Services Hot Water Provisions For Commercial Buildings

SERVICES HOT WATER (SHW)
PROVISIONS RESEARCH PAPER for

COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

For

Australian Building Codes Board

July 2003
Revision 4
Project 16020

TABLE OF CONTENTS
REPORT ISSUE AUTHORISATION................................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY................................................................................................................................... 3
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 4
1.1 BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................................................4
1.2 OBJ ECTIVES ..........................................................................................................................................4
1.3 EXCLUSIONS .........................................................................................................................................4
2 SERVICES HOT WATER.......................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................................5
2.2 HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT................................................................................................................5
2.3 HEATING ENERGY SOURCE...................................................................................................................6
2.3.1 Low cost waste heat......................................................................................................................... 6
2.3.2 Non renewable direct fuels .............................................................................................................. 6
2.3.3 Mains electricity .............................................................................................................................. 6
2.3.4 Mains electricity Heat Pumps....................................................................................................... 7
2.3.5 Solar ................................................................................................................................................ 7
PIPING........................................................................................................................................................7
2.4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS .......................................................................................................................7
2.5 OUTLET DEVICES / TERMINAL UNITS.....................................................................................................8
3 SHW DESCRIPTIONS FOR ALTERNATIVE BUILDING FORMS AND BUILDING CLASS....... 9
3.1 INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................................9
3.2 BCA CLASS 2 - APARTMENTS...............................................................................................................9
3.2.1 Form A and Form B......................................................................................................................... 9
3.2.2 Form E............................................................................................................................................. 9
3.3 BCA CLASS 3 - HOTELS........................................................................................................................9
3.3.1 Form A............................................................................................................................................. 9
3.3.2 Form D............................................................................................................................................ 9
3.3.3 Form E............................................................................................................................................. 9
3.4 BCA CLASS 5 - OFFICES .....................................................................................................................10
3.4.1 Form A, Form B and Form D........................................................................................................ 10
3.4.2 Form E........................................................................................................................................... 10
3.5 BCA CLASS 6 RETAIL CENTRES / SALES OUTLETS ..........................................................................10
3.5.1 Form B and Form C...................................................................................................................... 10
3.5.2 Form D.......................................................................................................................................... 10
3.6 BCA CLASS 8 - LABORATORIES..........................................................................................................10
3.6.1 Form C and Form D...................................................................................................................... 10
3.7 BCA CLASS 9 HEALTH CARE AND EDUCATIONAL BUILDINGS.........................................................10
3.7.1 Form B and Form C...................................................................................................................... 10
3.7.2 Form D.......................................................................................................................................... 10
4 DESIGN OPTIONS FOR SIZING SERVICES HOT WATER............................................................ 11
4.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................11
4.2 BUILDING FUNCTION...........................................................................................................................11
4.3 HEAT TRANSFER EQUIPMENT..............................................................................................................12
4.3.1 Instantaneous systems selection considerations ............................................................................ 12
4.3.2 Storage systems selection considerations ...................................................................................... 13
4.3.3 Storage systems configuration....................................................................................................... 14
4.3.4 Storage systems scheduling ........................................................................................................... 14
4.4 HEATING ENERGY SOURCE.................................................................................................................15
4.5 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS .....................................................................................................................15
4.5.1 Piping ............................................................................................................................................ 15
4.5.2 Pipe insulation............................................................................................................................... 16
4.5.3 Pumps ............................................................................................................................................ 19
4.6 OUTLET DEVICES / TERMINAL UNITS ...................................................................................................21
4.7 WARM WATER SYSTEMS ....................................................................................................................22
16020 Revision 4 page 1 of 50
5 SERVICES HOT WATER USAGE PROFILES.................................................................................... 23
5.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................................23
5.2 PREDICTED SHW USAGE PROFILES .....................................................................................................23
6 SHW ENERGY SAVING OPTIONS AND ENERGY CONSUMPTION GUIDELINES.................. 24
6.1 ENERGY SAVING OPTIONS ..................................................................................................................24
6.1.1 Heat Transfer Equipment .............................................................................................................. 24
6.1.2 Heating Energy Source.................................................................................................................. 25
6.1.3 Distribution Systems...................................................................................................................... 25
6.1.4 Outlet devices / Terminal units ...................................................................................................... 26
6.2 ENERGY CONSUMPTION GUIDELINES..................................................................................................26
7 AVERAGE SEASONAL COLD WATER SUPPLY TEMPERATURES............................................ 30
8 RECOMMENDED BCA AND AUSTRALIAN STANDARD AMENDMENTS................................. 32
APPENDIX A BUILDING FORMS................................................................................................................ 35
APPENDIX B STANDARD SHW SYSTEM DEFINITIONS AND FEATURES....................................... 37
APPENDIX C APPLICATION SIZING GUIDES......................................................................................... 40
APPENDIX D SERVICES HOT WATER SIZING GUIDE......................................................................... 42
APPENDIX E USAGE PROFILES................................................................................................................. 43
APPENDIX F REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 50

This report is based specifically on confidential briefing information provided by the Client and is not intended for
use by unauthorised persons or parties. No warranties are made to any unauthorised persons or parties in
respect of the contents of this report.

SEMF Holdings Pty. Ltd
45 Murray Street
Hobart TAS 7000
A.C.N. 009 543 702

Telephone (03) 62311211
Facsimile (03) 62348709
Email semf@semf.com.au

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report describes the outcomes of an investigation of Services Hot Water (SHW)
efficiency measures suitable for inclusion in the BCA proposed energy provisions for
commercial buildings, Class 2 to Class 9B.
The report outlines typical SHW systems for a range of different building forms and
classification types and the various features associated with these systems. Typical usage
profiles, energy consumption guidelines and SHW sizing concepts are detailed.
A range of potential energy saving measures is identified for the various components in SHW
systems.
Whilst no specific recommendations are required in relation to this report, we would
recommend that a MEPS program and performance criteria for boiling water units (BWU) be
implemented as it was identified during our investigation that no regulatory controls for BWUs
currently exist and these units use a considerable amount of energy.
Simplified guides to assist in the design of SHW systems and in the calculation of SHW
energy consumption are also provided within this report.
A range of potential minimum requirements for implementation into the BCA are identified,
including the possible development of an Australian standard for boiling water systems and a
package of best practice design notes.

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
The Australian Building Codes Board (ABCB), in cooperation with the Australian Greenhouse
Office (AGO), is developing energy efficiency measures suitable for inclusion in the Building
Code of Australia (BCA). A number of technical working groups have been established to
assist the ABCB in developing suitable cost effective technical energy efficiency measures
for inclusion in the BCA.
Commercial Working Group Number 4 (WGC4) is specifically looking at the HVAC and
Service Hot Water (SHW) services.
As a preliminary to WGC4s consideration of SHW energy measures, identification of the
standard design concepts for SHW systems was required. Hence, the ABCB Office sought
expert advice on SHW systems that met the objectives described below.
1.2 Objectives
The specific objectives of the SHW review are as follows:
1. To identify typical SHW for a range of representative buildings and variations for the
various classes of building;
2. To provide specific descriptive advice on these systems including control features,
maximum pipe work lengths, recirculating pumps, scheduling of multiple heating units
and heating unit configurations;
3. Identify how SHW systems are sized;
4. Identify energy saving features in SHW systems, indicative costs and energy efficiency
savings that such features could realise;
5. To provide recommendations on how to estimate energy consumption, including unit
standing losses, piping losses and water heating based upon average supply water
temperatures and activity profiles;
6. To identify average seasonal supply water temperatures for state and territory capital
cities and Cairns, Coffs Harbour, Geraldton, Alice Springs and Kalgoorlie; and
7. Provide standard usage profiles for each of the building forms and classes.

1.3 Exclusions
This review is intended to only investigate SHW systems for provision of potable water to
tenants and occupants within buildings. It is not intended to be a review of Swimming pools,
Spas or the provision of hydronic space heating systems.
The specific sizing of SHW systems is not included within this commission, however general
design and sizing guidelines are outlined within this report.
Details on Services Hot Water for process applications is also excluded.

2 SERVICES HOT WATER
2.1 Introduction
For the purposes of this report we have defined Services Hot Water systems only in the
context of the delivery of potable water to occupants. SHW system design is controlled by a
number of regulatory systems including AS3500.1.2:1998 Water supply - Acceptable
solutions, AS3500.4.2:1997 Hot water supply Acceptable Solutions, NSW Hosplan Code
of Practice on thermostatic mixing valves (TMVs) and various local authority requirements in
each State and Territory.
SHW systems may consist of distributed instantaneous heating and storage water systems
and local boiling water units. SHW systems consist of four primary components, viz., the
heat transfer equipment, the heating energy source, the piping distribution system, and the
outlet devices or terminal units.

2.2 Heat Transfer Equipment
Two primary forms of heat exchange units are used in Services Hot Water systems to raise
the cold-water make-up water to the required supply water temperature. The primary heat
transfer systems typically consist of storage water units with some form of immersion heater
or heat exchange mechanism. The second form of heat transfer consists of instantaneous
heating, which adds heat directly to the distributed water. Note that some of the newer SHW
systems on the market consist of a combination storage and instantaneous heating.
For commercial buildings, heating is primarily provided by either gas or electricity although
heat reclaim and solar collectors are also used.
Gas heaters are capable of being labelled in Australia, with an energy star-rating scheme,
similar to that utilised for electrical equipment. Gas equipment is rated under an Australian
Gas Association scheme (AGA), using their Method of Test for Energy Labelling of Space
Heaters AG103 MOT 5.18.1 1998. Details on the energy rating of gas-fuelled systems
can be reviewed on the web site www.gas.asn.au
Electric Storage heaters are labelled under a similar Minimum Energy Performance Scheme
(MEPS). Electric Storage water heaters are labelled using AS1056.1 1991 under the
energy rating scheme managed by the Australian Greenhouse Office. Details on the
energy rating of electric storage hot water cylinders can be reviewed on the web site
www.energyrating.gov.au. Under this scheme electric storage heaters must meet the
minimum efficiency requirements of the standard to be allowed to be sold within Australia.
The efficiency requirements are based on standing heat losses of the storage vessels. A
star rating system, similar to that used for gas water heaters to compare the relative
efficiency of models, has not been setup for electric hot water heaters.
It is evident that there are some shortfalls in current regulatory requirements in terms of heat
transfer equipment. Whilst the design and efficiency requirements of storage hot water
systems are stipulated by Australian Standards, there are no similar regulations for the
efficiency or construction of Boiling Water Units. Given the number of BWUs installed in
commercial buildings, we believe that a MEPS rating scheme needs to be instigated.
Note in some instances it may be a requirement to consider duty and standby systems,
particularly in centralised designs to ensure that the end users are not disadvantaged should
the centralised option generate a fault.

2.3 Heating Energy Source
A number of alternative energy sources exist for SHW systems. These may be electrical
(either direct electric or heat pump), solar (either Photovoltaic or solar collector), fuel
(typically LPG or Natural Gas) or recovered waste heat (i.e. flue gases, refrigeration cycles,
process water, etc.)
Heating energy sources can be categorised into the following types.
2.3.1 Low cost waste heat
A source of waste heat may already exist as part of the buildings process systems. This may
be fluids which have been utilised as cooling agents for process systems. Examples include
heat rejected from refrigeration for cool rooms and freezer plant and heat from wastewater.
Alternatively a cogeneration plant, which typically consists of a fuel driven engine generating
electricity for a building, can provide waste heat from the engines exhaust and cooling jacket
by passing the waste heat through heat exchangers for distribution to the domestic hot water.
The heat exchangers need to be constructed to meet the requirements for potable water.
These are commonly engineered on a project-by-project basis, however the ROTEX system
distributed by Origin Energy is a standardised mass produced heat exchanger specifically
designed for this application.
2.3.2 Non renewable direct fuels
Natural Gas and LPG are the two most common fuels for use with SHW systems. Natural
gas has a number of advantages over LPG in that it generates fewer greenhouse gases than
LPG and is also significantly cheaper as a fuel source. Gas fired SHW systems can operate
across a broad range of efficiencies, with ASHRAE 90.1-1999 specifying minimum
efficiencies of 62% for heating units below 58kW and ranging between 75% and 80% for
larger units. When considering gas heated units exact details need to be sought from the
manufactures heating transfer equipment data sheets.

2.3.3 Mains electricity
Standard mains electricity systems are available in two options:
Standard tariff electricity
Standard tariff electricity is the most common SHW heating energy source.
Electricity has a number of disadvantages in that it generates the highest
greenhouse gases of all fuel sources (with the exception of green power schemes)
and is the most expensive fuel type with the exception of LPG. The advantages of
electricity are that it is the only convenient fuel source for boiling water units and that
standard hot water cylinders are at their most economical capital cost when
operating on mains electricity. In addition it is a very easy energy source to supply
to SHW heating systems.
Off peak electricity
Off peak electricity offers an advantage over standard tariffs in that electricity is
provided at a cheaper tariff than at the standard tariff. However, off peak electricity
is only available at specific times for limited periods. To use an off peak tariff SHW
systems require correctly sized storage tanks that can accommodate the standing
losses and the SHW draw-off during the day.
It should be noted that greenhouse gas emissions are significant if a non-renewable
electricity source is used.
2.3.4 Mains electricity Heat Pumps
Standard mains electricity is utilised in heat pump water heaters that use a standard vapour
compression refrigeration cycle to extract heat from ambient air and reject heat into the
stored water to heat the water to the required temperature. By drawing the heat from the
atmosphere, heat pumps have efficiency in the region of 300% over standard electrical
storage water systems and offer significant energy saving benefits.
Heat pumps operate on a similar principle to refrigerators where heat is transferred from one
place to another. This is achieved by cold liquid refrigerant collecting heat from ambient air
and changing from a liquid to a gaseous state, the compressor compressing the refrigerant
gas to a high pressure, thus raising its temperature, and subsequently rejecting heat from the
high pressure, high temperature gas to the water storage tank. This heat transfer liquefies
the refrigerant in the process.
There are two main types of heat pump systems. The first works as a standard air source
unit, which is integral to the storage tank, with a fan to force air over an evaporator to soak
up the ambient heat and a coil in the storage tank through which heat is rejected to the
water. The second type is a solar boosted heat pump, in which the air warmed evaporator is
replaced by a solar panel exposed to solar radiation. In this unit the refrigerant is piped
through the panel and is heated up by both solar radiation and ambient air. The heat
rejected from the refrigeration cycle is again discharged via a coil in the storage tank to the
water.
Domestic style heat pump systems have very few limitations, with heat pumps being suitable
for operation in most weather conditions. Some systems are claimed to operate correctly at
temperatures below 0
o
C. The common style of heat pump is capable of maintaining a water
temperature of approximately a maximum of 60
o
C without any boost heating system.
However in SHW systems for kitchen applications, require water at approximately 80
o
C, an
in-line booster is necessary.
Heat pump systems are generally only available up to approximately 350L capacity.
2.3.5 Solar
This is the most greenhouse gas friendly energy source. Some form of booster is still
required, particularly in colder climates, to assist in times of low solar availability. Booster
systems are typically electricity, gas or LPG. Two primary forms of solar-fuelled hot water
cylinders are available from the standard solar collector, which circulates the water through a
solar collector panel and thereby picks up heat from the available solar gains, to photovoltaic
technology. The PV cell option is the more expensive of the two.
2.4 Piping Distribution Systems
This is the piping network which allows the hot water to be distributed to any required
location in a building. It may include circulation pumps. A cold-water make-up is provided to
replenish water drawn from the SHW system
In Australia, the distribution piping is commonly constructed from copper piping and copper
based fittings. However, the prevalence of blue water problems in copper piping systems is
resulting in the use of cross linked polyethylene or similar approved plastic pipe as an
alternative piping material. Consideration of local environmental conditions, in terms of the
water quality, should be considered in respect of determining pipe materials.
2.5 Outlet devices / Terminal units
These are the plumbing fixtures through which hot water is delivered to the user. They may
include mixing devices to control water delivery temperatures or deliver water at the same
temperature as the distributed water system.
As Legionella can occur in water systems, outlet devices need to be selected to minimise
potential health problems if the water temperature is dropped below 50
o
C. This applies
specifically to thermostatic mixing valves and the like.
A significant array of outlet devices exist, the evaluation of which is beyond the scope of this
review, however details of typical outlets, that are used in the majority of installations, and
their flow rates are identified in Appendix D. Where specialist equipment is connected to the
SHW system, designers can obtain flow rates, temperature ranges and any other relevant
design details from the manufacturers literature.
The usage patterns of outlets vary significantly depending upon the buildings usage profile
and its functional requirements.
3 SHW DESCRIPTIONS FOR ALTERNATIVE BUILDING FORMS
AND BUILDING CLASS
3.1 Introduction
As part of the ABCB proposed implementation of energy efficiency measures in the BCA, a
set of representative building forms has been developed to standardise the energy efficiency
requirements between all of the various investigative and technical committees.
A total of five standard building forms have been developed described as Forms A, B, C, D
and E. Each building form could potentially be utilised as a different Class of building as
defined by the BCA one of Class 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 or 9. Definitions for the various building
forms and building class can be found in Appendix A.
Appendix B provides, in the form of a table, the definition of the standard SHW systems,
which would be provided for the various building forms and classes.
Definitions for the SHW systems, which would typically be provided for the various building
forms and building Class, are described in the following sections.

3.2 BCA Class 2 - Apartments
3.2.1 Form A and Form B
It is recommended that a localised SHW system be provided for each apartment. Systems
can be either storage or instantaneous. An alternative is a centralised storage SHW system
supplying hot water to several floors. The SHW water flow to each apartment can be
measured to allocate energy costs.
3.2.2 Form E
Localised SHW systems for each apartment. Systems can be either storage or
instantaneous.

3.3 BCA Class 3 - Hotels
3.3.1 Form A
A central storage SHW supplying SHW to several floors is recommended. A single
recirculating system would usually be provided to supply a number of floors, typically 3 to 4
floors for a Form A building and all three floors of the Form B building.
3.3.2 Form D
A central storage SHW supplying all SHW points on the floor is recommended. The
recirculating system would be designed and installed to accommodate the SHW needs of the
whole building.
3.3.3 Form E
Localised SHW systems for each apartment. Systems can be either storage or
instantaneous.

3.4 BCA Class 5 - Offices
3.4.1 Form A, Form B and Form D
Depending on the size of the tenancy, a localised storage system is recommended for each
office. In the case of small tenancies it may be appropriate to install a centralised system
that supplies SHW to each tenancy. The common amenities areas would be supplied from a
centralised SHW system.
3.4.2 Form E
Due to small size of the building it is recommended that localised storage SHW systems be
provided for each office. The SHW systems for the office areas may also supply the building
amenities area.

3.5 BCA Class 6 Retail Centres / Sales Outlets
3.5.1 Form B and Form C
Localised storage or instantaneous systems for each tenancy. The common amenities areas
will be supplied with a centralised recirculating SHW system.
3.5.2 Form D
Localised storage or instantaneous systems for the tenancy. The amenities areas could be
provided from the tenancy systems or by a separate localised storage or instantaneous
system.

3.6 BCA Class 8 - Laboratories
3.6.1 Form C and Form D
Instantaneous systems are recommended as most laboratory environments typically use
large volumes of cold water and low volumes of hot water on a variable as required basis.
Amenities areas could be supplied from the laboratory SHW system or from a localised
storage or instantaneous system.

3.7 BCA Class 9 Health Care and Educational Buildings
3.7.1 Form B and Form C
Typically, the common amenities areas would be supplied from a centralised recirculating
SHW system. Localised storage systems or instantaneous systems would be provided for
special purpose spaces or isolated areas.
3.7.2 Form D
A reticulated central storage SHW throughout the floor is recommended. The amenities
areas would be supplied from this system.
4 DESIGN OPTIONS FOR SIZING SERVICES HOT WATER
4.1 Introduction
A wide range of technical literature is available for the design and sizing of SHW systems.
The technical resources which were reviewed as part of this investigation, and upon which
the following design information is based, included:
ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-1989 Users Manual, November 1992 ASHRAE;
1999 ASHRAE Applications Handbook SI 1999 ASHRAE;
RHEEM Hot Water Manual 2000 Rheem Australia;
DUX Hot Water Catalogue 1999 Dux Australia;
AIRAH Handbook Millennium 3
rd
edition, January 2000 AIRAH; and
Rinnai Hot Water Manual 2000 edition, Rinnai Australia.
In addition to these design guides the designer must incorporate, when required by approval
authorities, the relevant sections of AS/NZS 3500 National Plumbing and Drainage Code.
In designing the SHW system the design process needs to be broken up into the various key
components of SHW systems as defined in Section 2.
The designing of SHW systems incorporates the following steps:
1. Building function and size to determine usage patterns;
2. Identification of all areas in which hot water will be utilised, including type and form of
outlet devices and water flow rates;
3. Identify peak demand periods;
4. Identify supply water temperature requirements;
5. Determine most suitable energy option, including a life cycle review of alternatives;
6. Select appropriate heat transfer equipment option;
7. Identify available storage spaces for location of heat transfer equipment; and
8. Design of distribution system, including pipe sizing, insulation and pumping
requirements.
9. Selection of outlets including flow restriction devices if appropriate

4.2 Building Function
The BCA provides within Part F2 of Volume 1 a calculation for the number of occupants and
minimum required fixtures for buildings. Note that the requirements of the BCA in this area
are prescriptive requirements and where the number of occupants is known, this value may
take precedence over the BCA Table D1.13.
A determination of the function of the space, in relation to the BCA building classification,
allows the designer to allocate peak flow rates and hot water usage patterns in the selection
of the most appropriate SHW system.
Appendices C and D provide recommendations for typical hot water usage patterns for
various building classifications, including design flows and peak usage periods.

4.3 Heat Transfer Equipment
The most popular choices for provision of hot water to a variety of applications are either by
storage units or instantaneous units. Both systems can be installed as either a single unit or
in a multiple configuration dependent upon user requirements.
Both of the systems described are suitable for single domestic type applications or by
extending to multiple manifolded units are suitable for larger applications.
The storage design option relies on an energy source to heat water within a storage vessel
sized to provide sufficient hot water for a pre-determined level of use. The level of use is
calculated from expected usage rates of hot water for a fixture (i.e. basin, shower etc). The
usage rates for all of the fixtures on the SHW system are summed and then allowance made
for diversity of use to give the maximum hot water volume to be held in storage. The storage
vessel is fitted with heating elements that have the capacity to heat the stored water, some of
which has been drawn off by the various fixtures, within a particular time period (recover the
heated level of the stored water at pre-determined rate). For particular size storage units the
recovery rate is governed by the size and number of heating elements, if electricity is the
heating element, or the capacity of an attached gas fired instantaneous heating device, if gas
is the chosen heating medium. Storage units are manufactured in a large variety of sizes
and capacities and are usually housed in metal cabinets, which are either cylindrical or
rectangular in external shape.
Within NSW the Australian Gas Limited Company (AGL) has a number of requirements for
the design of SHW systems involving gas heaters which requires a minimum 80% efficiency.
The efficiency is based on the heat losses of the flow and return pipe work and the heat
transfer equipment as a combined system.
The more recently developed gas instantaneous units are generally small in volume, can be
electronically programmed to differing temperatures and deliver limitless (subject to
continuity of fuel source) hot water.
The selection of solar or heat pump systems should be considered as one of the more
energy efficient systems.
The Rheem hot water book provides a table of advantages and disadvantages associated
with the most common forms of heating water and is a recommended resource for SHW
designers.
4.3.1 Instantaneous systems selection considerations
Determine available space and identify any restrictions. Typically, the fuel source is gas but
electric systems are also available.
Location typically external, if internal then a ventilation system may be required.
Internal Flue Cost and practicality of fluing options, less practical generally if not on an
external wall, particularly in a multi storey application.
Visual Impact A flue grille may not be permitted to exit on a heritage rated building or
building element or onto a pedestrian way. The flue grille should be unobtrusive, clear of
outside air intakes and windows and comply with the relevant gas code, and vulnerability to
vandalism in non secured area can be an issue.
External Flue Points to note are that the local atmosphere could be corrosive, the visual
impact of the flue, what local planning rules require, are there any heritage issues, provision
of access to gas source, provision of access for maintenance, and the need for security
covers.
Control Systems: The instantaneous unit can be remotely controlled by the user or
alternatively pre-set to deliver water to fixtures. The units can also be pre-programmed to
deliver water at lower temperatures for warm water systems although these must incorporate
some facility for regular disinfection of the entire system. Many instantaneous systems are
supplied with microprocessor controllers, which can program the scheduling of multiple units.
These systems can also be managed by building a building management and controls
system (BMCS).
Advantages: - Limitless supply of hot water utilising a variety of selection methods for
temperature control. Energy savings achieved by not needing to store large volumes of pre
heated water for intermittent use.
Disadvantages: - External space requirements for gas storage if LPG is the energy source.
The units should allow for controlled short-term temperature rises for disinfection or
alternatively the delivery system to which they are attached can be fitted with an ultra-violet
disinfection lamp.

4.3.2 Storage systems selection considerations
Space the space required for the installation and maintenance.
Location external location as opposed to internal, the visual impact, sometimes necessary
to locate units at a distance from fixtures due to space limitations. Generally should be
located as close as possible to fixtures that require a short / quick supply of hot water.
Internal - Space availability, impact on other building elements for replacement, potential for
damage to adjacent building elements resulting from failure of the water storage tank(s),
disruption to building function for replacement. Seek advice from the water authority on their
historical knowledge of tank failures so that the storage tank selected provides a life
appropriate to the system. Determine water pH in the area as it can have an adverse effect
on storage tank life.
External Assess the visual impact, the vulnerability to vandalism in non-secured areas, if
corrosive atmosphere is a problem, and if electric, what is the access to the power source.
Control Systems: The storage units are typically on-off control from a thermostat mounted
within the storage vessel to control stored water temperature. For load scheduling purposes
it may be possible to accept lower hot water temperatures when heating elements are
initiated by a BMCS to limit maximum demand.
Advantages A storage system will provide a reservoir of hot water for a limited time in the
event of an energy failure. They provide simplicity of installation with few moving parts.
Disadvantages - A prolonged initial heat up period is required. The storage tanks occupy a
large amount of space. If the amount of water storage is limited then the reheat time can be
longer. There is potential to cause significant property damage in the event of a failure of the
tank.

4.3.3 Storage systems configuration
Configuration of units is required to address the diversity of applications for hot water unit
installation. Items for consideration are:
Type and style of facility;
Known ambient water temperature;
Required temperature rise;
Known capacity of selected unit(s) to meet criteria;
If a storage system with remote heating, location of the storage unit; and
Cross reference to unit type selection.
The various areas within a facility may have varying hot water temperature requirements,
ranging from 82
o
C in a restaurant kitchen to approximately 42
o
C in nursing homes.
Consideration should be given to selection of separate heating water systems for specific
areas, such as kitchens, to avoid heating water to the maximum temperature and then
cooling down again to supply the remaining areas that typically may only require 60
o
C water.
Storage system configurations may vary from individual systems located adjacent to the
outlets to large central systems located in a common area with a flow and return distribution
network. Each system has its own advantages and disadvantages.
Where the hot water storage system is remote from the heating source, eg., heat reclaim,
wood fired, or some solar collector systems, the storage tank should be insulated to so that it
provides a heat loss no greater than that of an integral heat source/water storage unit.

4.3.4 Storage systems scheduling
The units, regardless of type and style, can be installed in multiples to address the specific
needs of the facility being served. Storage units can be installed in parallel with the hot water
supply being drawn equally from all storage units to meet demand or alternatively through
the installation of electronically controlled valving and switching can be drawn on a unit-by-
unit basis.
A criterion for this component of design is identified as follows:
Type and style of facility;
Known ambient water temperature;
Known rate of use, in litres per second, to meet the demand of fixtures; and
Minimum level of either storage or achievable delivery rates.
Where there are a number of storage units are installed to meet the SHW demands the
system should be provided with an expansion system such that water is not lost from the
system. This expansion system needs to comply with the requirements of providing potable
water.

4.4 Heating Energy Source
The selection of the heating energy source is dependent upon a number of factors including
available equipment types that can meet the functional requirements of the SHW system,
and their proposed location.
The unit cost of energy, and its impact on the life cycle costing, generally determines the
energy source and the heating system efficiency. A life cycle analysis is recommended, as
the more economical energy sources are often associated with the highest capital-intensive
heating transfer equipment.
Consideration of the greenhouse gas generating levels of energy sources is becoming a
critical issue with preference being towards energy sources that have very low emission
levels.
The following points need to be considered in the selection of SHW systems:
Cost of energy source.
User preferences.
Availability of the energy source, i.e., whether gas main piping is available nearby for
connection, the availability of mains electricity, the extent of any solar contribution, if
the electrical infrastructure is adequate. Limitations in the electrical infrastructure
could mean that gas or some other form of energy source are the only available
options unless significant expenditure is made to upgrade the electrical supplies.
With electrical systems there are a number of different tariff systems which can have
an impact upon the selection of the heat transfer equipment. The main tariffs
available include:
Continuous, 24 hour supply;
Off peak, where energy is only available at specific times; and
Maximum demand which applies a charge for each kW of energy
usage at a particular instance in time, but offers a cheaper unit
electricity rate.
4.5 Distribution Systems
The distribution system comprises the water piping, the piping insulation and, if necessary,
circulating pumps.
4.5.1 Piping
The determination of pipe systems and piping working lengths is governed by the following:
Code stipulations for maximum allowable linear run of smaller diameter pipe, i.e.
AS/NZS3500.5: 2002 Domestic Installations;
Head loss;
Friction loss;
Demand of the fixtures and fittings to be connected to the subject pipe in terms of flow
rates;
Piping materials; and
Allowable temperature losses from the heat transfer equipment to the outlet device.
A number of pipe sizing guidebooks are available to enable sizing of the piping distribution
system to meet the peak demand at an acceptable pressure loss. Whilst it is difficult to
provide guidelines for what is an acceptable pressure loss, the pressure losses should be
minimised to ensure that minimum pressure levels are achieved at the outlet. Guidebooks
include the AIRAH handbook, Application Manual DA19 and ASHRAE 1997 Fundamentals.
The designer should review the local water quality to determine if piping materials other than
copper need to be considered.
In large systems balancing of the piping network will need to be undertaken to ensure
suitable water delivery occurs when multiple outlets are drawing water. This is particularly
important where multiple risers / droppers exist or multiple horizontal circulating loops exist.
Check valves should be installed in the return lines.
Backflow prevention devices may need to be considered in specific instances. Reference to
the relevant Australian Standard AS/NZS3500.1.2
A common rule of thumb criterion, to assist in the sizing of hot water piping networks, is that
hot water needs to be available at any terminal device, eg. a tap, within 30 seconds of the
terminal device being opened.
A rule of thumb design for a typical flow velocity is around 1.8m/s.

Pipe insulation
The insulation of heating water pipe work is critical in SHW systems to overcome the
potentially high level of heat loss that radiates from uninsulated pipe work. Insulation of pipe
work has been proposed for regulation within Volume 2 of the BCA, through a recommended
amendment to AS/NZS3500.4.2 and similar provisions are recommended for Volume 1.
In NSW the AGL requires that all hot water piping be insulated with minimum 25mm thick
insulation.
The BCA requires that any insulation product not add to the fire potential of a building and
therefore must have a zero flammability index.
The minimum piping insulation requirements proposed in Energy Efficiency Measures BCA
Volume 2 (Housing Provisions), Amendment No. 12 Prepublication Draft, November 2002.for
SHW reticulation pipe work in domestic applications is climate zone based. This could also
be utilised as the basis of SHW systems for Commercial building. The proposed measures
are shown in the following table.

TABLE 4.5.2-1 Proposed BCA Housing Provisions for Insulation of SHW Piping

Minimum Thermal Insulation
Minimum Total R- Values System Location of Piping to be insulated
Climate
Zone A
Climate
Zone B
Climate
Zone C
All hot water piping encased within a concrete floor
slab
0.2 0.2 0.2 Internal piping
All flow and return piping that is:
within an unventilated wall space, or
within an internal floor between storeys, or
between ceiling insulation and a ceiling
0.2 0.2 0.2
All flow and return piping 0.3 0.45 0.6
Cold water supply piping within 500mm of connection
to the central water heating system
0.3 0.45 0.6
Piping located
within a ventilated
wall space, an
enclosed building
sub-floor or a roof
space
Relief valve piping within 500mm of the connection to
the central heating water system
0.3 0.45 0.6
All flow and return piping 0.3 0.6 0.6
Cold water supply piping within 500mm of connection
to the central water heating system
0.3 0.6 0.6
Piping located
outside the
building or in an
enclosed building
sub-floor or a roof
space
Relief valve piping within 500mm of the connection to
the central heating water system
0.3 0.6 0.6

Notes:
1. Piping within a timber member, such as passing through a wall stud, is considered to have sufficient
insulation for the purposes of the above table.
2. Acceptable pipe insulation material, include but is not restricted to:
a. 9mm of closed cell polymer, R = 0.2
b. 13mm of closed cell polymer, R = 0.3
c. 19mm of closed cell polymer, R = 0.45
d. 25mm of closed cell polymer, R = 0.6
3. Climate Zones A, B and C include the following Capital Cities and reference towns:
a. Zone A Coffs Harbour, Sydney, Alice Springs, Darwin, Brisbane, Cairns, Perth, Geraldton and
Adelaide;
b. Zone B , Melbourne, Canberra, Hobart and Kalgoorlie and
c. Zone C Alpine Areas

ASHRAE 90.1-1989 stipulates the minimum pipe insulation thickness requirements shown in
the following table.

TABLE 4.5.2-2 ASHRAE 90.1 1989 Insulation Thicknesses for SHW Piping

Temperature Nominal Pipe diameter
Dead legs up to
50mm dia
1
25mm and less 32mm to 50mm 65mm to 100mm 125mm and
above
>40
o
C 12.5 mm 25.0 mm 25.0 mm 38.0 mm 38.0 mm
Notes:
1. Dead legs to individual terminal outlets of a maximum length of 3660mm
2. The above requirements relate to recirculating sections of SHW systems and the first 2.5m
from storage vessels of non-recirculating systems.

We note that the ASHRAE requirements are in many instances more stringent than the
proposed ABCB recommendations within Volume 2 of the BCA. For commercial applications
the ASHRAE recommendations would appear to be more suitable, but consideration of
environmental effects as proposed for AS/NZS3500 should be included. A combination of
the more stringent recommendations in each document would result in the following
tabulated proposal for SHW insulation thicknesses.
TABLE 4.5.2-3
Climate
Zone
Nominal Pipe diameter
Any size
encased in
concrete floor
Dead legs up
to 50mm dia
1
25mm and
less
32mm to
50mm
65mm to
100mm
125mm and
above
A
12.5 mm 12.5 mm 25.0 mm 25.0 mm 38.0 mm 38.0 mm
B
12.5 mm 12.5 mm 25.0 mm 25.0 mm 38.0 mm 38.0 mm
C
12.5 mm 12.5 mm 25.0 mm 25.0 mm 38.0 mm 38.0 mm

The calculation of minimum insulation for pipe work is provided within ACI Insulation data
sheets, and the formula to calculate this value is as follows:
r
2
log
e
(r
2
/r
1
) = k(t
d
-t
op
) / (f
o
(t
a
-t
d
)
Where:
r
2
= pipe thickness + insulation thickness
r
1
= pipe thickness
k = thermal conductivity of insulation W/mK
t
d
= dew point temperature
t
op
= operating temperature of equipment
f
o
= surface coefficient of air film
t
a
= surrounding ambient temperature
Whilst the above equation provides the calculated minimum insulation thickness it is
recommended that a 12mm thick safety margin be added to the calculated thickness.

4.5.3 Pumps
Pumps are installed in SHW piping systems to ensure that hot water will be available at a
terminal point at a adequate flow rate and pressure and within a reasonable period of time.
When selecting pumps the designer needs to consider whether primary or secondary
pumping is appropriate for the piping system.
Primary Pumping:
Primary pumping is generally used to supplement the delivery of cold make-up water to the
heating units (storage or instantaneous) where the cold water supply is inadequate. The
need for primary pumping should be assessed on available delivery pressure, expected head
and friction losses within the internal components of the system and the known demand of
the fixtures to be served.
Secondary Pumping:
In secondary pumping the secondary (or circulating) pump is located beyond the heating
units and circulates water in a delivery loop back into the heating or storage tank. If the
pump is adequately sized this ensures that the hot water in the loop is such that, when a
terminal unit is opened, there is only a short delay before hot water is available at the
terminal unit.
In hot water systems where the supply temperature is above 60
o
C circulation of hot water in
the loop contains the growth of Legionella. At 60
o
C Legionella is killed over a 10-hour period.
(Higher temperatures speed up the rate of kill but a higher SHW temperature is not
necessary for by maintaining a temperature at all times above this minimum temperature of
60
o
C Legionella will not grow)
Individual fixtures or thermostatic mixing valves can be connected off the loop and thus are
served with a continuously upgraded supply of hot water.
Generally a circulating pump is selected based on the following criteria:
Static pressure available at the cold water main connection;
Length of service loop pipe;
Friction loss in the loop piping;
Pump head loss through the system;
Demand of the fixtures attached to the system in terms of minimum working
pressures and flow rates; and
Appropriate corrosion resistant materials.
Secondary Pump Sizing:
Typically, the secondary pump is sized as follows:
Determine an allowable temperature loss from the heat transfer equipment and the
return water manifold. Typically a temperature drop of between 5
o
C and 10
o
C (t) is
selected. This temperature differential is determined from the minimum storage water
temperature of typically 60
o
C and the lowest recommended supply temperature of
50
o
C to avoid potential Legionella problems. The higher the temperature differential
the lower the flow rate that is required and hence lower pumping energy use and heat
loss from the distribution system. Consideration needs to be given to lengths of dead
legs as this may require a lower temperature differential in the flow/return line to
ensure that water in dead legs is at a reasonable temperature to avoid potential
Legionella problems.
Calculation of heat loss in watts per hour from the flow and return pipe work (watts).
The above is used to determine the minimum return water flow rate as follows:
Flow rate, L/s = Heat loss (W) / (4.186 x 1000 x t)
From the return water flow rate, and knowing the total system resistance head, a
suitable circulation pump can be selected from a manufacturers pump data literature.
The recommended minimum flow rate is 0.05 l/sec (3.0 l/min.) and the maximum
recommended flow rate in pipe work is 3.0 l/sec (180 l/min). These flow rates may be
adjusted if instantaneous heater or storage water devices are used.
The level of sophistication of the system is determined by assessing the number of outlets to
be served and the conditions in which the system is to be installed. The system should be
designed to achieve the best levels of efficiency in terms of water delivery and energy
consumption.
Circulating pumps should be provided with time clock control in instances where usage is not
continuous, i.e. offices. To improve energy efficiency, pumps should be controlled by the
following mechanisms, particularly in larger installations:
Control via a thermostat in the return water line to operate the pump over an
acceptable temperature range; and
Consideration could be given to installation of a pressure sensor in the piping network
for control of pump speed via a VSD on the pump. This will provide energy savings
where variable loads occur.
The following tables outline heat loss rates for bare and insulated piping systems. These
tables can be used to estimate the heat loss from the piping and hence allow the pump
circulation flow rate to be determined.
Table 4.5.3-1 - Heat emission from bare copper pipes
W/m run of horizontal pipe (in still air at 20
o
C)
Nominal pipe
diameter, mm
Uninsulated pipe
per
o
C
Uninsulated pipe per
40
o
C temp difference
(i.e. at 60
o
C delivery)
15 0.67 27
20 0.97 39
25 1.26 50
32 1.53 61
40 1.8 72
50 2.33 93
65 2.84 114
80 3.34 134
100 4.34 174
Source: AIRAH DA16 Application Manual Table 5-30E and ASHRAE 1999 Applications
Handbook Section 48, Table 2
Note:
1. ASHRAE recommend for rule of thumb instances to utilise an average value of 60W/m for uninsulated
pipe.
2. Values approximately double when bare pipe work is exposed in a 2 m/s wind.
3. Vertical pipe work emits heat at approximately a 10% higher rate.

Table 4.5.3-2 - Heat emission from insulated copper pipes
W/m run of horizontal pipe (in still air at 20
o
C)

Nominal pipe
diameter, mm
Insulated pipe per
40
o
C temp difference
(i.e. at 60
o
C delivery)
R = 0.3
Insulated pipe per
40
o
C temp difference
(i.e. at 60
o
C delivery)
R = 0.6
Insulated pipe per
40
o
C temp difference
(i.e. at 60
o
C delivery)
R = 1.0
15 13.6 7.6 6.4
20 15.2 9.2 7.2
25 18.0 10 8.4
32 20.8 11.6 9.6
40 22.8 12.8 10.4
50 26.0 14.8 11.6
65 30.8 17.6 14.0
Source: Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide 1988, UK Institute of Plumbing.
Note:
1. ASHRAE recommend for rule of thumb instances to utilise an average value of 30W/m for insulated pipe.
2. R ratings are achieved as follows:
a. 0.3 m
2
.
o
C/W is achieved with 13mm closed polymer insulation
b. 0.6 m
2
.
o
C/W is achieved with 25mm closed polymer insulation
c. 1.0 m
2
.
o
C/W is achieved with 38mm fibreglass insulation

4.6 Outlet devices / terminal units
The selection of the outlet devices is usually beyond the control of the designer of the SHW
system as the architect or end user stipulates them. However the SHW designer can have
an input into energy saving features such as follows:
Consider installation of flow control devices in the distribution system to minimise
water flow rates at outlets to minimum requirements;
Discuss with the architectural team and end user in the design stages the benefits of
alternative equipment selections with more efficient energy ratings;
Generally, when specifying outlet devices consider low flow AAA rated devices;
Select devices with low energy consumption rates; and
Correctly size and locate Thermostatic Mixing Valves (TMVs) where supply water
temperature from the hot water system must be at 60
o
C and delivered at outlets at
approximately 42
o
C.

4.7 Warm Water Systems
In instances where water can be supplied throughout a complex at say 45
o
C or lower warm
water systems can be utilised which are essentially the same as typical SHW systems with
the exception of the supply water temperature. The major advantage of these systems is the
energy savings that are achieved by avoiding any requirement to heat water to the
recommended 60
o
C and then cool it back down again at the outlet. It should be noted that in
aged care and disabled facilities warm water temperature systems are stipulated.
The disadvantages are that Legionella flourishes in the temperatures at which warm water
systems operate and specialised disinfection systems are necessary. Systems such as UV
disinfection systems create additional maintenance issues and if not properly maintained will
create a Legionella risk. UV systems also require specific flow rates, which will affect the
selection of pumps. In addition warm water systems are required registration items by state
governments, which adds an additional ongoing expense to the end user and needs to be
considered in any life cycle analysis.

5 SERVICES HOT WATER USAGE PROFILES
5.1 Introduction
The use of SHW in a particular building varies from season to season and day to day. In
Australia there are no public records of SHW water use and hence energy use.
Consequently it is difficult to estimate how the energy use of a SHW system varies with time.
In order to enable comparisons to be made of different systems, SHW use profiles are
proposed for the different BCA building classes. The respective profiles are based on
maximum hot water usage rates for the building class. The maximum rate would be
determined for the number of terminal units.
5.2 Predicted SHW usage profiles
There is insufficient data available to enable seasonal and weekly profiles to be developed
so only daily profiles for weekday and weekend use in each of the building classes were
estimated. It is proposed that these profiles then be applied to the SHW system throughout
the year.
They will not provide an accurate estimate of energy use but will enable comparisons to be
made between different systems.
The predicated usage profiles have been determined for a range of typical building
classifications. The profiles are tabulated in Appendix E.
The building classifications and types for which the profiles have been developed are:
Class 2 Apartments;
Class 3 Motels;
Class 5 Offices;
Class 6 Retail;
Class 7 Storage;
Class 8 Workshop; and
Class 9 Healthcare.

6 SHW ENERGY SAVING OPTIONS AND ENERGY
CONSUMPTION GUIDELINES
6.1 Energy Saving Options
The provision of energy saving options needs to be considered in the context of each of the
four key components of SHW systems as defined in Section 2.

6.1.1 Heat Transfer Equipment
Services Heating Water should be separate from any central heating water systems
for supply of heating water to air conditioning systems or hydronic heating systems.
All storage vessels should be appropriately insulated to reduce standing losses.
AS1056.1 defines requirements for maximum heat loss levels that are acceptable
with all new storage vessels.
To save energy from hot water expansion, heat traps or cold-water expansion
valves or expansion chambers should be provided. An amendment, Amdt 1, to
AS/NZS 3500.4.2 is proposed as part of the energy efficiency measures for the BCA
Volume 2 (Housing Provisions), which was issued in March 2002.
All hot water piping for domestic hot water systems should be insulated.
Instantaneous heating water systems are typically more energy efficient than
storage systems. Where practical, instantaneous systems should be utilised in lieu
of storage systems.
Equipment needs to be correctly sized for the expected loads. Both peak loads and
typical daily profiles need to be determined as accurately as possible.
Boiling water units are commonly oversized. Experience shows that with the quick
recovery time of boiling water units smaller units can be selected.
The utilisation of local boiling water units rather than distributed central systems
should be investigated, as local BWUs provide a far more efficient form of hot water
delivery.
Boiling water units and storage water units should be selected for maximum energy
efficiency.
Timer control of heating systems should be incorporated to minimise standing heat
losses.
Gas fired heating sources should operate on electronic ignition and consideration
should be given to modulation of the gas flow.
Limit water temperature to the lowest permissible level. Most SHW systems
typically heat water to 60
o
C or greater and then it is mixed at the outlets for a final
delivery temperature of only 30
o
C to 50
o
C. Provide stand-alone SHW systems to
areas with very high water temperature requirements, i.e. 82
o
C to kitchens.
Locate the heating equipment as close to the terminal units as possible to minimise
piping lengths.
In low use areas, i.e. sports facilities or kitchenettes, provide instantaneous systems
to avoid any storage losses and provide on/off control to ensure the system is only
available when the space is utilised.
Select equipment with high levels of energy efficiency with high star rating that meet
the MEPS criteria.
Gas equipment is rated under an AGA scheme, which provides star ratings, based
upon annual gas consumption levels. A review of the current literature indicates that
a minimum star rating of 3.0 stars for storage and gas boosted solar hot water
systems and 5.0 stars for instantaneous hot water systems should be considered.
Wherever possible look at utilising sources of waste heat as a preheating option for
the cold water.
Alternatives to the above are to install an energy efficient heat pump or to install
solar collectors to pre heat the cold-water inlet to a temperature of approximately
35
o
C-40
o
C. A significant number of variations of this concept would have been
installed throughout Australia and their effectiveness / efficiency should be reviewed.
For a cost saving measure, designs have occasionally been developed which utilise
an off-peak heater arrangement to preheat the cold-water inlet, and then three
phase heating equipment would meet peak immediate load requirements. Whilst
this may have energy cost savings, further investigation would need to be
undertaken to determine if it actually reduces energy consumption. An initial
assessment would appear to indicate that this is not the case and at best that the
concept is energy neutral compared to a standard bank of HWCs. It appears that
off-peak preheating and then heating before use systems should not be considered
as an energy efficient design option.

6.1.2 Heating Energy Source
Consideration should be given to the use of solar hot water systems where
appropriate as these systems (if correctly installed, commissioned and maintained)
provide the lowest greenhouse gas generation.
Generally solar power is both the most economical and results in the lowest
greenhouse gas emissions. Gas is considered as the next most greenhouse
friendly fuel source and if it is Natural Gas it is relatively economical.
Day rate electricity is typically the most expensive energy source and is also the
highest in greenhouse emissions (unless generated in Tasmania or by any of the
Green Energy Sources now available from many of the power retailers throughout
Australia)
A review of available fuel types to evaluate greenhouse gas emissions associated
with each option should be undertaken as part of the evaluation.
If process water or other alternatives of waste heat exist, consider using heat
exchanger type systems to take advantage of this free heating energy.

6.1.3 Distribution Systems
Circulating pumps should be controlled to only operate when required.
Dead legs in piping systems should be minimised and preferably eliminated totally.
All hot water lines, including return water lines should be insulated. Minimum
thermal insulation levels have been proposed in the recommended Amdt 1 to AS
3500.4.2
Design the piping waste system to run grey waste though a storage vessel / heat
exchanger to recover some of the waste heat which is usually never recovered
when hot water has been used.
Provide pressure reduction devices in the system, to assist in limiting water flow
through outlets and to increase equipment life.

6.1.4 Outlet devices / Terminal units
Selection of low flow fixtures and fittings is a critical area as any reduction in water
usage is a reduction in energy use. In addition reduced pipe sizes, which have
reduced energy losses and are more economical to install, may be a secondary
benefit.
The use of a water flow management system, including flow restrictors and pressure
reducing devices valves, is recommended.
The purchase of water-using equipment including dishwashers and washing
machines needs to be considered on the basis of their water efficiency. A selection
based on AAA water consumption and a minimum four star energy rating are
recommended.
Install outlets with self closing mechanisms.

6.2 Energy Consumption Guidelines
The determination of the energy consumption of SHW systems must include the following
components:
Storage vessel standing losses.
Piping system losses.
Delivery temperature, storage temperature and cold water makeup temperature.
Hot water demand from all fixtures.
Daily hot water usage profile.
Fuel source and heating systems efficiency.
Heating mechanism, i.e. instantaneous, storage or hybrid.
Circulating pump power usage and operating times.
Guidelines to enable estimates of energy consumption of SHW systems are provided below.
Storage vessel and boiling water unit standing losses are provided in Tables 6.2-1
and 6.2-2 below.
Piping system heat losses are tabulated in Tables 4.5.1-1 and 4.5.1-2
Delivery temperatures and seasonal cold water temperatures are provided in
Appendix D and Section 7. Storage temperatures are typically recommended to be at
the minimum end of storage requirements where possible, i.e. 60
o
C, unless a warm
water system is being provided or delivery temperatures need to be higher.
The hot water demand for typical fixtures are supplied in Appendix D
Typical hot water usage profiles are available from Section 5 and Appendix E
Fuel greenhouse gas emissions and efficiency of various heating systems are
tabulated in Tables 6.2-3 and 6.2-4.
Circulating pump power usage will be available from manufacturers data and the
operating times can be based upon usage profiles.

Table 6.2-1 - Electric Water Heaters, Maximum Heat Loss
1 2 3 4
Maximum heat loss, kWhr/24h (refer note 1)
Water heaters without an attached
feed tank

Rated Hot Water
delivery, (L)
Unvented (refer
note 2)
Vented
Water heaters
with an attached
feed tank
25 1.4 1.4 -
31.5 1.5 1.5 -
40 1.6 1.6 -
50 1.7 1.7 -
63 1.9 1.9 -
80 1.47 2.1 -
100 1.61 2.3 2.6
125 1.75 2.5 2.8
160 1.96 2.8 3.1
200 2.17 3.1 3.4
250 2.38 3.4 3.7
315 2.66 3.8 4.1
400 2.87 4.1 4.4
500 3.15 4.5 4.8
630 3.43 4.9 5.2
Source: AS1056.1-1991, amendment 3 1996 Table 2.1
Notes:
1. These values apply to water heaters with a single heating unit and may be increased by 0.2 kWh/24h for
each additional heating unit.
2. The values in Column 3 may be used instead of the values in column 2 for un-vented water heaters
without an attached feed tank that are manufactured in Australia before 1
st
October 1999 or imported
before 1
st
October 1999.
The values for un-vented water heaters without an attached feed tank may be increased by 0.2 kWh/24h
for each temperature sensor or temperature relief valve mounted on a hot-water fitting, but not for any
valve on a cold-water fitting.

Table 6.2-2 - Boiling Water Units, Rated Heat Loss
Rated Capacity Rated cup
capacity
Element kW Heat Loss
(kWh/24h)
2L 10-14 1.5 1.12
3L 15-18 1.5 1.04
5L 30-35 2.4 1.50
7.5L 45-50 2.4 1.52
10L 60-75 2.4 2.03
15L 100-125 2.4 2.23
25L 150-190 3.6 2.71
35L 200-280 2.4 x 2 4.94
50L 300-490 3.6 x 2 5.71
75L 450-740 3.6 x 2 Note 1
100L 600-980 3.6 x 2 Note 1
Source: ZIP Product Guide, Technical Data dated 19/5/98
Notes:
1. Data was not available at time of printing.
2. Capacity and heat loss based on cold water at 20
o
C and supply temperature of 100
o
C.

Table 6.2-3 - Heating Systems efficiency
System Efficiency
Instantaneous gas heaters 80% - 85%
Electrical Storage water heaters 95% - 98%
Gas storage water heaters 62% - 80%
Heat pumps 300% - 450%
Note:
1. System efficiencies are related to the heat transfer equipment and ignore inefficiencies related to heat
loss in piping network etc, as losses associated with the distribution network should be calculated
separately.

Table 6.2-4 - Fuel greenhouse gas conversion factors
Fuel Energy Content CO
2
emissions (kg
CO
2
/GJ)
Natural Gas Australian Average 39.5 MJ/m3 59.4
LPG 49.6 GJ/tonne or
25.3 GJ/kL
59.4
Heating Oil 37.3 GJ/kL 69.7
Fuel Oil 40.8 MJ/L 73.6
Diesel 38.6 GJ/kL 69.7
Electricity (1999 values) 3.6 GJ/Mwhr 0.968
NSW/ACT 0.968
Victoria 1.467
Queensland 1.040
SA 1.109
WA 1.032
Tasmania 0.002
NT 0.756
Australian Average 1.051

7 AVERAGE SEASONAL COLD WATER SUPPLY
TEMPERATURES
AS2984 has identified four climate zones for Australia in which recommended cold water
temperatures have been established. Table 7-1 below details cold-water temperatures on a
monthly basis for each of the four climate zones.

Table 7-1 - Cold Water Temperatures
O
C
Month Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4
January 28 29 23 20
February 28 27 23 20
March 27 24 21 18
April 25 20 18 15
May 23 14 15 11
June 20 11 12 9
July 20 9 11 8
August 21 12 12 10
September 24 18 15 12
October 26 23 19 15
November 28 26 21 17
December 28 28 22 19
Average 24.8 20.1 17.7 14.5

Source: AS4234-1994, Solar Water Heaters-Domestic and Heat pump-Calculation of energy
consumption Table A5
The State and Territory capital cities and major cities fall into the following Zones:
Zone 1: Darwin and Cairns;
Zone 2: Alice Springs;
Zone 3: Perth, Adelaide, Canberra, Sydney, Brisbane, Geraldton,
Kalgoorlie and Coffs Harbour and
Zone 4: Melbourne and Hobart

Rinnai published a range of cold-water temperatures, which differ marginally from those,
identified in AS4234-1994 as follows:
1. Darwin - 20
o
C to 30
o
C (Zone 1)
2. Cairns - 20
o
C to 35
o
C (Zone 1)
3. Alice Springs - 0
o
C to 30
o
C (Zone 2)
4. Perth - 18
o
C to 32
o
C (Zone 3)
5. Adelaide - 15
o
C (Zone 3)
6. Canberra - 3
o
C to 25
o
C (Zone 3)
7. Sydney - 12
o
C to 25
o
C (Zone 3)
8. Brisbane - 20
o
C to 30
o
C (Zone 3)
9. Geraldton - 20
o
C to 35
o
C (Zone 3)
10. Kalgoorlie - 18
o
C to 32
o
C (Zone 3)
11. Coffs Harbour - Not identified (Zone 3)
12. Melbourne - 15
o
C (Zone 4)
13. Hobart - 12
o
C (Zone 4)
Temperature zones as identified in AS4234 are noted adjacent for comparative purposes.
Between the two sources of information, it would appear that the generalised zonings in
AS4234 are not suitable in all cases. We would recommend the following variations:
For Canberra, we would recommend that it be considered as a Zone 4 location, as
should any highland areas.
Perth would appear more suited to category Zone 1, rather than the current Zone 3.
Brisbane, Geraldton and Kalgoorlie should be located in Zone 1, rather than Zone 3.
8 RECOMMENDED BCA AND AUSTRALIAN STANDARD
AMENDMENTS
A number of opportunities exist for implementing energy efficiency provisions in respect of
SHW systems in commercial buildings, i.e. Volume 2 - Class 2 to Class 9. The following
provides a number of potential recommendations, which could be included, either directly in
the BCA, or alternatively included in Australian Standards, that are referenced in the BCA.
Recent amendments to AS3500.4.2 now specify a number of mandatory minimum energy
efficiency requirements for hot water supply systems. These amendments include:
Provision of insulation on cold water pipe between storage water heaters and the
closest valve;
The first 500mm of the outlet pipe or to an external heat trap to be insulated;
The primary flow and return pipes between a storage water heater and auxiliary
heaters to be insulated;
Vent pipes to 300mm above the working water level of the hot water system to be
insulated;
On systems with multiple hot water heaters, the whole hot water manifold and 500mm
past the hot water outlet branch from the last hot water heater to be insulated;
Hot water system pipe sections in specific locations to be insulated; and
All new or replacement hot water systems to be installed with a heat trap.
Some minimum amendments that are recommended for inclusion in the BCA include:
1. All hot water systems to be installed in accordance with the latest Section 6A
amendments to AS/NZS 2500.4.2;
2. All hot water pipe work and associated valves, strainers etc, to be insulated i.e. the
amended AS/NZS 3500.4.2 does not require insulation of the entire heating water
piping system;
3. Where hot water service areas require differing temperatures, i.e. kitchens at 80
o
C
nominal and 60
o
C nominal to general amenities areas, separate heating water
systems or booster heaters shall be supplied to the high temperature areas, to avoid
excess heating for the areas with lower temperature requirements;
4. Storage water heaters to be designed to avoid (or minimise) water loss due to
expansion and any pipe work between the storage water heater and any expansion
devices to be insulated;
5. Heating water systems in commercial installations which do not require draw down
overnight to be fitted with time control devices;
6. Any in-line water storage devices, in addition to the storage water heaters, to be
insulated;
7. Any hot water system which is utilised for space heating purposes shall be a separate
heating system to the domestic hot water systems for potable water, unless the
heating system is a wood fired storage system, solar or similar;
8. A minimum of triple A rated (as rated on the WSAA web site) showerheads and
tapware to be installed;
9. Generally a means of educating the end user that the use of infrequent energy
consuming systems such as spas, etc. or systems in holiday homes with infrequent
usage should be shut down when the spaces are unoccupied. Alternatively the
system should be fitted with mandatory (but over-rideable) time clocks to ensure
automatic shutdown when not in use;
10. Where alternative fuel systems to electricity are available, i.e. natural gas, that serve
a multitude of units etc. it is recommended that the lower greenhouse gas emission
fuel source be the preferred design solution. Instantaneous heaters are also more
efficient in many instances to storage water heaters. We are unsure at this stage
however as to how it would be possible to mandate this as a requirement in a
regulatory document such as the BCA, although they could be referenced in the
performance requirements. An option could be for a set of best practice design notes
be developed which could perhaps be referenced within the BCA.

In relation to the above, concessions could be given for water heaters which are solar or heat
pump types due to their greater efficiency. However the potential does exist that a future
replacement may be back to a standard storage hot water system and energy inefficiencies
will then occur. If these systems are installed their installation may need to be managed to
ensure that any replacement of heating water systems also be included under the BCA
approval process.
We also recommend the development of an additional standard that is then referenced in the
BCA. This standard would be:
1. an Australian Standard for boiling water units, which will stipulate minimum thermal
insulation values and general minimum energy efficiency requirements
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Building Forms
Appendix B: Standard SHW System Definitions and Features
Appendix C: Application Sizing Guides
Appendix D: Service Hot Water Sizing Guide
Appendix E: Usage Profiles
Appendix f: References

Appendix A

Building Forms
The following building forms were developed by the ABCB Office and the Working Groups to
provide building shapes that are thermally representative of buildings of a particular class but
of varying size.

Form A

total FECA 10,000 m
2
total NLA 8,500 m
2

Floors 10
aspect ratio 1:1

NLA/floor 850 m
2
Length 31.6 m
Depth 31.6 m

floor-floor 3.6 m

Form B

total FECA 2,000 m
2
total NLA 1,700 m
2

Floors 3
aspect ratio 2:1

NLA/floor 567 m
2
Length 36.5 m
Depth 18.3 m

floor-floor 3.6 m


Form C

total FECA 1,000 m
2
total NLA 950 m
2

Floors 1
aspect ratio 1:1

NLA/floor 950 m
2
Length 31.6 m
Depth 31.6 m

floor-floor 6.0 m

Form D

total FECA 500 m
2
total NLA 475 m
2

Floors 1
aspect ratio 5:1

NLA/floor 475 m
2
Length 50.0 m
Depth 10.0 m

floor-floor 3.3 m

Form E

total FECA 200 m
2
total NLA 190 m
2

Floors 1
aspect ratio 2:1

NLA/floor 190 m
2
Length 20.0 m
Depth 10.0 m

floor-floor 3.3 m

Appendix B

STANDARD SHW SYSTEM DEFINITIONS and FEATURES

SHW PROVISIONS IN COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

SHW System Application
S
t
o
r
a
g
e

I
n
s
t
a
n
t
-
a
n
e
o
u
s

Control
Maximum
pipe
lengths
Circulating
pumps
multiple
unit
scheduling
heating unit
configuration
Centralised SHW Form A-Class 2, Form A-Class 5, Form B-
Class 2, Form B-Class 5, Form B-Class 6,
Form C-Class 6, Form C-Class 8, Form
D-Class 5, Form D-Class 9,
no yes water temp. -
water off
thermostat,
pump - time
clock
50 to 80 m yes All on together parallel
Centralised Storage
SHW
Form A-Class 2, Form A-Class 3, Form A-
Form B-Class 5, Form B-Class 6, Form B-
Class 9, Form C-Class 6, Form C-Class
9, Form D-Class 3, Form D-Class 5, Form
D-Class 9,
yes no water temp. -
storage tank
water
thermostat,
pump - time
clock
50 to 80 m yes Typically
managed by a
microprocessor
and minimum
water flow
rates
parallel
Localised SHW Form A-Class 2, Form B-Class 2, Form B-
8, Form D-Class 5, Form D-Class 6, Form
D-Class 8, Form E-Class 2, Form E-Class
3,
no yes water temp. -
water off
thermostat
10 to 20 m no n/a n/a
Localised Storage SHW Form A-Class 2, Form A-Class 5, Form B-
Form B-Class 9, Form C-Class 6, Form
C-Class 9, Form D-Class 5, Form D-
Class 6, Form E-Class 2, Form E-Class 3,
Form E-Class 5,
yes no water temp. -
storage tank
water thermostat
10 to 20 m no n/a n/a



SHW System Application
S
t
o
r
a
g
e

I
n
s
t
a
n
t
-
a
n
e
o
u
s

Control
Maximum
pipe
lengths
Circulating
pumps
multiple
unit
scheduling
heating unit
configuration
Hybrid Centralised SHW Form A-Class 2, Form A-Class 3, Form A-
Form B-Class 5, Form B-Class 6, Form B-
8, Form C-Class 9, Form D-Class 3, Form
D-Class 5, Form D-Class 9,
yes yes water temp. -
water off
thermostat,
pump - time
clock
50 to 80 m yes Typically
managed by a
microprocessor
and minimum
water flow
rates
parallel

Notes:
1. The hybrid version is the close-coupled instantaneous heat source fitted to storage systems.
2. Maximum pipe lengths are dependant upon available water pressures, suitable heater locations, pumping systems, piping insulation. No maximum or
recommended allowable piping lengths are stipulated in any literature reviewed as part of this report


Appendix C

APPLICATION SIZING GUIDES

Sizing Guide Commercial Applications
Application BCA
Class
Outlet type Peak periods Peak
spread
(Hrs)
Hot water usage
(L/person UNO)
Aged Homes 9C Showers 9:00am 3 hr 18L per patient
Residential 2 Showers 7:00am and
6:00pm
1 hr 15L
2 Basins Variable 2L
2 Kitchen Sink 8:00am and
8:00pm
hr 7L per sink full
2 Dishwashing
machine
8:00am and
8:00pm
1 hr 10L per meal
2 Clothes washing
machine
variable 50L per week
Hotels/motels 3 Showers 8:00am 1 hr 18L per person,
allow 1.5 people
per room
3 Dishwashing sinks 10:00am and
10:00pm
2 hrs 6L per 3 course
meal
3 Dishwashing
Machine
10:00am and
10:00pm
2 hrs 180L per 2 hours
3 Glass washing
machines
Weekdays 3 hrs 55L per hour or
3 Glass washing
machines
Weekends 6 hrs 7L per 25 glasses
3 Clothes washing
machines
Variable 4 hrs 15L per person
Offices 5 General showers
rarely used
Variable 8 hrs 4 L per person
Retail - hairdressing 6 Basins Variable 4 hrs 4L per client
Retail take-away 6 Dishwashing sink 12:00 noon 2 hrs 3L per meal
Retail - restaurant 6 Dishwashing sink 9:00am, 12:00
noon, 8:00pm
2 hrs 5.5L per 3 course
meal
Retail - restaurant 6 Dishwashing
machine
9:00am, 12:00
noon, 8:00pm
2 hrs 180L per 2 hrs
Retail - Laundry 6 Clothes washing
machine
Variable 8 hrs Allow 70L per
machine per hr.
All All Baths Various 1 60L per bath
Miscellaneous
Gymnasiums Showers Variable 4 hrs 20L per person
Factories light Showers 4:00 pm 1 hr 20L per person,
assume 30% usage
Factories - heavy Showers 4:00 pm 1 hr 20L per person,
assume 200%
usage

Appendix D

SERVICES HOT WATER SIZING GUIDE
WATER FLOW RATES

Fittings Outlet Flow (L/s)
Hot water Cold water
Typical mixed
water
temperature
o
C
Typical
usage
period (min)
Bath 0.20 to 0.30 0.20 to 0.30 40 5
Cleaners Sink 0.30 0.30 55 - 60 0.5
Drinking Fountain - 0.03 Cold water only
Dishwashing
machine
0.20 to 0.30 0.20 to 0.30 55 1-2
Basin 0.10 0.10 35 0.5-1
Hose Cock - 0.20 to 0.30 Cold water only
Laboratory outlet 0.10 0.10 55 - 60 1-2
Stock pot 0.30 - 55 - 60 0.5
Shower 0.10 0.3 0.10 0.3 40 5-10
Toilet Cistern - 0.10 Cold water only 1.5
Washing machine
small
0.20 to 0.30 0.20 to 0.30 60 4-5
Kitchen sink 0.20 0.20 55 1-2
Laundry trough 0.20 0.20 55 3-5
Spa bath 0.30 0.30 40 25
Restaurant sinks 0.20 0.20 82 1
Glass washer 0.25 60 1

Source: AIRAH Millennium Handbook Edition and Dux

Appendix E

USAGE PROFILES

The profiles in the following tables are shown as a percent of the maximum activity level.

The table entries S/S/PH means Saturday / Sunday / Public Holiday.


Class 2 - Apartments
(hour
ending)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Weekday
occupancy 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 50 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 50 95 95 95 95 95 95
lights 5 5 5 5 5 10 40 40 20 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 25 25 80 80 80 50 25 5
office
power
5 5 5 5 5 5 15 15 5 5 5 15 15 5 5 5 5 35 35 15 10 10 5 5
hvac 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
shw 0 0 0 0 20 20 80 60 40 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 20 20 20 60 50 10 0
S/S/PH

occupancy 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 95 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 95 95 95 95 95 95 95
lights 5 5 5 5 5 10 40 40 20 10 10 10 10 10 10 20 35 60 80 80 80 50 25 5
office
power
5 5 5 5 5 5 25 25 10 10 5 15 15 15 15 25 25 40 35 15 10 10 5 5
hvac 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
shw 0 0 0 0 20 20 80 60 40 20 10 10 20 20 10 10 10 20 20 20 60 50 10 0



Class 3 - Motel
(hour
ending)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Weekday
occupanc
y
90 90 90 90 90 90 90 80 50 10 10 10 10 10 10 20 50 50 70 70 80 90 90 90
lights 5 5 5 5 5 25 80 80 50 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 50 50 50 50 50 5
office
power
10 10 10 10 10 10 15 15 15 10 10 10 10 15 15 15 15 30 30 30 30 30 10 10
hvac 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
shw 0 0 0 0 0 20 80 80 50 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 30 50 50 30 30 50 10 0
S/S/PH

occupanc
y
70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 50 50 20 20 20 20 20 30 50 50 50 50 70 80 90 90
lights 5 5 5 5 5 25 80 80 50 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 50 50 50 50 50 50 5
office
power
10 10 10 10 10 10 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 30 30 30 30 30 10 10
hvac 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
shw 0 0 0 0 0 20 60 60 50 20 10 10 10 10 10 10 30 50 50 30 30 50 10 0



Class 5 - Offices
(hour
ending)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Weekday
occupancy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 90 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 97 75 25 10 2 2 0 0
lights 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 10 10
office
power
40 40 40 40 40 40 40 45 95 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 80 45 40 40 40 40 40
hvac 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
shw 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 20 30 10 40 40 10 10 40 10 5 5 0 0 0 0 0
Saturday

occupancy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 50 50 50 50 50 50 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
lights 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
office
power
40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 45 55 55 55 55 55 55 45 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
hvac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
shw 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Sunday

occupancy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 50 50 50 40 40 40 25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
lights 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
office
power
40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 45 55 55 55 55 55 55 45 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
hvac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
shw 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Public Hol.

occupancy 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
lights 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
office
power
40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
hvac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
shw 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0



Class 6 - Retail
(hour
ending)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Weekday
occupanc
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 20 20 15 25 25 15 15 15 15 5 5 0 0 0 0 0
lights 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 10 10 10 10 10
display
lights
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 0 0 0 0 0
hvac 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
shw 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 20 10 20 80 80 80 60 10 60 60 60 30 0 0 0 0
S/S/PH

occupanc
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 20 20 15 25 25 15 15 15 15 5 5 0 0 0 0 0
lights 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 10 10 10 10 10
display
lights
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 0 0 0 0 0
hvac 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
shw 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 20 10 20 80 80 80 60 10 60 60 60 30 0 0 0 0



Class 7 Warehouse
(hour
ending)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Weekday
occupanc
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 70 90 90 90 50 85 85 85 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
lights 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 40 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 40 5 5 5 5 5 5
power 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
hvac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
shw 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 20 20 30 10 10 30 10 10 30 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0
Saturday

occupanc
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 20 20 20 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
lights 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 30 30 30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
power 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
hvac 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
shw 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0



Class 8 - Workshop
(hour
ending)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Weekday
occupanc
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 10 20 95 95 95 95 50 95 95 95 95 30 10 10 0 0 0 0
lights 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 30 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 50 30 30 5 5 5 5
power 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
hvac 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 0 0 0
shw 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 20 20 30 10 10 30 30 30 30 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0
S/S/PH

occupanc
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 30 30 30 30 10 10 10 10 10 5 5 0 0 0 0 0
lights 5 5 5 5 5 5 10 10 30 30 30 30 15 15 15 15 15 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
power 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
hvac 0 0 0 0 0 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
shw 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Class 9a - Healthcare
(hour
ending)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
All days
occupanc
y
0 0 0 0 0 0 5 40 70 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 30 0 0 0 0 0 0
lights 5 5 5 5 5 5 50 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 90 5 5 5 5
power 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 20 50 75 75 75 75 75 75 75 60 20 10 10 10 10 10 10
hvac 0 0 0 0 0 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0
shw 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 20 20 30 10 40 40 10 10 40 10 5 5 0 0 0 0 0


Appendix F

References
A number of sources where reviewed in preparing this report as follows:

AS/NZS 1056.1: 1991 Storage Water Heaters, Part 1: General Requirements.
AS/NZS 1056.4: 1997 Storage Water Heaters, Part 4: Daily energy consumption
calculations for electric types.
AS1361: 1995 Electric heat exchange water heaters-for domestic applications.
AS2712: 1993 Solar Hot Water-Design and Construction.
AS2813: 1985 Solar Water Heaters-Method of test for thermal performance-
Simulator method.
AS2984: 1987 Solar water heaters-Method of test for thermal performance-
Outdoor test method.
AS3498: 1995 Authorisation requirements for plumbing products-Water
heaters and hot water storage tanks.
AS3500 National Plumbing and Drainage Code
AS3500.1.1:1998 Water supply Performance requirements
AS3500.1.2:1998 Water supply Acceptable solutions
AS3500.4.1:1997 Hot water supply systems Performance requirements
AS3500.4.2:1997 Hot water supply systems Acceptable solutions
AS3500.5: 2002 Domestic Installations
AS4234: 1994 Solar water heaters-Domestic and heat pump-Calculation of
energy consumption.
AS4445.1: 1997 Solar Water Heating- Domestic water heating systems-
Performance rating procedure using indoor test methods.
AS4552: 2000 Gas Water Heaters.
AS5601: 2002 Gas Installations.

AIRAH Application Manual DA16 Air Conditioning water piping, January 1994, Australian
Institute of Refrigeration Air Conditioning and Heating and
Australian Construction Services
AIRAH Millennium Edition Handbook January 2000, Australian Institute of Refrigeration
Air Conditioning and Heating.
Hot Water Manual, 2000, Rheem Australia Limited.
ASHRAE 1999 Handbook HVAC Applications, 1999, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Incorporated.
ASHRAE 1997 Handbook HVAC Fundamentals, 1997, American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Incorporated.
ABCB Energy Efficiency Measures BCA Volume 2 (Housing Provisions) Regulatory
Proposal and Regulatory Assessment Statement, March 2002, Australian Building Codes
Board and Australian Greenhouse Office
ASHRAE/IES 90.1-1989 Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings Except Low Rise
Residential Buildings, 1989, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning
Engineers, Incorporated and Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
ASHRAE/IES 90.1-1989 Users Manual, 1992, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air Conditioning Engineers, Incorporated and Illuminating Engineering Society of North
America
DUX Hot Water Catalogue, 1999 Dux Australia
Rheem Hot Water catalogue, Rheem Australia
Rinnai Hot Water Manual, 2000 edition, Rinnai Australia

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