil
Movements caused by excavation activities
Control of water table - layout of grout injection holes
In coarse granular materials or rocks, the excavation is surrounded by a grout curtain
consisting of one to two rows of primary injection holes at 3-6m centres in both
directions, with secondary holes and possible tertiary holes to ascertain effectiveness.
stop
Control of water table - layout of grout injection holes
Lake Mathews outlet facility, Southern California
Grout mixes with water/cement ratio ranging from 4:1 to 1.5:1, injection refusal was
reached when < 28 liters of grout was injected in 10 mins. For w/c ratios of > 1.5:1,
refusal was when there was no intake in 5 mins.
Numerous large grout takes were experienced and many additional holes (tertiary and
quaternary) were needed in order to achieve curtain closure. The total water inflow
into the completed excavation was 115 l/min.
The grout curtain performed well during excavation and blasting immediately adjacent
to the curtain had no measured or observed effects.
Jet Grout Pile Properties
Stabilization of soft ground by deep cement mixing and jet grouting
methods have been used in Singapore for stability and deformation control
in many deep excavation projects involving soft marine clay.
Jet grouting and deep cement mixing are two different approaches of
introducing cement into the ground, which are carried out before the start
of any excavation work.
The resulting material formed is called Cement Treated Soil. The treated
soil layer helps in control the movement of soil mass below the final
excavation level.
The unconfined compressive strength of cement treated clay increases with
the increase of cement content and curing time.
Strength and Stiffness Characteristics of Cement Treated Singapore Marine Clay,
A.H.M. Kamruzzaman, F.H. Lee & S.H.Chewand T.S.Ong
Jet Grout Pile Properties
Samplingtechniques must becompatibleto thegrout strength achieved
and when coring is use, without QC, sample strength > 1.3 MPa is
desirable to achieve > 90% sample recovery. With good sampling
technique, samplestrengthof 400kPacanbeobtained(Roybi Kiso).
From experience, for water-cement ratio of between 0.65-0.75 and
withdrawal rate during jetting of 15-20 cm/ minute to forma 1.2m
column, water and grout flow rates of around 110-130 litres/ min
respectively is required. Average J et grout unconfined compressive
strength (UCS) isexpected to exceed 1.4MPabased on 63.5mm core
samples taken at theintersection between columns. Corerecovery will
bebetween90-100%.
Jet Grout Pile Strength Chart
Grout column is largely a
function of the time that the
jet and binder is kept at one
fixedlevel.
Soil Type Silt / Clay Sand Gravel
UCS (MPa) s 5 s 10 s 20
Cement Content & Stress-Strain Behaviour of Treated Clay
(Is jet grout a soil replacement or mixing technique?)
Jet Grout Pile Properties
Unconfined compressive strength and cement content relationship at
different curing periods. (Roybi Kiso)
Jet Grout Pile Properties
Development of J et Grouted Soil Strength with time (Keller)
Jet Grout Pile Properties
Effect of strain measurement
on stress-strain behaviour of
treated clay
Is jet grout a soil replacement or
mixing technique?
Comparison of stiffness
measured by Hall's effect
transducer and conventional
LVDT
Stress-Strain Behaviour of Concrete
Jet Grout Pile Properties
0.1% 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6% 0.2 0.25%
E
50
= 100q
u
300 q
u
= 150q
u
400 q
u
Spore Marine clay
Spore Marine Clay
E
50
= 125q
u
(LVDT) x 3 => or 375q
u
(Local strain transducer)
E
i
= 135q
u
(LVDT) or 430q
u
(Local strain transducer)
Jet Grout Pile Installation
Stages of conducting jet-grouting method & the equipment used: 1 cement
silo, 2 cement-inject plant, 3 high-pressure pump, 4 high-pressure conduit,
5 rotary drilling rig, 6 casing head, 7 beginning of the jet injection after
having driven a drilling rod until the designed depth, 8 jet petrification of the
first pile, 9 next pile forming
Movements caused by excavation activities
Effect of deflection of wall toe on ground
movements:
Movements caused by excavation activities
Relative wall and ground movements of
cantilever and propped walls:
For soft clay, A
V
= 2%H
Thus, 2%H = 0.6-0.8AH
2
or
AH
2
=2.5%-3.3%H
For loose sand or gravel, A
V
= 0.5%H
Thus, AH
2
= 0.625%-0.833%H
For stiff clay, A
V
< 0.15%H
Thus, AH
2
< 0.188%-0.25%H
Comparative wall and ground movements of
cantilever and propped walls (after Burland et al,
1979)
Zones defined by Peck (1969): (The data used by Peck to derive the three zones were taken from
strutted excavations supported by soldier pile or sheetpile walls)
Zone (I) sand and soft to hard clay, average workmanship
Zone (II) very soft to soft clay, a) limited depth of clay layer beneath excavation bottom
b) greater depth of clay, but N
b
<7
Zone (III) very soft to soft clay to a significant depth below bottom of excavation with N
b
>7
Further experiences:
Excavations in Chicago (ORourke 1976)
Medium-dense to dense sand (ORourke 1981)
Distance from excavation/ maximum depth of excavation [%]
S
e
t
t
l
e
m
e
n
t
/
m
a
x
i
m
u
m

d
e
p
t
h

o
f

e
x
c
a
v
a
t
i
o
n

[
%
]
Movements of low permeability clay
For low permeability clay, movements will be
time-dependent. Initially, the clay will respond
in an undrained state with no volume change.
With time, water will drains, causing a general
volumetric expansion when clay has been
unloaded or compression when loaded.
Eventually, when excess porewater pressures
has dissipated, i.e. reached a fully drained state,
movements will cease, except perhaps creep
movement.
Movements of low permeability clay
During drainage, the strength of the clay changes. This
is because, in the case of expansion, water is drawn
into the clay, softening it and reducing its strength.
For example, in front of a wall in stiff clay, following
excavation, the clay will gradually expand and soften
following the relief of the overburden pressure. The
consequent loss of resistance may dominate the wall
during this drainage stage, especially with cantilever
walls, The relative magnitudes of undrained and
drained movements, and the rate at which the latter
develop, depend on the nature of the clay and can be
significantly affected by the presence of high-
permeability layers within the soil.
Movements caused by excavation activities
Movement resulting from reduction of lateral
pressure from the inner face of the retaining
structure, due to bulk excavation or the
installation of large bored piles within the
excavation:
Movements of low permeability soft clay
When excavation takes place within soft clays,
the reduction of vertical pressure inside the
excavation decreases the ability of the soil
below the level of excavation to sustain the
vertical pressure applied by the soil outside, i.e.
an undrained bearing capacity failure (base
heave) can take place:
Movements of low permeability soft clay
In soft clay, the depth to which excavation can
reach before base heave failure starts may be
small. This will generally start when the base
stability number, N=H/c
u
> 3 - 4 &
Uncontrolled deformation is likely for N = 6 - 7:
Movements of low permeability soft clay
Base heave occurs below excavation level,
horizontal props alone cannot eliminate it. It
has to be controlled by ensuring that:
1) the retaining wall is sufficiently
stiff,
2) is adequately embedded below the
deforming zone by keying into a
stronger stratum, or
3) in-situ props are cast below
excavation level, e.g. using jet
grouting, diaphragm cross-walling
techniques or tunnel struts.
Base Heave Failure Prevention
a) Extend walls to strong stratum
b) Excavate under water or bentonite
mud
c) Unload soil adjacent to excavation
d) Construct in a series of excavations
with reduced plan area
compartmentalization (3-D effect)
e) Artificially increased soil strength
jet grouting
(e) Increase soil strength
(d) Reduce plan area
of excavation
(c) Unload retained soil
(b) Excavate under
water or bentonite
(a) Extend walls to
strong stratum
3-D FEM Analysis of Long Retaining Wall Construction
X-section of road corridor Initial and final Ground profiles
3-D finite element mesh 2-D finite element mesh
Model: diaphragm wall panel
trench excavation with bentonite
Model: excavate to pre-diaphragm
installation ground profile
Model: concreting of diaphragm wall trench: (a) pressure simulating
wet concrete; (b) replacement of pressure by elastic concrete elements
Bermgeometry
Model: showing diaphragm wall
panels
Model: excavate to bermprofile
Model: excavate primary berm
section from the central bay
Model: construction of primary prop
slab section in the central bay
Finite element mesh showing
completed carriageway section
Calculated and observed
displacements of the central panel
Comparison of wall displacements calculated
using 2- & 3-D analyses
3-D FEM Analysis of Long Retaining Wall Construction
Base Heave Stability
Common problems of base failure are only likely in soft clays. One widely used
method of determining the critical depth D, or the factor of safety against base
heave, F
base
,was proposed by Bjerrum & Bide (1956):
Where:
s
u
= undrained shear strength of the soil beneath the
excavation
N
c
= the bearing capacity factor (as for footings) which
depends on the shape and depth of the excavation.
P = surcharge applied at the ground surface on the retained
side.
This approach does not account for the reinforcing effects
of wall penetration below the base of excavation.
Base Heave Stability
The factor of safety against base heave, F
base
, as proposed by Terzaghi (1943):
If T 0.7B, B
1
= 0.7B
If T < 0.7B, B
1
= T
Or modified (Nc = 5.7)
Base Heave Stability
The factor of safety against base heave, F
base
, as proposed by Eide et al.s (1972):
Basis & Application Limits:
Narrow Excavation
Ignore effect of clay thickness
Ignore effect of wall stiffness
Base Heave Stability
The stability number, Nc, as given by Program ReWaRD:
Where H (D) is the retained height; B is the breadth and L
the length of the excavation; and | is the rigid layer
correction derived from the bearing capacity factors given
by Button (1953):
where T is the depth below excavation level to the top of
the first rigid layer and B is the breadth of the excavation.
General Bearing Capacity Factors General Bearing Capacity Factors
1000
100
10
1
0.1
0 10 20 30 40 50
B
e
a
r
i
n
g


C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y


F
a
c
t
o
r
Friction Angle (deg)
Nc
14
o
N
c
= 10
Nq
35
o
N
q
= 33
N

26
o
N

= 8
For the condition of H < B (wide, shallow excavations) (Terzaghi)
For the condition of H > B (trench type excavations) (Skempton)
General Bearing Capacity Factors General Bearing Capacity Factors
N
c
rectangular = (0.84 + 0.16 B/ L) N
c
square
Diagram for the determination of bearing pressure
coefficient, N
c
(Skempton)
p p
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 34 35 40 45 48 50
N
c
5.7 7.3 9.6 12.9 17.7 25.1 37.2 52.6 57.8 95.7 172.3 258.3 347.6
N
q
1 1.6 2.7 4.4 7.4 12.7 22.5 36.5 41.4 81.3 173.3 287.9 415.1
N
g
0 0.5 1.2 2.5 5 9.7 19.7 35 42.4 100.4 297.5 780.1 1153.2
N'
c
5.7 6.7 8 9.7 11.8 14.8 19 23.7 25.2 34.9 51.2 66.8 81.3
N'
q
1 1.4 1.9 2.7 3.9 5.6 8.3 11.7 12.6 20.5 35.1 50.5 65.6
N'
g
0 0.2 0.5 0.9 1.7 3.2 5.7 9 10.1 18.8 37.7 60.4 87.1
Base Heave Stability
Base Heave Stability
ORourke (1992) proposed a method to account for the flexural capacity of
the wall extending below the excavation. He used plasticity principles and
conservation of energy to show that the flexural effects of the wall may be
used to evaluate factor of safety against base failure. Factors of safety
determined by this method were in better agreement with the observed
performance of excavations at or about base failure. The method uses a
dimensionless stability number N
OR
for three different end conditions of
the wall are given below:
1. Wall installed to some depth in clay below the
excavation, but not within an underlying firm
stratum (free-end wall):
2. The wall has been installed into an underlying firm
stratum with sufficient penetration to result in full
moment restraint (fixed-end wall):
3. The wall is driven to rock, but tends to slide along the
interface without full moment restraint (sliding end
wall):
Base Heave Stability
Base Heave Stability
Where
M
y
= yield moment per metre of wall
R = B/2 or thickness of soft clay beneath the base (T), whichever is the
smaller and B = width of excavation.
L
w
= wall length beneath the lowest, or next to lowest, level of propping
depending on depth to firm stratum.
s
ub
= representative undrained shear strength of the basal clay
Base Heave Stability
The effect of wall stiffness, depth of embedment and thickness of clay layer on base
stability by Goh (1994). He evaluated the factor of safety on base stability for various
geometries of wide excavation in soft clay, by using the nodal displacement method of
finite element analysis. He proposed the following expression for base stability:
Where
= unit weight of the soft clay
H = depth of excavation
N
h
= bearing capacity factor and is a function of H/B
B = width of excavation

t
= multiplying factor which is a function of T/B
T = thickness of soft clay beneath the base of the excavation

d
= multiplying factor which is function of D
e
/T
D
e
= depth of embedment of the wall

w
= multiplying factor, which is a function of D
e
/T, wall
stiffness and T/B.
Base Heave Stability
Gohs charts of N
h
,
t
,
d
, &
w
shows the following trends:
GOH, A T C (1994) Estimating Basal-Heave Stability for Braced Excavations in Soft Clay
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 120, No. 8
1. The presence of a rigid stratum close to the
excavation (T/B < l) increases the factor of
safety. The rigid stratum reduces the size of the
yielding zone by restraining the displacement of
the soil beneath and around the excavation.
2. The two conventional methods of calculating
base stability (Terzaghi, 1943; Bjerrum and
Eide, 1956) may give overly conservative factors
of safety for T/B less than unity.
3. Factor of safety increases with increasing D
e
/T
(i.e. increasing embedment), but the effect
becomes insignificant for values of T/B greater
than about 1.5.
For condition of Infinitely long
excavation:
For condition of Rectangular
excavation:
Blowout Failure relieve wells
Movements of stiff clay
Stiff clays are generally good materials to work
with provided the effects of drainage are
limited. (turn soft when wet)
Stiff clays (rock) may possess high locked-in
lateral stresses. The process of excavation may
releases large stresses, building up large support
loads. Adopting a soft support system, e.g.
flexible props and flexible walls, may reduce the
loads and stresses in the structural elements
with a consequent increase in movements
outside the excavation. Preloading may not be
necessary.
Movements of stiff clay
Movement of unsupported (cantilever) walls
due to drainage of soil in front of the wall. This
can occur rapidly if the ground is not protected
from water ingress:
Movements of stiff clay
Movement of the toe of propped wails during
construction. The clay in front of the toe of a
retaining wall may drain rapidly. Need to
ensure that the toe area is not left exposed for
long. One common method is to leave soil
berm, removed and replaced later with
permanent support:
Movements of stiff clay
If left unloaded, stiff clay under an excavation
may expand causing structures supported on it
to lift:
Movements of granular soils
The process of basement construction in high-
permeability soils, e.g. sands, will result in an
almost instantaneous response to changes in
loads and groundwater conditions, i.e. fully
drained conditions.
For granular soils, principal concerns are the
control of groundwater to avoid loss of ground
and movements during the installation of walls.
Movements of granular soils
Settlement occurring during wall installation by
loss of ground during drilling or the compaction
of loose sands/silts due to vibration:
Movements of granular soils
Water seeping through a wall during excavation
gives rise to local lowering of water table
outside the excavation and loss of fines through
the wall, causing settlement:
Movements of granular soils
Insufficient penetration of the wall or
insufficient dewatering within the excavation
leading to high hydraulic gradients, piping of
the basement floor or large scale heave. Seepage
flows also reduce the passive pressure
restraining the toe of the wall:
Instrumentation and Monitoring
Monitoring Array Type B
Rod extensometer & tip location
Inclinometer
Vibrating wire piezometer
Inclinometer /
extensometer in soil
Ground settlement Marker
Casagrande Standpipe Piezometer
MHWN RL 100.448
MLWN RL 99.548
Monitoring Array Type A
Rod extensometer & tip location
Inclinometer
Vibrating wire piezometer
Inclinometer /
extensometer in soil
Heave Stake
Ground settlement Marker
Casagrande Standpipe Piezometer
MHWN RL 100.448
MLWN RL 99.548
Instrumentation and Monitoring
Piezometer for Kallang Formation
Instrumentation and Monitoring
Daily Instrumentation Review Table
Instrumentation and Monitoring
Daily Instrumentation Review Table
Instrumentation and Monitoring