Flow Measurements

Obstruction Flow Meters

Pitot/Pitot-Static Tubes
Turbine, Paddlewheel, Vortex,
Ultrasonic, and Magnetic Flow Meters
Mass Flow Meters
Hot-wire/Hot-film
LDA (Laser Doppler Anemometer)
PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry)
Flow Visualization
Obstruction Meters
Orifice Meters
Inexpensive
Easy to install
Large pressure losses

Venturi Meters
High accuracy
Expensive to construct
Good pressure recovery

Flow Nozzles
Difficult to install properly
High Accuracy
Good Pressure recovery
( ) ( )
( )
1 2
2
1
2
2
2 1
2
1 2
friction) no (Assuming
Motion of Equation

Flow) sible (Incompres
Mass of on Conservati
z z g
V V P P
VA VA
+

Governing Equations
Principle of Operation-Bernoulli Eqn.
( )
Number) f(Reynolds Discharge of t Coefficien C
ly. respective , A and A at Pressure P and P
area flow nstriction orifice/co A
area flow pipe/inlet A
) ( 2
1
d
2 1 2 1
2
1
2 1
2
1 2
2
= =
=
=
=

(
(

=
where
P P
A A
A C
Q
d

Coefficient of Discharge Values

Orifice Flow Meters
Cd~0.62

Nozzle Flow Meters
Cd~0.96

Venturi Flow Meters
Cd~0.98

General characteristics
No moving parts, reliable and easy to
maintain. Widely acceptable.
Always there is a perminat loss of
pressure.
Non-linear (not good for low flow)
Can be used for clean fluids and
turbulent


Laminar Flow Meter
Correlating pressure drop in laminar flow conditions to
flow rate
Incompressible Newtonian Fluid (friction velocity gradient)
Steady Flow Conditions
Fully Developed, Laminar Flow (Re<2000)
L (required)=0.05 Re
d
d
Low pressure drop across these devices
Honeycomb or
capillary tube
bundles
Governing Equations
m length, pipe L
s Pa viscosity,
Pa drop, pressure P
m diamete, hydraulic d
/s m rate, flow Q
128
3
4
=
=
= A
=
=

A
=

t
where
L
d P
Q
.
.
act
cal
calibrated actual
Q Q

=
**Correction needed for
use with different gasses
or at a different
temperature.
Pitot-Static Tubes
Principle of Operation
Assumes:
Steady flow
Incompressible flow
Frictionless flow
Flow along streamline
t cons gz tan
2
V
P
Equation Bernoulli
2
= + +

Apply Bernoulli equations at any two points on a streamline.

Meaning we will assume no change in elevation.
Stagnation Velocity is zero.
fluid
fluid manometer
fluid
stagnation
gh P P
V

) ( 2 ) ( 2
=

=
Other examples of Pitot-Static Tubes
Pitot-Static Applications
Rotameter / Variable Area Meter
Force balance
Drag Force
Gravity
Buoyancy
(usually negligible)
Calibrated for a
specific fluid
cal
use
cal use
m m

=
**Correction need for different fluids.
Principle of Operation
g V g V F
W F F
float float float fluid drag
float buoyancy drag

= +
=
= +
2
A V
C F
Balance) (Force
frontal
2
D drag
Turbine Flow Meters
Commonly used in pipe flows (liquids or gases).
Rotational speed of turbine is proportional to velocity.
Cost=$1500
Accuracy=0.5%
Paddlewheel Flow Sensors
General characteristics- turbo meters
Can not be used for low flow because of
friction
Available to fit wide range of pipe
diameters (5 to 500mm)
Blades can get damage if particles in
fluid
Expensive and there is voltage drop


Vortex Meters

General characteristic-Vortex
Rectangle bluff body gives more vortices
Frequency of the output signal proportional
with vortices number
No moving parts hence more reliable
More accurate the orifice meters but less than
turbine
Permanent pressure loss
Used with pipes having diameters of (5 to 20
cm)
Piezoelectric or ultrasound is used for
measurements


Magnetic Flowmeter

General characteristics-Electromagnetic
No obstruction to flow ..no pressure drop
Fluids have to be conductive. So gases are out
and liquid hydrocarbons
Good accuracy and calibration is independent
of changes in viscosity, pressure, density,
temperature and others
Flow meter diameters is ( 2mm to 1200mm)
Power consumption is typically less then 30W

Coriolis Mass Flow Meter
Why Coriolis flow meters?
Highly Accurate (0.1% to 0.5%Reading)
Reliable
Minimal pressure drop
Easy to use
Flexible
Mass flow rate, volume density, viscosity,
temperature
Measure liquids, gases, slurries.
Coriolis Effect
Tube Vibration:
Process fluid entering
the sensor causes the
tubes to oscillate up and
down and with a twist.
Sensor Operation
Magnet and coil assemblies,
called pick-offs, are mounted on
the flow tubes. Wire coils are
mounted on the side legs of one
flow tube, and magnets are
mounted on the side legs of the
opposing flow tube.
Each coil moves through the
uniform magnetic field of the
adjacent magnet. The voltage
generated from each pickoff coil
creates a sine wave. Because the
magnets are mounted on one
tube, and the coils on the
opposing tube, the sine waves
generated represent the motion
of one tube relative to the other.
No flow condition
Both pickoffs - the one on
the inlet side and the one
on the outlet side -
generate sine wave current
continuously when the
tubes are oscillating. When
there is no flow, the sine
waves are in phase.

During no flow condition
there is no Coriolis effect.
Sine waves are in phase
with each other.
Flow ConditionCoriolis Effect
When fluid is moving through the
sensor's tubes, Coriolis forces are
induced. These forces cause the flow
tubes to twist in opposition to each
other. When the tube is moving
upward during half of its vibration
cycle, the fluid flowing into the sensor
resists moving upward, by pushing
down on the tube.

Having the tube's upward momentum
as it travels around the bend, the fluid
flowing out of the sensor resists
having its vertical motion decreased
by pushing up on the tube. This
causes the tube to twist. Higher the
flow, the greater the twist.
Hot Wire or Hot Film Anemometer
Normally used to measure velocities in
flows where a pitot tube is inadequate.
Turbulent or rapidly varying flows

Velocity U
Current I
Sensor (thin wire)
Sensor dimensions:
length ~1 mm
diameter ~5 micrometer
Wire supports
(St.St. needles)
In addition to velocity, the following can be
measured: temperature, density, concentration in
binary gas mixtures, wall shear stress, vorticity,
pressure, heat flux, etc. Sensors can also be used
to detect boundary layer transition and flow
separation.
Thermal Anemometers
Consider a thin wire mounted to supports and
exposed to a velocity U.
When a current is passed through wire, heat is
generated (I
2
R
w
). In equilibrium, this must be
balanced by heat loss (primarily convective) to the
surroundings.
Principles of operation
If velocity changes,
convective heat transfer
coefficient will change,
wire temperature will
change and eventually
reach a new equilibrium.
) (
2
fluid wire
T T hA R I =
R
wire
= R
wire
(T
wire
)
Modes of anemometer operation
Constant Current (CCA)
-Rarely used.


Constant Temperature (CTA)
-Used almost exclusively in modern equipment
Constant Current Anemometer
A CCA (Constant Current Anemometer) circuit is an
electronic circuit designed to supply a constant
current flow to the sensor. The current level is
usually quite low, so that the sensor does not become
heated. However, as the temperature of the fluid
surrounding the sensor changes, the sensor
temperature also changes. This causes the sensor
resistance to change a well. Together, with the
constant current through the sensor, the voltage
across the sensor will vary in proportion to the sensor
resistance (temperature).
Constant current anemometer CCA
Principle:
Current through
sensor is kept
constant
Advantages:
- High frequency
response
Disadvantages:
- Difficult to use
- Output decreases with velocity
- Risk of probe burnout

Typically used in low-turbulence flows.


Constant Temperature Anemometer
A CTA (Constant Temperature Anemometer) circuit is an
electronic circuit designed to keep the resistance in the
probe sensor constant. The resistance level is chosen to be
higher than the sensor resistance at ambient conditions,
and so the temperature of the sensor will be higher than
ambient. By maintaining a constant (higher) resistance in
the sensor, the circuit also maintains the sensor at a
constant (and higher) temperature.
Constant Temperature Anemometer CTA I
Principle:
Sensor resistance
is kept constant by
servo amplifier
Advantages:
- Easy to use
- High frequency
response
- Low noise
- Accepted standard
Disadvantages:
- More complex circuit
Heat Transfer to Fluid and Surroundings
Heat transferred to surroundings
( convection to fluid
+ conduction to supports
+ radiation to surroundings)
Convection Qc = Nu A (Tw -Ta)
Nu = h d/kf = f (Re, Pr, M, Gr,o ),
Re = U/
Conduction f(T
w
, l
w
, k
w
, T
supports
)

Radiation f(T
w
4
- T
f
4
)
H=

Simplified static analysis

Assumptions
Radiation losses small, or essentially the same between use
and calibration.
Conduction to wire supports small
T
wire
uniform over length of sensor
Velocity impinges normally on wire, and is uniform over
its entire length, and also small compared to sonic speed.
Fluid temperature and density constant. If not
compensations must be made.
Measurements near sonic speed require special
considerations.
Simplified static analysis II
Static heat transfer: heat transfer increases with Reynolds
Number
W = H I
2
Rw = hA(Tw -Ta) I
2
Rw = Nuk
f
/d A (Tw -Ta)
h = film coefficient of heat transfer
A = heat transfer area
d = wire diameter
k
f
= heat conductivity of fluid
Nu = dimensionless heat transfer coefficient
Forced convection regime, i.e. Re >Gr
1/3
(0.02 in air) and Re<140

Nu = A
1
+ B
1
Re
n
= A
2
+ B
2
U
n
n=1/2

I
2
R
w
2
= E
2
= (Tw -Ta)(A + B U
n
) Kings
law
The voltage drop is used as a measure of velocity.

Plot of I
2
versus U
1/2
should be linear
Example of Plots and Coefficients
Velocity sensitivity (Kings law coeff. A = 1.51,
B = 0.811, n = 0.43)


1,6
1,8
2
2,2
2,4
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
U m/s
E

v
o
l
t
s
Output voltage as function of velocity
Probe types I
Miniature Wire Probes
Platinum-plated tungsten,
5 m diameter, 1.2 mm length
Gold-Plated Probes
3 mm total wire length,
1.25 mm active sensor
copper ends, gold-plated
Advantages:
- accurately defined sensing length
- reduced heat dissipation by the prongs
- more uniform temperature distribution
along wire
- less probe interference to the flow field
Probe types II
For optimal frequency response, the probe should have as small a
thermal inertia as possible.
Important considerations:
Wire length should be as short as possible (spatial resolution;
want probe length << eddy size)
Aspect ratio (l/d) should be high (to minimize effects of end losses)
Wire should resist oxidation until high temperatures (want to
operate wire at high T to get good sensitivity, high signal to noise
ratio)
Temperature coefficient of resistance should be high (for high
sensitivity, signal to noise ratio and frequency response)
Wires of less than 5 m diameter cannot be drawn with reliable
diameters
Probe types III
Film Probes
Thin metal film (nickel) deposited on quartz
body. Thin quartz layer protects metal film
against corrosion, wear, physical damage,
electrical action
Fiber-Film Probes
Hybrid - film deposited on a thin
wire-like quartz rod (fiber) split fiber-film
probes.
Probe types IV
X-probes for 2D flows
2 sensors perpendicular to each other.
Measures within 45
o
.
Split-fiber probes for 2D flows
2 film sensors opposite each other on
a quartz cylinder. Measures within
90
o
.

Tri-axial probes for 3D flows
3 sensors in an orthogonal system.
Measures within 70
o
cone.
Hints to select the right probe
Use wire probes whenever possible
relatively inexpensive
better frequency response
can be repaired
Use film probes for rough
environments
more rugged
worse frequency response
cannot be repaired
electrically insulated
protected against mechanical and
chemical action
Laser Doppler Anemometry
Introduction to principles and
applications

Characteristics of LDA


Invented by Yeh and Cummins in 1964
Velocity measurements in Fluid Dynamics (gas,
liquid)
Up to 3 velocity components
Non-intrusive measurements (optical technique)
Absolute measurement technique (no calibration
required)
Very high accuracy
Very high spatial resolution due to small
measurement volume
Tracer particles are required
Cost is $50,000 to $100,000
Applications of LDA
Laminar and turbulent flows
Investigations on aerodynamics
Supersonic flows (to Mach 8)
Boundary layer flows
Turbines, automotive etc.
Liquid flows
Surface velocity and vibration measurement
Hot environments (Flames, Plasma etc.)
Highly corrosive environments
Velocity of particles

Flow with particles (seed particles)
d (known) t (measured)
Signal
Time
Laser
Bragg
Cell backscattered light
measuring volume
Detector
Processor
LDA - Fringe Model
Focused Laser beams intersect and form the
measurement volume.
Interference in the plane of intersection (see overhead)
Pattern of bright and dark stripes/planes. Fringe
spacing, s, depends on intersection angle and
wavelength=> fringe spacing is known.
beams between angle
laser of wavelength
) 2 / sin( 2
=
=
=
o

s
LDA - Optical Principle
When a particle passes through the intersection volume (interference
fringes) formed by the two coherent laser beams, the scattered light
received by a detector has components from both beams.
The components interfere on the surface of the detector.
Due to changes in the difference between the optical path lengths of
the two components this interference produces pulsating light
intensity as the particle moves through the measurement volume.
I
n
c
i
d
e
n
t

b
e
a
m
s

D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

m
o
t
i
o
n

I
n
c
i
d
e
n
t

b
e
a
m
s

If fringe distance, s, is
known, then the particle will
cross U/s fringes per
second. The particle will
generate a signal of
frequency, f=U/s.


Signal Characteristics
Frequency of Doppler signal is proportional to velocity.
Beams are stronger in the center (hence the shape).
Sources of noise in the LDA signal:
Photodetection shot noise.
Secondary electronic noise, thermal noise from preamplifier circuit
Higher order laser modes (optical noise).
Light scattered from outside the measurement volume, dirt,
scratched windows, ambient light, multiple particles, etc.
Unwanted reflections (windows, lenses, mirrors, etc).
Goal: Select laser power, seeding, optical parameters, etc. to
maximize the SNR.
Measurement of water flow inside a pump model
Photo courtesy of Grundfos A/S, DK
Measurement of flow field around a 1:5 scale
car model in a wind tunnel
Photo courtesy of Mercedes-Benz, Germany
Measurement of air flow field around a ship
model in a wind tunnel
Photo courtesy of University of Bristol, UK
Measurement of flow in a valve model
Photo courtesy of Westschsische Hochschule Zwickau, Germany
Particle Image Velocimetry Systems (PIV)
PIV systems measure velocity by determining
particle displacement over time using a
double-pulsed laser method.
A laser light sheet iluminates a plane in the flow,
and the positions of the particles are recorded
using a digital or film cameral. A fraction of a
second later, another laser pulse illuminates the
same plane, creating a second particle image.
The two particle images are analyzed using
computational tools and algorithms. Yielding
flow properties such as mean velocity, vorticity,
strain rate, and turbulence level.
PIV-Particle Image Velocimetry
Fundamentals of stereoscopic PIV systems
True 3D displacement (AX,AY,AZ) is estimated from a pair of 2D dis-
placements (Ax,Ay) as seen from left and right camera respectively
45 45
True
displacement
Displacement
seen from left
Displacement
seen from right
Focal plane =
Centre of
light sheet
Left
camera
Right
camera
Two cameras view this plane at different angles and capture
particle displacement images that also contain the influence of the
third velocity component. Innovative data reduction techniques
provide the true particle displacements and on-line display of the
3-D velocity vector field.
Overlapping fields of view
Overlap area
-0.20 -0.10 0.00 0.10 0.20
-0.20
-0.15
-0.10
-0.05
0.0
0.05
0.10
Right camera's
field of view
Left camera's
field of view
3D evaluation is
possible only within the
area covered by both
cameras.

Due to perspective
distortion each camera
covers a trapezoidal
region of the light
sheet.

Careful alignment is
required to maximize
the overlap area.

Interrogation grid is
chosen to match the
spatial resolution.
Stereo recording geometry
Focusing an off-axis
camera requires tilting
of the CCD-chip
(Scheimpflug
condition)


3D evaluation requires
a numerical model,
describing how objects
in space are mapped
onto the CCD-chip of
each camera


Parameters for the
numerical model are
determined through
camera calibration
u
o
u
o
Object
coordinates
(X,Y,Z)
Object plane
(Lightsheet
plane)
Lens plane
left & right
Left image
coordinates
(x,y)
Right image
coordinates
(x,y)
Image plane
left & right
Left / Right 2D vector maps
Left & Right camera
images are recorded
simultaneously.

Conventional PIV
processing produce
2D vector maps
representing the flow
field as seen from
left & right.

The vector maps are
re-sampled in points
corresponding to the
interrogation grid.

Combining left / right
results, 3D velocities
are estimated.
3D reconstruction
Resulting 3D vector map
Overlap area with
interrogation grid
Left 2D vector map Right 2D vector map
Recipe for a 3D-PIV experiment
Record calibration images in the desired measuring position
(Target and traverse defines the co-ordinate system!)
Align the lightsheet with the calibration target
Record calibration images using both cameras
Record simultaneous 2D-PIV vector maps using both cameras
Calibration images and vector maps is read into FlowManager
Perform camera calibration based on the calibration images
Calculate 3D vectors based on the two 2D PIV vector maps
and the camera calibration
Dantec 3D-PIV system components
Seeding
PIV-Laser
(Double-cavity Nd:Yag)
Light guiding arm &
Lightsheet optics
2 cameras on stereo mounts
FlowMap PIV-processor with
two camera input
Calibration target on a
traverse
FlowManager PIV software
FlowManager 3D-PIV option
Flow Visualization
Qualitative means to see what the
flow field looks like.
Provide information on where to locate
invasive flow sensors.

Direction Indicators
Wind Vanes
Threads attached to
thin rods
Threads attached to
surfaces
Particle Tracers
Smoke (gas flows)
Oil, incense
Dust particles
Bubbles-in water
Liquid dyes-milk is good