Cytology, the study of the structure and

function of cells
The human body contains both somatic and
sex cells

Histology is the science that
studies the microscopic structure of
normal tissues.
Cells are the building blocks of all plants
and animals
Cells are produced by the division of
preexisting cells
Cells are the smallest units that perform all
vital physiological functions
Each cell maintains homeostasis at the
cellular level
Homeostasis at higher levels reflects
combined, coordinated action of many cells
The cell theory states:
Figure 3.1
The Diversity of Cells in the Human Body
General Subdivisions of a Cell
A. Nucleus
(regulatory
center of the
cell)
B. Cell
Membrane
(selectively
permeable
boundary
between
the cell and
the
environ-
ment)
C. Cytoplasm
(everything
between the
cell membrane
and the
nuclear
compartment)
Organelles are individual
compartments in the cytoplasm
Cell Membrane
Cell membrane components
phospholipid bilayer
transmembrane (integral) and peripheral proteins
interior protein network elements of the cytoskeleton
cell surface markers glycocalyx (proteoglycans,
glycolipids, glycoproteins)

Fluid-mosaic model of membrane
structure
Plasma or Cell Membrane
OUTSIDE
INSIDE
LIPID BILAYER
Cytoplasm
Membrane Proteins
Cholesterol
Outer
Surface
Fluid Mosaic Model
of Membrane Structure
Functions of the cell membrane

Selectively isolates the cells contents
from the external environment and
serves as a barrier

Regulate the exchange of substances
between the inside and outside of the
cell transport function

Receptor function

The phospholipid bilayer is the fluid
portion of the membrane
Double layer
Polar head group: hydrophilic exterior
Non-polar hydrocarbon tails: hydrophobic interior

Cholesterol molecules are part of
the lipid bilayer


Adds strength
Adds flexibility
Affects fluidity


Classified by position:

Integral proteins
Peripheral proteins
Membrane proteins:
Classified by function:

Anchoring proteins
Recognition proteins
Receptor proteins
Carrier proteins
Channels

Membrane proteins
Integral and peripheral proteins
Types of membrane proteins
functional classification
Transport proteins
For passage of materials through the
plasma membrane
Channel vs. carrier proteins

Receptor proteins
Bind molecules and trigger cellular
responses
Example: hormones

Recognition proteins
Self vs. non-self (glycoprotein-based)
recognition
Markers during development
2. Movement of substances across
membranes
Definitions
Concentration
Number of molecules in a given volume
Gradient
Differences in concentration between two regions of
space.
This causes molecules to move from one region to the
other (if no barrier to movement)
Diffusion
Net movement of molecules from regions of high
concentration to regions of low concentration
Considered as movement down its concentration gradient

Diffusion of Dye in Water
Time 0
Steep
Concentration
Gradient
Time 1
Reduced
Concentration
Gradient
Dispersing
Time 2
No
Concentration
Gradient
Random
Dispersal
Passive and active transport
Passive transport
Movement of molecules down their
concentration gradients
Requires no net energy expenditure
The gradients themselves provide energy
Active transport
Movement of molecules against their
concentration gradients
Requires energy!
Passive transport
1. Simple diffusion
2. Facilitated diffusion
3. Osmosis
4. Filtration

Remember that no energy is required, and
molecules move down their concentration
gradients

Passive transport
1. Simple diffusion
Molecules simply cross cell membrane on their own,
down their concentration gradients

Possible only for molecules that can cross the lipid
bilayer on their own
Lipid-soluble molecules
Examples: ethyl alcohol, vitamin A, steroid hormones
Very small molecules
Examples: water, carbon dioxide

Rate depends upon
Concentration gradient
Size
Lipid solubility
Passive transport
2. Facilitated diffusion
Molecules move down their concentration
gradients (as for simple diffusion), but
Transport proteins assist these molecules in
crossing the membrane
No net energy expenditure! (This is a type
of diffusion)
Example: transport of glucose
Passive transport:
Facilitated diffusion via a channel
Passive transport:
Facilitated diffusion via a carrier protein
Carrier protein
has binding site
for molecule
Molecule enters
binding site
Carrier protein changes
shape, transporting
molecule across membrane
Carrier protein resumes
original shape
(Inside Cell)
(Outside
Cell)
Diffusion
Channel
Protein
D
i
f
f
u
s
i
o
n

G
r
a
d
i
e
n
t

Molecule in
Transit
Facilitated diffusion is
passive diffusion with
the help of transport
proteins
Passive transport
3. Osmosis
Movement of water from a high [water] to an
area of low [water] concentration across a semi-
permeable membrane
Note here that water can pass through, but glucose
cannot
The effects of osmosis
Compare solute and water concentrations
outside vs. inside the cell (sketches)
H
2
O
H
2
O
Active Transport
1. Movement via active transport proteins
(sodium-potassium pump)


Remember that energy is required, and
molecules are moved against their
concentration gradients

Bulk (vesicular) transport
Exocytosis - movement of materials out of the cell by fusion of
vesicles with the plasma membrane
Example - export or removal of wastes in single-celled organisms
Example cells exporting proteins
Endocytosis Infolding of the plasma membrane to bring large
materials into the cell
Pinocytosis, "cell drinking" extra cellular fluid and materials
suspended in it (water and solutes) are enclosed in invaginating vesicle
Used in digestive tract
Receptor-mediated endocytosis more specific with receptor binding
to molecules, bringing them in and concentrating into a coated pit
The way insulin gets into your cells.
Phagocytosis "cell eating" brings large materials into a cell by
wrapping extensions of the plasma membrane around the materials and
fusing the extension together.
How the human immune system ingests whole bacteria or one-celled
creatures eat
pseudopodia false feet plasma membrane extensions
Bulk (vesicular) transport
1. Endocytosis
Three types of endocytosis
Pinocytosis
cell drinking
Extracellular fluid taken in

Receptor-mediated endocytosis
Specific for particular molecules
Molecules bind to receptors.
Receptor-molecule complex taken in

Phagocytosis
Large particles engulfed


Mmm...yummy bacteria!!
Help! Im to be broken
down to mere macro-
molecules!!
Bulk (vesicular) transport
2. Exocytosis
3. Transcytosis
Transcytosis in endothelial cells of the
capillary

Can see this phenomena
in continuous capillaries
Muscle, connective tissue,
exocrine glands and nervous
tissue

Transport
macromolecules in both
directions.

Pinocytotic vesicles can
cross cell in about
2-3 minutes.
lumen
Tight Junctions
Seal tissues and
prevent leaks
Link epithelial cells
together
Prevent things from
moving through the
intercellular space
Restrict migration of
proteins and
phospholipids
Tight junctions
Extracellular surfaces of two
adjacent plasma membranes are
joined together so there is no
extracellular space between them
Occurs in a band around the entire
cell
Belt desmosome
Zonula adherens
Another belt
around the cell
Below the tight
junctions
An anchorage
junction
Associated with
actin filaments
Space between
membranes can
be seen
Desmosomes
Like spot welds!

Dense plaques with
fibers attached-
Anchor cells
together from one
side to the other.

These cells
withstand lots of
abuse!

Spot Desmosomes
A region between two cells where
membranes are separated by 20nm
Dense accumulation of protein at the
cytoplasmic surface of the membrane

Desmosomes, contd
Keratin fibers extend from
the cytoplasmic surface
to other side of cell to
next desmosome
Holds adjacent cells
together in areas of
stretching
skin, cardiac muscle
Hemidesmosome
Assymetrical structures
A plate anchors the basal part of cell to
the basal lamina
This plate contains IFs called keratins or
tonofilaments
Membrane plaque linking
hemidesmosome to basal lamina via
anchoring filaments
Contributes to overall stability of
epithelia
Hemidesmosomes
Gap junctions
Protein channels link the cytosols of
cells
Passage of small molecules and ions
(Na
+
, K
+
)
Excludes large molecules
Transmits electrical activity between
cardiac and smooth muscle cells
Allows chemical messengers to cross from
one cell to another
Coordinates activities between cells

Gap junction connexons
A connexon is a cylinder with a central
open pore
One gap junction connexon is made up
of six connexins
The pore is a hydrophilic channel
between two cytoplasms
Plasma membranes come within 2-4nm
of each other
Gap junctions
Put Them All Together
Cellular Junctions
Occluding jxns
zonula adherens
macula adherens